title: Christen Press

text: In 2017 Press once again appeared in every game for the United States and was one of only three players to do so. She scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over Norway in a June friendly. At the 2017 Tournament of Nations held in three different venues in California and Washington, Press scored a goal in the 80th minute against Brazil to lift the United States score deficit to 3–2. Five minutes later, she provided the assist to Megan Rapinoe's equalizer. With an additional goal from Julie Ertz, the team turned the game around for a 4–3 win. She finished 2017 with three goals and three assists.


title: Christen Press

text: Press was named to the roster for the 2018 SheBelieves Cup in February. The United States won the tournament for the second time. After she was traded against her wishes to the Houston Dash, Press declined to join the team and was reportedly considering multiple offers from Swedish clubs. She was subsequently left off the U.S roster for a set of friendlies against Mexico in April 2018, with head coach Jill Ellis stating: "We've had several conversations and [Press] understands our expectations are that a consistent training and match environment for a professional is an important factor for selection into women's national team rosters...I am certain that once Christen transitions to a new team, she will embrace being back on the pitch and will help her team be successful."


title: Christen Press

text: After signing with Kopparbergs/Göteborg FC at the end of March, Press was called up to the next United States camp in June for a set of friendlies against China. On June 12, Press became the 37th female player in U.S history to play in 100 games for the US Women's National Team. She had two assists in the game as the United States won 2–1. On August 31, Press was honored for her 100th cap during a friendly against Chile in her hometown of Los Angeles and captained the team. She scored a goal in the 59th minute and the United States won 3–0.


title: Christen Press

text: In September, Press was named to the 20-player squad for the 2018 CONCACAF Women's Championship. She recorded a goal and two assists in a 5–0 victory over Panama in the group stage. The United States won their second consecutive CONCACAF Championship and earned a berth to the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France.


title: Christen Press

text: In January 2019, Press scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Spain in a friendly in Alicante. At the 2019 SheBelieves Cup she assisted on Alex Morgan's goal, one minute after entering the game. A month later in a friendly against Belgium, Press recorded 3 assists in a 6–0 victory.


title: Christen Press

text: On May 2, 2019, Press was named to the final 23–player roster for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup—this was her second time to play for the Cup.


title: Christen Press

text: Press appeared in all three group stage games and started and played the full 90 minutes in the second group match against Chile. She was a second-half substitute in both the Round of 16 and the quarter-final matches. Press started the semi-final match against England and scored a goal in the 10th minute, to put the USA ahead 1–0, the United States would go on to win 2–1, advancing to their third straight World Cup Final. Press appeared in the World Cup Final as a second-half substitute replacing Megan Rapinoe. She was one of four U.S players to play in all seven World Cup games. The United States defeated the Netherlands 2–0 in the Final, to win their second consecutive World Cup. This was Press' second World Cup win.


title: Christen Press

text: On November 7, 2019, Press became the 12th player in USWNT history to score 50 international goals. Her 50th goal occurred in the 28th minute of a friendly against Sweden. The United States won 3-2 and Press also recorded an assist in the game. Press finished 2019 with 5 goals and 12 assists. Her 12 assists lead the team, she was also the only member of the USWNT to appear in all 24 games in 2019.


title: Christen Press

text: Press was named to the 20-player roster for the 2020 CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying tournament, which was her second time participating in Olympic qualifying. Press scored in all three group stage games, including two goals against Costa Rica. She also scored in the semi-final against Mexico. After the United States defeated Canada in the Championship game, Press was awarded the Golden Ball as the tournaments best player. Press was named to the United States' 23-player roster for the 2020 SheBelieves Cup, where she appeared in all three matches. She was joint top scorer of the tournament notching two goals, one against England on March 5 and one against Japan on March 11. She also registered the assist on a game-winning goal against Spain on March 8, delivering a set piece to teammate Julie Ertz. The United States won the tournament, having won all three of their matches. Press was named to the roster when the United States traveled to the Netherlands to face off in a friendly on November 27 in Breda. The team won 2-0 and Press registered another international assist on a goal scored by Rose Lavelle. Press lead the team in goals total with seven scored, in which she was tied with teammate Lindsey Horan, and registered three assists in 2020.


title: Christen Press

text: After missing a series of friendlies against Colombia in January through illness, Press was recalled to the USWNT squad in February for the 2021 SheBelieves Cup. She appeared in all three games and scored twice in victories over Brazil and Argentina as the United States retained the SheBelieves Cup. In June 2021, Press was named in the 18-player United States Women's soccer team roster for the delayed 2020 Tokyo Olympics. She appeared in all six matches for the United States in the tournament, which saw the team take home the bronze medal on August 5 following their 4–3 victory over Australia. Press scored and also forced an own-goal in the team's 6-1 group stage win over New Zealand on July 24, and converted a penalty kick in the team's quarter-final shootout win over the Netherlands on July 30. Press tallied a total of six goals and five assists in 2021 for the United States.


title: Christen Press

text: Press announced via social media on September 9, 2021, that she, despite being called up, would not take part in the upcoming international windows, stating that she needed a few months break to focus on her mental health and spiritual growth. Ahead of two abroad friendlies vs Australia in November 2021, USWNT head coach Vlatko Andonovski opted to leave a core group of veteran players off of his 22-player roster, which included Press. As a result of this decision, Press subsequently was not included in the 23-player roster for the 2022 SheBelieves Cup in February. On June 13, 2022, Press was not included in the 23-player roster ahead of the 2022 CONCACAF W Championship. This decision sparked some confusion amongst media and fans, many of whom questioned Andonovski after Press had been logging consistent minutes for Angel City FC in the months leading up. When questioned by reporters on omitting Press, Andonovski claimed that she was performing well, but not out-performing the players in front of her. Press ultimately suffered an ACL tear with her club team on June 11, 2022, and will remain unavailable for national team selection while she recovers.


title: Christen Press

text: On November 22, 2021, amidst the 2021 NWSL abuse scandal, Press alleged abuse against former Chicago Red Stars manager Rory Dames. Press revealed in an article by The Washington Post that she had tried to speak up about Dames' behavior in 2014 to former US Soccer President Sunil Gulati, but her "concerns were dismissed." Press went on to say that her request for a trade from the Chicago Red Stars in 2017 was due to Dames' treatment of her, and in 2018, she filed a complaint against him to US Soccer. That same day of the 22nd, the NWSL's players union released a statement in support of Press and Press' former Red Stars teammates Jen Hoy and Sam Johnson who came forward with similar allegations.


title: Christen Press

text: Press has appeared in several advertisements and promotional pieces for Nike. In 2014, she was featured in a promo for Wheaties. In May 2015, she starred in television commercials for Coppertone. She became a brand ambassador for nutritional product manufacturer Genesis Today in February 2016. In January 2018, she partnered with Hydrive Energy Water.


title: Christen Press

text: Press' likeness appeared on "The Simpsons" along with teammates Alex Morgan and Abby Wambach in May 2015. The same year, she starred in the short film, "An Equal Playing Field". She has been featured in a number of magazines including "Self", "Howler", "Shape", "Darling Magazine" and "Glamour". In 2015, she was featured on the covers of "Sports Illustrated" and "Yoga Digest". In 2016, Press posed nude for the ESPN's annual The Body Issue magazine.


title: Christen Press

text: Press was featured with her national teammates in the EA Sports' FIFA video game series in "FIFA 16", the first time women players were included in the game. In October 2015, she was announced as a host for FOX Sports' @The Buzzer and led a Chicago Cubs crowd in singing "Take Me Out to the Ballgame" along with teammates Julie Ertz and Lori Chalupny.


title: Christen Press

text: Following the United States' win at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, Press and her teammates became the first women's sports team to be honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City. Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio. In October of the same year, the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Days of Future Passed is the second album and first concept album by English prog rock band The Moody Blues, released in November 1967 by Deram Records. With its fusion of orchestral and rock elements, it has been cited as one of the first examples of progressive rock.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: The album was recorded at a time when the Moody Blues were suffering financial difficulties and lack of critical and commercial success. Their parent label, Decca Records offered them a chance to record a stereo LP that combined their music with orchestral interludes. They decided to compose a suite of songs about the life of everyday man, with the group and orchestra mostly playing separately and mixed together. It was a moderate success upon release, but following steady radio airplay, particularly of the hit single "Nights in White Satin", it became a top ten US hit in 1972. It has since been listed among the most important albums of 1967 by "Rolling Stone".


title: Days of Future Passed

text: The Moody Blues had started out as a rhythm and blues band, but by late 1966, they had run into financial difficulties and personnel changes. The new singer and guitarist Justin Hayward said "we had no money, nothing". According to the group, in September 1967 Decca, their record company, asked them to record an adaptation of Antonín Dvořák's "Symphony No. 9" for Decca's newly formed Deram Records division in order to demonstrate their latest recording techniques, which were named "Deramic Sound". Recording engineer Derek Varnals disputes this story, claiming that even at the start of the sessions in 1967 there was no intent to record a Dvořák album and that talk of this project did not emerge until the mid-1970s.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Decca had experimented with stereophonic sound for classical recordings, and hoped to capture the pop market in the same


title: Days of Future Passed

text: way, by interweaving classical recordings with the group's interpretation of the same music. Instead, the band (initially without the label's knowledge) decided to focus on an album based on an original stage show that they had been working on, and mix that with classical arrangements of those songs. Keyboardist Mike Pinder had purchased a Mellotron, a tape replay keyboard, and written a song, "Dawn Is a Feeling" as a starting point for a concept piece about a day in the life of everyday man. Hayward wrote "Nights in White Satin" about the changes between one relationship and another, using bedsheets as a metaphor. When Pinder added a string line on the Mellotron to accompany Hayward's basic song framework, the group realised they had written something notable and a suitable ending for the song cycle.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Recording sessions for the album took place at Decca Studios in West Hampstead, London, between 9 May and 3 November 1967. The band worked with record producer Tony Clarke, engineer Derek Varnals, and conductor Peter Knight. The group recorded and mixed their sessions first, then passed the finished tapes over to Knight for arranging and recording the orchestral interludes.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: The album's music features psychedelic rock ballads by Hayward, Pinder, Lodge, and Thomas and orchestral interludes by the London Festival Orchestra. The band and the orchestra only actually play together during the last part of "Nights In White Satin".


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Music writers cite the album as an early example of progressive rock music. Bill Holdship of Yahoo! Music remarks that the band "created an entire genre here." David Fricke cites it as one of the essential albums of 1967 and finds it "closer to high-art pomp than psychedelia. But there is a sharp pop discretion to the writing and a trippy romanticism in the mirroring effect of the strings and Mike Pinder's Mellotron." Will Hermes cites the album as an essential progressive rock record and opines that its use of the Mellotron, a tape replay keyboard, made it a "signature" element of the genre. An influential work of the counterculture period, AllMusic editor Bruce Eder calls the album "one of the defining documents of the blossoming psychedelic era, and one of the most enduringly popular albums of its era".


title: Days of Future Passed

text: In July 1978, it was discovered that the UK master tapes for "Days of Future Passed" had deteriorated. As a result of this, the album was remixed in its entirety in August 1978, which was used for reissues between 1978 and 2017. Some compilations, however, continued to use the original 1967 stereo mix for certain songs. The album's original mix was eventually released in its entirety on compact disc in November 2017.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: The Moody Blues did not play any of the music to Decca executives until it was complete. Upon the first play, they were disappointed with the result as it was not the Dvorak arrangements they expected. Walt Maguire, representative for London Records (Decca's North American arm), however, thought it would be a strong seller in the US, so it was agreed to release the album as recorded.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: "Days of Future Passed" was released on 10 November 1967 in the UK and 11 November in the US. It reached number 27 in the UK Albums Chart. In the US, it was a steady seller in the late 1960s, helped by FM radio play of "Nights in White Satin", and eventually peaked at number 2 on the US "Billboard" chart in 1972.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: "Days of Future Passed" was the second and last album to be released in both stereo and mono formats in the U.S. The mono version (Deram DE-16012) was pressed in a limited quantity as it was released during the "phase-out" of mono LP releases by the major record companies, thus it is an often-sought item amongst record collectors.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Upon its release, "Rolling Stone" gave the album an unenthusiastic review, writing "The Moody Blues [...] have matured considerably since 'Go Now', but their music is constantly marred by one of the most startlingly saccharine conceptions of 'beauty' and 'mysticism' that any rock group has ever affected." "New York" magazine dismissed it as "a ponderous mound of thought-jello." The album has since received acclaim; for example, "Spin" cited it as a classic of progressive rock. By 2007, "Rolling Stone", which had originally described "Days of Future Passed" as "an English rock group strangling itself in conceptual goo" included it in its list of the essential albums of 1967.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: "Days of Future Passed" was issued as a discrete Quadraphonic open-reel tape in 1977. This master was also used for a 2001 dts 5.1 channel audio CD release and again for a two-disc Deluxe Edition SACD release in 2006.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: On 17 November 2017 this original mix was made available for the first time on CD as "Days of Future Passed 50th Anniversary Deluxe Edition". Also released "The Moody Blues Days of Future Past Live" that was recorded live in Toronto on 13 July 2017 with a full orchestra backup.


title: Days of Future Passed

text: All compositions originally credited to "Redwave-Knight", except "Dawn Is a Feeling", "Forever Afternoon (Tuesday)", "The Sunset" and "Nights in White Satin".


title: Days of Future Passed

text: Note: "(Evening) Time to Get Away" is unlisted on original pressings, but has since been added to all proceeding track listings.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Felicia Lily Dobson (born February 28, 1985) is a Canadian singer and songwriter. Born in Toronto, Ontario, she began performing as a teenager, during which time she received and refused an offer from Jive Records for a recording contract. Dobson signed with Island/Def Jam soon after and released her self-titled debut album (2003), which saw the success of the singles "Bye Bye Boyfriend" and "Don't Go (Girls and Boys)" on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and for which she received two Juno Award nominations.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson's second studio album "Sunday Love" was originally scheduled for release in 2005, but after complications during production, its mainstream release was cancelled and she left her record label due to creative differences (the album was released independently in 2006 and later made available for digital download in 2012). She was re-signed to Island Records during production of her third studio album "Joy" (2010), whose singles "Ghost" and "Stuttering" saw continued success on the Canadian Hot 100. Dobson's music has been covered by other artists and featured in films, television, and more.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson was born on February 28, 1985, in Scarborough, Ontario, a suburb of Toronto. Dobson's mother is of English, Dutch, First Nations, and Irish ancestry and her father is of Jamaican heritage. She went to high school at Wexford Collegiate Institute. During her childhood, she took singing lessons at the New Conservatory of Music in Agincourt, Scarborough to improve her singing. Fefe Dobson graduated from Heritage Park Public School.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson began sending demo tapes – recorded on a home karaoke machine – to many recording companies in North America when she was 11 years old. Then at the age of 13, she started playing the piano.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Before Dobson was signed, she said that she had been stereotyped as a contemporary R&B or popular music singer instead of a rock musician due to her race, often being compared to Brandy Norwood and Britney Spears.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson started writing music at the age of 13 years, and the company Jive Records attempted to develop her as a popular musician, which she eventually refused. After that experience, Dobson met Jay Levine and contracted with Nelly Furtado's manager Chris Smith. Smith arranged showcases with several recording companies. Universal Music Canada president Randy Lennox showed interest in her, and persuaded Island Def Jam CEO Lyor Cohen and his manager of A&R, Jeff Fenster, to fly to Toronto for another showcase. Dobson played a showcase for Island/Def Jam; about 30 seconds into the first song – a punk thrash track about longing, titled "Stupid Little Love Song" – the executives contracted her.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson's self-titled debut album was released December 9, 2003 by Island Records, and sold 307,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan as quoted by "Billboard". The album debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Heatseekers Albums Chart. Four singles were released from the album: "Bye Bye Boyfriend", "Take Me Away", "Everything", and "Don't Go (Girls and Boys)". There is an official music video for each of the singles. Two of the album's tracks, "Everything" and "Unforgiven", were used in the film "The Perfect Score". "The New York Times" reviewer wrote: "The album's assiduous, ungrammatical crux is in 'Kiss Me Fool': 'Tell me whom I should be to make you love me. When in recording studios, Dobson hung up inspirational pictures of Kurt Cobain, Judy Garland, Coldplay, Jeff Buckley, and The Vines to help motivate her and to commemorate the artists who influenced her. Dobson was also heavily influenced by Jay Levine and James Bryan McCollum of the Canadian band Prozzäk, who co-wrote and helped produce her debut album.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: During much of 2004, Dobson promoted her debut album, performing live on the program "Total Request Live" and for numerous magazine covers and articles. She was also the opening act of Justin Timberlake's European tour. That July, she released a new single, "Don't Go (Girls and Boys)", which was also featured in a Tommy Hilfiger commercial featuring the singer. The album was later reissued with that single added. Dobson also had a new song, "If You Walk Away", on the soundtrack of "Raising Helen".


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson released the record "Truth Anthem" on the "Much Dance 2005 CD" compilation, a benefit for the Canadian branch of "War Child". It was recorded at Metalworks Studios in Mississauga, Ontario. In April 2005, Dobson was nominated for two Juno Awards, Pop Album of the Year and New Artist of the Year; both but lost both categories. During the summer of 2005, Dobson was in a public service ad: "Make Poverty History", which brings awareness to child poverty worldwide.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Writers she collaborated with during the recording process include Holly Knight, Nina Gordon, Kay Hanley, John 5, Billy Steinberg, Matthew Wilder, Cyndi Lauper, Courtney Love, Joan Jett, and Rancid's Tim Armstrong. "Sunday Love" was not released at the time, due to Dobson being terminated by Island Records just days before the album was scheduled for release. The album was reviewed favorably in both "Spin" and "Vibe" magazine. "My real good fans, my hardcore fans, have it, so that's most important," Dobson says. "At least it got out there to a few hands, and now it's time to make a record on my own terms." "It was sad," says Dobson. "But instead of sitting there and being depressed and begging people for the record, I went back to the studio, got people that I knew, friends that I knew, and I started again."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: One song from the unreleased album, "Be Strong", featured on the soundtrack for the film "It's a Boy Girl Thing".


title: Fefe Dobson

text: In February 2006, Dobson sang "O Canada" at All-Star Saturday Night, part of the 2006 NBA All-Star Weekend in Houston, Texas. During spring 2006, she performed several shows around the United States, and began promoting the record "Sunday Love" in anticipation of its release. The first single, "Don't Let It Go to Your Head", was released in 2005 but did not chart. There is an official music video for the song. A second single, "This Is My Life" was released in 2006. No video was made for it, and it also did not chart.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson's song "Don't Let It Go to Your Head" is covered by Lilyjets, a Norwegian girl group, as a single on their debut album "3rd Floor" (2006). They also produced an official music video.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: The music of "This Is My Life" is used by the Taiwanese girl-group S.H.E in their song: "I Love Trouble" (我愛煩惱) on their album "FM S.H.E" (2008).


title: Fefe Dobson

text: "Start All Over", a song co-written by Dobson and featuring her on background vocals, was recorded by Miley Cyrus for her album "" (2007) and was released as a single, reaching number 57 on the "Billboard" Pop 100. During a 2009 interview Dobson said, "I wrote a song, she dug it, and she sang it. But I didn't want it for my record. It just wasn't right for me, and I just felt like it was better for someone else, and she does a great job on it. I was really impressed. She sounded great. I'm actually happier she did it than I did it."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: "Don't Let It Go to Your Head" was also covered by Rockett Queen on their album "Kiss and Tell" (2008) and Jordin Sparks on her second album "Battlefield" (2009). Shortly after Sparks' album was released Dobson said, "Jordin Sparks just did [that song], which was on "Sunday Love", which was very cool. She did kind of, like, a more R&B version of it, which I think is really nice, actually. It was really cool that she didn't try and do a rock version of it, and she did what she's more comfortable with, which I thought was awesome." The Sparks' version was released as a single in the UK on January 4, 2010.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: The track "As a Blonde" is covered on the Selena Gomez & the Scene debut album "Kiss & Tell" (2009). "Sunday Love" finally received a digital release on December 18, 2012.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: On August 11, 2009, Dobson presented a showcase performance at the Mercury Lounge in New York City. In an interview at the showcase Dobson mused, "It's almost like when an animal is in a small cage, but when you let it out it's running around like crazy. That's how I feel when I'm onstage."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson performed during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards weekend at The Fillmore New York at Irving Plaza on Friday night, September 11, at "A Concert with Fefe Dobson and Cobra Starship." She was also one of the judges for a competition for MTV's "VMA Best Breakout New York City Artist Award" that occurred at the same event. Dobson attended the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards held on September 13 in New York City at Radio City Music Hall.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: On Sunday, September 27, 2009, she performed "I Want You" at the finale of the second season of the Canadian Cable TV show "The Next Star".


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson's song, "I Want You" is in at least three versions of TV Spot ads for the movie "Whip It". The 2009 film is the directorial debut of Drew Barrymore. The song was also used for television advertisements in 2010 for programs on the Style network.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: She performed in Perth, Australia, at the "One Movement Showcase Music Festival" on October 17, 2009.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson was the headline performer for one of the "National Breast Cancer Awareness Month" events, a benefit concert held at the Hard Rock Cafe in Hollywood, CA on October 22, 2009.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: She performed at a 100 Day Countdown event to the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 2010 Winter Olympics at the Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C., USA on November 4, 2009. Six songs were heard but her energetic performance resulted in a clothing mishap. Dobson even incorporated the happening into her performance by ad-libbing, "I-I-I just split my pants and I don't care".


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson performed on February 20, 2010 at Nathan Phillips Square in Toronto, Ontario as part of CTV's national celebration of the 2010 Winter Olympics. She was one of the opening acts for The Barenaked Ladies in the all Canadian show.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: She participated in the Canadian All-Star Benefit Single For Haiti released under the collaboration name of Young Artists for Haiti. The song is a reworked version of K'naan's single "Wavin' Flag" and was released on March 12, 2010. Dobson is seen and heard in the official video at the recording studio as she lent her vocals.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson's involvement with the Olympics continued on March 12, 2010 as she performed "I Want You" and "Watch Me Move" at the Opening Ceremonies for the 2010 Paralympic Winter Games.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: She covered "River Deep – Mountain High" for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 25th annual induction ceremony at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City on March 15, 2010. It inspired a reviewer to state that it, "...was an eye-opening version of Greenwich & Barry's "River Deep, Mountain High" by Canadian belter Fefe Dobson that was so good it makes you want to go out and buy all her music."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson performed on a twenty city tour across Canada in March and April 2010 on Hedley's The Show Must Go...On The Road Tour. Hedley announced the tour in support of their new album "The Show Must Go" which was released November 17, 2009. "Fefe Dobson and Stereos will be along for the whole trek, while Faber Drive and Boys Like Girls will support on select dates."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: "Joy" Dobson's second studio album was released on November 22, 2010 after taking almost four years to complete. It candidly follows Dobson's evolution as an artist as well as transition from the indie type of music she originally put together for "Joy", to the mainstream pop hits. The album was preceded by the release of the two buzz singles "Watch Me Move" and "I Want You", which were then followed-up by the three top 20 official singles "Ghost", "Stuttering" and "Can't Breathe", all of which have at least one music video. The singer performed her single "Stuttering" on the November 10, 2010 broadcast of The CW Television Network series, "Hellcats". Dobson performed live shows with Blue Man Group's drummer Colin Robinson (also featured in "If You Walk Away"). In 2010, the singer released a remix of her single "Stuttering", featuring G.O.O.D Music artist, Pusha T of Clipse. She released her third single, "Can't Breathe" which features guitarist Orianthi, in March 2011. It peaked at number 19 on the Canadian Hot 100.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson also has a role in Selena Gomez's music career. On their debut CD, "Kiss & Tell", Dobson allowed Gomez and her band to re-record "As a Blonde" from her unreleased album, "Sunday Love". Dobson also sang backup vocals. Then, she helped write the lead single, "Round & Round", from the band's second studio album, "A Year Without Rain", alongside Kevin Rudolf and others.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: On January 22, 2013, Dobson announced that recording had begun for her fourth studio album – later revealed to be titled "Firebird" – with a release date yet to be confirmed. The album's lead single "Legacy" was released on August 6, 2013, while the song "Celebrate" was released February 11, 2014. as a promotional single to support the Canadian representatives in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. The album's second single "In Better Hands" was released on March 18, 2014.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: In early July 2013, Dobson got engaged to her boyfriend American rapper Yelawolf; the pair were married on September 27, 2019 in Nashville, Tennessee. On April 29, 2014, Dobson performed live during the Count Me In conference global broadcast, filmed at the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: On July 27, 2018, Dobson released her latest single "Save Me From LA," saying "It took me some time to place the pieces, find my team and that perfect person to be creative with."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: In early 2022, Dobson confirmed her return to music with the single "FCKN IN LOVE", which was released on 25 February 2022, and a new album, her first since 2010.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Fefe Dobson's self-titled debut album is generally pop-rock, as well as some traces of punk music. Several songs on the album are also in an acoustic format, stripped down to just Dobson and the guitar. The music was different from most music put out at the time, such as recent releases by Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. In fact, Dobson originally signed with Jive Records, who intended to make her the next big pop star. However, Dobson didn't want to be a pop-star and wanted to make her own type of music, and quickly left the label. On Dobson's second official album "Joy", she worked with producers David Lichens, Jon Levine, Howard Benson and Bob Ezrin - living up to the portraits of her heroes she first hung during the recording of her first album: Kurt Cobain, Judy Garland, Coldplay, The Vines and Jeff Buckley. Dobson co-wrote most of the songs on the album - usually composing on guitar, her instrument of choice. "I play the few chords that I know," she says. "I try to write melodies off the same chords. "Joy" is written with about three chords, and an extra one in the bridge." Sonically the album was rooted alternative rock.


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson has said that John Lennon and Judy Garland are her primary musical influences, and that her biggest musical inspiration growing up was Michael Jackson: "I swore I was Michael [Jackson]. Then I found out I wasn't Michael [Jackson] and it broke my heart." She also mentions Janet Jackson as a primary influence. At the same time, she went to "every 'N Sync concert there was."


title: Fefe Dobson

text: Dobson indicated that she would like to work with Jack White, the White Stripes/Raconteurs frontman, because she admires him for his ability to make his ragged rock music become radio-style. She also said that she would love to write a song for the Jonas Brothers.


title: Kaiji Tang

text: Kaiji Tang (pronounced "Kai-jee"; born January 25, 1984) is a Chinese voice actor who is based in Los Angeles.


title: Kaiji Tang

text: Tang was born in Shanghai, China on January 25, 1984. He graduated from the University of California, Riverside with a degree in theatre. He comes from a theatrical background and moved to Los Angeles in 2007 to do commercial work. He starred in commercials for Garmin GPS and The Discovery Channel. After appearing in a cult-classic movie called "Zombie Strippers" as a zombie, he auditioned for a podcast for a dubbing studio and was eventually hired. Ever since then, he has found success in finding roles for anime and video game characters. Tang has stated that he never set out to do voice work and it all came later on in his life. Tang enjoys his profession and likes contributing to the video game industry as he compares video games to novels. Tang hosts the YouTube channel "Voices of Gaming".


title: Kaiji Tang

text: In anime, Tang is known as the voice of Big G from "Doraemon", Satoru Gojo from "Jujutsu Kaisen", Kashin Koji from " ", Hendrickson from "The Seven Deadly Sins", Guts from "Berserk", Tsumugu Kinagase from "Kill La Kill", Archer from "", Joe from "Megalo Box" and recently as Jin Kazama, lead character in . In video games, he is known for his performances as Wingul from "Tales of Xillia", Fang from "Fairy Fencer F", Yasuhiro Hagakure and Gonta Gokuhara from the "Danganronpa" series, Osamu Dazai from "Bungo Stray Dogs", and Ichiban Kasuga in the "Yakuza" series.


title: Kaiji Tang

text: He is also known for voicing Owain/Odin in the Fire Emblem series, as well as the titular character in "Detective Pikachu" and voiced Tom Cat in the 2021 film "Tom & Jerry".


title: Kaiji Tang

text: Tang revealed on Twitter in 2021 that he had no desire to work in any environment that does not recognize Taiwan as a country, and that he and his family fled his birth country of China due to their shared opposition of the country's ruling communist party. He married voice actress Marcy Edwards on June 24, 2017. He has a sister named Katherine.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: dd is a command-line utility for Unix, Plan 9, Inferno, and Unix-like operating systems and beyond, the primary purpose of which is to convert and copy files. On Unix, device drivers for hardware (such as hard disk drives) and special device files (such as /dev/zero and /dev/random) appear in the file system just like normal files; can also read and/or write from/to these files, provided that function is implemented in their respective driver. As a result, can be used for tasks such as backing up the boot sector of a hard drive, and obtaining a fixed amount of random data. The program can also perform conversions on the data as it is copied, including byte order swapping and conversion to and from the ASCII and EBCDIC text encodings.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The name is an allusion to the DD statement found in IBM's Job Control Language (JCL), in which it is an abbreviation for "Data Definition". The command's syntax resembles a JCL statement more than other Unix commands do, so much that Eric S. Raymond says "the interface design was clearly a prank". The interface is redesigned in Plan 9's dd command to use a command-line option style. codice_1 is sometimes humorously called "Disk Destroyer", due to its drive-erasing capabilities.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Originally intended to convert between ASCII and EBCDIC, first appeared in Version 5 Unix. The command is specified since the X/Open Portability Guide issue 2 of 1987. This is inherited by IEEE Std 1003.1-2008 (POSIX), which is part of the Single UNIX Specification.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The version of codice_1 bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Paul Rubin, David MacKenzie, and Stuart Kemp. The command is available as a separate package for Microsoft Windows as part of the UnxUtils collection of native Win32 ports of common GNU Unix-like utilities.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The command line syntax of differs from many other Unix programs. It uses the syntax for its command-line options rather than the more standard or formats. By default, reads from stdin and writes to stdout, but these can be changed by using the (input file) and (output file) options.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Certain features of will depend on the computer system capabilities, such as 's ability to implement an option for direct memory access. Sending a SIGINFO signal (or a USR1 signal on Linux) to a running process makes it print I/O statistics to standard error once and then continue copying. can read standard input from the keyboard. When end-of-file (EOF) is reached, will exit. Signals and EOF are determined by the software. For example, Unix tools ported to Windows vary as to the EOF: Cygwin uses (the usual Unix EOF) and MKS Toolkit uses (the usual Windows EOF).


title: Dd (Unix)

text: On completion, prints to the stderr stream about statistics of the data transfer. The format is standardized in POSIX. The manual page for GNU dd does not describe this format, but the BSD manuals do.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Each of the "Records in" and "Records out" lines shows the number of complete blocks transferred + the number of partial blocks, e.g. because the physical medium ended before a complete block was read, or a physical error prevented reading the complete block.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: A block is a unit measuring the number of bytes that are read, written, or converted at one time. Command-line options can specify a different block size for input/reading () compared to output/writing (), though the block size () option will override both and . The default value for both input and output block sizes is 512 bytes (the traditional block size of disks, and POSIX-mandated size of "a block"). The option for copying is measured in blocks, as are both the count for reading and count for writing. Conversion operations are also affected by the "conversion block size" ().


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The value provided for block size options is interpreted as a decimal (base 10) integer number of bytes. It can also contain suffixes to indicate that the block size is an integer number of larger units than bytes. POSIX only specifies the suffixes (blocks) for 512 and (kibibytes) for 1024. Implementation differ on the additional suffixes they support: (Free) BSD uses lowercase (mebibytes), (gibibytes), and so on for tebibytes, exbibytes, pebibytes, zebibytes, and yobibytes, while GNU uses and for the same units, with , , and used for their SI unit counterparts (kilobytes). For example, for GNU , indicates a blocksize of 16 mebibytes (16777216 bytes) and specifies 3000 bytes.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Additionally, some implementations understand the character as a multiplication operator for both block size and count parameters. For example, is interpreted as 2 × 80 × 18 × 512 = , the exact size of a 1440 KiB floppy disk. This is required in POSIX, but GNU does not seem to support it. As a result, it is more portable to use the POSIX shell arithmetic syntax of bs=$((2*80*18))b.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Block size has an effect on the performance of copying commands. Doing many small reads or writes is often slower than doing fewer large ones. Using large blocks requires more RAM and can complicate error recovery. When is used with variable-block-size devices such as tape drives or networks, the block size may determine the tape record size or packet size, depending on the network protocol used.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The command can be used for a variety of purposes. For plain-copying commands it tends to be slower than the domain-specific alternatives, but it excels at its unique ability to "overwrite or truncate a file at any point or seek in a file", a fairly low-level interface to the Unix file API.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The examples below assume the use of GNU dd, mainly in the block size argument. To make them portable, replace e.g. with the shell arithmetic expression or (written equivalently with a bit shift).


title: Dd (Unix)

text: can duplicate data across files, devices, partitions and volumes. The data may be input or output to and from any of these; but there are important differences concerning the output when going to a partition. Also, during the transfer, the data can be modified using the options to suit the medium. (For this purpose, however, is slower than .)


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The option means to keep going if there is an error, while the option causes output blocks to be padded.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: can modify data in place. For example, this overwrites the first 512 bytes of a file with null bytes:


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The conversion option means do not truncate the output file — that is, if the output file already exists, just replace the specified bytes and leave the rest of the output file alone. Without this option, would create an output file 512 bytes long.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The example above can also be used to back up and restore any region of a device to a file, such as a master boot record.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: For security reasons, it is sometimes necessary to have a disk wipe of a discarded device. This can be achieved by a "data transfer" from the Unix special files.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: When compared to the data modification example above, conversion option is not required as it has no effect when the 's output file is a block device.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The option makes dd read and write 16 mebibytes at a time. For modern systems, an even greater block size may be faster. Note that filling the drive with random data may take longer than zeroing the drive, because the random data must be created by the CPU, while creating zeroes is very fast. On modern hard-disk drives, zeroing the drive will render most data it contains permanently irrecoverable. However, with other kinds of drives such as flash memories, much data may still be recoverable by data remanence.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Modern hard disk drives contain a Secure Erase command designed to permanently and securely erase every accessible and inaccessible portion of a drive. It may also work for some solid-state drives (flash drives). As of 2017, it does not work on USB flash drives nor on Secure Digital flash memories. When available, this is both faster than using dd, and more secure. On Linux machines it is accessible via the hdparm command's option.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Data recovery involves reading from a drive with some parts potentially inaccessible. is a good fit with this job with its flexible skipping () and other low-level settings. The vanilla , however, is clumsy to use as the user has to read the error messages and manually calculate the regions that can be read. The single block size also limits the granuarity of the recovery, as a trade-off has to be made: either use a small one for more data recovered or use a large one for speed.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: A C program called was written in October 1999. It did away with the conversion functionality of , and supports two block sizes to deal with the dilemma. If a read using a large size fails, it falls back to the smaller size to gather as much as data possible. It can also run backwards. In 2003, a script was written to automate the process of using , keeping track of what areas have been read on its own.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: In 2004, GNU wrote a separate utility, unrelated to , called . It has a more sophisticated dynamic block-size algorithm and keeps track of what has been read internally. The authors of both and consider it superior to their implementation. To help distinguish the newer GNU program from the older script, alternate names are sometimes used for GNU's , including (the name on freecode.com and freshmeat.net), (Debian package name), and (openSUSE package name).


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Another open-source program called uses a sophisticated algorithm, but it also requires the installation of its own programming-language interpreter.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: To make drive benchmark test and analyze the sequential (and usually single-threaded) system read and write performance for 1024-byte blocks:


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Being a program mainly designed as a filter, normally does not provide any progress indication. This can be overcome by sending an signal to the running GNU process ( on BSD systems), resulting in printing the current number of transferred blocks.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: The following one-liner results in continuous output of progress every 10 seconds until the transfer is finished, when is replaced by the process-id of :


title: Dd (Unix)

text: Newer versions of GNU support the option, which enables periodic printing of transfer statistics to stderr.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: "" is a fork of GNU that is an enhanced version developed by Nick Harbour, who at the time was working for the United States' Department of Defense Computer Forensics Lab. Compared to , allows more than one output file, supports simultaneous multiple checksum calculations, provides a verification mode for file matching, and can display the percentage progress of an operation. The last release was in 2021.


title: Dd (Unix)

text: is another enhanced GNU from the United States Department of Defense Cyber Crime Center (DC3). It can be seen as a continuation of the dcfldd, with a stated aim of updating whenever the GNU upstream is updated. Its last release was in 2018.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Volkswagen Polo Mk5 is the fifth generation of the Polo, a supermini-class car manufactured by Volkswagen since 2009. The vehicle unveiled at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show in March 2009, while the three-door version was unveiled at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009. A four-door long-wheelbase sedan version has been produced and sold outside Europe in several emerging markets since 2010 either as the Volkswagen Vento or the Volkswagen Polo sedan. A short-wheelbase sedan version was sold in India between 2016 and 2020 as the Volkswagen Ameo.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: , the Polo Mk5 is continued to be produced in South Africa as the Polo Vivo. The production of the Mk5 Polo at the India plant stopped in 2022, with the last Polo being sold in August 2022.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Internally designated "Typ 6R", the Polo Mk5 is based on Volkswagen's PQ25 platform shared with the SEAT Ibiza Mk4 and the Audi A1 Mk1. It was designed by a team led by Walter de Silva, following the styling direction of the Scirocco Mk3 and the Golf Mk6.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo Mk5 is longer and wider, while sits lower to the road than the previous generation Polo. Boot capacity is increased by 10 litres to 280 litres of storage space with 952 litres with the seats folded down. The car is 7.5% lighter than its predecessor. The Polo has thorax airbags and has been awarded a five-star Euro NCAP crash impact rating. For the first time in a Polo, a 7-speed dual clutch transmission and navigation systems with touchscreen controls are available as an option.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Production for the United Kingdom market started in August 2009, with first deliveries beginning in October 2009. Production of the Polo Mk5 in South Africa was announced in November 2009, producing five-door right-hand-drive Polo. As the result, the South African-made Polo was exported throughout many right-hand-drive markets, including UK, Ireland, Australia, Singapore and Malaysia. It was also introduced in India in February 2010 as the first mass-volume product offered by the brand in the country since its arrival in 2007. CKD assembly of the Polo also commenced in Malaysia between 2014 and 2020, with parts imported from India.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo Mk5 is entirely skipped from being sold and produced in Brazil due to the high pricing of the previous generation Polo which results in a low sales figures.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Volkswagen Polo won the 2010 European Car of the Year, defeating the Toyota iQ and Opel/Vauxhall Astra.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Since 2017, the Polo Mk5 hatchback was succeeded by the Polo Mk6 hatchback in most markets. In South Africa, the Polo Mk5 continued to be produced and marketed in South Africa alongside the newer Polo Mk6 since 2018 as the Polo Vivo, replacing the Polo Mk4-based Polo Vivo. In Russia and other CIS markets, the Polo Mk5 sedan was replaced by the Škoda Rapid-based Polo CK liftback in 2020. In Argentina and several other Latin American markets, the Polo Mk6-based Virtus replaced the Polo sedan Mk5, while in Mexico the Polo Mk5 sedan and hatchback continued to be sold in the country alongside the newer Virtus.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In India, the Polo Mk5 hatchback and sedan continued to be produced and offered in the country until 2022.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The European version, with exceptions for the French and Turkish market, includes a standard ESP electronic stabilisation program with Hill Hold Control, head-thorax airbags (integrated in the front seatbacks), belt tensioners and belt force limiters plus seatbelt warning indicator and head restraints, three rear head restraints and Isofix child seat preparation.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In France, ESP and Hill Hold Control are standard equipment only on the models with engines no less than .


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In its native Germany and South Africa as well as some European markets except France, Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Trendline, Comfortline and Highline trim levels are being offered in all versions.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In France, Italy and Romania, only Comfortline and Highline trim levels are being offered in all versions. In Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as in Slovenia, trim level situation is not stable, these are Trendline, Comfortline (available up to 2012), Highline and special trim levels including Rabbit (2012-2013), Fresh (2014) and Lounge (2015).


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo GTI was presented together with the CrossPolo at the Geneva Motor Show in early March 2010 and was available since the end of May 2010.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Styling-wise, the Polo GTI differs from the standard Polo with its redesigned front and rear bumpers, widened side skirts, roof spoiler, standard fog lights, red brake calipers, 17-inch alloy wheels and a chrome-plated twin tailpipe. It is also equipped with a sports suspension that is about lower and an extended electronic limited slip differential, which is intended to reduce the vehicle's tendency to understeer by braking the front wheel on the inside of the bend when cornering quickly. In addition, the vehicle battery was relocated from the engine compartment to the spare wheel well for better weight distribution, which in turn reduces the usable luggage compartment volume from 280 to 204 liters.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2014, it is equipped with a 1.4-liter engine with turbo and supercharger installed, producing a maximum power combined with a 7-speed double-clutch transmission and front-wheel-drive. According to the manufacturer, the vehicle is capable of accelerating from in 6.9 seconds and reach a top speed of . At the same time, an improved technology is said to have reduced fuel consumption by 25 percent compared to the equally powerful previous model, the Polo GTI Cup Edition, and now amounts to . This would correspond to emissions of 139 g/km.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: For the 2014 facelift, the 1.4 TSI engine was replaced by a 1.8 TSI turbo engine with an output of . Since then, the model has been available with a 6-speed manual gearbox or a 7-speed DSG. The engine equipped with manual gearbox has a maximum torque of while the DSG variant is limited to .


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In June 2010, Volkswagen presented the 2011 edition of the CrossPolo, a crossover-styled version of the Polo. Exclusively available with five doors, it is distinguished from the standard Polo by a redesigned front and rear bumpers, black plastic claddings on the wheel arches and doors, silver roof rails, standard fog lights and 17-inch alloy wheels. The side mirror housings are painted silver regardless of the color of the vehicle. The standard equipment includes sports seats for the driver and front passenger, and leather steering wheel.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In India, the CrossPolo was launched in August 2013 with a sole option of a 1.2-litre diesel engine. The 1.2-litre petrol version was released in January 2015. It was discontinued in 2017 due to slow sales.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo 6R was facelifted in 2014 and is now known as the Polo 6C. With this came subtle exterior styling such as redesigned bumpers. The interior was re-vamped which now includes a touch screen as standard and a new steering wheel. The facelift Polo adds technology such as Automatic Post-Collision Braking System as standard across all model lines. It also has CarPlay and Android Auto support since June 2015.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: A new 1.4-litre three cylinder diesel engine replaced the 1.2-litre and 1.6-litre diesel units, plus 1.4 TSI 132 kW of GTI was replaced by an Audi-developed 1.8 TSI, produces 141 kW. In 2018 in India, the company replaced the 1.2-litre engine with the 1.0-litre naturally aspirated petrol engine, which has 76 PS and 95 NM of torque.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In September 2019, the Mk5 Polo received another facelift in India. The facelifted Polo for the Indian market received a new front grille and bumpers taken from the Mk5 Polo GTI. This version is also exported to Mexico and Indonesia.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo Mk5 was relaunched in South Africa in February 2018 as the Polo Vivo. It replaced the Polo Mk4-based Polo Vivo and sold alongside the Polo Mk6 as a budget-friendly option. The Polo Vivo is offered in four trim levels including Trendline, Comfortline, Highline, and GT. Three 4-cylinder petrol engines are offered, including a 1.0-litre turbocharged engine, and 1.4-litre and a 1.6-litre naturally-aspirated engines. 5-speed manual gearboxes are available for the naturally-aspirated variants, while a Tiptronic auto is available in the 1.6 model. The GT model comes with a 6-speed manual transmission.The CrossPolo variant of the Polo Mk5 has been repackaged as the Polo Vivo Maxx. It is mostly the same as before except for different style wheels.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: A three-box sedan version of the Polo Mk5 was introduced in 2010. It is known as the Vento in India, Malaysia, Brunei and Mexico. In South Africa, Argentina, Russia, and the Middle East, it is sold as the Polo Sedan. The word Vento means 'wind' in both Italian and Portuguese. It is also known as the Polo Notch in the Philippines.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo sedan or Vento was introduced in India and Russia in 2010, followed by South Africa in May 2011.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The vehicle features an increased wheelbase of and a ground clearance (168–170 mm). The extra wheelbase offers more rear legroom than the hatchback, while the three-box design generates additional trunk space of 500 liters.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In several markets, it is succeeded by the Volkswagen Virtus, while some markets like Mexico offered the Virtus alongside the Vento for the purpose of keeping a budget-friendly option.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: A Mexican version of the Vento was released for the 2014 model year, imported from India. Trim levels are called Style, Active and Highline. VW offers a choice of two engine options: a 1.6-liter naturally aspirated gasoline engine coupled with either a 5-speed manual or a 6-speed automatic gearbox, and a 1.6-liter diesel (TDI) engine coupled with a 5-speed manual gearbox.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2016, Volkswagen redesigned the front so it resembled the (at the time) new Jetta (mk7): grill, fascia, fog lights and chrome inserts. It also got visible exhaust and redesigned headlights. The 2016 model also got a 7-speed dual-clutch automatic DSG gearbox for the Diesel engine. The Volkswagen Vento since 2016 has been the best-selling model of the Volkswagen brand and the third best-selling model overall in Mexico.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: At its introduction, the Vento in India was available in four trim levels: the base Trendline, Comfortline, Highline and Highline Plus, with the Highline and Highline Plus also having an automatic option. The Comfortline gets a CD-MP3 music system, body-coloured door mirrors and handles and fog lamps among other features. The Highline features a Touchscreen Infotainment system with integrated USB music, steering-mounted audio controls, leather upholstery, ABS, front airbags, a multi-function display, 15-inch alloy wheels and other standard features. The Highline Plus has a 16-inch alloy wheels, a reverse parking camera and full LED headlamps with LED daytime running lights.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In November 2011, Škoda in India introduced the Rapid which is a rebadged and restyled Vento. The front end design of the Rapid adopts Škoda family's design philosophy instead. Compared to the Vento, the Rapid lacks a 1.2 TSI engine option, and also lacks a DSG transmission option and uses a more traditional 6-speed torque converter instead.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2011, VW introduced a special edition called the "Breeze" on the Trendline trim, featuring added accessories. In collaboration with the Indian Premier League authorities, Volkswagen India also offers a special IPL edition alongside the Vento Breeze


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The model is offered with one petrol engine, which is a 1.6-litre 4-cylinder MPI engine producing 105 PS; coupled with either 5-speed manual or 6-speed automatic gearbox and one diesel engine (1.6 L, turbocharged 4-cylinder common rail, 105 PS; only 5-speed manual gearbox) options available. In November 2013, the 1.6-litre petrol and 6-speed automatic option was dropped in favour of the new 1.2-litr4-cylinder TSI motor mated to a 7-speed DSG dual clutch automatic. This combination offers superior performance and fuel efficiency compared to the old automatic offering.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2014, a facelifted Vento was launched. It carries over the 1.6-litre petrol but has a new 1.5-litre diesel engine derived from the old 1.6-litre due to the excise benefits offered to engines 1.5L and below, in India). The Vento also gets a 7-speed DSG gearbox, with this new 1.5-litre engine. A 1.2-litre TSI engine is also available mated to the 7-speed DSG, producing 103PS.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Along with the Polo, the facelifted version of the Vento was released on 3 September 2019 in India alongside the facelifted Polo. Its styling mimics the Polo GTI version, sharing the same front bumper. The only engine option available is a 1.0-liter TSI motor that puts out and of torque. Available gearboxes are 6-speed manual transmission and 6-speed tiptronic.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In India, the facelifted version was released in September 2019 whilst older versions of them will be kept on sale for a few years. It is very similar to its GTI version in terms of design and it will be expanded for most markets where the Polo saloon and hatchback versions are sold. Both the Polo and Vento were later facelifted in Mexico in early 2020.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: On introduction of Bharat Stage VI emissions norms in India in April 2020, the Vento 1.5 TDI was be discontinued and the petrol engines will be replaced by a new locally manufactured, more fuel-efficient three-cylinder 1.0 TSI engine.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo sedan Mk5 is also known as the Volkswagen Polo Notch in the Philippines. It went on sale in late 2013 and was sourced from India. In May 2018, Volkswagen discontinued the Polo Notch in the Philippines. It was replaced by the Chinese-sourced Volkswagen Santana.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The car became available in Argentina as the Polo Sedan from October 2015 to February 2018, when it was replaced by the Virtus sourced from Brazil.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Ameo is a notchback sedan based on the hatchback Polo Mk5 which was introduced for the Indian market in June 2016. Slotted between the Polo and the Vento, the Ameo was developed to fit the tax bracket for vehicles under in length in order to occupy the sub-four metre sedan segment in India. It was produced in India and was marketed with the tagline "German engineering with an Indian heart". The word 'Ameo' is derived from the Latin word 'amo', meaning love.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Ameo retained wheelbase and the rear doors from the Polo hatchback, unlike the Polo sedan/Vento. It is also fitted with a shorter front bumper which shaved from the length of the vehicle, and a lower roof. According to Tilo Klumpp, a senior designer at Volkswagen, initial design proposals of the Ameo resembles a shape of a fastback, with an tailgate sloping from the roofline to the trailing edge. However, market research showed that Indian customers preferred a traditional three-box shape. Development reportedly took two and a half years.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: During its introduction to the Indian market, the Ameo is equipped with a 1.2-litre three-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine and a 1.5-litre four-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine. The 1.2-litre petrol engine was phased out and was replaced by the new 1.0-litre, three cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine from the Polo which produces of power at 6,200 rpm with peak torque of . The diesel variant is a 1.5-litre TDI four cylinder engine, that develops at 4,000 rpm and of peak torque. It was available in five variants which include Trendline, Comfortline, Comfortline Plus, Highline and Highline Plus.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Ameo was discontinued in April 2020, as the vehicle was not updated to be compliant with the Bharat Stage 6 emission norms which came into force in that month due to its decreasing sales.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In addition to the engine options above, BlueMotion Technology versions of the 1.2 TSI are available on some markets. The reduces CO emission to 113 g/km for the with manual transmission and 115 g/km for the in manual and DSG variants.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: At the end of 2012, the BlueGT variant has been officially introduced. The Polo BlueGT features improved aerodynamics and a 1.4 turbocharged TSI engine from the new EA211 generation. This new engine features ACT (Active Cylinder Technology), a cylinder deactivation management which deactivates two cylinders at torque outputs from 24 to 100 N·m, allowing the Polo BlueGT with a 6-speed manual transmission to emit only 107 g/km.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2013, Volkswagen entered the World Rally Championship with a new Polo-based rally car. To meet the homologation requirements, 2500 Polo R WRCs were produced between September 2013 and March 2014.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: Anecdotal reports have appeared of problems with the 66 kW diesel engine, including poor fuel consumption and surging. VW has already made one modification to the particle filter ECU mapping.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo for India with no airbags and no ABS received 0 stars for adult occupants and 3 stars for toddlers from Global NCAP in 2014.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo for India with 2 airbags and no ABS received 4 stars for adult occupants and 3 stars for toddlers from Global NCAP in 2014.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Polo Vivo for Africa received 3 stars for adult occupants and 3 stars for toddlers from Global NCAP in 2017 (similar to Latin NCAP 2013).


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: The Indian-made Polo sedan in its most basic version for Latin America received 5 stars for adult occupants and 3 stars for toddlers from Latin NCAP in 2015.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: A one-off Polo concept car was shown at the Wörthersee GTI meeting in May 2009. Considered as a preview of a future Polo GTI model, the car featured Flash Red paint with black rally stripes, 18-inch "Budapest" wheels, high gloss black interior and aluminum tread plates.


title: Volkswagen Polo Mk5

text: In 2013, Volkswagen entered the World Rally Championship with a new rally car based on Polo. For homologation purposes, 2,500 Polo R WRC street cars were produced between September 2013 and March 2014. The street version features a 2.0 litre turbocharged engine producing 220 PS, and is mated exclusively to 6-speed manual gearbox.


title: Madras State

text: Madras State was a state of India during the mid-20th century. At the time of its formation in 1950, it included the whole of present-day Tamil Nadu (except Kanyakumari district), Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema, the Malabar region of North and central Kerala, Bellary, South Canara and Kollegal. Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema were separated to form Andhra State in 1953, while South Canara and Bellary districts along with the Kollegalam taluka of Coimbatore district were merged with Mysore State, and Malabar District with the State of Travancore-Cochin to form Kerala in 1956. Post State Reorganization in 1956, the remaining Madras State was renamed to Tamil Nadu on January 14, 1969.


title: Madras State

text: After Indian Independence, the Madras Presidency became the Madras Province on 15 August 1947. On 26 January 1950, it was formed as Madras State by the Government of India. As a result of the 1956 States Reorganisation Act, the state's boundaries were re-organized following linguistic lines. The state was finally renamed Tamil Nadu on 14 January 1969 by then Chief Minister C. N. Annadurai.


title: Madras State

text: At the time of Independence, O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar, popularly known as Omandur Ramasamy Reddy, was the Premier of Madras Presidency, from 23 March 1947 to 6 April 1949. Post Independence, the term Province was used until 1950, replacing presidency. His premiership lasted until 6 April 1949, when he resigned citing growing internal squabbled within the then Congress leaders. India won Independence during his tenure.


title: Madras State

text: Kumaraswamy Raja served as Chief Minister of Madras Presidency for two years, (April 1949 to April 1952), until the first general elections were held in the country.


title: Madras State

text: The act called for permitting the Dalits into Hindu temples for worship, who was until then were barred from entering the temple. While the former Justice Party, now reemerged as Dravidar Kazhagam headed by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy kept pressing for permitting Dalits into Hindu temples for Worship, the then Congress government under Omandur Ramasamy Reddy would pass the Madras Temple Entry Authorization Act 1947, ratified by the then Governor of Madras on 11 May 1947. This act was intended to give Dalits and other prohibited Hindus full and complete rights to enter Hindu temples.


title: Madras State

text: The Omandur cabinet passed another landmark law related to women, being pressurized by social activists like Muthulakshmi Reddi for a long time. The act known as Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act which gave Devadasi's the legal right to Marry and also making it illegal to dedicate girls to Hindu temples was passed on 9 October 1947 within 2 month of Independence.


title: Madras State

text: P.S. Kumarasamy Raja took office on 6 April 1949. He was the first Congress Chief Minister of Madras State after the adaptation of Republican constitution on 26 January 1950. The Madras Province now became Madras State was the administrative area still included present-day Andhra Pradesh, Cochin State and Malabar district of present-day Kerala and South Canara districts in present-day Karnataka. He stated that the change of the Premier and Members of the Cabinet would not mean a change in the policies of the Government and that his government would follow the same principles of the former Ministry.


title: Madras State

text: In the 1952 elections, the first as a part of Republic India, the Indian National Congress emerged as the single largest party in the assembly. However, Congress could not form the government as lacked a clear majority, while the Communist Party of India led coalition was in a better position to form the government. Nevertheless, a Congress government was formed in the state, and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was selected by the cadres of the Congress party to rule the state. Also, Rajaji was not an elected member of the Madras Legislative Assembly but was nominated by the then governor to the Legislative Council and took office as the chief minister of Madras state.


title: Madras State

text: Dr. P. C. Alexander, himself a former Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra governor, writes that the most conspicuous case of constitutional impropriety was the one by Sri Prakasa when he invited Rajagopalachari to form the government in the Madras state.


title: Madras State

text: During this time, freedom fighter Potti Sriramulu called for a separate state for Telugu speaking districts, to be named Andhra, and went on an unconditional fast until his goal was achieved. He died following complications that arose during the fast, and violent riots broke out in the Telugu areas of Madras State including Madras city. Jawaharlal Nehru who initially opposed to the idea of linguistic states, agreed to the demand after the death of Potti Sriramulu, for a separate state of Andhra. But the demand that Madras city be included in the new state of Andhra was rejected.


title: Madras State

text: It was alleged that Rajaji failed to intervene, either to break the fast or to provide medical help for Sriramulu, even though the fast had continued for over 50 days. On a side note, only one other person, Jatin Das, before Sriramulu, in modern Indian history actually fasted to death. In most cases, they either gave up, were hospitalized or arrested and force fed.


title: Madras State

text: The State of Andhra was carved out of the Madras State in 1953, Rajaji remained aloof from the Andhra State and related issues.


title: Madras State

text: Rajaji also removed controls on foodgrains and introduced a new education policy based on family vocation. According to this policy, students had to go to school in the morning and to compulsorily learn the family vocation practiced by their parents, like carpentry, masonry, etc. after school. It was severely opposed by Dravidar Kazhagam and DMK as casteist and dubbed Kula Kalvi Thittam (Hereditary Education Policy) by his close friend and political opponent Periyar who vehemently opposed it. This policy was under attack from within the Congress as well as outside it. This ultimately led to his resignation in 1954.


title: Madras State

text: Committed to his version of "socialism" meaning that "those who are backward should progress", Kamaraj remained truthful to the simple dictum of his "socialism", providing "what is essential for man's living" such as "dwelling, job, food and education". The great feature of Kamaraj rule was the ending of the retrogressive educational policies and setting the stage for universal and free schooling.


title: Madras State

text: One of the first political acts of Kamaraj during his tenure as chief minister was to widen representation of the rising non-Brahmins in the cabinet, yet to everyone's surprise, Kamaraj nominated C. Subramaniam and M. Bhakthavatsalam, who had contested his leadership,


title: Madras State

text: Ministerial berths were given to other parties like Tamil Nadu Toilers Party and Commonwealth Party. In a move to counter Tamil cultural politics espoused by the DMK, Kamaraj made conscious attempts to partake in the linguistic cultural matters. To placate Tamil aspirations, Kamaraj effected some measures.


title: Madras State

text: The efforts towards introducing Tamil language as a medium of instruction in schools and colleges was accompanied by the publication of textbooks on 'scientific and technical subjects' in Tamil. In 1960 the state education minister took steps to introduce Tamil in government arts colleges as a medium of instruction.


title: Madras State

text: Similarly, the usage of Tamil in the courts received encouragement. To affirm his role in the linguistic politics of the state, Kamaraj introduced a bill in February 1962 in the legislative assembly for changing the name of Madras to 'Tamil Nadu' for 'intrastate communication', the bill also proposing Madurai as the capital. But no decision was taken on it. The DMK would later make capital out of this, routing Congress in the 1967 elections four years after Kamaraj relinquished his office as chief minister in accordance with the Kamaraj Plan to concentrate on Congress organizational work.


title: Madras State

text: Kamaraj removed the family vocation–based Hereditary Education Policy introduced by Rajaji. Kamaraj strove to eradicate illiteracy by introducing free and compulsory education up to the eleventh standard and introduced the Mid-day Meal Scheme to provide at least one meal per day to the lakhs of poor school children.


title: Madras State

text: Almost every village within a radius of one mile with a population of 300 and above inhabitants was provided with a school. With a view to encouraging and attracting the rural poor children to the schools, Kamaraj pioneered a scheme of free mid-day meals for primary school children in panchayat and government institutions. This scheme, aided by the American voluntary organisation CARE, was launched in 1957. In addition, the government came forward to supply school uniforms to poor students. To make the education easily accessible to children from various backgrounds, full exemption from school fees was introduced. Public enthusiasm and participation in raising funds and procuring equipment for the schools were entertained through different schemes making education a social responsibility. Such measures made education affordable for many who were denied basic educational opportunities for centuries.


title: Madras State

text: Kamaraj's other feat was his role in facilitating developmental programmes chiefly electrification and industrial development. Thousands of villages were electrified. Rural electrification led to the large-scale use of pumpsets for irrigational purposes and agriculture-received impetus. Major irrigation schemes were planned in Kamaraj's period. Dams and irrigation canals were built across higher Bhavani, Mani Muthar, Aarani, Vaigai, Amaravathi, Sathanur, Krishnagiri, Pullambadi, Parambikulam and Neyyaru among others. The Malapuzha Dam at Palghat District was inaugurated by him as Chief Minister in 1955 (before Kerala was formed as a separate state in 1956). Large- and small-scale industries were flagged off generating employment opportunities. Kamaraj made the best use of the funds available through the Five-Year Plans and guided Tamil Nadu in deriving the maximum benefit.


title: Madras State

text: In 1962, the Indian National Congress won the Madras state elections and formed the government in the state for the fifth time in 25 years. Kamaraj became Chief Minister. It was his third tenure as Chief Minister (3 March 1962 – 2 October 1963). Later Kamaraj resigned his Chief Ministership to work for the Congress Party under the "KAMARAJ PLAN", wherein senior leaders were invited to do party work. Hence on 2 October 1963, Bhaktavatsalam took office as the chief minister of Madras as Kamaraj desired to spend more time serving the party. Bhaktavatsalam is, until date, the last Chief Minister of Madras from the Indian National Congress.


title: Madras State

text: Bhaktavatsalam's tenure as chief minister witnessed severe anti-Hindi agitations in Madras state. Bhaktavatsalam supported the Union Government's decision to introduce Hindi as compulsory language and rejected the demands to make Tamil the medium of instruction in colleges, saying that it was "not a practical proposition, not in the interests of national integration, not in the interests of higher education, and not in the interests of the students themselves". On 7 March 1964, at a session of the Madras Legislative Assembly, Bhaktavatsalam recommended the introduction of a three-language formula comprising English, Hindi and Tamil.


title: Madras State

text: As 26 January 1965, the day when the 15-year-long transition period recommended by the Indian Parliament came to an end, neared, the agitations intensified, leading to police action and casualties. Five of the agitators (Sivalingam, Aranganathan, Veerappan, Mutthu, and Sarangapani) immolated themselves while three others (Dandapani, Mutthu, and Shanmugam) consumed poison. One of the agitators, eighteen-year-old Rajendran, was killed on 27 January 1965 as a result of police firing.


title: Madras State

text: On 13 February 1965, Bhaktavatsalam claimed that the opposition Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the Left parties were responsible for the large-scale destruction of public property and violence during the anti-Hindi agitations of 1965.


title: Madras State

text: In 1967, the DMK (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam) party, born from Dravidar Kazhagam in 1949, won with thumping majority with the Congress losing elections in nine states to opposition parties, but it was only in Madras State that a single non-Congress party majority was achieved. The electoral victory of 1967 is also due to an electoral fusion among the non-Congress parties to avoid a split in the Opposition votes. The former Congress leader Rajagopalachari, had by then left the Congress to found the right-wing Swatantra Party. At that time, his cabinet was the youngest in the country.


title: Madras State

text: Annadurai was the first to announce subsidising of the price of rice in the election manifesto. He promised a measure of rice for one rupee, which he initially implemented but withdrew soon. Subsidizing rice and giving freebies are still used as election promises in Tamil Nadu.


title: Madras State

text: It was Annadurai's government that renamed the Madras State to Tamil Nadu. With Annadurai as chief minister, the state assembly passed the bill of renaming the state successfully. It was during the period of his Chief Ministership that the Second World Tamil Conference was conducted on a grand scale on 3 January 1968. Also, when a commemorative stamp was released to mark the Tamil conference, Annadurai expressed his dissatisfaction that the stamp contained Hindi when it was for Tamil.


title: Madras State

text: Tamil Nadu Government has decided to celebrate the Golden Jubilee on 14 January 2018 to mark the renaming of the erstwhile 'Madras State'. It was decided to observe the golden jubilee with events to mark the eminence of Tamil language and Tamil people, and by honouring young Tamil research scholars at the valedictory.


title: Fig sign

text: The fig sign is a mildly obscene gesture used at least since the Roman Age in Italy, Southern Europe, parts of the Mediterranean region, including in Turkish culture, and has also been adopted by Slavic cultures and South Africa. The gesture uses a thumb wedged in between two fingers. This gesture is most commonly used to ward off the evil eye, insult someone, or deny a request. It is also used more innocuously in Northwestern Europe and countries such as the UK, US, Canada, Australia, The Netherlands and Czech Republic to pretend taking the nose off a child.


title: Fig sign

text: Because of its origins in Southern Europe or Latin Europe, the gesture was imported to Latin America.


title: Fig sign

text: In ancient Rome, the fig sign, or , was made by the to ward off the evil spirits of the dead as a part of the Lemuria ritual.


title: Fig sign

text: The word sycophant comes from the Ancient Greek word συκοφάντης (sykophántēs), meaning "one who shows or reveals figs"; though there is no unequivocal explanation as to the reason why sycophants in Ancient Greece were so called, one explanation is that the sycophant, by making false accusations, insulted the defendant in a manner analogous to making the fig sign.


title: History of theatre

text: The history of theatre charts the development of theatre over the past 2,500 years. While performative elements are present in every society, it is customary to acknowledge a distinction between theatre as an art form and entertainment and "theatrical" or "performative" elements in other activities. The history of theatre is primarily concerned with the origin and subsequent development of the theatre as an autonomous activity. Since classical Athens in the 5th century BC, vibrant traditions of theatre have flourished in cultures across the world.


title: History of theatre

text: Despite theatre's resemblance to the performance of ritual activities, and the important relationship that theatre shares with ritual, there is no conclusive evidence to show that theatre originated from ritual. This similarity of early theatre to ritual is negatively attested by Aristotle, who in his "Poetics" defined theatre in contrast to the performances of sacred mysteries: theatre did not require the spectator to fast, drink the kykeon, or march in a procession; however theatre did resemble the sacred mysteries in the sense that it brought purification and healing to the spectator by means of a vision, the "theama". The physical location of such performances was accordingly named "theatron".


title: History of theatre

text: According to the historians Oscar Brockett and Franklin Hildy, rituals typically include elements that entertain or give pleasure, such as costumes and masks as well as skilled performers. As societies grew more complex, these spectacular elements began to be acted out under non-ritualistic conditions. As this occurred, the first steps towards theatre as an autonomous activity were being taken.


title: History of theatre

text: Greek theatre, most developed in Athens, is the root of the Western tradition; "theatre" is a word of Greek origin. It was part of a broader culture of theatricality and performance in classical Greece that included festivals, religious rituals, politics, law, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, weddings, funerals, and "symposia". Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of citizenship. Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the law-court or political assembly, both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.


title: History of theatre

text: Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BC, it flowered during the 5th century BC (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world) and continued to be popular until the beginning of the Hellenistic period. No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century it was institutionalised in competitions ("agon") held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysos (the god of wine and fertility). As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama), playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play. The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BC; official records ("didaskaliai") begin from 501 BC, when the satyr play was introduced. Most Athenian tragedies dramatise events from Greek mythology, though "The Persians"—which stages the Persian response to news of their military defeat at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BC—is the notable exception in the surviving drama. When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BC, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of drama to survive. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his "Poetics" (c. 335 BC). Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as Athenaeus of Naucratis). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of plays by Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of error or ugliness that does not cause pain or destruction.


title: History of theatre

text: Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The Roman historian Livy wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BC, with a performance by Etruscan actors. Beacham argues that Romans had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact. The theatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus's broadly appealing situation comedies, to the high-style, verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, the Hellenization of Roman culture in the 3rd century BC had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest quality for the stage.


title: History of theatre

text: Following the expansion of the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BC, Rome encountered Greek drama. From the later years of the republic and by means of the Roman Empire (27 BC-476 AD), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and reached England; Roman theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it. While Greek drama continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BC marks the beginning of regular Roman drama. From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader variety of theatrical entertainments.


title: History of theatre

text: The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies that Livius Andronicus wrote from 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius also began to write drama. No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres, Andronicus was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to specialise in one or the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama. By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers ("collegium poetarum") had been formed.


title: History of theatre

text: The Roman comedies that have survived are all "fabula palliata" (comedies based on Greek subjects) and come from two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). In re-working the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus and two-thirds in those of Terence). The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its complications often follow from eavesdropping. Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184 BC and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his farces are best known; he was admired for the wit of his dialogue and his use of a variety of poetic meters. All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and 160 BC have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour.


title: History of theatre

text: No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—Quintus Ennius, Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. From the time of the empire, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are "fabula crepidata" (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his "Phaedra", for example, was based on Euripides' "Hippolytus". Historians do not know who wrote the only extant example of the "fabula praetexta" (tragedies based on Roman subjects), "Octavia", but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.


title: History of theatre

text: In contrast to Ancient Greek theatre, the theatre in Ancient Rome did allow female performers. While the majority were employed for dancing and singing, a minority of actresses are known to have performed speaking roles, and there were actresses who achieved wealth, fame and recognition for their art, such as Eucharis, Dionysia, Galeria Copiola and Fabia Arete: they also formed their own acting guild, the "Sociae Mimae", which was evidently quite wealthy.


title: History of theatre

text: As the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power shifted to Constantinople and the Eastern Roman Empire, today called the Byzantine Empire. While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight, existing records show that miming, scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies, dances, and other entertainments were very popular. Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the 5th century. However, the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called the Suda, from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre.


title: History of theatre

text: From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder that lasted (with a brief period of stability under the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century) until the 10th century. As such, most organized theatrical activities disappeared in Western Europe. While it seems that small nomadic bands travelled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience, there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes. These performers were denounced by the Church during the Dark Ages as they were viewed as dangerous and pagan.


title: History of theatre

text: By the Early Middle Ages, churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of particular biblical events on specific days of the year. These dramatizations were included in order to vivify annual celebrations. Symbolic objects and actions – vestments, altars, censers, and pantomime performed by priests – recalled the events which Christian ritual celebrates. These were extensive sets of visual signs that could be used to communicate with a largely illiterate audience. These performances developed into liturgical dramas, the earliest of which is the "Whom do you Seek (Quem-Quaeritis)" Easter trope, dating from ca. 925. Liturgical drama was sung responsively by two groups and did not involve actors impersonating characters. However, sometime between 965 and 975, Æthelwold of Winchester composed the "Regularis Concordia (Monastic Agreement)" which contains a playlet complete with directions for performance.


title: History of theatre

text: Hrosvitha (c. 935 – 973), a canoness in northern Germany, wrote six plays modeled on Terence's comedies but using religious subjects. These six plays – "Abraham, Callimachus, Dulcitius, Gallicanus, Paphnutius, "and "Sapientia" – are the first known plays composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western dramatic works of the post-classical era. They were first published in 1501 and had considerable influence on religious and didactic plays of the sixteenth century. Hrosvitha was followed by Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179), a Benedictine abbess, who wrote a Latin musical drama called "Ordo Virtutum" in 1155.


title: History of theatre

text: As the Viking invasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. Only in Muslim-occupied Iberian Peninsula were liturgical dramas not presented at all. Despite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from the period, many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number never performed any at all.


title: History of theatre

text: The Feast of Fools was especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life. Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount of burlesque and comedy crept into these performances. Although comic episodes had to truly wait until the separation of drama from the liturgy, the Feast of Fools undoubtedly had a profound effect on the development of comedy in both religious and secular plays.


title: History of theatre

text: Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays which were then translated into vernacular and performed by laymen. "The Mystery of Adam " (1150) gives credence to this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. A number of other plays from the period survive, including "La Seinte Resurrection" (Norman), "The Play of the Magi Kings" (Spanish), and "Sponsus" (French).


title: History of theatre

text: The importance of the High Middle Ages in the development of theatre was the economic and political changes that led to the formation of guilds and the growth of towns. This would lead to significant changes in the Late Middle Ages. In the British Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular Mystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York (48 plays), Chester (24), Wakefield (32) and Unknown (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained comedy, devils, villains and clowns.


title: History of theatre

text: The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example, at Valenciennes in 1547, more than 100 roles were assigned to 72 actors. Plays were staged on pageant wagon stages, which were platforms mounted on wheels used to move scenery. Often providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers. The platform stage, which was an unidentified space and not a specific locale, allowed for abrupt changes in location.


title: History of theatre

text: Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is "The Castle of Perseverance" which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is "Everyman". Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship – only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.


title: History of theatre

text: There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is "The Play of the Greenwood" by Adam de la Halle in 1276. It contains satirical scenes and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and are similar in tone and form, emphasizing sex and bodily excretions. The best known playwright of farces is Hans Sachs (1494–1576) who wrote 198 dramatic works. In England, The Second Shepherds' Play of the Wakefield Cycle is the best known early farce. However, farce did not appear independently in England until the 16th century with the work of John Heywood (1497–1580).