title: Corporatocracy

text: In 2013, economist Edmund Phelps criticized the economic system of the U.S. and other western countries in recent decades as being what he calls "the new corporatism," which he characterizes as a system in which the state is far too involved in the economy and is tasked with "protecting everyone against everyone else," but at the same time, big companies have a great deal of influence on the government, with lobbyists' suggestions being "welcome, especially if they come with bribes."


title: Corporatocracy

text: During the Gilded Age in the United States, corruption was rampant, as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate their activities.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Corporations have a significant influence on the regulations and regulators that monitor them. For example, Senator Elizabeth Warren explained in December 2014 how an omnibus spending bill required to fund the government was modified late in the process to weaken banking regulations. The modification made it easier to allow taxpayer-funded bailouts of banking "swaps entities", which the Dodd-Frank banking regulations prohibited. She singled out Citigroup, one of the largest banks, which had a role in modifying the legislation. She also explained how both Wall Street bankers and members of the government that formerly had worked on Wall Street stopped bi-partisan legislation that would have broken up the largest banks. She repeated President Theodore Roosevelt's warnings regarding powerful corporate entities that threatened the "very foundations of Democracy."


title: Corporatocracy

text: In a 2015 interview, former President Jimmy Carter stated that the United States is now "an oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" due to the "Citizens United v. FEC" ruling, which effectively removed limits on donations to political candidates. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States elections.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Joel Bakan, a University of British Columbia law professor and the author of the award-winning book "The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power", writes:


title: Corporatocracy

text: With regard to income inequality, the 2014 income analysis of the University of California, Berkeley economist Emmanuel Saez confirms that relative growth of income and wealth is not occurring among small and mid-sized entrepreneurs and business owners (who generally populate the lower half of top one per-centers in income), but instead only among the top .1 percent of the income distribution, who earn $2,000,000 or more every year.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Corporate power can also increase income inequality. Nobel Prize winner of economics Joseph Stiglitz wrote in May 2011: "Much of today’s inequality is due to manipulation of the financial system, enabled by changes in the rules that have been bought and paid for by the financial industry itself—one of its best investments ever. The government lent money to financial institutions at close to zero percent interest and provided generous bailouts on favorable terms when all else failed. Regulators turned a blind eye to a lack of transparency and to conflicts of interest." Stiglitz explained that the top 1% got nearly "one-quarter" of the income and own approximately 40% of the wealth.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Measured relative to GDP, total compensation and its component wages and salaries have been declining since 1970. This indicates a shift in income from labor (persons who derive income from hourly wages and salaries) to capital (persons who derive income via ownership of businesses, land, and assets).


title: Corporatocracy

text: Larry Summers estimated in 2007 that the lower 80% of families were receiving $664 billion less income than they would be with a 1979 income distribution, or approximately $7,000 per family. Not receiving this income may have led many families to increase their debt burden, a significant factor in the 2007–2009 subprime mortgage crisis, as highly leveraged homeowners suffered a much larger reduction in their net worth during the crisis. Further, since lower income families tend to spend relatively more of their income than higher income families, shifting more of the income to wealthier families may slow economic growth.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Some large U.S. corporations have used a strategy called tax inversion to change their headquarters to a non-U.S. country to reduce their tax liability. About 46 companies have reincorporated in low-tax countries since 1982, including 15 since 2012. Six more also planned to do so in 2015.


title: Corporatocracy

text: One indication of increasing corporate power was the removal of restrictions on their ability to buy back stock, contributing to increased income inequality. Writing in the "Harvard Business Review" in September 2014, William Lazonick blamed record corporate stock buybacks for reduced investment in the economy and a corresponding impact on prosperity and income inequality. Between 2003 and 2012, the 449 companies in the S&P 500 used 54% of their earnings ($2.4 trillion) to buy back their own stock. An additional 37% was paid to stockholders as dividends. Together, these were 91% of profits. This left little for investment in productive capabilities or higher income for employees, shifting more income to capital rather than labor. He blamed executive compensation arrangements, which are heavily based on stock options, stock awards, and bonuses, for meeting earnings per share (EPS) targets. EPS increases as the number of outstanding shares decreases. Legal restrictions on buybacks were greatly eased in the early 1980s. He advocates changing these incentives to limit buybacks.


title: Corporatocracy

text: In the 12 months to March 31, 2014, S&P 500 companies increased their stock buyback payouts by 29% year on year, to $534.9 billion. U.S. companies are projected to increase buybacks to $701 billion in 2015, according to Goldman Sachs, an 18% increase over 2014. For scale, annual non-residential fixed investment (a proxy for business investment and a major GDP component) was estimated to be about $2.1 trillion for 2014.


title: Corporatocracy

text: Brid Brennan of the Transnational Institute explained how the concentration of corporations increases their influence over government: "It's not just their size, their enormous wealth and assets that make the TNCs [transnational corporations] dangerous to democracy. It's also their concentration, their capacity to influence, and often infiltrate, governments and their ability to act as a genuine international social class in order to defend their commercial interests against the common good. It is such decision-making power as well as the power to impose deregulation over the past 30 years, resulting in changes to national constitutions, and to national and international legislation which has created the environment for corporate crime and impunity." Brennan concludes that this concentration in power leads to again more concentration of income and wealth.


title: Corporatocracy

text: An example of such industry concentration is in banking. The top 5 U.S. banks had approximately 30% of the U.S. banking assets in 1998; this rose to 45% by 2008 and to 48% by 2010, before falling to 47% in 2011.


title: Corporatocracy

text: "The Economist" also explained how an increasingly profitable corporate financial and banking sector caused Gini coefficients to rise in the U.S. since 1980: "Financial services' share of GDP in America, doubled to 8% between 1980 and 2000; over the same period their profits rose from about 10% to 35% of total corporate profits, before collapsing in 2007–09. Bankers are being paid more, too. In America the compensation of workers in financial services was similar to average compensation until 1980. Now it is twice that average."


title: Pulcinella

text: Pulcinella (; ) is a classical character that originated in of the 17th century and became a stock character in Neapolitan puppetry. Pulcinella's versatility in status and attitude has captivated audiences worldwide and kept the character popular in countless forms since his introduction to by Silvio Fiorillo in 1620.


title: Pulcinella

text: His visual appearance includes a humpback, a crooked nose, gangly legs, a potbelly, large cheeks, and a gigantic mouth. These traits were inherited from two stock characters of the Atellan Farce. He typically wears a pointed hat (conical hat). When depicted as a member of the upper class, Pulcinella is a cunning thief and schemer. When depicted as a member of the servant class, Pulcinella is a perverted bumpkin. In either case, he is a social climber, striving to rise above his station in life. He is an opportunist who always sides with the winner in any situation, and fears no consequences. His main motivations are self-interest and self-preservation, yet Pulcinella tends to rescue other characters from trouble. He is said to be every character's savior, despite acting as a rebel and a delinquent in the shape of an old man.


title: Pulcinella

text: Pulcinella has his origins in two stock characters of the ancient Roman Atellan Farce, Maccus and Bucco. Maccus is described as being witty, sarcastic, rude, and cruel, while Bucco is a nervous thief who is as silly as he is full of himself. This duality manifested itself in both the way Pulcinella is shaped and the way he acts. Physically, the characteristics he inherited from his ancestors attributed to his top-heavy, chicken-like shape. He inherited his humpback, his large, crooked nose, and his gangly legs from Maccus. His potbelly, large cheeks, and gigantic mouth come from Bucco.


title: Pulcinella

text: Due to this duality of heredity, Pulcinella can be portrayed as either a servant or a master, depending on the scenario. "Upper" Pulcinella is more like Bucco, with a scheming nature, an aggressive sensuality, and great intelligence. "Lower" Pulcinella, however, favors Maccus, and is described by Pierre Louis Duchartre as being "a dull and coarse bumpkin." This juxtaposition of proud, cunning thief from the upper class and loud, crass pervert from the servant class is one that is key to understanding Pulcinella's behaviors.


title: Pulcinella

text: Pulcinella is a dualistic character: he either plays dumb, though he is very much aware of the situation, or he acts as though he is the most intelligent and competent, despite being woefully ignorant. He is incessantly trying to rise above his station, though he does not intend to work for it. He is a social chameleon, who tries to get those below him to think highly of him, but is sure to appease those in positions of power. Pulcinella's closing couplet translates to "I am Prince of everything, Lord of land and main. Except for my public whose faithful servant I remain." However, because his world is often that of a servant, he has no real investment in preserving the socio-political world of his master. He is always on the side of the winner, though he often does not decide this until after they have won. No matter his initial intent, Pulcinella always manages to win. If something ends poorly, another thing is successful. If he is put out in a sense, he is rewarded in another. This often accidental triumph is his normal. Another important characteristic of Pulcinella is that he fears nothing. He does not worry about consequences as he will be victorious no matter what. It is said that he is so wonderful to watch because he does what audience members would do were they not afraid of the consequences.


title: Pulcinella

text: Pulcinella is the ultimate self-preservationist, looking out for himself in most every situation, yet he still manages to sort out the affairs of everyone around him. Antonio Fava, a world-renowned maskmaker and Maestro of Commedia dell'arte, is particularly fond of the character in both performance and study due to his influence and continuity throughout history. Fava explained that "Pulcinella, a man without dignity, is nevertheless indispensable to us all: without [him] ... none of his countless 'bosses' could ever escape from the awkward tangle of troubles in which they find themselves. Pulcinella is everyone's saviour, saved by no one." This accidental helpfulness is key to his success. He goes out of his way to avoid responsibility, yet always ends up with more of it than he bargained for.


title: Pulcinella

text: His movements are broad and laborious, allowing him to aggressively emphasize his speech and simultaneously exhausting him. He will also get excited about something and move very quickly and deliberately, leaving him with no choice but to halt the action and catch his breath. He is to be thought of as a rebellious delinquent in the body of an old man.


title: Pulcinella

text: Traditionally made of leather, Pulcinella's mask is either black or dark brown, to imply weathering from the sun. His nose varies, but is always the most prominent feature of the mask by far. It can be long and curved, hooking over the mouth, or it can be shorter, with a more bulbous bridge. But either way, the nose is to resemble a bird's beak. There is often a wart somewhere on the mask, typically on the forehead or nose. Furrowed eyebrows and deep wrinkles are also important, though there is room for artistic interpretation there. He can have a protruding brow ridge, knitted brows, a furrowed brow, or simply raised eyebrows. It is simply important that they are deeply wrinkled and prominent enough to match the exaggerated style of commedia dell'arte masks. The mask used to feature a bushy black mustache or beard, but this was mostly abandoned through the 17th century.


title: Pulcinella

text: Most often portrayed in a baggy, white ensemble consisting of a long-sleeved, loose-fitting blouse with buttons down the front, Pulcinella pairs this with wide-legged trousers, the whole outfit complemented by a belt of sorts that cinches below the belly. This gives him a place to hold props while emphasizing his pot belly. A hat is always worn, though the style can vary. Typically, it can either be a skull cap, a hat with turn-up brim, a soft conical hat whose point lays down, or a . The sugar-loaf hat gained popularity in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Each hat is white.


title: Pulcinella

text: Pulcinella has two main props: The first is a cudgel - a relatively short stick often used primarily as a weapon. He calls this his "staff of credit". His other prop is a coin purse - traditionally attached to his belt so as to stay close to the body.


title: Pulcinella

text: A plausible theory derives his name from the diminutive (or combination with "rooster")) of Italian ("chick"), on account of his long beaklike nose, as theorized by music historian Francesco Saverio Quadrio, or due to the squeaky nasal voice and "timorous impotence" in its demeanor, according to Giuseppe (Joseph) Baretti.


title: Pulcinella

text: According to another version, "Pulcinella" derived from the name of Puccio d'Aniello, a peasant of Acerra, who was portrayed in a famous picture attributed to Annibale Carracci, and was characterized by a long nose. It has also been suggested that the figure is a caricature of a sufferer of acromegaly.


title: Pulcinella

text: Many regional variants of Pulcinella were developed as the character diffused across Europe. From its east to west coasts, Europeans strongly identified with the tired, witty "everyman" that Pulcinella represented. In many later adaptations, Pulcinella was portrayed as a puppet, as commedia dell'arte-style theatre did not continue to be popular throughout all of the continent over time. He was said to evolve into "Mr. Punch" in England. The key half of Punch and Judy, he is recognized as one of the most important British icons in history.


title: Pulcinella

text: The first recorded show to have involved the Punch-style marionette was performed in England in May 1662, outside of London in Covent Garden, by Bologna-born puppeteer Pietro Gimonde, also known as Signor Bologna. This marionette was named Punchinello, later evolving into Punch, and finally becoming wholly British with his transformation into Mr. Punch. The British Punch is far more childlike and violent than Pulcinella, but is renowned for being just as funny. Always seen with cudgel in hand, Punch has a more menacing character than his Italian counterpart. In many performances, he murders his wife and child, as well as the Devil. In 1851, Henry Mayhew wrote of one performer who described the character's enduring appeal: "Like the rest of the world, he has got bad morals, but very few of them."


title: Pulcinella

text: In Germany, this kind of Pulcinella-based puppet character came to be known as "Kasper". Kasper is a cunning servant who solves the problems of all the masters he serves. This character became wildly popular throughout Europe. He was less extreme than Mr. Punch, but offered the same kind of slapstick puppetry that audiences loved. In the Netherlands, he is known as "Jan Klaassen". In Denmark he is "Mester Jakel". In Romania, he is "Vasilache." In Hungary he is (or Paprikajancsi) and in the 20th century , and in France he remained "Polichinelle."


title: Pulcinella

text: Russian composer Igor Stravinsky was commissioned to compose two different ballets for the Ballets Russes that were inspired by variations of this character. Stravinsky's ballets were entitled "Petrushka" (1911), based on Russian 19th-century puppetry traditions celebrated at Shrovetide, and "Pulcinella" (1920), based on 17th-century Italian music (thought to be by Pergolesi) associated with a commedia dell'arte version.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The Winnipeg Blue Bombers are a professional Canadian football team based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Blue Bombers compete in the Canadian Football League (CFL) as a member club of the league's West division. They play their home games at IG Field.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The Blue Bombers were founded in 1930 as the Winnipeg Rugby Football Club, later changed to the Winnipeg Football Club, which is the organization's legal name. The Blue Bombers are one of three community owned teams, without shareholders, in the CFL.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Since their establishment, the Blue Bombers have won the league's Grey Cup championship 12 times, most recently in 2021 CFL season when they defeated the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 33–25 in the 108th Grey Cup. The team holds the record for most Grey Cup appearances of any team (26) and were the first club in Western Canada to win a championship.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The first football team in Winnipeg was formed in 1879, named the Winnipeg Rugby Football Club. On June 10, 1930, the Winnipeg Tammany Tigers, who were in financial difficulty, disbanded and merged with some of the other teams in the city to create the new "Winnipeg Rugby Football Club", known unofficially and simply as the "Winnipegs" or even the even shorter " 'Pegs", adopting the colours green and white. The "Winnipegs" played their first game against St.John's Rugby Football Club on June 13, 1930, losing 7–3. In 1932, the "Winnipegs" and St. John's joined and adopted blue and gold as their colours. In 1933 they also absorbed the "Garrison Rugby Club" football team. The "Winnipegs" played in the Manitoba Rugby Football Union from 1930 to 1935.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: By 1935 Western teams had been to the Grey Cup game 10 times, but they had always gone home empty-handed. The East was much more powerful, outscoring their opponents 236–29 through those ten games. On December 7, 1935, the "Winnipegs" got their first trip, to the 23rd Grey Cup. The game was being held in Hamilton, with the home-town Tigers their opponents. It was a rainy day at Hamilton Amateur Athletic Association Grounds, with 6,405 fans in attendance.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Winnipeg was up 5–0 before many fans had even reached their seats. Hamilton player Jack Craig let the opening kickoff bounce to the turf, and a Winnipeg player promptly recovered the ball at the Hamilton 15-yard line. Winnipeg scored quickly on a Bob Fritz pass to Bud Marquardt to get the early lead. After scoring another touchdown on a Greg Kabat catch in the endzone, Winnipeg went into halftime up 12–4. Their lead was soon cut to three points in the second half after Hamilton scored a touchdown of their own, helped by a blocked kick that placed the ball on the Winnipeg 15-yard line.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Then, after a Hamilton rouge, Winnipeg's Fritz Hanson caught a punt, and after a few moves and a few missed tackles, was on his way to a 78-yard touchdown return, making the score 18–10. Hamilton forced a safety to bring themselves within six points, but failed to cross the goal-line, getting as far as the Winnipeg four-yard line. The final score was Winnipeg 18, Hamilton 12.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: After the Grey Cup victory in 1935, "The Winnipeg Tribune" sports writer Vince Leah called the team the "Blue Bombers of Western football". Until then, the team had no official nickname, but they quickly began using "Winnipeg Blue Bombers". Journalist Jim Coleman wrote that the name came at a time when boxer Joe Louis had international success with nickname, the Brown Bomber.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1935, the Blue Bombers, Calgary Bronks, and Regina Roughriders formed the Western Interprovincial Football Union at the highest level of play in Western Canada. Between 1936 and 1949, the Bombers won the right to compete for the Grey Cup in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1942, 1943, and 1945. Of these appearances, Winnipeg won only twice: in 1939 over the Ottawa Rough Riders, and again in their 1941 rematch.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Jack Jacobs, known as Indian Jack, was a Creek quarterback from Oklahoma. He came to the Bombers in 1950 after a successful career in the United States. He led the Bombers to two Grey Cup appearances, losing both. His exciting style of play and extreme talent increased ticket sales and overall awareness and popularity of the club. The revenue the Bombers were getting from their newfound popularity was enough to convince them to move from the small, outdated Osborne Stadium to the new Winnipeg Stadium (later known as Canad Inns Stadium).). Jacobs was so well-liked that fans even referred to the new stadium as "The House that Jack Built". Jacobs retired in 1954 to become a talent scout for the team.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1951, Jack Jacobs became the first professional football quarterback to throw for over 3,000 yards in a season, with 3,248. That year, he was also the first professional football quarterback to throw for at least 30 touchdowns, with 33. The next year he bested that mark with 34.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Bud Grant joined the team in 1953 after a two-year stint with the Philadelphia Eagles, as one of numerous NFL players lured to Canada during the first part of the decade for then-better salaries. After a four-year career as a receiver (classified only as "offensive end" at the time), he accepted the position of head coach of the Bombers in 1957. Grant went on to coach the team for the next 10 years before becoming the head coach of the NFL's Minnesota Vikings.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1956, Blue Bombers fans named Labatt's Pilsener Lager, which had a blue label, Labatt Blue, in honour of their team. In 1958, the Blue Bombers joined the newly formed Canadian Football League, and have competed there since.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: During Grant's tenure as head coach, the Bombers welcomed the likes of Ken Ploen, Leo Lewis, Ernie Pitts, and Ed Kotowich to the team. The Bombers competed in six Grey Cup games during Grant's tenure, winning four (1958, 1959, 1961, and 1962). In 1961, the Bombers won 21–14 over the Hamilton Tiger-Cats in the first Grey Cup game to go into overtime. The Bombers and Ticats met again in the 1962 Grey Cup, with the game being postponed with 9:29 left in the fourth quarter due to zero visibility in the famous "Fog Bowl". The game resumed the next morning, with the Bombers winning 28–27.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: During the second half of the 1960s, the Bombers' domination gave way to lean years, with four seasons of double digits in the loss column. The team bounced back in the early 1970s with the likes of quarterback Don Jonas, running-back Mack Herron, and wide receivers Jim Thorpe and Bob LaRose. The team finished first in the Western Conference in 1972, the first time it had done so since 1962. However, the Bombers came up short in the Western final against the Saskatchewan Roughriders, squandering a 13-point third-quarter lead en route to a heartbreaking 27–24 loss, with Saskatchewan kicker Jack Abendschan scoring on a short field goal attempt on the last play of the game to send the 'Riders to the 1972 Grey Cup against Hamilton. The 1972 season was also the last time the team finished first in the West until the 2021 season. The team struggled for a few more seasons under coaches Jim Spavital and Bud Riley before Ray Jauch was brought in as head coach before the 1978 season. Under Jauch, the Bombers became one of the stronger teams in the West, but usually behind Jauch's former team, the powerhouse Edmonton Eskimos coached by Hugh Campbell.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1981, wide receiver Eugene Goodlow became the first CFL player to reach the century mark in receptions in a season. Goodlow caught 100 passes for 1,494 yards and 14 touchdowns. That season, the Bombers became one of the first teams to have three receivers with at least 1,000 yards in a season: Goodlow with 1,494, Joe Poplawski with 1,271, and Rick House with 1,102.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1983, Cal Murphy was hired to be the new head coach of the Blue Bombers. Almost immediately, Murphy set the tone for his career with the Bombers by trading popular QB Dieter Brock at midseason (because of Brock's desire to play in the USFL) to Hamilton in exchange for QB Tom Clements. Trading Brock turned out to be a wise decision; Clements led the Bombers to a crushing victory in the 1984 Grey Cup, coincidentally over the Brock-led Tiger-Cats. This was Winnipeg's first Grey Cup in 22 years, and also their last win and appearance in the championship game as the Western representative until their victory in the 107th Grey Cup. Murphy was named coach of the year in both 1983 and 1984.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1987, Murphy stepped down as head coach to become general manager, and assistant coach Mike Riley (son of former Winnipeg coach Bud Riley) took over head-coaching duties. Then, just prior to the start of the 1987 season, the Montreal Alouettes folded. With the East Division suddenly down to three teams compared to five in the West, the league moved the Blue Bombers (who had been the easternmost team in the West) into the East Division, to balance the league.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Under Riley, the Blue Bombers quickly made an impact in the East, winning Grey Cups over their former division rivals B.C. and Edmonton in 1988 and 1990 respectively, and garnering Riley the coach of the year award in both championship seasons. After Riley left, Darryl Rogers and Urban Bowman each led the team for a season until 1993, when Cal Murphy took over head-coaching duties again. Murphy went on to lead the team to a total of five Grey Cup appearances, winning as a coach in 1984, and as GM in 1988 and 1990. He left the club after the 1996 season, having spent 14 years with the team. Later, he coached the Saskatchewan Roughriders in 1999.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Winnipeg played a total of eight consecutive seasons in the East before moving to the newly created North Division in 1995 during the CFL's expansion to the United States. When the CFL's American experiment ended a year later, and the Alouettes were re-established, the Blue Bombers returned to the re-constituted West Division. This arrangement also lasted only one season, as Winnipeg returned to the East again for the 1997 season after the Ottawa Rough Riders ceased operations.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In November 1996, Cal Murphy left the Blue Bombers' organization after 14 years. This was partly due to a 68–7 playoff thumping by the Edmonton Eskimos, and partly because the team had not had a winning record the previous two years, winning only seven games in 1995, and nine in 1996.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Jeff Reinebold was hired to replace Murphy as the team coach, and despite a huge amount of hype, and championship promises going into the 1997 season, he proved to be one of the least successful head coaches in team history. The Bombers won four games in 1997, and just three in 1998.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The few memorable players on the team during that time included linebacker K.D. Williams, safety Tom Europe, running back/returner Eric Blount, and Milt Stegall.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Milt Stegall joined the Bombers in 1995 after a three-year career returning kicks and seeing spot duty at receiver with the Cincinnati Bengals. He played in the Bombers' final six games of the 1995 season, racking up 469 receiving yards. In 1997, Stegall set a new league record that still stands today for average gain per reception with 26.5 yards on 61 catches for 1616 yards, including 14 touchdowns. Following a brief return to the NFL, that saw him on the verge of making the New Orleans Saints if not for a serious knee injury at the end of training camp, Stegall remained the team's primary receiver.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: In 1999, the Bombers acquired Khari Jones from the BC Lions. Together, Stegall and Jones brought the Bombers back to prominence, with Jones being the CFL's most outstanding player in 2001, and Stegall getting the honour in 2002. During the 2006 Grey Cup, Khari Jones and Milt Stegall were voted and honoured as the best QB/WR combo in CFL history. Charles Roberts joined them in 2001, a year which the Bombers went to the Grey Cup, which they eventually lost to the Calgary Stampeders. The following season, Winnipeg returned to the West Division following the establishment of the Ottawa Renegades. The team was a powerhouse during this period, being one of the best teams in the league from 2001 until 2003.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Midway through the 2004 season, Jones was traded to the Calgary Stampeders, with backup QB Kevin Glenn taking over the starting duties. Glenn led the team to two mediocre seasons after the trade. Prior to the 2006 season, the Renegades suspended operations and Winnipeg once again returned to the East Division.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: With the offensive core of Stegall and Roberts still intact, Glenn led the Bombers back to respectability in 2006. The season included many highlights, but none as exciting at what is simply known as "The Play". On July 20, 2006, trailing the Edmonton Eskimos on the road 22–19, and facing third and long on their own 10-yard line with 4 seconds left in the game, Milt Stegall caught a 100-yard TD pass from Kevin Glenn as time expired to win the game 25–22. It is considered by many as the greatest play in CFL history. Aided by the "miracle" catch, the Bombers ended up making their first playoff appearance in two years. Despite losing in the first round, optimism going into the 2007 was higher than ever.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The 2007 CFL season was in some ways the year of Milt Stegall: he broke the career CFL touchdown record and fell just short of overtaking the career receiving yards record held by Allen Pitts. The 2007 season was rumoured to be Stegall's last, as he was 37 years old and had been contemplating retirement for the previous two seasons.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The 2007 Grey Cup game was played between the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and the Saskatchewan Roughriders, the first time the two teams met for the championship. Winnipeg was defeated by the Saskatchewan Roughriders 23–19 in the Rogers Centre in Toronto. During the East division final win over the Toronto Argonauts, quarterback Kevin Glenn broke his arm and Winnipeg was left with an inexperienced rookie to take his place for the championship game. Back-up quarterback Ryan Dinwiddie — in his first CFL start — did not fare well and threw one touchdown pass, fumbled once and threw three interceptions to Saskatchewan cornerback James Johnson. Johnson was later declared the game MVP.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: One of the picks was shown in the instant replay to have hit the ground before it was caught. Despite his rookie mistakes, Dinwiddie showed promise going into the 2008 season. He was released prior to the 2009 season.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: It was announced on January 31, 2008, that Milt Stegall would return for one more year for the 2008 season. He signed a one-year contract for $200,000 on the basis of the fact his wife wanted to have their next child in Winnipeg, and the fact that they were in line to be a contender for the Grey Cup. He took a $50,000 pay cut, and started the season 159 yards away from breaking Allen Pitts' all-time receiving yards record.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Other returning players who were free agents going into the 2008 season, including star DE Tom Canada, OL's Dan Goodspeed, and Matt Sheridan, signed for less money from the Bombers than other teams were prepared to pay them, in hopes of a Grey Cup run in '08. Tom Canada, in particular, reportedly turned down a much higher contract offer from the Montreal Alouettes, to come back to Winnipeg.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The Bombers made a surprise trade when they sent all-star running back Charles Roberts to B.C. for Joe Smith on September 2, 2008. Then on September 8, 2008, they traded all-star DE Tom Canada to Hamilton for Zeke Moreno. But on September 9, 2008, the trade was cancelled because Canada was injured and could not play for at least 10 weeks. So, since they could not trade Canada, they sent over Corey Mace and a first-round pick for Moreno.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Following the 2008 season in which the Bombers were defeated in the division semifinals, Doug Berry (the head coach) was fired. Mike Kelly was chosen to replace him. At the end of the Cal Murphy era, Mike Kelly was the offensive coordinator and was passed over for the top job in favour of Jeff Reinebold. With Milt Stegall's early-season knee surgery and drop in production, it was once again speculated that Milt Stegall would retire.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The departure of Brendan Taman on January 13, 2009, was another sign that this era was coming to an end and a new one was beginning. On February 18, 2009, Milt Stegall did retire from the CFL which formally ended the Milt Stegall era.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The return of Mike Kelly opened a new Cal Murphy era, and the board hoped to bring back Murphy's success. However, Kelly was fired by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers Board of Directors on December 17, 2009, after one year of employment.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Paul LaPolice was introduced as the 28th head coach in Blue Bombers history on February 5, 2010. The new coach emphasized the idea of "team" and playing for the uniform. He also made it a point to talk about fixing problems rather than making excuses. The new paradigm was tested in the 2010 season in which the team finished 4–14 and missed the playoffs for the second straight year. Nine of those games were lost by four points or fewer, while 10 were lost by a touchdown or less.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The 2011 season featured an almost completely unchanged team (save for a few losses to the NFL and a few gains from the draft). The Blue Bombers reversed their standings from last place in the east in 2010 to finishing in first place in the East division with a 10–8 record. The team success hinged on a league-leading defence dubbed Swaggerville, which led them to their first division title in 10 years. The team advanced to the 99th Grey Cup after defeating Hamilton in the Eastern Final. However, they lost to the favoured BC Lions by a score of 34–23.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: On August 9, 2013, the Winnipeg Blue Bombers announced that CEO Garth Buchko stepped down and General Manager Joe Mack was fired.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The CFL returned to Ottawa in 2014 with the establishment of the Redblacks. Initially, the league planned to keep Winnipeg in the East, at least for the short term, due in part to the ongoing competitive dominance of the West. Despite this, Blue Bombers management lobbied heavily to return to the West Division immediately (for historical reasons), and eventually the league relented. The Blue Bombers finished last place in their first season back in the West, with a 7–11 record.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: After being named the acting CEO in August 2013 Wade Miller was announced as the CEO and President of the Club on November 12, 2013. The shake-up of the top brass in 2013 also led to Kyle Walters having to take over the acting GM duties, which were made officially his on November 26, 2013, when he was named the General Manager.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Mike O'Shea was hired by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers on December 4, 2013, to become the team's 30th Head Coach in team history. O'Shea helped the team return to the playoffs when he made the switch to Matt Nichols as the starting quarterback. The team still failed to advance to a Grey Cup despite the rise in success. During the 2019 season, an injury to Matt Nichols and a suspension to Andrew Harris seemed to end their season. The Bombers traded for Zach Collaros right before the trade deadline, who joined his third team for the year. Collaros formed a quarterback pairing with Chris Streveler. The two quarterbacks' play, behind the dominant performance of the defence saw the team win their 11th championship at the 107th Grey Cup, breaking a 28-year drought. Hometown player Harris became the first player ever to win the Grey Cup MVP and Grey Cup Most Valuable Canadian.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: After the CFL cancelled its 2020 season, the league returned in 2021, and the Bombers finished atop the West with an 11–3 record, claiming their first first-place West Division finish since 1972. The team outlasted their arch-rival Saskatchewan Roughriders in the West Final 21–17, setting up a rematch of the 2019 Grey Cup game against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats. The Bombers won the 2021 Grey Cup in overtime 33–25, the first back-to-back Grey Cup champions since the Montreal Alouettes won the 97th and 98th Grey Cup, and the first West Division team to win them since the Edmonton Eskimos' 1978–1982 run of five straight. In 2022, the team finished atop the West again with a 15–3 record, reaching the Grey Cup Final for the third straight season, but the team's hopes of a three-peat were dashed on a last-minute blocked field goal at the hands of the Toronto Argonauts, 24–23.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: During the Blue Bombers' early years, the team played at Osborne Stadium, a small stadium near the Manitoba Legislative Buildings. The fast, passing-dominated play of Bombers quarterback Jack Jacobs dramatically increased attendance at games and precipitated the need for a new, larger stadium. Winnipeg Stadium was built in the West End of the city near Polo Park, and the Blue Bombers began play there in 1953. The stadium experienced significant changes throughout its existence, including a renaming to Canad Inns Stadium in 2001.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: Over the years, various plans were proposed to relocate the stadium. In 2008, a plan was proposed to build a new stadium at the University of Manitoba, with both private and public funding.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: On April 2, 2009, David Asper (a media mogul located out of Winnipeg associated with Canwest and Creswin Properties) struck a deal with all levels of governments to build a new 33,422-seat (expandable to 45,000) stadium at the University of Manitoba in southwest Winnipeg. This would serve as the home for the Blue Bombers, as well as the U of M Bisons. The deal included refurbishing the existing Bison Stadium for practice and training, as well as upgrading, expanding, and building new sports and fitness facilities. This project, once completed, would be the premiere sports training facility in Canada. The project would have received ongoing funding from a retail development that Asper planned to build on the former CanadInns stadium site. As part of the deal, Creswin properties would take over ownership of the team in 2010. The new stadium and facilities would have been completed for the 2012 CFL season, with the retail development finished in 2013. On December 13, 2013, it was reported that Asper and Creswin Properties would no longer be included in the stadium project, which would continue with funding from the City of Winnipeg, Province of Manitoba, and Winnipeg Blue Bombers.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: On May 2, 2012, the Blue Bombers announced that because of construction delays, the stadium would not be ready until September, thus forcing the team to play four or five home games at Canad Inns Stadium to start the season. In June 2012, it was announced that the stadium would not open until the 2013 season.


title: Winnipeg Blue Bombers

text: The Blue Bombers played their first home game at IG Field (then known as Investor's Group Field) on June 27, 2013, losing 38–33 to the Montreal Alouettes.


title: Daesung

text: Kang Dae-sung (Hangul: 강대성; born April 26, 1989), better known mononymously as Daesung and his Japanese stage name D-Lite, is a South Korean singer, actor and television personality who made his musical debut in 2006 as a member of the South Korean boy band Big Bang under the record label YG Entertainment. He debuted as a solo artist in South Korea with the number one trot song "Look at Me, Gwisoon" in 2008. Since the inception of the Gaon Digital Chart in 2010, Daesung achieved two Top 10 songs, the digital single "Cotton Candy" and "Wings" from the Big Bang album "Alive" (2012).


title: Daesung

text: In 2013, he released his first solo album in Japan, "D'scover", under the label YGEX and embarked on his first Japanese tour. The following year, he released two more albums, "D'slove" and his first chart-topper, "Delight." D'slove Tour made him the first Korean soloist to gather over 100,000 fans for two Japanese tours in a row. In 2017, he held his first solo Japanese dome tour, performing for over 150,000 people from four shows, and released his second number one album, "D-Day", that made him the second foreign male solo artist to have two consecutive number one albums in Japan after Michael Jackson.


title: Daesung

text: In South Korean television, he was a part of the main cast of the top-rated comedy show "Family Outing" from 2008 to 2010, the musical drama series "What's Up" (2011), and was one of the hosts of the talk show "Night After Night" (2010).


title: Daesung

text: Kang Dae-sung was born in Seoul's Itaewon neighborhood, and since a young age he acquired an interest in becoming a singer. To overcome the objection of his parents who were strongly against the idea, he left home for a week to get his permission. Kang continued to pursue his goal and was recruited by YG Entertainment as a trainee after succeeding in an audition. Later, he started using his first name, Daesung, as his stage name and was paired with five more trainees (G-Dragon, T.O.P, Taeyang, Seungri and Hyunseung) to integrate the formation of the boy group Big Bang. The formation of the group was documented on television, but prior to their official debut, Jang was dropped and Big Bang debuted in 2006 with five members. Big Bang made their first appearance as a group on August 19, 2006, at YG Family's 10th Anniversary concert.


title: Daesung

text: Big Bang's debut was fairly successful, with their first studio album, "Big Bang Vol.1 - Since 2007", getting sales of over 100,000 copies. The album also contains Daesung's first solo song "Try Smiling" (Korean: 웃어본다; Revised Romanization: Useo Bonda) and was preceded by three single albums: "Big Bang", "Big Bang is V.I.P" and "Big Bang 03", released the same year. The group's breakthrough came with the release of their first extended play, "Always" (2007), which included the number one single "Lies" (Korean: 거짓말; rr: "Geojitmal"). The song went on to top major Korean music charts for a record-breaking seven consecutive weeks, and won the group the Song of the Year award at the 9th Mnet Korean Music Festival. Their following EPs followed its predecessor's footsteps: "Hot Issue" yielded "Last Farewell" (Korean: 마지막 인사; rr: "Majimak Insa") while "Stand Up" spawned "Day by Day" (Korean: 하루하루; rr: "Haru Haru"); both singles were chart-toppers.


title: Daesung

text: Shortly after the debut of Big Bang, Daesung was diagnosed with voice chord nodules and developed sociophobia and stage fright. However, he was able to recover with the help of fellow singer and label-mate Gummy, who had been previously diagnosed with the illness.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung released his first trot single "Look at Me, Gwisoon" (Korean: 날봐, 귀순; rr: "Nal Bwa Gwisun") in 2008. He stated that although he was worried about dampening the group's image, he wanted to try something different. The same year, he joined the SBS reality variety show "Family Outing" as a permanent cast member. He also made his musical debut in Korean production of "Cats", playing the role of Rum Tum Tugger. Daesung then became a host for MBC's music program "Show! Music Core", alongside fellow member Seungri.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung released his second trot single titled "Big Hit" (Korean: 대박이야; rr: "Daebakiya") in 2009. He was also scheduled to join bandmate Seungri in the autobiographical musical "Shouting". In August 2009, however, Daesung was injured in a car accident shortly before the musical opened. He was returning to Seoul from a filming location for "Family Outing" when the accident occurred on the Pyeongtaek Express highway, Gyeonggi Province. The van hit the guardrail as it skidded in the pouring rain, according to YG Entertainment. Daesung, who was in the passenger seat, broke his nose, injured his back, and sustained minor bruises on his face and arms. Daesung fully recovered and made his return to Big Bang in October 2009, joining the group to perform at the Dream Concert.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung released a new single, "Cotton Candy" (Korean: 솜사탕), at the end of January 2010. It was composed by Jung Ji-chen, with Daesung penning the lyrics.


title: Daesung

text: In 2010, Daesung began his shoot for MBC's pre-produced musical drama "What's Up", written by Song Ji-na. It started airing on MBN channel on December 3, 2011. "Lunatic", a track sung by Daesung for the drama's OST, was also released online on the same day. Since November 2010, Daesung also became a host for the variety-talk show "Night After Night". That same year, Daesung recorded a duet with "Family Outing" co-star Lee Hyori titled "How Did We Get", featured on the latter's album.


title: Daesung

text: In 2011, Daesung released a solo song, "Baby Don't Cry", which was included in Big Bang's 4th extended play (EP). The song was first performed in "Big Show 2011" concert in February. On May 31, 2011, Daesung was involved in a car accident in which a motorcyclist died. An investigation cleared the singer of charges, but he had to suspend his public activities with Big Bang for a period of time.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung had his first public appearance after the incident on November 6, 2011 when he attended the MTV Europe Music Awards in Belfast, Northern Ireland. From December 2011 to January 2012, he also performed for YG Family concerts which took place in South Korea and Japan. Daesung made a comeback with the rest of the Big Bang members in March 2012 with their new mini-album "Alive", which includes a solo track sung by Daesung titled "Wings", an "uplifting rock ballad" that received positive reviews.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung released his first solo Japanese album, "D'scover" on February 27, 2013. It has a total of 12 tracks with mostly remakes of Japanese originals, and also includes Daesung's solo tracks, "Wings" and "Baby Don't Cry". "D'scover" ranked No. 2 on the Oricon Albums Chart. and also ranked No. 2 on Oricon Weekly Album Chart. It was then announced that Daesung would hold a total of four solo concerts at Kobe and Tokyo to promote the album. However, due to popular demand, an additional 21 concerts over 17 cities were added, bringing the total to 25 concerts over 18 cities. The "D'scover Tour" kicked off on March 23 at Kobe's World Memorial Hall and ended on June 18 at Kanagawa's Yokohama Arena, with an attendance of 100,000 fans.


title: Daesung

text: In February 2014, YGEX announced that Daesung would hold a second tour in Japan. The "D'slove 2014 in Japan" tour kick-started on June 11, 2014 at the Yokohama Arena. On the same day, he released a mini digital album "Rainy Rainy" containing 4 songs to celebrate the start of his tour. The album topped Japan's iTunes charts.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung released his second Japanese album, "D'slove" on July 16. The album ranked No. 1 on Oricon's Daily Album Chart on the day of release with a total of 30,090 copies sold. The track "I Love You", featuring Taro Hakase, was released as a physical single and peaked at number five in Oricon's Weekly Album Chart. To support his album, Daesung continued with his second Japanese tour, visiting 9 cities and drew a total of 170,000 fans from 17 shows. Daesung become the first K-pop artist to bring in more than 100,000 fans to his concert tour for two consecutive years.


title: Daesung

text: On October 19, Daesung released his third Japanese EP, "Delight" (Japanese:『でぃらいと』). The album included 9 versions of 4 songs; containing remakes of his Korean trot singles and cover songs of famous Japanese songs from the 70s. He received good comments from the 2 original singers. "Delight" topped the Oricon Daily Albums Chart on the day of its release with 65,048 copies sold. The album eventually ranked No. 64 on the Oricon Yearly Album Chart with 79,000 copies sold, the highest ranking achieved by the singer so far.


title: Daesung

text: To thank fans for their support, YGEX announced that Daesung would hold a solo encore concert tour in Japan. The concerts were held at Yoyogi National Stadium on January 31 and February 1, 2015 and then at Osaka-jō Hall on February 10 and 11. On the 2nd show at Yoyogi, Linda Yamamoto, who is the original singer of the song "Donimo Tomaranai", made a surprise appearance.


title: Daesung

text: On December 2, 2016, YGEX announced that Daesung would be holding his first solo dome tour in Japan, titled the "D-lite Japan Dome Tour 2017". The tour started at the Seibu Prince Dome on April 15 and 16, and was completed at the Kyocera Dome on April 22 and 23. The tour attracted 150,000 fans to the two cities. Later, YGEX announced that Daesung will embark on a nationwide hall tour named DNA Show Vol.1, with 28 shows to start on August. As more than 350,000 people applied to buy tickets to his concerts, which was six times bigger than the expected, eleven additional shows were announced, totaling 39 concerts in 18 cities, making it his biggest tour in the country. A total of 88,000 fans are expected to attended.


title: Daesung

text: His second Japanese EP, named "D-Day", was released simultaneously in South Korea and Japan on April 12, 2017. The album contained seven songs written and composed by top Japanese artists, including Ayaka, Hata Motohiro, Kameda Seiji, and Daesung himself. "D-Day" peaked at number one in the Oricon Albums Chart and on the "Billboard" Japan Albums chart. Daesung was featured on an official cover album of the Japanese band Dreams Come True, covering the song which was originally released in 1990. He also released the digital EP "Delight 2" on October 12, 2017, containing three covers and one original song. Upon release, the EP topped several Japanese online music services. Due to its popularity it was announced that "Delight 2" would be released in a physical format on December 20 with seven additional tracks. Upon its physical release, the EP debuted at number three on Oricon, with 45,267 copies sold.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung began his two-year mandatory military service on March 13, 2018 by entering the 27th Infantry Division's boot camp in Hwacheon, Gangwon Province as an active duty soldier. He was discharged on November 10, 2019 along with fellow Big Bang member, Taeyang.


title: Daesung

text: On July 25, 2019, was reported that a building in Gangnam, that Daesung purchased in 2017 before his military enlistment, has been operating an illegal entertainment business. The next day, Daesung released an apology statement and claimed that he was not aware of it because he started his military service right after purchasing the building and that would take legal action against tenants who committed illegal acts, such as the landlord of the building. As of January, all possible charges against him were dropped due to a lack of evidence and legitimate knowledge in the case.


title: Daesung

text: Daesung opened an anonymous YouTube channel in 2020, but was discovered in March 2021. The YouTube channel is called "D'splay".


title: Daesung

text: Daesung enrolled at Kyung Hee University in 2008 to study post-modern music. He is a devout Christian, and he has said that his faith was a big influence in re-evaluating his life after a car accident in 2011.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Club Deportivo Tenerife, S.A.D. is a Spanish football club based in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tenerife, in the Canary Islands. Founded in 1912, the club plays in the Segunda División, holding home matches at the Estadio Heliodoro Rodríguez López, with a 22,824-seat capacity. The traditional home colours are white shirts and blue shorts.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Tenerife has a history playing in the top flight of La Liga. They have been promoted to the top tier on four occasions, including a 10-year stint from 1989 to 1999. The club managed to finish as high as fifth in the league table on two occasions during that period, which qualified them for the first round of the UEFA Cup. They most recently played in La Liga in the 2009–10 season.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Being based in the Canary archipelago off the Atlantic coast of Africa, while playing its away games on the Spanish mainland, both the club and rival Las Palmas from Gran Canaria are two of the most geographically isolated European professional clubs. Tenerife and Las Palmas contest the Canary Islands derby.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Club Deportivo Tenerife was founded in 1912 as Sporting Club Tenerife, which had come about as a merger between two or more previous football clubs on the island. The club changed its name to Club Deportivo Tenerife in 1922. La Liga started in 1928, but the team played in regional divisions until it was promoted to the Segunda División in 1953. It first reached the top flight in 1961, being immediately relegated back and, in the following 27 years, played almost exclusively in the second level, also spending three years in Tercera División and six – five in a row – in Segunda División B, the newly created division three (in 1978).


title: CD Tenerife

text: In 1985, when Tenerife were relegated to the third division for a second time, Javier Pérez became president of the club. The side was promoted this year to the second level and, two years later, returned to the first, after winning the promotion playoff against Real Betis (4–1 on aggregate).


title: CD Tenerife

text: In 1991, Jorge Valdano took charge of the club as manager, and the Argentine would help rob former side Real Madrid of two consecutive league titles in the last round, to the benefit of Barcelona. In the first season, the Canary Islands outfit barely avoided relegation, but would finish in a best-ever fifth position in the following year, eventually reaching the round of 16 in the subsequent UEFA Cup, losing to Juventus 2–4 on aggregate.


title: CD Tenerife

text: German Jupp Heynckes became head coach of Tenerife in 1995, leading the club to another fifth-placed finish and the quarter-finals of the Copa del Rey. In the 1996–97 UEFA Cup, the islanders fared better, reaching the last-four after defeating Maccabi Tel Aviv, Lazio, Feyenoord and Brøndby (the winner coming late in extra time from an Antonio Mata free-kick), only bowing out to eventual winners Schalke 04.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Tenerife then went on a downward spiral which eventually led to relegation to the "silver category" in 1999, prompting various managerial changes within the club. In 2001, the club was again promoted, led by Rafael Benítez, who promptly left to take up the manager's job at Valencia; the promotion was achieved in the last match of the campaign thanks to a goal from Hugo Morales.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Pepe Mel became the new trainer but the first division season never took off, as Tenerife were beaten heavily at home by Barcelona 0–6, which cost the manager his job. Javier Clemente, formerly with the Spain national team, took the reins, but could not help prevent the eventual immediate relegation.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Tenerife suffered from serious economic problems in the following years, owing more than €40 million. President Pérez was replaced with Víctor Perez de Ascanio, who resigned due to bad management, leaving his position to Miguel Concepción, who negotiated with local politicians and businessmen, also creating a construction company as a subsidiary of the side.


title: CD Tenerife

text: On 13 June 2009, Tenerife secured a top flight return after a seven-year absence after a 1–0 win at Girona. In the following season, even though the team held on until the last round, another relegation befell, after the 0–1 loss at third-placed Valencia.


title: CD Tenerife

text: 2010–11 brought with it three coaching changes, as Tenerife eventually suffered another relegation, returning to the third division after 24 years. On 2 June 2013, the club, led by Álvaro Cervera, returned to the second level after winning the promotion play-off against Hospitalet (3–2 on aggregate).


title: CD Tenerife

text: Fans of Tenerife are called "Chicharreros" because in early days, the inhabitants of a small fishing village called Santa Cruz (later the capital of Tenerife) consumed "chicharros" (Atlantic horse mackerel) as a main part of their diet.


title: CD Tenerife

text: Other inhabitants of Tenerife and the Canary Islands used the moniker as a pejorative name, but finally the inhabitants of Santa Cruz accepted it affectionately.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Dissection was a Swedish extreme metal band from Strömstad, formed in 1989 by guitarist, vocalist and main songwriter Jon Nödtveidt and bassist Peter Palmdahl. Despite a number of lineup changes, Dissection released "The Somberlain" in 1993 and "Storm of the Light's Bane" in 1995, before splitting up in 1997 due to Nödtveidt's imprisonment for complicity in the murder of Josef Meddour.


title: Dissection (band)

text: After his release, Nödtveidt reformed the band in 2004 with new members who he felt could "stand behind and live up to the demands of Dissection's Satanic concept." They released their third and final full-length album "Reinkaos" in April 2006, before disbanding that June. Nödtveidt said he had "reached the limitations of music as a tool for expressing what I want to express, for myself and the handful of others that I care about." Two months later, Nödtveidt committed suicide with a gun inside a circle of lit candles in his apartment in Hässelby.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Dissection released a number of live albums and EPs before its final dissolution, and played a central role in the development of Sweden's black metal and death metal scenes, particularly through the influence of the first two albums; it has sometimes been described as part of the Gothenburg scene.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In 1988, a thrash metal band by the name of Siren’s Yell was formed in the Swedish town of Strömstad. Its members were Jon Nödtveidt, Ole Öhman, Peter Palmdahl, and Mattias "Mäbe" Johansson. The group recorded a single demo before breaking up in 1989. Nödtveidt joined the band Rabbit’s Carrot, where Öhman played drums. Nödtveidt and Öhman "were never very comfortable in Rabbit's Carrot, which also explains their short time in that band, as they wanted the music and lyrics to evolve on the extreme dark side. Jon would write songs and arrange them together with Ole in the rehearsal place, but the other members, didn't feel that the material would fit the band." In autumn 1989, Jon Nödtveidt formed Dissection together with Palmdahl on bass. In the spring of 1990, they recruited drummer Öhman. In April 1990, the first official rehearsal tape "Severed into Shreds" was recorded and sent to underground fanzines worldwide "to mark the birth of Dissection, a band that was about to make heavy impact on the scene". The band recruited former Siren’s Yell bassist Mattias "Mäbe" Johansson, who was now playing with the local death/thrash metal band Nosferatu, as a live session member playing rhythm guitar. Dissection’s first concert was held in October 1990 with death metal act Entombed.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In December 1990, the band recorded and released the demo "The Grief Prophecy". It contained three songs and featured illustrations by the artist known as Necrolord, who later created most Dissection album artworks.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In January 1991, second guitarist John Zwetsloot joined the band, which now had a complete line-up "and could further develop their characteristic dual-harmony guitar-sound that was to become an important part of the band's sound". The first concert with Zwetsloot was held in February 1991 at a local death metal event in the band’s hometown Strömstad. As the demo was spreading in the underground scene, the French record label Corpsegrinder Records offered Dissection a deal to record an EP.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In April 1991, Dead, the notorious Norwegian black metal group Mayhem’s vocalist, committed suicide. A few days later, Dissection played the Mayhem song "Freezing Moon" in honor of Dead at a show in Falkenberg, Sweden, and made an unofficial special edition of "The Grief Prophecy" demo with a cover drawn by Dead. In September 1991 the band record three new tracks for the 7" EP "Into Infinite Obscurity", released in December 1991 by Corpsegrinder Records in a limited edition of 1000 copies. In December 1991 Nödtveidt and Öhman also played live in Askim, Norway, at a black metal concert arranged by the Norwegian Black Circle Nödtveidt had joined, and Euronymous, who led the Circle and the band Mayhem. Nödtveidt, Öhman and Euronymous performed "Freezing Moon" live.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In 1992 Dissection recorded a four-track promo tape and signed a one-album deal with No Fashion Records. In March 1993, the band recorded the full-length album "The Somberlain", recorded and mixed at Hellspawn/Unisound studios with Dan Swanö. During that time, the band’s members, who were temporarily living in different towns, all moved to Gothenburg after the summer of 1993, where they shared a steady rehearsal place with At the Gates. The album was released in December 1993 and dedicated to Euronymous, who had been murdered earlier the same year.


title: Dissection (band)

text: As the band members "would find themselves rehearsing more and more without John [Zwetsloot] even showing up" and "even had to cancel gigs because he didn't show up for the preparing rehearsals", they "felt they had their hands tied behind their backs with John still in the band and that they could do nothing but kick him out". The last concert with Zwetsloot was performed in Oslo, Norway, on 14 April 1994. The day Zwetsloot was fired, Dissection called Johan Norman from Satanized (a short-lived project Nödtveidt was involved with), who showed up one day later and "proved to be a worthy replacement for John, having the motivation that John was lacking". Dissection continued playing live, wrote songs for a second album, and entered the studio twice to record demos of new songs and the contribution "Anti-Christ" for the Slayer tribute compilation album "Slatanic Slaughter" on Black Sun Records. In November 1994, Dissection signed a deal with Nuclear Blast and focussed on the second album. In March 1995, the band returned to the Hellspawn/Unisound studios to record the second full-length album "Storm of the Light's Bane", followed by a three date tour through the UK with Cradle of Filth and a few concerts in Sweden.


title: Dissection (band)

text: During the summer of 1995 Nödtveidt and Norman joined the newly formed Satanic organization Misanthropic Luciferian Order (MLO, now known as Temple of the Black Light). In September 1995 drummer Ole Öhman left Dissection and was replaced by Tobias Kellgren (ex-Satanized). He was introduced to the Swedish fans at a show with Morbid Angel at Kåren in Gothenburg, 10 October 1995.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In November 1995, "Storm of the Light’s Bane" was released by Nuclear Blast, followed by a two-week European tour through Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Switzerland and Sweden in December 1995, and the World Tour of the Light’s Bane covering Europe and America, ending in 1997.


title: Dissection (band)

text: By the beginning of January 1996, Dissection was playing shows in Sweden before leaving for a UK tour with At the Gates in February, followed by a vast US tour with At the Gates and Morbid Angel in March. Back in Scandinavia, Dissection played at the Rockefeller in Oslo together with Darkthrone and Satyricon, marking the start of a co-headlining European tour. In April, in connection with the co-headlining European tour, Dissection released the "Where Dead Angels Lie" MCD, which contained the title track’s studio and demo version as well as other demo recordings and two cover songs.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In 1997, Dissection played the Gods of Darkness tour together with Cradle of Filth, In Flames and Dimmu Borgir. Dissection’s and Dimmu Borgir’s show at the Live Music Hall in Cologne, Germany, on 31 March 1997, was recorded and released by Nuclear Blast on the live split video cassette "Live & Plugged Vol. II". Dissection’s World Tour of the Light's Bane ended with an appearance at the Wacken Open Air festival, which was recorded and released on the "Live Legacy" album, and the Nuclear Blast festivals.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Although "[t]he first era of Dissection was now at its peak" and "the situation, at least on the surface, seemed to be stable and prosperous with the band's success peaking, personal differences prevailed". This resulted in Palmdahl leaving the band and being replaced by Jon Nödtveidt's brother Emil Nödtveidt for the summer festivals. After the summer Norman "suddenly 'disappeared' for several months without notice, with Tobias covering up for him claiming to know nothing (however remaining in close contact with Johan throughout this period). The background of this 'disappearance' being that Johan had turned his back on and betrayed the MLO, fearing their retribution." As Nödtveidt was a member of MLO, Norman had also left Dissection behind, Nödtveidt being the only member left in the band. He recruited a new line-up and booked the Studio Fredman for the supposed recording of their third studio album.


title: Dissection (band)

text: On 18 December 1997, Nödtveidt and fellow MLO member Vlad (Victor Draconi/Nemesis Khoshnood-Sharis) were arrested for the murder of a 37-year-old homosexual man, Josef ben Meddour, on 22 July 1997. Nödtveidt received a 10-year sentence, and Necropolis Records released the compilation album "The Past Is Alive (The Early Mischief)". Vlad/Draconi is currently owner of the Dissection trademark.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Upon his release in 2004, Nödtveidt restarted the band with a completely new line-up, including only members able to "stand behind and live up to the demands of Dissection's Satanic concept". Dissection recorded a two-track EP entitled "Maha Kali" and toured heavily with the "Rebirth of Dissection" tour.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In 2006, Dissection released their third full-length album "Reinkaos" through their own label, in association with The End Records. The band followed the teachings of the MLO, and the lyrics in the "Reinkaos" album contain magical formulae from the "Liber Azerate", and are based on the organisation's teachings.


title: Dissection (band)

text: In May 2006, shortly after the release of "Reinkaos", the band announced plans to split following a short tour. The tour was scheduled to include two appearances in the United States, but these were eventually canceled after Nödtveidt was denied an entry visa to the country, due to his previous incarceration. The band played its final European concert in Stockholm on Midsummer, 24 June 2006. Some former members of Dissection have gone on to form other bands, also influenced by their beliefs based on the MLO.


title: Dissection (band)

text: On 13 August 2006, frontman Jon Nödtveidt committed suicide. According to the Swedish "Expressen", the police said that Nödtveidt was found with a Satanic Bible in front of him, which Blabbermouth.net falsely reported to be a copy of "The Satanic Bible". It was later confirmed by band member Set Teitan to be a Satanic grimoire, which is believed to be a copy of the "Liber Azerate" written by Frater Nemidial, leader of the MLO. With Nödtveidt's death, any possibility to realize a reunion was lost, as he had remained the only original member since Dissection's foundation; in fact, second founding member Peter Palmdahl had left the band in 1997, when Nödtveidt was arrested.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Deathmetal.org notes how the band mixed the extreme style of death metal and black metal with "the 1970s style of melodic rock that Iron Maiden popularized and developed", and according to Daniel Ekeroth the band "developed their own melancholic and atmospheric death metal style", which "combine[d] strong melodies with musical brutality".


title: Dissection (band)

text: Dissection considered the "characteristic dual-harmony guitar-sound" to be "an important part of the band's sound" and therefore needed a second guitarist. Due to the band's turn towards melodic death metal, Tomas "Tompa" Lindberg sees Dissection as a part of the Gothenburg scene.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Dissection were one of the first bands to cross black metal with melodic death metal; due to this, "Metal Injection" has described them as being one of the biggest bands in the melodic black-death genre.


title: Dissection (band)

text: The lead vocalist of Dissection, Jon Nödtveidt, was a member of the Misanthropic Luciferian Order founded in 1995. Nödtveidt was introduced to the organisation by close friends at a quite early stage.


title: Dissection (band)

text: When the police investigated the MLO after the murder of Josef ben Meddour, they interrogated its former members, who described the organisation and narrated the occult ceremonies they had attended. Rituals included meditation, invocations of demons and animal sacrifices – cats, which were bought through classified ads. During the weeks that preceded the murder of Josef ben Meddour, Vlad had been more and more extremist in his speech, and the idea of performing human sacrifices, followed by a mass suicide, was discussed at length. During a meeting at Nödtveidt's place, a list of possible victims was made. It included a former follower who had defected, band members from Dissection, and even Nödtveidt's girlfriend.


title: Dissection (band)

text: Nödtveidt said of the MLO in an interview: "MLO is a Chaos-Gnostic order, which seek the true light of Lucifer through the study, development and practice of all dark, gnostic and Satanic magical systems. Our goal is to create a synthesis between the dark traditions of all aeons, this way creating the occult keys that shall open the gates to the forthcoming endless dark aeon. My status within the order is the one of a full member of the second grade and a Priest of Satan. To become a candidate one must first of all already be an Anti-cosmic Satanist and actively practicing black magician. He/She must wholeheartedly sympathize and share the misanthropic and anti-cosmic values of the order, and then be ready to dedicate his/her entire existence to following his/her true will in accordance to the dark gods. Becoming an initiate is a long and hard process and can take several years."


title: Dissection (band)

text: Some members of Dissection were very involved in the Misanthropic Luciferian Order. Former bassist, Haakon Forwald of Disiplin, pulled out of Dissection, saying it was partly in order to concentrate on his esoteric studies.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The crown-of-thorns starfish (frequently abbreviated to COTS), Acanthaster planci, is a large starfish that preys upon hard, or stony, coral polyps (Scleractinia). The crown-of-thorns starfish receives its name from venomous thorn-like spines that cover its upper surface, resembling the biblical crown of thorns. It is one of the largest starfish in the world.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: "A. planci" has a very wide Indo-Pacific distribution. It is perhaps most common around Australia, but can occur at tropical and subtropical latitudes from the Red Sea and the East African coast across the Indian Ocean, and across the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of Central America. It occurs where coral reefs or hard coral communities occur in the region.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The body form of the crown-of-thorns starfish is fundamentally the same as that of a typical starfish, with a central disk and radiating arms. Its special traits, however, include being disc-shaped, multiple-armed, flexible, prehensile, and heavily spined, and having a large ratio of stomach surface to body mass. Its prehensile ability arises from the two rows of numerous tube feet that extend to the tip of each arm. In being multiple-armed, it has lost the five-fold symmetry (pentamerism) typical of starfish, although it begins its lifecycle with this symmetry. The animal has true image-forming vision.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Adult crown-of-thorns starfish normally range in size from . They have up to 21 arms. Although the body of the crown of thorns has a stiff appearance, it is able to bend and twist to fit around the contours of the corals on which it feeds. The underside of each arm has a series of closely fitting plates, which form a groove and extend in rows to the mouth. Depending on diet or geographic region, individuals can be purple, purple-blue, reddish grey or brown with red spine tips, or green with yellow spine tips.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The long, sharp spines on the sides of the starfish's arms and upper (aboral) surface resemble thorns and create a crown-like shape, giving the creature its name. The spines can range from 4 to 5 cm long and are stiff, very sharp, and readily pierce through soft surfaces. Despite the battery of sharp spines on the aboral surface and blunt spines on the oral surface, the crown-of-thorns starfish's general body surface is membranous and soft. When the starfish is removed from the water, the body surface ruptures and the body fluid leaks out, so the body collapses and flattens. The spines bend over and flatten, as well. They recover their shape when reimmersed, if they are still alive.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The family Acanthasteridae is monogeneric; its position within the Asteroides is unsettled. It is generally recognized as a distinctly isolated taxon. Recently, paleontologist Daniel Blake concluded from comparative morphology studies of "A. planci" that it has strong similarities with various members of the Oreasteridae. He transferred the Acanthasteridae from the Spinulosida to the Valvatida and assigned it a position near to the Oreasteridae, from which it appears to be derived. He attributed "Acanthaster" morphology as possibly evolving in association with its locomotion over irregular coral surfaces in higher energy environments. A complication exists, however, in that "Acanthaster" is not a monospecific genus and any consideration of the genus must also take into account another species, "Acanthaster brevispinus", which lives in a completely different environment. "A. brevispinus" lives on soft substrates, perhaps buried in the substrate at times like other soft substrate-inhabiting starfish, at moderate depths, where presumably the surface is regular and little wave action occurs.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: "A. planci" has a long history in the scientific literature with great confusion in the generic and specific names from the outset, with a long list of complex synonyms. Georg Eberhard Rhumphius first described it in 1705, naming it "Stella marina quindecium radiotorum". Later, Carl Linnaeus described it as "Asterias planci" based on an illustration by Plancus and Gualtieri (1743), when he introduced his system of binomial nomenclature. No type specimens are known; the specimen described by Plancus and Gualtieri (1743) is no longer extant.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Subsequent generic names used for the crown-of-thorns starfish included "Stellonia", "Echinaster", and "Echinites", before settling on "Acanthaster" (Gervais 1841). Specific names included "echintes", "solaris", "mauritensis", "ellisii", and "ellisii pseudoplanci" (with subspecies). Most of these names arose from confusion in the historical literature, but "Acanthaster ellisii" came to be used for the distinctive starfish in the eastern Pacific Gulf of California.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The eastern Pacific "Acanthaster" is very distinctive (see image to the right) with its rather 'plump' body, large disk to total diameter ratio, and short, blunt spines.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Nishida and Lucas examined genetic variation at 14 allozyme loci of 10 population samples of "A. planci" using starch-gel electrophoresis. The samples were from localities across the Pacific: Ryukyu archipelago (four locations), Micronesia (two locations), and samples from one location each of the Great Barrier Reef, Fiji, Hawaii, and the Gulf of California. A sample of 10 specimens of "A. brevispinus" from the Great Barrier Reef region was included for comparison. Considerable genetic differentiation was seen between the "A. brevispinus" and "A. planci" populations (D= 0.20 +/− 0.02)(D is genetic distance). The genetic differences between geographic populations of "A. planci" were, however, small (D = 0.03 +/− 0.00; Fsr = 0.07 + 0.02) (Fsr is standardized genetic variance for each polymorphic locus) despite the great distances separating them. A positive correlation was observed between degree of genetic differentiation and geographic distance, suggesting the genetic homogeneity among "A. planci" populations is due to gene flow by planktonic larval dispersion. The distance effect on genetic differentiation most probably reflects decreasing levels of successful larval dispersal over long distances. In view of the level of macrogeographic homogeneity, significant allele frequency differences were observed between adjacent populations separated by about 10 km. The Hawaiian population was most differentiated from other populations. Treating the morphologically distinctive, eastern Pacific "Acanthaster" as a separate species, "A. ellisii", is not supported by these data. The lack of unique alleles in the central (Hawaii) and eastern Pacific (Gulf of California) populations suggests they were derived from those in the western Pacific.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Further details of the genetic relationship between "A. planci" and "A. brevispinus" are presented in the entry for the latter species. These are clearly sibling species, and "A. planci", the specialized, coral-feeding species, is suggested to have arisen from "A. brevispinus", the less-specialized, soft-bottom inhabitant.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: In a very comprehensive geographic study, Benzie examined allozyme loci variation in 20 populations of " A. planci", throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The most striking result was a very marked discontinuity between the Indian and Pacific Ocean populations. Those, however, off northern Western Australia had a strong Pacific affinity. With the exception of the very strong connection of southern Japanese populations to the Great Barrier Reef populations, the patterns of variation within regions were consistent with isolation by distance. Again, the pattern of decreasing levels of successful larval dispersal over long distances is apparent. Benzie suggests that the divergence between Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean populations began at least 1.6 million years ago and is likely to reflect responses to changes in climate and sea level.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: A more recent comprehensive geographic study of "A. planci" by Vogler "et al.", using DNA analyses (one mitochondrial gene), suggests it is actually a species complex consisting of four species or clades. The four cryptic species/clades are defined geographically: Northern Indian Ocean, southern Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Pacific Ocean. These molecular data suggest the species/clades diverged 1.95 and 3.65 million years ago. (The divergence of "A. planci" and "A. brevispinus" is not included in this time scale.) The authors suggest the differences between the four putative species in behavior, diet, or habitat may be important for the design of appropriate reef-conservation strategies.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Problems exist, though, with this proposal of cryptic speciation (cryptic species). The basis of these data from one mitochondrial gene (mtDNA) data is, however, only one source of information about the status of taxa and the use of one mtDNA gene as a sole criterion for species identification is disputed. The allozyme data should also be taken into account. Three localities that were sampled by Vogler "et al." are of particular interest; Palau Sebibu, UEA, and Oman were found to have two clades/sibling species in sympatry. These are important to investigate the nature of the co-existence and barriers to introgression of genetic material. "A. planci" as a taxon is a generalist, being amongst the most ubiquitous of large coral predators on coral reefs, feeding on virtually all hard coral species, reproducing during summer without a pattern of spawning, and often participating in mass multiple-species spawnings, and releasing vast amounts of gametes that trigger spawning in other individuals. Conceiving of two species/clades of "A. planci" in sympatry without habitat competition and introgression of genetic material, especially the latter, is very difficult.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The genome of "A. planci" is available on Echinobase, a knowledge base for the echinoderm research community.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Starfish are characterized by having saponins known as asterosaponins in their tissues. They contain a mix of these saponins, and at least 15 chemical studies have been conducted seeking to characterize these saponins. They have detergent-like properties, and keeping starfish in limited water volumes with aeration results in large amounts of foam at the surface.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: "A. planci" has no mechanism for injecting the toxin, but as the spines perforate tissue of a predator or unwary person, tissue containing the saponins is lost into the wound. In humans, this immediately causes a sharp, stinging pain that can last for several hours, persistent bleeding due to the haemolytic effect of saponins, and nausea and tissue swelling that may persist for a week or more. The spines, which are brittle, may also break off and become embedded in the tissue, where they must be surgically removed.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Saponins seem to occur throughout the lifecycle of the crown-of-thorns starfish. The saponins in the eggs are similar to those in the adult tissues, and presumably these carry over to the larvae. The mouthing behaviour of predators of juvenile starfish with rejection suggests the juveniles contain saponins.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The adult crown-of-thorns is a corallivorous predator that usually preys on reef coral polyps. It climbs onto a section of living coral colony using the large number of tube feet, which lie in distinct ambulacral grooves on the oral surface. It fits closely to the surface of the coral, even the complex surfaces of branching corals. It then extrudes its stomach out through its mouth over the surface to virtually its own diameter. The stomach surface secretes digestive enzymes that allow the starfish to absorb nutrients from the liquefied coral tissue. This leaves a white scar of coral skeleton that is rapidly infested with filamentous algae. An individual starfish can consume up to of living coral reef per year. In a study of feeding rates on two coral reefs in the central Great Barrier Reef region, large starfish (40 cm and greater diameter) killed about 61 cm/day in winter and 357–478 cm/day in summer. Smaller starfish, 20–39 cm, killed 155 and 234 cm/day in the equivalent seasons. The area killed by the large starfish is equivalent to about from these observations. Differences in feeding and locomotion rates between summer and winter reflect the fact that the crown-of-thorns, like all marine invertebrates, is a poikilotherm whose body temperature and metabolic rate are directly affected by the temperature of the surrounding water. In tropical coral reefs, crown-of-thorns specimens reach mean locomotion rates of 35 cm/min, which explains how outbreaks can damage large reef areas in relatively short periods.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The starfish show preferences between the hard corals on which they feed. They tend to feed on branching corals and table-like corals, such as "Acropora" species, rather than on more rounded corals with less exposed surface area, such as "Porites" species. Avoidance of "Porites" and some other corals may also be due to resident bivalve mollusks and polychaete worms in the surface of the coral, which discourage the starfish. Similarly, some symbionts, such as small crabs, living within the complex structures of branching corals, may ward off the starfish as it seeks to spread its stomach over the coral surface.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: In reef areas of low densities of hard coral, reflecting the nature of the reef community or due to feeding by high density crown-of-thorns, the starfish may be found feeding on soft corals (Alcyonacea).


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The starfish are cryptic in behavior during their first two years, emerging at night to feed. They usually remain so as adults when solitary. The only evidence of a hidden individual may be white feeding scars on adjacent coral. However, their behavior changes under two circumstances:


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The elongated, sharp spines covering nearly the entire upper surface of the crown-of-thorns serve as a mechanical defense against large predators. It also has a chemical defense. Saponins presumably serve as an irritant when the spines pierce a predator, in the same way as they do when they pierce the skin of humans. Saponins have an unpleasant taste. A study to test the predation rate on juvenile "Acanthaster" spp. by appropriate fish species found that the starfish were often mouthed, tasted, and rejected. These defenses tend to make it an unattractive target for coral community predators. In spite of this, however, "Acanthaster" populations are typically composed of a proportion of individuals with regenerating arms.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: About 11 species have been reported to prey occasionally on uninjured and healthy adults of "A. planci". All of these are generalist feeders, but none of these seems to specifically prefer the starfish as a food source. This number, however, is probably lower, as some of these presumed predators have not been witnessed reliably in the field. Some of those witnessed are:


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Gonads increase in size as the animals become sexually mature, and at maturity, fill the arms and extend into the disk region. The ripe ovaries and testes are readily distinguishable, with the former being more yellow and having larger lobes. In section, they are very different, with the ovaries densely filled with nutrient-packed ova (see ovum and photograph) and the testes densely filled with sperm, which consist of little more than a nucleus and flagellum. Fecundity in female crown-of-thorns starfish is related to size, with large starfish committing proportionally more energy into ova production such that:


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: In coral reefs in the Philippines, female specimens were found with a gonadosomatic index (ratio of gonad mass to body mass) as high as 22%, which underlines the high fecundity of this starfish. Babcock et al. (1993) monitored changes in fecundity and fertility (fertilisation rate) over the spawning season of the crown-of-thorns starfish on Davies Reef, central Great Barrier Reef, from 1990 to 1992. The starfish were observed to spawn (photograph) from December to January (early to midsummer) in this region with most observations being in January. However, both gonadosomatic index and fertility peaked early and declined to low levels by late January, indicating that most successful reproductive events took place early in the spawning season. In Northern Hemisphere coral reefs, however, crown-of-thorns populations reproduce in April and May, and were also observed spawning in the Gulf of Thailand in September. High rates of egg fertilisation may be achieved through the behaviour of proximate and synchronised spawning (see above in Behaviour).


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Embryonic development begins about 1.5 hours after fertilisation, with the early cell divisions (cleavage) (photograph). By 8–9 hours, it has reached the 64-cell stage.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Some molecular and histological evidence suggests the occurrence of hermaphroditism in "Acanthaster" cf. "solaris".


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: By day 1, the embryo has hatched as a ciliated gastrula stage (photograph). By day 2, the gut is complete and the larva is now known as a bipinnaria. It has ciliated bands along the body and uses these to swim and filter feed on microscopic particles, particularly unicellular green flagellates (phytoplankton). The scanning electron micrograph (SEM) clearly shows the complex ciliated bands of the bipinnarial larva. By day 5, it is an early brachiolarial larva. The arms of the bipinnaria have further elongated, two stump-like projections are in the anterior (not evident in the photograph), and structures are developing within the posterior of the larva. In the late brachiolarial larva (day 11), the larval arms are elongated and three distinctive arms occur at the anterior with small structures on their inner surfaces. To this stage ,the larva has been virtually transparent, but the posterior section is now opaque with the initial development of a starfish. The late brachiolaria is 1.0-1.5 mm. It tends to sink to the bottom and test the substrate with its brachiolar arms, including flexing the anterior body to orient the brachiolar arms against the substrate.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: This description and assessment of optimum rate of development is based on early studies in the laboratory under attempted optimum conditions. However, not unexpectedly, there are large differences in growth rate and survival under various environmental conditions (see Causes of population outbreaks).


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The late brachiolaria search substrates with their arms, and when offered a choice of substrates, tend to settle on coralline algae, on which they subsequently feed. In the classic pattern for echinoderms, the bilaterally symmetrical larva is replaced by a pentamerously symmetrical stage at metamorphosis, with the latter's body axis bearing no relationship to that of the larva. Thus, the newly metamorphosed starfish are five-armed and are 0.4–1.0 mm in diameter. (Note the size of the tube feet relative to the size of the animal.) They feed on the thin coating layers of hard, encrusting algae (coralline algae) on the undersides of dead coral rubble and other concealed surfaces. They extend their stomach over the surface of the encrusting algae and digest the tissue, as in the feeding by larger crown-of-thorns starfish on hard corals. The living tissue of the encrusting algae is approximately pink to dark red, and feeding by these early juveniles results in white scars on the surface of the algae. During the next months, the juveniles grow and add arms and associated madreporites in the pattern described by Yamaguchi until the adult numbers are attained 5–7 months after metamorphosis. Two hard corals with small polyps, "Pocillopora damicornis" and "Acropora acunimata", were included in the aquaria with the encrusting algae, and at about the time the juvenile starfish achieved their full number of arms, they began feeding on the corals.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Juveniles of "A. planci" that had reached the stage of feeding on coral were then reared for some years in the same large closed-circuit seawater system that was used for the early juveniles. They were moved to larger tanks and kept supplied with coral so that food was not a limiting factor on growth rate. The growth curves of size versus age were sigmoidal, as seen in majority marine invertebrates. An initial period of relatively slow growth occurred while the starfish were feeding on coralline algae. This was followed by a phase of rapid growth, which led to sexual maturity at the end of the second year. The starfish were in the vicinity of 200 mm in diameter at this stage. They continued to grow rapidly and were around 300 and tended to decline after 4 years. Gonad development was greater in the third and subsequent years than at 2 years, and a seasonal pattern of gametogenesis and spawning became apparent, with water temperature being the only notable cue in the indoor aquarium. Most specimens of "A. planci" died from "senility" during the period 5.0–7.5 years, i.e. they fed poorly and shrank.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: The data above are derived from laboratory studies of "A. planci", which are much more readily obtained than equivalent data from the field. The laboratory observations, however, are in accord with the limited field observations of lifecycle.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: As in laboratory studies where "A. planci" larvae were found to select coralline algae for settlement, early juveniles (<20 mm in diameter) were found on subtidal coralline algae ("Porolithon onkodes") on the windward reef front of Suva Reef (Fiji). The juveniles were found in a variety of habitats where they were highly concealed - under coral blocks and rubble in the boulder zone of the exposed reef front, on dead bases of "Acropora" species in more sheltered areas, in narrow spaces within the reef crest, and on the fore-reef slope to depths of 8 m.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Growth rates on Suva Reef were found to be 2.6, 16.7 and 5.3 mm/month increase in diameter before coral feeding, in early coral feeding, and in adult phases, respectively. This is in accord with the sigmoidal pattern of size versus age observed in laboratory studies, i.e. slow initial growth, a phase of very rapid growth beginning at coral feeding and tapering off of growth after the starfish reaches sexual maturity. In reefs in the Philippines, female and male specimens matured at 13 and 16 cm, respectively.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Stump identified bands in the upper surface spines of "A. planci", and attributed these to annual growth bands. He did not report growth rates based on these age determinations, and mark and recapture data, but he reported that the growth bands revealed 12+ year-old starfish: much older than those that became 'senile' and died in the laboratory.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: In a small number of field studies, mortality rates of juvenile A. planci have to found to be very high, e.g. 6.5% per day for month-old and 0.45% per day for 7-month-old. Most of the mortality comes from predators, such as small crabs, that occur in and on the substrate with the juveniles. It is possible, however, that these rates may not reflect mortality over the range of habitats occupied by small juveniles.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: "A. planci" is one of the most efficient predators on scleractinian corals (stony corals or hard corals). Most coral-feeding organisms only cause tissue loss or localized injuries, but adults of "A. planci" can kill entire coral colonies.


title: Crown-of-thorns starfish

text: Popular anxiety to news of high densities of "A. planci" on the Great Barrier Reef was reflected in many newspaper reports and publications such as "Requiem for the Reef", which also suggested that a cover-up of the extent of damage existed. A popular idea arose that the coral and with it whole reefs were being destroyed by the starfish. In fact, as described above, the starfish preys on coral by digesting the surface of living tissue from the coral skeletons. These skeletons persist, together with the mass of coralline algae that is essential for reef integrity. The initial change (first-order effect) is loss of the veneer of living coral tissue.