title: Shego

text: Shego is unusually cooperative and patient with Junior, and he is one of the few people who can bring out her softer side. Junior also sought Shego's help while developing a scheme on his own for impressing his father, and Shego willingly assisted. Together they showed the potential for being a formidable team, somewhat matching Kim and Ron. And unlike Drakken, Dementor, and the like, Shego has never struck or blasted Junior, a mark of trust from the cranky and violence-prone woman.


title: Shego

text: Shego has four brothers: Hego, Mego, and a set of twins who were never identified in the first episode, but were later revealed to be called Wego. All of them granted with unique super-powers like her, which Hego referred to as a "Go-Team-Glow" in the episode "Go Team Go!". With them, she used to be part of Team Go. Her reasons for leaving the team and turning to evil are never fully examined, though two different views are offered: Hego claims that the more Team Go fought against evil, the more Shego came to like evil; while Shego strongly suggests that she left not because of any particular calling to villainy, but for the fact that her brothers' behavior and dysfunctions drove her away.


title: Shego

text: Shego has a huge resentment towards her brothers' attitude, finding them incompetent, argumentative, and irritating, and their dysfunctional and annoying relationship was part of the reason she abandoned Team Go's fight for justice to pursue evil. Her brothers, on the other hand, are fairly oblivious to the fact their sister has turned to a life of villainy; Hego has called her a "cranky smart mouth, prone to excessive violence", but still considers Shego to be good unconditionally (this is somewhat supported by her moral compass and camaraderies). Although the family has disagreements, in the episode "Go Team Go", Shego deserts Dr. Drakken to help her brothers regain their powers from minor villain "Avarius".


title: Shego

text: Shego apparently provided the brains and initiative of Team Go. It was through her efforts they kept focused and organized as a superhero team: when she left, Team Go collapsed into ineffectual bickering and soon disbanded. When they briefly, fully regrouped in "Stop Team Go" they quickly regained their fighting effectiveness.


title: Shego

text: Despite the fact that Shego claims to dislike her siblings and even though she would never admit it, it was strongly suggested that Shego still has a sense of familial love for them, as pointed out by both Kim and Drakken.


title: Shego

text: Shego first encounters Motor Ed in the episode "Steal Wheels". She finds him extremely annoying because of his sexist attitudes and incessant attempts to hit on her. Her attempts to discourage him (up to and including attacking him with her energy blasts) only increase his infatuation.


title: Shego

text: When Momma Lipsky learns that Ed has been incarcerated, she brings him to her son Drew (Doctor Drakken, who she is not aware is also a villain) with the hopes of straightening him out. Shego finds their plan to steal a boy's wheelchair to be beyond even her low standards, and while she does allow the plan to occur, she takes no part in the theft, chiding them both for being particularly cruel and/or idiotic.


title: Shego

text: In the episode "Car Alarm", Motor Ed breaks Shego out of prison in hope that she would assist him in his latest scheme. She reluctantly agrees to help him. Motor Ed turns a stolen rocket into a vehicle capable of going fast enough to cause devastation wherever it goes. In the end, Shego finds out she was just an "accessory" and proceeds to assault him, with the end result of both falling out of the rocket-car and into a river, effectively foiling their own plans.


title: Shego

text: In addition to the stock edition of Shego, her character and design has been modified on a number of occasions in order to fit in with specific plot devices and episodes.


title: Shego

text: In the multipart episode "A Sitch In Time" (Aired in the US as a stand-alone TV movie), a future version of Shego was shown as the only Kim Possible villain ever to successfully take over the world.


title: Shego

text: Using the "Tempus Simia", a mystical idol with the power to create portals through space-time, Shego, acting on the advice of her future self, managed to take over the world by making fruitful financial and criminal investments to strategically separating Kim and Ron, thus splitting up Team Possible and decreasing their effectiveness. This way, they failed to stop Shego from obtaining the idol and dragging them into the future, leaving the world for her to dominate.


title: Shego

text: Twenty years in the future, Shego, now known as The Supreme One, establishes Middleton as her capital, renaming it "Shegoton", and transforming Club Banana into "Club Shego". She has dissenters brainwashed in special totalitarian facilities (including and particularly the former high school) and everyone, aside from a small band of resistance fighters, wears a dress code based on Shego's green and black costume.


title: Shego

text: Although mostly the same, this version of Shego appeared to be much crueler and more evil than her present self as well as more criminally sophisticated, using her subordinates (other villains) to fight her enemies instead of doing it herself ("the Supreme One always delegates!"). She proves to be a seemingly capable Overlord in her delegations, capturing all of the rebels as well as Kim, Ron, and Rufus by sending her minions after them (Killigan, Drakken, and Monkey Fist). It was only when she began listening to Drakken's inane "tips" about how to gloat and boast that she becomes distracted, allowing the heroes to destroy the time monkey, undoing all of her victories and erasing her from history in the process.


title: Shego

text: In the season 3 episode "Rewriting History", A young woman named Miss Go helps Bartholomew Lipsky (ancestor of Drew "Drakken" Lipsky) to steal an experimental device from Professor DeMenz (ancestor of Professor Dementor). In the process, she permanently sullies the good name of Miriam "Mim" Possible (ancestor to Kim), who is forced to go into hiding in shame. While this Miss Go lacks any apparent super-powers, she is still a remarkably gifted thief and hand-to-hand combatant, even while fighting in period-appropriate attire such as a corset, broad hat, and billowing skirt. She fights Miriam to a standstill while moving throughout the Middleton World's Fair, and eventually manages to escape with Lipsky.


title: Shego

text: Whether or not Miss Go ever truly existed is left unclear, as the episode ends in the trope of "It was all a dream;" only to show up in references in following episodes such as "Emotion Sickness" that at least some aspects, such as the existence of Jonathan Stoppable and the Taco Stand were probably real.


title: Shego

text: In the Season 4 episode "Stop Team Go", Shego temporarily lost her crankiness to an enhanced version of Jack Hench's Attitudinator, wielded by an old enemy of Team Go, the techno-powered villainess Electronique. Electronique's plan had originally been to turn all of the members of Team Go evil, but since Shego was already evil, she was turned good instead.


title: Shego

text: Assuming the alias Miss Go, Shego used her degree in child development to land a job as a substitute teacher at Middleton High School, taking over one of Kim's classes. As Miss Go, Shego is a genuinely kind, caring and even airheadedly girly person who is into shopping and romantic movies. She has a lot in common with Kim and the two quickly become close friends, with Kim going so far as to describe her as being "like a big sister." Shego also attracts the attention of fellow substitute teacher Steve Barkin, and they enjoyed a brief romance.


title: Shego

text: At the end of the episode, Shego was accidentally transformed back to her original self by Ron, and the Attitudinator is damaged beyond repair. Right after this, Shego rejoins with Drakken, who spent the episode failing to get a pickle jar open without her (she eventually opens the jar with great upset, to which Drakken retorts, "Oh, sure, after "I loosened it!""). Towards the episode's close, she is seen looking wistfully at a strip of photo booth pictures of Kim and herself, suggesting that she might have regrets about losing their brief friendship; she then burns the pictures as Drakken approaches, apparently because she did not want him to see them. Later during the credits Barkin tries to win her back; though she considers it at the beginning, as soon as he started to sing, she used the lair's defense system on him.


title: Shego

text: Initially, Shego was meant to be "just" Dr. Drakken's sidekick, designed with green and black as what the creators considered to be known as "bad colors". However, it was after hearing Nicole Sullivan's performance as Shego that they started to develop her unique relationship with Drakken, as Nicole portrayed Shego as sarcastic and smarter than Drakken, which prevailed along the series as trademark, even though the characters' voice actors had already worked together in "Buzz Lightyear of Star Command". Originally, Shego wasn't included in the first versions of the pilot episode of "Kim Possible" ("Crush"), but was added in later versions of it.


title: Shego

text: Shego has become the most popular villain of the series as well as one of its most popular characters, and also one of the main character's most popular love interests among fan art and fan fiction. Her popularity led the authors of the series to keep her, alongside Drakken, as one of the most recurring characters, even though they had intended to work less with them; the duo are thus regarded as Kim Possible's arch-nemeses.


title: Shego

text: Besides being one of the most recurring characters of the franchise, Shego is one of the few characters who has had appearances outside the series. She appeared in the "" crossover episode entitled “Rufus”, again as Drakken's sidekick in his attempt to kidnap Stitch. She also appeared in almost every "Kim Possible" video game, most notably in "", where she is a playable character alongside Kim and covers up half of the adventure. For gameplay purposes, her powers in said game are portrayed as being electromagnetic rather than thermal.


title: Prostitution statistics by country

text: In 2012 it was estimated that there were between 40 and 42 million prostitutes in the world. The list of countries below provides an estimate for the number of people working as prostitutes in each country. China, India, and the United States are the countries with the most prostitutes.


title: Prostitution statistics by country

text: There are a number of difficulties involved in collecting meaningful prostitution statistics. For example, the greater visibility of some forms of prostitution, such as street prostitution, makes statistics on these forms easier to collect. However, in some countries street prostitution forms a much smaller part of the sex industry than indoor prostitution. Similarly sex workers with health, addiction and other support needs are more likely to be known to the authorities and hence easier for researchers to contact, but may not be representative of prostitution as a whole. National Ugly Mugs, a support organisation for sex workers in the United Kingdom, has identified several factors making it difficult to collect statistics for the sex industry, including low response rates, the small scale of research compared to the size of the sex industry, and the diversity of the industry. As a result published statistics are often conflicting and contested.


title: Prostitution statistics by country

text: In countries where prostitution is illegal, the use of arrest data to create general prostitution statistics can be misleading. The majority of prostitutes are never arrested, and those who are, can often be charged with other offences instead. Class bias may be introduced into the statistics as a result of police officers being more likely to arrest street prostitutes than high-class call girls. In comparing one area with another there may be differences in the definition of a crime, the police enforcement rate, and the possibility of the inflation of arrest figures or the under-reporting of crime.


title: Prostitution statistics by country

text: Due to the unregulated and often illegal nature of the work, only estimates are available for the number of prostitutes in a country. The numbers for a country can vary considerably dependent on the source. Some countries' numbers may suffer from poor methodology. In other cases, results may be influenced by whether the organisation producing the numbers is for or against the nature of the work. Where available, figures are taken from Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS 2016 "Sex Workers: Size Estimates."


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: For local government purposes, Scotland is divided into 32 areas designated as "council areas" (), which are all governed by single-tier authorities designated as "councils". They have the option under the Local Government (Gaelic Names) (Scotland) Act 1997 of being known (but not re-designated) as a ""comhairle"" when opting for a Gaelic name; only "Comhairle nan Eilean Siar" (Council of the Western Isles) has chosen this option, whereas the Highland Council ("Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd") has adopted its Gaelic form alongside its English equivalent informally.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The council areas have been in existence since 1 April 1996, under the provisions of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. Historically, Scotland was divided into 34 counties or shires. Although these no longer have any administrative function, they are still used to some extent in Scotland for cultural and geographical purposes, and some of the current council areas are named after them. There are also a number of other administrative divisions, some of which are handled by joint boards of the councils.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: At the most local level Scotland is divided into civil parishes, which are now used only for statistical purposes such as the census. The lowest level of administrative subdivision are the communities, which may elect "community councils".


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: Traditionally burghs have been the key unit of the local government of Scotland, being highly autonomous entities, with rights to representation in the old Parliament of Scotland. Even after the Acts of Union 1707, burghs continued to be the principal subdivision. Until 1889 administration was on a burgh and parish basis.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The years following 1889 saw the introduction of a hierarchy of local government administration comprising counties, counties of cities, large burghs and small burghs.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: With effect from 16 May 1975 and until 31 March 1996 the local government divisions of Scotland consisted of an upper tier of "regions" each containing a lower tier of "districts" except for the single-tier "island council areas". Since 1996 there has only been a single tier of government, and the former island council areas are of equal status to the other councils.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: Scotland has several other administrative divisions, some of which are handled by joint boards of the councils.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: There are several joint boards for electoral registration and the purposes of property valuation for assessing council tax and rates.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: Until 1 April 2014 the towns of Cambuslang and Rutherglen were in the Greater Glasgow and Clyde health board area despite being located in South Lanarkshire. They are now part of NHS Lanarkshire.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The Scottish Government has created seven "Regional Transport Partnerships", for establishing transport policy in the regions. They broadly follow council area groupings.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: In the Eurostat Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), Scotland is a level-1 NUTS region, coded "UKM", which is subdivided as follows:


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The current land registration system in Scotland divides Scotland into 33 Registration Counties, each coming into effect on various dates between 1981 and 2003. These areas in most cases resemble those of the pre-1975 administrative counties with Glasgow being the only current city to form a registration county.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The Lieutenancy areas of Scotland are the areas used for the ceremonial lord-lieutenants, the monarch's representatives. The areas are similar to the Historic Counties and the Registration Counties, but are not identical to either. Most notably, the four cities of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow form separate areas from the surrounding countryside, with the Lord Provost of each city acting "ex officio" as the lord-lieutenant.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: The Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 resulted in the merger of local police and fire services on 1 April 2013 to form the Police Service of Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: ) and the Scottish Fire and Rescue Service (SFRS, Scottish Gaelic: ).


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: Prior to 1975 policing was the responsibility of the Cities and Burghs of Scotland (see List of burghs in Scotland). Between 1975 and 2013 Scotland was subdivided into Police and fire service areas based on the regions and districts and island council areas that were also formed in 1975. The police and fire service regions used between 1975 and 2013 are listed below.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: Scotland is divided into 871 civil parishes which often resemble same-named but legally different ecclesiastical parishes. Although they have had no administrative function since 1930, they still exist and are still used for statistical purposes such as the census. Many former civil parish areas also continued to form registration districts until 1 January 2007. Many boundary changes have occurred over the years and an area currently derived from an old parish might no longer contain a place previously within that parish. Similarly, county boundaries (as still used for land registration) have also changed over the years such that a parish mentioned historically (generally before the 1860s) as being in one county (or sometimes two due to straddling a border) might now be in a neighbouring county and consequentially in a different succeeding council area.


title: Subdivisions of Scotland

text: For most administrative purposes, the base level of sub-division in Scotland is now that of communities, which may elect "community councils". The main role of these bodies is to channel and reflect local opinion to other bodies; they otherwise have very limited powers. There are around 1,200 communities in Scotland. Not all communities have councils; some have joint councils.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Bewitched is a 2005 American romantic comedy fantasy film co-written, produced, and directed by Nora Ephron, and starring Nicole Kidman and Will Ferrell alongside an ensemble cast featuring Shirley MacLaine, Michael Caine, Jason Schwartzman, Kristin Chenoweth (in her first film appearance), Heather Burns, Jim Turner, Stephen Colbert, David Alan Grier, Michael Badalucco, Carole Shelley, and Steve Carell. The film follows an out-of-work actor (Ferrell) who discovers, during the remake of "Bewitched", that his co-star (Kidman) is an actual witch.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Produced and distributed by Columbia Pictures with Red Wagon Entertainment, the film is a re-imagining of the television series of the same name (produced by Columbia's Screen Gems television studio, now Sony Pictures Television). "Bewitched" opened theatrically on June 24, 2005 to negative reviews and failed to meet expectations at the box office.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Jack Wyatt is a narcissistic actor who is approached to play the role of Darrin in a remake of the 1960s sitcom "Bewitched", but insists that an unknown play Samantha. Isabel Bigelow is an actual witch who decides she wants to be normal and moves to Los Angeles to start a new life and becomes friends with her neighbor Maria. She goes to a bookstore to learn how to get a job after seeing an advertisement of Ed McMahon on television. Jack happens to be at the same bookstore after attending some failed Samantha auditions. Jack spots Isabel and persuades her to audition. At the same time, while she's trying to settle into her new life, Isabel's intrusive father Nigel keeps appearing to convince her to return home, despite several rejections from Isabel.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: After Isabel impresses the show's producers and writers, Jack finally convinces Isabel to join the show. Also joining the show is legendary actress Iris Smythson as Endora. After a successful taping of the pilot, Isabel happens to overhear a conversation Jack is having with his agent Ritchie. They are talking about how they tricked Isabel to appear without having any lines. Furious, Isabel storms off with Maria and new neighbor friend Nina close behind. She decides she only has three choices: quit, get mad, or live with it. Instead, Isabel's Aunt Clara visits and aids Isabel in casting a spell on Jack in order to make him fall in love with her. At the same time, Nigel is introduced to Iris and becomes infatuated with her.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: The hex works and Jack becomes love struck by Isabel, insisting on several script changes to give her some dialogue and jokes, ignoring statements from test groups preferring Isabel over him. Jack's affection for Isabel grows and he asks her out on a date, making Isabel forget about the hex. But when he brings her home, she remembers and reverses it back to when she and Aunt Clara cast it. The next day, rather than the events the hex presented, Jack is outraged by the scores he received and takes his anger out on Isabel, who lashes back at him. Ritchie fires her, and she storms off.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Rather than be angry at her, Jack is fascinated with Isabel and chases after her, accepting all her comments. After another taping (with Isabel getting dialogue), their romance blossoms. But the next day, Jack's former wife Sheila arrives, determined to woo Jack back. Isabel sees this and casts a spell on her making her sign the divorce papers and have her decide to move to Iceland. Jack, thrilled, announces he will be throwing a party at his house celebrating the divorce.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Nigel attends the party with Iris and when Nigel begins flirting with much younger guests, Iris reveals that she is also a witch and casts a spell on each girl. When Jack makes a toast stating truth will be revealed with everyone, Isabel decides to tell Jack she's a witch. At first, thinking she's simply an amateur magician, Jack finally believes her when she levitates him with her broom. Jack becomes frightened and shoos her away with a stick. Offended and heartbroken, Isabel flies off.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: Jack takes this hard, being brought to the studios by the police and becoming disenchanted with the project. Isabel decides to return home as she no longer wishes to stay. Jack, imagining himself on the "Conan O'Brien Show", is visited by Uncle Arthur. Arthur convinces Jack not to let Isabel leave, because Jack still loves her and wouldn't be able to return for 100 years (which is later proven to be a lie Arthur made up to inspire Jack). Arthur drives him to the studio where he finds Isabel at the set. Jack apologizes to her and tells her he wants to marry her. Six months later, they do get married and move into their new neighborhood (which resembles the neighborhood in the series, with the Kravitzes living right across the street).


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: "Bewitched" had complicated development process that took nearly a decade. Rob Morrow and Cynthia Nixon were in talks to star in an adaptation directed by actor Ted Bessell and written by Broadway's Douglas Carter Beane, before Bessell died in 1996. Jim Carrey was in talks to play Darrin. Several writers, including Laurice Elehwany, made changes to the script. Nora Ephron was ultimately hired in 2003. Principal photography took place from the end of 2004 to the beginning of 2005.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: The movie was originally planned for release in July 2005, but was later pushed forward to its eventual release date, June 24, 2005. Budgeted at $85 million, it achieved a worldwide gross of $131.4 million, considered a "box office dud". On the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 25% approval rating, based on 187 reviews with an average score of 4.61/10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""Bewitched" is haunted by scattered laughs and a lack of direction". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100, based on 39 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". The total gross for the United States was $63.3 million, with international at $68.1 million. The film was released in the United Kingdom on August 19, 2005, and opened at #2, behind "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory".


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: The film earned Nicole Kidman and Will Ferrell a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Screen Couple. The film was also nominated for Worst Director, Worst Actor (Will Ferrell), Worst Screenplay, and Worst Remake or Sequel. "The New York Times" called the film "an unmitigated disaster". Australian critics Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton gave the film three and half stars out of five stars. Both said that Kidman captured the character exactly.


title: Bewitched (2005 film)

text: The VHS and DVD was released on October 25, 2005 by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. It included deleted scenes, such as Jack and Isabel's wedding and an extended version of Isabel getting mad, several making of featurettes, a trivia game, and an audio commentary by the director. In Australia, the Blu-ray version was released on February 7, 2018.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Ceratosaurus (from Greek κέρας/κέρατος, ' meaning "horn" and σαῦρος ' meaning "lizard") was a carnivorous theropod dinosaur in the Late Jurassic period (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian). The genus was first described in 1884 by American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh based on a nearly complete skeleton discovered in Garden Park, Colorado, in rocks belonging to the Morrison Formation. The type species is "Ceratosaurus nasicornis".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The Garden Park specimen remains the most complete skeleton known from the genus, and only a handful of additional specimens have been described since. Two additional species, "Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus" and "Ceratosaurus magnicornis", were described in 2000 from two fragmentary skeletons from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry of Utah and from the vicinity of Fruita, Colorado. The validity of these additional species has been questioned, however, and all three skeletons possibly represent different growth stages of the same species. In 1999, the discovery of the first juvenile specimen was reported. In 2000, a partial specimen was excavated and described from the Lourinhã Formation of Portugal, providing evidence for the presence of the genus outside of North America. Fragmentary remains have also been reported from Tanzania, Uruguay, and Switzerland, although their assignment to "Ceratosaurus" is currently not accepted by most paleontologists.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: "Ceratosaurus" was a medium-sized theropod. The original specimen is estimated to be or long, while the specimen described as "C. dentisulcatus" was larger, at around long. "Ceratosaurus" was characterized by deep jaws that supported proportionally very long, blade-like teeth, a prominent, ridge-like horn on the midline of the snout, and a pair of horns over the eyes. The forelimbs were very short, but remained fully functional; the hand had four fingers. The tail was deep from top to bottom. A row of small osteoderms (skin bones) was present down the middle of the neck, back, and tail. Additional osteoderms were present at unknown positions on the animal's body.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: "Ceratosaurus" gives its name to the Ceratosauria, a clade of theropod dinosaurs that diverged early from the evolutionary lineage leading to modern birds. Within the Ceratosauria, some paleontologists proposed it to be most closely related to "Genyodectes" from Argentina, which shares the strongly elongated teeth. The geologically older genus "Proceratosaurus" from England, although originally described as a presumed antecedent of "Ceratosaurus", was later found to be unrelated. "Ceratosaurus" shared its habitat with other large theropod genera including "Torvosaurus" and "Allosaurus", and it has been suggested that these theropods occupied different ecological niches to reduce competition. "Ceratosaurus" may have preyed upon plant-eating dinosaurs, although some paleontologists suggested that it hunted aquatic prey such as fish. The nasal horn was probably not used as a weapon as was originally suggested by Marsh, but more likely was used solely for display.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The first specimen, the holotype USNM 4735, was discovered and excavated by farmer Marshall Parker Felch in 1883 and 1884. Found in articulation, with the bones still connected to each other, it was nearly complete, including the skull. Significant missing parts include an unknown number of vertebrae; all but the last ribs of the trunk; the humeri (upper arm bones); the distal finger bones of both hands; most of the right fore limb; most of the left hind limb; and most of the feet. The specimen was found encased in hard sandstone; the skull and spine had been heavily distorted during fossilization. The site of discovery, located in the Garden Park area north of Cañon City, Colorado, and known as the Felch Quarry 1, is regarded as one of the richest fossil sites of the Morrison Formation. Numerous dinosaur fossils had been recovered from this quarry even before the discovery of "Ceratosaurus", most notably a nearly complete specimen of "Allosaurus" (USNM 4734) in 1883 and 1884.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: After excavation, the specimen was shipped to the Peabody Museum of Natural History in New Haven, where it was studied by Marsh, who described it as the new genus and species "Ceratosaurus nasicornis" in 1884. The name "Ceratosaurus" may be translated as "horn lizard" (from Greek , " "—"horn" and /""—"lizard"), and "nasicornis" with "nose horn" (from Latin "nasus"—"nose" and "cornu"—"horn"). Given the completeness of the specimen, the newly described genus was at the time the best-known theropod discovered in America. In 1898 and 1899, the specimen was transferred to the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, together with many other fossils originally described by Marsh. Only part of this material was fully prepared when it arrived in Washington; subsequent preparation lasted from 1911 to the end of 1918. Packaging and shipment from New Haven to Washington caused some damage to the "Ceratosaurus" specimen. In 1920, Charles Gilmore published an extensive redescription of this and the other theropod specimens received from New Haven, including the nearly complete "Allosaurus" specimen recovered from the same quarry.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In an 1892 paper, Marsh published the first skeletal reconstruction of "Ceratosaurus", which depicts the animal at in length and in height. As noted by Gilmore in 1920, the trunk was depicted much too long in this reconstruction, incorporating at least six dorsal vertebrae too many. This error was repeated in several subsequent publications, including the first life reconstruction, which was drawn in 1899 by Frank Bond under the guidance of Charles R. Knight, but not published until 1920. A more accurate life reconstruction, published in 1901, was produced by Joseph M. Gleeson, again under Knight's supervision. The holotype was mounted by Gilmore in 1910 and 1911, and since then was exhibited at the National Museum of Natural History. Most early reconstructions show "Ceratosaurus" in an upright posture, with the tail dragging on the ground. Gilmore's mount of the holotype, in contrast, was ahead of its time: Inspired by the upper thigh bones, which were found angled against the lower leg, he depicted the mount as a running animal with a horizontal rather than upright posture and a tail that did not make contact with the ground. Because of the strong flattening of the fossils, Gilmore mounted the specimen not as a free-standing skeleton, but as a bas-relief within an artificial wall. With the bones being partly embedded in a plaque, scientific access was limited. In the course of the renovation of the museum's dinosaur exhibition between 2014 and 2019, the specimen was dismantled and freed from the encasing plaque. In the new exhibition, which is set to open in 2019, the mount is planned to be replaced by a free-standing cast, and the original bones to be stored in the museum collection to allow full access for scientists.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: After the discovery of the holotype of "C. nasicornis", a significant "Ceratosaurus" find was not made until the early 1960s, when paleontologist James Madsen and his team unearthed a fragmentary, disarticulated skeleton including the skull (UMNH VP 5278) in the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah. This find represents one of the largest-known "Ceratosaurus" specimens. A second, articulated specimen including the skull (MWC 1) was discovered in 1976 by Thor Erikson, the son of paleontologist Lance Erikson, near Fruita, Colorado. A fairly complete specimen, it lacks lower jaws, forearms and gastralia. The skull, although reasonably complete, was found disarticulated and is strongly flattened sidewards. Although a large individual, it had not yet reached adult size, as indicated by open sutures between the skull bones. Scientifically accurate three-dimensional reconstructions of the skull for use in museum exhibits were produced using a complicated process including molding and casting of the individual original bones, correction of deformities, reconstruction of missing parts, assembly of the bone casts into their proper position, and painting to match the original color of the bones.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Both the Fruita and Cleveland-Lloyd specimens were described by Madsen and Samuel Paul Welles in a 2000 monograph, with the Utah specimen being assigned to the new species "C. dentisulcatus" and the Colorado specimen to the new species "C. magnicornis". The name "dentisulcatus" refers to the parallel grooves present on the inner sides of the premaxillary teeth and the first three teeth of the lower jaw in that specimen; "magnicornis" points to the larger nasal horn. The validity of both species, however, was questioned in subsequent publications. Brooks Britt and colleagues, in 2000, claimed that the "C. nasicornis" holotype was in fact a juvenile individual, with the two larger species representing the adult state of a single species. Oliver Rauhut, in 2003, and Matthew Carrano and Scott Sampson, in 2008, considered the anatomical differences cited by Madsen and Welles to support these additional species to represent ontogenetic (age-related) or individual variation.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: A further specimen (BYUVP 12893) was discovered in 1992 in the Agate Basin Quarry southeast of Moore, Utah, but still awaits description. The specimen, considered the largest known from the genus, includes the front half of a skull, seven fragmentary pelvic dorsal vertebrae, and an articulated pelvis and sacrum. In 1999, Britt reported the discovery of a "Ceratosaurus" skeleton belonging to a juvenile individual. Discovered in Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming, it is 34% smaller than the "C. nasicornis" holotype and consists of a complete skull as well as 30% of the remainder of the skeleton including a complete pelvis.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Besides these five skeletal finds, fragmentary "Ceratosaurus" remains have been reported from various localities from stratigraphic zones 2 and 4-6 of the Morrison Formation, including some of the major fossil sites of the formation. Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, yielded an isolated right premaxilla (specimen number DNM 972); a large shoulder blade (scapulocoracoid) was reported from Como Bluff in Wyoming. Another specimen stems from the Dry Mesa Quarry, Colorado, and includes a left scapulocoracoid, as well as fragments of vertebrae and limb bones. In Mygatt Moore Quarry, Colorado, the genus is known from teeth.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: From 1909 to 1913, German expeditions of the Berlin Museum für Naturkunde uncovered a diverse dinosaur fauna from the Tendaguru Formation in German East Africa, in what is now Tanzania. Although commonly considered the most important African dinosaur locality, large theropod dinosaurs are only known through few and very fragmentary remains. In 1920, German paleontologist Werner Janensch assigned several dorsal vertebrae from the quarry "TL" to "Ceratosaurus", as "Ceratosaurus" sp. (of uncertain species). In 1925, Janensch named a new species of "Ceratosaurus", "C. roechlingi", based on fragmentary remains from the quarry "Mw" encompassing a quadrate bone, a fibula, fragmentary caudal vertebrae, and other fragments. This specimen stems from an individual substantially larger than the "C. nasicornis" holotype.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In their 2000 monograph, Madsen and Welles confirmed the assignment of these finds to "Ceratosaurus". In addition, they ascribed several teeth to the genus, which had originally been described by Janensch as a possible species of "Labrosaurus", "Labrosaurus" (?) "stechowi". Other authors questioned the assignment of any of the Tendaguru finds to "Ceratosaurus", noting that none of these specimens displays features diagnostic for that genus. In 2011, Rauhut found both "C. roechlingi" and "Labrosaurus" (?) "stechowi" to be possible ceratosaurids, but found them to be not diagnostic at genus level and therefore designated them as "nomina dubia" (doubtful names). In 1990, Timothy Rowe and Jacques Gauthier mentioned yet another "Ceratosaurus" species from Tendaguru, "Ceratosaurus ingens", which purportedly was erected by Janensch in 1920 and was based on 25 isolated, very large teeth up to in length. However, Janensch assigned this species to "Megalosaurus", not to "Ceratosaurus"; therefore, this name might be a simple copying error. Rauhut, in 2011, showed that "Megalosaurus ingens" was not closely related to either "Megalosaurus" or "Ceratosaurus", but possibly represents a carcharodontosaurid, instead.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In 2000 and 2006, paleontologists led by Octávio Mateus described a find from the Lourinhã Formation in central-west Portugal (ML 352) as a new specimen of "Ceratosaurus", consisting of a right femur (upper thigh bone), a left tibia (shin bone), and several isolated teeth recovered from the cliffs of Valmitão beach, between the municipalities Lourinhã and Torres Vedras. The bones were found embedded in yellow to brown, fine-grained sandstones, which were deposited by rivers as floodplain deposits and belong to the lower levels of the Porto Novo Member, which is thought to be late Kimmeridgian in age. Additional bones of this individual (SHN (JJS)-65), including a left femur, a right tibia, and a partial left fibula (calf bone), were since exposed due to progressing cliff erosion. Although initially part of a private collection, these additional elements became officially curated after the private collection was donated to the Sociedade de História Natural in Torres Vedras, and were described in detail in 2015. The specimen was ascribed to the species "Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus" by Mateus and colleagues in 2006. A 2008 review by Carrano and Sampson confirmed the assignment to "Ceratosaurus", but concluded that the assignment to any specific species is not possible at present. In 2015, Elisabete Malafaia and colleagues, who questioned the validity of "C. dentisulcatus", assigned the specimen to "Ceratosaurus" aff. "Ceratosaurus nasicornis".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Other reports include a single tooth found in Moutier, Switzerland. Originally named by Janensch in 1920 as "Labrosaurus meriani", the tooth was later assigned "Ceratosaurus" sp. (of unknown species) by Madsen and Welles. In 2008, Matías Soto and Daniel Perea described teeth from the Tacuarembó Formation in Uruguay, including a presumed premaxillary tooth crown. This shows vertical striations on its inner side and lacks denticles on its front edge; these features are, in this combination, only known from "Ceratosaurus". The authors, however, stressed that an assignment to "Ceratosaurus" is infeasible as the remains are scant, and furthermore note that the assignment of the European and African material to "Ceratosaurus" has to be viewed with caution. In 2020, Soto and colleagues described additional "Ceratosaurus" teeth from the same formation that further support their earlier interpretation.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: "Ceratosaurus" followed the body plan typical for large theropod dinosaurs. A biped, it moved on powerful hind legs, while its arms were reduced in size. Specimen USNM 4735, the first discovered skeleton and holotype of "Ceratosaurus nasicornis", was an individual or in length according to separate sources. Whether this animal was fully grown is not clear. Othniel Charles Marsh, in 1884, suggested that this specimen weighed about half as much as the contemporary "Allosaurus". In more recent accounts, this was revised to , , or . Three additional skeletons discovered in the latter half of the 20th century were substantially larger. The first of these, UMNH VP 5278, was informally estimated by James Madsen to have been around long, but was later estimated at in length. Its weight was calculated at , , and in separate works. The second skeleton, MWC 1, was somewhat smaller than UMNH VP 5278 and might have been in weight. The third, yet undescribed, specimen BYUVP 12893 was claimed to be the largest yet discovered, although estimates have not been published. Another specimen (ML 352), discovered in Portugal in 2000, was estimated at in length and in body mass, which is also estimated as the maximum adult size of "C. nasicornis".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The skull was quite large in proportion to the rest of its body. It measures in length in the "C. nasicornis" holotype, measured from the tip of the snout to the , which connects to the first cervical vertebra. The width of this skull is difficult to reconstruct, as it is heavily distorted, and Gilmore's 1920 reconstruction was later found to be too wide. The fairly complete skull of specimen MWC 1 was estimated to have been in length and in width; this skull was somewhat more elongated than that of the holotype. The back of the skull was more lightly built than in some other larger theropods due to extensive skull openings, yet the jaws were deep to support the proportionally large teeth. The lacrimal bone formed not only the back margin of the antorbital fenestra, a large opening between eye and , but also part of its upper margin, unlike in members of the related Abelisauridae. The quadrate bone, which was connected to the lower jaw at its bottom end to form the jaw joint, was inclined so that the jaw joint was displaced backwards in relation to the occipital condyle. This also led to a broadening of the base of the lateral temporal fenestra, a large opening behind the eyes.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The most distinctive feature was a prominent horn situated on the skull midline behind the bony nostrils, which was formed from fused protuberances of the left and right nasal bones. Only the bony horn core is known from fossils—in the living animal, this core would have supported a keratinous sheath. While the base of the horn core was smooth, its upper two-thirds were wrinkled and lined with groves that would have contained blood vessels when alive. In the holotype, the horn core is long and wide at its base, but quickly narrows to only further up; it is in height. It is longer and lower in the skull of MWC 1. In the living animal, the horn would likely have been more elongated due to its keratinous sheath. Behind the nasal horn, the nasal bones formed an oval groove; both this groove and the nasal horn serve as features to distinguish "Ceratosaurus" from related genera. In addition to the large nasal horn, "Ceratosaurus" possessed smaller, semicircular, bony ridges in front of each eye, similar to those of "Allosaurus". These ridges were formed by the lacrimal bones. In juveniles, all three horns were smaller than in adults, and the two halves of the nasal horn core were not yet fused.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The premaxillary bones, which formed the tip of the snout, contained merely three teeth on each side, less than in most other theropods. The of the upper jaw were lined with 15 blade-like teeth on each side in the holotype. The first eight of these teeth were very long and robust, but from the ninth tooth onward they gradually decrease in size. As typical for theropods, they featured finely edges, which in the holotype contained some 10 denticles per . Specimen MWC 1 merely showed 11 to 12, and specimen UMNH VP 5278 12 teeth in each maxilla; the teeth were more robust and more recurved in the latter specimen. In all specimens, the tooth crowns of the upper jaws were exceptionally long. In specimen UMNH VP 5278, they measured up to in length, which is equal to the minimum height of the lower jaw. In the holotype, they are in length, which even surpasses the minimum height of the lower jaw. In other theropods, a comparable tooth length is only known from the possibly closely related "Genyodectes". In contrast, several members of the Abelisauridae feature very short tooth crowns. In the holotype, each half of the , the tooth-bearing bone of the , was equipped with 15 teeth, which are, however, poorly preserved. Both specimens MWC 1 and UMNH VP 5278 show only 11 teeth in each dentary, which were, as shown by the latter specimen, slightly straighter and less sturdy than those of the upper jaw.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The exact number of vertebrae is unknown due to several gaps in the spine of the "Ceratosaurus nasicornis" holotype. At least 20 vertebrae formed the neck and back in front of the sacrum. In the middle portion of the neck, the (bodies) of the vertebrae were as long as they were tall, while in the front and rear portions of the neck, the centra were shorter than their height. The upwards projecting were comparatively large, and in the dorsal (back) vertebrae, were as tall as the vertebral centra were long. The sacrum, consisting of six fused , was arched upwards, with its vertebral centra strongly reduced in height in its middle portion, as is the case in some other ceratosaurians. The tail comprised around 50 and was about half of the animal's total length; in the holotype, it was estimated at . The tail was deep from top to bottom due to its high neural spines and elongated chevrons, bones located below the vertebral centra. As in other dinosaurs, it counterbalanced the body and contained the massive caudofemoralis muscle, which was responsible for forward thrust during locomotion, pulling the upper thigh backwards when contracted.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The scapula (shoulder blade) was fused with the coracoid, forming a single bone without any visible demarcation between the two original elements. The "C. nasicornis" holotype was found with an articulated left fore limb including an incomplete (hand). Although during preparation, a cast had been made of the fossil beforehand to document the original relative positions of the bones. Carpal bones were not known from any specimen, leading some authors to suggest that they were lost in the genus. In a 2016 paper, Matthew Carrano and Jonah Choiniere suggested that one or more cartilaginous (not bony) carpals were probably present, as indicated by a gap present between the forearm bones and the metacarpals, as well as by the surface texture within this gap seen in the cast. In contrast to most more-derived theropods, which showed only three digits on each manus (digits I–III), "Ceratosaurus" retained four digits, with digit IV reduced in size. The first and fourth metacarpals were short, while the second was slightly longer than the third. The metacarpus and especially the first phalanges were proportionally very short, unlike in most other basal theropods. Only the first phalanges of digits II, III, and IV are preserved in the holotype; the total number of phalanges and unguals (claw bones) is unknown. The anatomy of metacarpal I indicates that phalanges had originally been present on this digit, as well. The pes (foot) consisted of three weight-bearing digits, numbered II–IV. Digit I, which in theropods is usually reduced to a dewclaw that does not touch the ground, is not preserved in the holotype. Marsh, in his original 1884 description, assumed that this digit was lost in "Ceratosaurus", but Charles Gilmore, in his 1920 monograph, noted an attachment area on the second metatarsal demonstrating the presence of this digit.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Uniquely among theropods, "Ceratosaurus" possessed small, elongated, and irregularly formed osteoderms (skin bones) along the midline of its body. Such osteoderms have been found above the neural spines of cervical vertebrae 4 and 5, as well as caudal vertebrae 4 to 10, and probably formed a continuous row that might have extended from the base of the skull to most of the tail. As suggested by Gilmore in 1920, their position in the rock matrix likely reflects their exact position in the living animal. The osteoderms above the tail were found separated from the neural spines by to , possibly accounting for skin and muscles present in between, while those of the neck were much closer to the neural spines. Apart from the body midline, the skin contained additional osteoderms, as indicated by a by large, roughly quadrangular plate found together with the holotype; the position of this plate on the body is unknown. Specimen UMNH VP 5278 was also found with a number of osteoderms, which have been described as amorphous in shape. Although most of these were found at most 5 m apart from the skeleton, they were not directly associated with any vertebrae, unlike in the "C. nasicornis" holotype, so their original position on the body cannot be inferred from this specimen.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In his original description of the "Ceratosaurus nasicornis" holotype and subsequent publications, Marsh noted a number of characteristics that were unknown in all other theropods known at the time. Two of these features, the fused pelvis and fused metatarsus, were known from modern-day birds, and according to Marsh, clearly demonstrate the close relationship between the latter and dinosaurs. To set the genus apart from "Allosaurus", "Megalosaurus", and coelurosaurs, Marsh made "Ceratosaurus" the only member of both a new family, the Ceratosauridae, and a new infraorder, the Ceratosauria. This was questioned in 1892 by Edward Drinker Cope, Marsh's rival in the Bone Wars, who argued that distinctive features such as the nasal horn merely showed that "C. nasicornis" was a distinct species, but were insufficient to justify a distinct genus. Consequently, he assigned "C. nasicornis" to the genus "Megalosaurus", creating the new combination "Megalosaurus nasicornis".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Although "Ceratosaurus" was retained as a distinct genus in all subsequent analyses, its relationships remained controversial during the following century. Both the Ceratosauridae and Ceratosauria were not widely accepted, with only few and poorly known additional members identified. Over the years, separate authors classified "Ceratosaurus" within the Deinodontidae, the Megalosauridae, the Coelurosauria, the Carnosauria, and the Deinodontoidea. In his 1920 revision, Gilmore argued that the genus was the most basal theropod known from after the Triassic, so not closely related to any other contemporary theropod known at that time; it thus warrants its own family, the Ceratosauridae. It was not until the establishment of cladistic analysis in the 1980s, however, that Marsh's original claim of the Ceratosauria as a distinct group gained ground. In 1985, the newly discovered South American genera "Abelisaurus" and "Carnotaurus" were found to be closely related to "Ceratosaurus". Gauthier, in 1986, recognized the Coelophysoidea to be closely related to "Ceratosaurus", although this clade falls outside of Ceratosauria in most recent analyses. Many additional members of the Ceratosauria have been recognized since.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The Ceratosauria split off early from the evolutionary line leading to modern birds, thus is considered basal within theropods. Ceratosauria itself contains a group of derived (nonbasal) members of the families Noasauridae and Abelisauridae, which are bracketed within the clade Abelisauroidea, as well as a number of basal members, such as "Elaphrosaurus", "Deltadromeus", and "Ceratosaurus". The position of "Ceratosaurus" within basal ceratosaurians is under debate. Some analyses considered "Ceratosaurus" as the most derived of the basal members, forming the sister taxon of the Abelisauroidea. Oliver Rauhut, in 2004, proposed "Genyodectes" as the sister taxon of "Ceratosaurus", as both genera are characterized by exceptionally long teeth in the upper jaw. Rauhut grouped "Ceratosaurus" and "Genyodectes" within the family Ceratosauridae, which was followed by several later accounts.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Shuo Wang and colleagues, in 2017, concluded that the Noasauridae were not nested within the Abelisauroidea as was previously assumed, but instead were more basal than "Ceratosaurus". Because noasaurids had been used as a fix point to define the clades Abelisauroidea and Abelisauridae, these clades would consequently include many more taxa per definition, including "Ceratosaurus". In a subsequent 2018 study, Rafael Delcourt accepted these results, but pointed out that, as a consequence, the Abelisauroidea would need to be replaced by the older synonym Ceratosauroidea, which was hitherto rarely used. For the Abelisauridae, Delcourt proposed a new definition that excludes "Ceratosaurus", allowing for using the name its traditional sense. Wang and colleagues furthermore found that "Ceratosaurus" and "Genyodectes" form a clade with the Argentinian genus "Eoabelisaurus". Delcourt used the name Ceratosauridae to refer to this same clade, and suggested to define the Ceratosauridae as containing all taxa that are more closely related to "Ceratosaurus" than to the abelisaurid "Carnotaurus".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The following cladogram showing the relationships of "Ceratosaurus" is based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Diego Pol and Oliver Rauhut in 2012:


title: Ceratosaurus

text: A skull from the Middle Jurassic of England apparently displays a nasal horn similar to that of "Ceratosaurus". In 1926, Friedrich von Huene described this skull as "Proceratosaurus" (meaning "before "Ceratosaurus""), assuming that it was an antecedent of the Late Jurassic "Ceratosaurus". Today, "Proceratosaurus" is considered a basal member of the Tyrannosauroidea, a much more derived clade of theropod dinosaurs; the nasal horn therefore would have had evolved independently in both genera. Oliver Rauhut and colleagues, in 2010, grouped "Proceratosaurus" within its own family, the Proceratosauridae. These authors also noted that the nasal horn is incompletely preserved, opening the possibility that it represented the foremost portion of a more extensive head crest, as seen in some other proceratosaurids such as "Guanlong".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Within the Morrison and Lourinhã Formation, "Ceratosaurus" fossils are frequently found in association with those of other large theropods, including the megalosaurid "Torvosaurus" and the allosaurid "Allosaurus". The Garden Park locality in Colorado contained, besides "Ceratosaurus", fossils attributed to "Allosaurus". The Dry Mesa Quarry in Colorado, as well as the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry and the Dinosaur National Monument in Utah, feature, respectively, the remains of at least three large theropods: "Ceratosaurus", "Allosaurus", and "Torvosaurus". Likewise, Como Bluff and nearby localities in Wyoming contained remains of "Ceratosaurus", "Allosaurus", and at least one large megalosaurid. "Ceratosaurus" was a rare element of the theropod fauna; it is outnumbered by "Allosaurus" at an average rate of 7.5 to 1 in sites where they co-occur.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Several studies attempted to explain how these sympatric species could have reduced direct competition. Donald Henderson, in 1998, argued that "Ceratosaurus" co-occurred with two separate potential species of "Allosaurus", which he denoted as "morphs": a morph with a shortened snout, a high and wide skull, and short, backwards-projecting teeth, and a morph characterized by a longer snout, lower skull, and long, vertical teeth. Generally speaking, the greater the similarity between sympatric species regarding their morphology, physiology, and behavior, the more intense competition between these species will be. Henderson came to the conclusion that the short-snouted "Allosaurus" morph occupied a different ecological niche from both the long-snouted morph and "Ceratosaurus": The shorter skull in this morph would have reduced bending moments occurring during biting, thus increased bite force, comparable to the condition seen in cats. "Ceratosaurus" and the other "Allosaurus" morph, though, had long-snouted skulls, which are better compared to those of dogs: The longer teeth would have been used as fangs to deliver quick, slashing bites, with the bite force concentrated at a smaller area due to the narrower skull. According to Henderson, the great similarities in skull shape between "Ceratosaurus" and the long-snouted "Allosaurus" morph indicate that these forms engaged in direct competition with each other. Therefore, "Ceratosaurus" might had been pushed out of habitats dominated by the long-snouted morph. Indeed, "Ceratosaurus" is very rare in the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry, which contains the long-snouted "Allosaurus" morph, but appears to be more common in both Garden Park and the Dry Mesa Quarry, in which it co-occurs with the short-snouted morph.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Furthermore, Henderson suggested that "Ceratosaurus" could have avoided competition by preferring different prey items; the evolution of its extremely elongated teeth might have been a direct result of the competition with the long-snouted "Allosaurus" morph. Both species could also have preferred different parts of carcasses when acting as scavengers. The elongated teeth of "Ceratosaurus" could have served as visual signals facilitating the recognition of members of the same species, or for other social functions. In addition, the large size of these theropods would have tended to decrease competition, as the number of possible prey items increases with size.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: Foster and Daniel Chure, in a 2006 study, concurred with Henderson that "Ceratosaurus" and "Allosaurus" generally shared the same habitats and preyed upon the same types of prey, thus likely had different feeding strategies to avoid competition. According to these researchers, this is also evidenced by different proportions of the skull, teeth, and fore limb. The distinction between the two "Allosaurus" morphs, however, was questioned by some later studies. Kenneth Carpenter, in a 2010 study, found that short-snouted individuals of "Allosaurus" from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry represent cases of extreme individual variation rather than a separate taxon. Furthermore, the skull of USNM 4734 from the Garden Park locality, which formed the basis for Henderson's analysis of the short-snouted morph, was later found to have been reconstructed too short.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In a 2004 study, Robert Bakker and Gary Bir suggested that "Ceratosaurus" was primarily specialized in aquatic prey such as lungfish, crocodiles, and turtles. As indicated by a statistical analysis of shed teeth from 50 separate localities in and around Como Bluff, teeth of both "Ceratosaurus" and megalosaurids were most common in habitats in and around water sources such as wet floodplains, lake margins, and swamps. "Ceratosaurus" also occasionally occurred in terrestrial localities. Allosaurids, however, were equally common in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. From these results, Bakker and Bir concluded that "Ceratosaurus" and megalosaurids must have predominantly hunted near and within water bodies, with "Ceratosaurus" also feeding on carcasses of larger dinosaurs on occasion. The researchers furthermore noted the long, low, and flexible body of "Ceratosaurus" and megalosaurids. Compared to other Morrison theropods, "Ceratosaurus" showed taller neural spines on the foremost tail vertebrae, which were vertical rather than inclined towards the back. Together with the deep chevron bones on the underside of the tail, they indicate a deep, "crocodile-like" tail possibly adapted for swimming. On the contrary, allosaurids feature a shorter, taller, and stiffer body with longer legs. They would have been adapted for rapid running in open terrain and for preying upon large herbivorous dinosaurs such as sauropods and stegosaurs, but as speculated by Bakker and Bir, seasonally switched to aquatic prey items when the large herbivores were absent. However, this theory was challenged by Yun in 2019, suggesting Ceratosaurus was merely more capable of hunting aquatic prey than other theropods of the Morrison Formation then


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In his 1986 popular book "The Dinosaur Heresies", Bakker argued that the bones of the upper jaw were only loosely attached to the surrounding skull bones, allowing for some degree of movement within the skull, a condition termed cranial kinesis. Likewise, the bones of the lower jaw would have been able to move against each other, and the quadrate bone to swing outwards, spreading the lower jaw at the jaw joint. Taken together, these features would have allowed the animal to widen its jaws in order to swallow large food items. In a 2008 study, Casey Holliday and Lawrence Witmer re-evaluated similar claims made for other dinosaurs, concluding that the presence of muscle-powered cranial kinesis cannot be proven for any dinosaur species, and was likely absent in most.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: An "Allosaurus" pubic foot shows marks by the teeth of another theropod, probably "Ceratosaurus" or "Torvosaurus". The location of the bone in the body (along the bottom margin of the torso and partially shielded by the legs), and the fact that it was among the most massive in the skeleton, indicates that the "Allosaurus" was being scavenged. A bone assemblage in the Upper Jurassic Mygatt-Moore Quarry preserves an unusually high occurrence of theropod bite marks, most of which can be attributed to "Allosaurus" and "Ceratosaurus", while others could have been made by "Saurophaganax" or "Torvosaurus" given the size of the striations. While the position of the bite marks on the herbivorous dinosaurs is consistent with predation or early access to remains, bite marks found on "Allosaurus" material suggest scavenging, either from the other theropods or from another "Allosaurus". The unusually high concentration of theropod bite marks compared to other assembages could be explained either by a more complete utilization of resources during a dry season by theropods, or by a collecting bias in other localities.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: In 1884, Marsh considered the nasal horn of "Ceratosaurus" to be a "most powerful weapon" for both offensive and defensive purposes, and Gilmore, in 1920, concurred with this interpretation. The use of the horn as a weapon is now generally considered unlikely, however. In 1985, David Norman believed that the horn was "probably not for protection against other predators," but might instead have been used for intraspecific combat among male ceratosaurs contending for breeding rights. Gregory S. Paul, in 1988, suggested a similar function, and illustrated two "Ceratosaurus" engaged in a nonlethal butting contest. In 1990, Rowe and Gauthier went further, suggesting that the nasal horn of "Ceratosaurus" was "probably used for display purposes alone" and played no role in physical confrontations. If used for display, the horn likely would have been brightly colored. A display function was also proposed for the row of osteoderms running down the body midline.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The strongly shortened metacarpals and phalanges of "Ceratosaurus" raise the question whether the manus retained the grasping function assumed for other basal theropods. Within the Ceratosauria, an even more extreme manus reduction can be observed in abelisaurids, where the forelimb lost its original function, and in "Limusaurus". In a 2016 paper on the anatomy of the "Ceratosaurus" manus, Carrano and Jonah Choiniere stressed the great morphological similarity of the manus with those of other basal theropods, suggesting that it still fulfilled its original grasping function, despite its shortening. Although only the first phalanges are preserved, the second phalanges would have been mobile, as indicated by the well-developed articular surfaces, and the digits would likely have allowed a similar degree of motion as in other basal theropods. As in other theropods other than abelisaurids, digit I would have been slightly turned in when flexed.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: A cast of the brain cavity of the holotype was made under Marsh's supervision, probably during preparation of the skull, allowing Marsh to conclude that the brain "was of medium size, but comparatively much larger than in the herbivorous dinosaurs". The skull bones, however, had been cemented together afterwards, so the accuracy of this cast could not be verified by later studies.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: A second, well preserved braincase had been found with specimen MWC 1 in Fruita, Colorado, and was CT-scanned by paleontologists Kent Sanders and David Smith, allowing for reconstructions of the inner ear, gross regions of the brain, and cranial sinuses transporting blood away from the brain. In 2005, the researchers concluded that "Ceratosaurus" possessed a brain cavity typical for basal theropods, and similar to that of "Allosaurus". The impressions for the olfactory bulbs, which house the sense of smell, are well-preserved. While similar to those of "Allosaurus", they were smaller than in "Tyrannosaurus", which is thought to have been equipped with a very keen sense of smell. The semicircular canals, which are responsible for the sense of balance and therefore allow for inferences on habitual head orientation and locomotion, are similar to those found in other theropods. In theropods, these structures are generally conservative, suggesting that functional requirements during locomotion have been similar across species. The foremost of the semicircular canals was enlarged, a feature generally found in bipedal animals. The orientation of the lateral semicircular canal indicates that the head and neck were held horizontally in neutral position.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The holotype of "C. nasicornis" was found with its left metatarsals II to IV fused together. Marsh, in 1884, dedicated a short article to this at the time unknown feature in dinosaurs, noting the close resemblance to the condition seen in modern birds. The presence of this feature in "Ceratosaurus" became controversial in 1890, when Georg Baur speculated that the fusion in the holotype was the result of a healed fracture. This claim was repeated in 1892 by Cope, while arguing that "C. nasicornis" should be classified as a species of "Megalosaurus" due to insufficient anatomical differences between these genera. However, examples of fused metatarsals in dinosaurs that are not of pathological origin have been described since, including taxa more basal than "Ceratosaurus". Osborn, in 1920, explained that no abnormal bone growth is evident, and that the fusion is unusual, but likely not pathological. Ronald Ratkevich, in 1976, argued that this fusion had limited the running ability of the animal, but this claim was rejected by Paul in 1988, who noted that the same feature occurs in many fast-moving animals of today, including ground birds and ungulates. A 1999 analysis by Darren Tanke and Bruce Rothschild suggested that the fusion was indeed pathological, confirming the earlier claim of Baur. Other reports of pathologies include a stress fracture in a foot bone assigned to the genus, as well as a broken tooth of an unidentified species of "Ceratosaurus" that shows signs of further wear received after the break.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: All North American "Ceratosaurus" finds come from the Morrison Formation, a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sedimentary rocks in the western United States, and the most fertile source for dinosaur bones of the continent. According to radiometric dating, the age of the formation ranges between 156.3 million years old (Mya) at its base, and 146.8 million years old at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. "Ceratosaurus" is known from Kimmeridgian and Tithonian strata of the formation. The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania.


title: Ceratosaurus

text: The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. Other dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods "Koparion", "Stokesosaurus", "Ornitholestes", "Allosaurus", and "Torvosaurus"; the sauropods "Apatosaurus", "Brachiosaurus", "Camarasaurus", and "Diplodocus"; and the ornithischians "Camptosaurus", "Dryosaurus", "Othnielia", "Gargoyleosaurus", and "Stegosaurus". "Allosaurus", which accounted for 70 to 75% of all theropod specimens, was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Other vertebrates that shared this paleoenvironment included ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles like "Dorsetochelys", sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans such as "Hoplosuchus", and several species of pterosaurs such as "Harpactognathus" and "Mesadactylus". Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns and ferns (gallery forests) to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the "Araucaria"-like conifer "Brachyphyllum".


title: Ceratosaurus

text: A partial "Ceratosaurus" specimen indicates the presence of the genus in the Portuguese Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation. Many of the dinosaurs of the Lourinhã Formation are the same genera as those seen in the Morrison Formation, or have a close counterpart. Besides "Ceratosaurus", the researchers also noted the presence of "Allosaurus" and "Torvosaurus" in the Portuguese rocks are primarily known from the Morrison, while "Lourinhanosaurus" has so far only been reported from Portugal. Herbivorous dinosaurs from the Porto Novo Member include, among others, the sauropods "Dinheirosaurus" and "Zby", as well as the stegosaur "Miragaia". During the Late Jurassic, Europe had just been separated from North America by the still narrow Atlantic Ocean, and Portugal, as part of the Iberian Peninsula, was still separated from other parts of Europe. According to Mateus and colleagues, the similarity between the Portuguese and North American theropod faunas indicates the presence of a temporary land bridge, allowing for faunal interchange. Malafaia and colleagues, however, argued for a more complex scenario, as other groups, such as sauropods, turtles, and crocodiles, show clearly different species compositions in Portugal and North America. Thus, the incipient separation of these faunas could have led to interchange in some but allopatric speciation in other groups.


title: Boxelder bug

text: The boxelder bug ("Boisea trivittata") is a North American species of true bug. It is found primarily on boxelder trees, as well as maple and ash trees. The adults are about long with a dark brown or black coloration, relieved by red wing veins and markings on the abdomen; nymphs are bright red. In 2020, this species invaded Chile, thus becoming an invasive species.


title: Boxelder bug

text: Boxelder bugs feed almost entirely on the developing seeds of boxelder, maple, and ash trees. The boxelder bug is sometimes confused with insects belonging to the genus "Jadera", and with the western boxelder bug ("Boisea rubrolineata") which it is related to. The name "stink bug", which is more regularly applied to the family Pentatomidae, is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to "Boisea trivittata". Instead, boxelder bugs belong to the family Rhopalidae, the so-called "scentless plant bugs". However, boxelder bugs are strong-smelling and to discourage predators will release a pungent and bad-tasting compound upon being disturbed. This allows them to form conspicuous aggregations without being preyed on. These insects feed, lay eggs and develop on boxelder trees, most commonly occurring on female trees as they produce seeds. Boxelder bugs prefer seeds; however, they also suck leaves. They can be frequently observed on maple as these trees provide them with seeds as well. Boxelder bugs overwinter in plant debris or protected human-inhabited places and other suitable structures.


title: Boxelder bug

text: Although they specialize on the seeds from maple, boxelder and ash, they may pierce other parts of the plant while feeding. They are not classified as an agricultural pest and are generally not considered injurious to ornamental plantings. However, they are known to damage some fruits in the fall when they leave their summer quarters in trees and seek areas to overwinter. Feeding by the bugs produces dimples, scars, fruit deformation, corky tissue, and even premature fruit-drop in strawberries and some tree fruits.


title: Boxelder bug

text: During certain times of the year boxelder bugs cluster together in large groups while sunning themselves on warm surfaces near their host tree (e.g. on rocks, shrubs, trees, and man-made structures). This is especially a problem in the fall when they are seeking a warm place to overwinter. Large numbers are often seen congregating on houses seeking an entry point. Once they have gained access, they remain inactive behind siding and inside of walls while the weather is cool. Once the home's heating system becomes active for the season, the insects may falsely perceive it to be springtime and enter inhabited parts of the home in search of food and water. Once inside inhabited areas of a home, their excreta may stain upholstery, carpets, drapes, and they may feed on certain types of house plants. In the spring, the bugs leave their winter hibernation locations to feed and lay eggs on maple or ash trees. Clustered masses of boxelder bugs may be seen again at this time, and depending on the temperature, throughout the summer. Their outdoor congregation habits and indoor excreta deposits are perceived as a nuisance by many people, therefore boxelder bugs are often considered pests. However, boxelder bugs are harmless to people and pets. The removal of boxelder trees and maple trees can help control boxelder bug populations. Spiders are minor predators, but because of the boxelder bug's chemical defenses few birds or other animals will eat them. Boxelder bug populations are not affected by any major diseases or parasites.


title: Antirrhinum

text: Antirrhinum is a genus of plants commonly known as dragon flowers, snapdragons and dog flower because of the flowers' fancied resemblance to the face of a dragon that opens and closes its mouth when laterally squeezed. They are native to rocky areas of Europe, the United States, Canada, and North Africa. It is widely used as an ornamental plant in borders and as a cut flower.


title: Antirrhinum

text: The Antirrhinum is morphologically diverse, particularly the New World group ("Saerorhinum"). The genus is characterized by personate flowers with an inferior gibbous corolla.


title: Antirrhinum

text: "Antirrhinum" used to be treated within the family Scrophulariaceae, but studies of DNA sequences have led to its inclusion in a vastly enlarged family Plantaginaceae, within the tribe Antirrhineae.


title: Antirrhinum

text: The taxonomy of this genus is complex and not yet fully resolved at present. In particular the exact circumscription of the genus, especially the inclusion of the New World species (Saerorhinum), is contentious. The situation is further complicated by the variety of terms in use for infrageneric ranks, especially of the Old World species, that is "Antirrhinum", "sensu stricto" (e.g. Streptosepalum, Kicksiella, Meonantha).


title: Antirrhinum

text: The USDA Plants Database recognises only two species: "A. majus" (the garden snapdragon), the only species naturalised in North America, and "A. bellidifolium" (the lilac snapdragon), now considered to be "Anarrhinum bellidifolium" (L.) Willd. As of April 2017, The Plant List (Version 1.1) accepts 21 species.


title: Antirrhinum

text: A widely accepted scheme (Thompson 1988) placed 36 species in the genus in three sections. While many botanists accepted this broad circumscription ("sensu lato"), whose main departure from other classifications was the inclusion of the New World Saerorhinum, others did not, restricting the genus to the Old World. (For a comparison of Thompson with earlier systems, see Oyama and Baum, Table 1.) New species also continue to be discovered (see e.g. Romo "et al.", 1995).


title: Antirrhinum

text: In 2004 research into the molecular systematics of this group and related species by Oyama and Baum confirmed that the genus "sensu lato" as described by Thompson is monophyletic, provided that one species ("A. cyathiferum") is removed to the separate genus "Pseudorontium", and the two species of "Mohavea" ("Mohavea confertiflora" and "M. breviflora") are included. The species list given here follows these conclusions.


title: Antirrhinum

text: This is the broad circumscription that includes the Old World" Misopates" and New World "Sairocarpus". By contrast the narrow circumscription ("sensu stricto") confines the genus to the monophyletic Old World perennial species with a diploid chromosome number of 16, distributed in the Mediterranean basin, approximately 25 species. (Tolety 2011), following the phylogenetic analysis of Vargas "et al." (2004) suggesting they are a distinct group. Both "Misopates" and "Sairocarpus" are accepted names in "The Plant List", and many of the New World species now have "Sairocarpus" as their accepted name, rather than "Antirrhinum". It has been proposed that many of the New World "Antirrhinum" be now considered under "Sairocarpus", in the forthcoming "Flora of North America".


title: Antirrhinum

text: It is widely agreed that this broad group should be subdivided into three or four subgroups, but the level at which this should be done, and exactly which species should be grouped together, remain unclear. Some authors continue to follow Thompson in using a large genus "Antirrhinum", which is then divided into several sections; others treat Thompson's genus as a tribe or subtribe, and divide it into several genera. For a comparison of earlier schemes see Mateu-Andrés and de Paco, Table 1 (2005)


title: Antirrhinum

text: If the broad circumscription is accepted, its three sections as described by Thompson are as follows (two Old World, one New):


title: Antirrhinum

text: While "Antirrhinum majus" is the plant that is usually meant by the term of "snapdragon" if used on its own, many other species in the genus, and in the family Scrophulariaceae more widely, have common names that include the word "snapdragon". Such as "Antirrhinum molle" is known as "dwarf snapdragon" in the UK.


title: Antirrhinum

text: The word "antirrhinum" is derived from the Greek "antirrhinon" "calf's snout, Antirrhinum Orontium" which in turn is derived from "anti" "against, like", and "rhis" "nose" ( "rhinos"); thus, possibly "noselike", possibly referring to the noselike capsule in its mature state.


title: Antirrhinum

text: Snapdragons are short-lived perennial plants that survive well in cold seasons but are often replanted each spring and considered annual plants. They do best in full or partial sun, in well-drained soil since their roots are susceptible to rotting (although they do require regular watering). They are classified commercially as a range of heights: "midget" or "dwarf" (), "medium" () and "tall" (). Removing the dead flowers, referred to as deadheading, is important to help them to continuously produce beautiful flowers throughout their growing season. They are susceptible to ethylene gas so removing dead flowers and keeping them away from ripe fruits or vegetables also helps them bloom longer. They grow during their peak seasons of April to June and August to October in the Northern Hemisphere. and bloom in a variety of colors ranging from: white, yellow, orange, red, purple, pink and some multicolored patterns.


title: Antirrhinum

text: The snapdragon is an important garden plant, widely cultivated from tropical to temperate zones as a bedding, rockery, herbaceous border or container plant. (Tolety 2011) Cultivars have showy white, crimson, or yellow bilabiate flowers (with two lips). It is also important as a model organism in botanical research, and its genome has been studied in detail.


title: Antirrhinum

text: "Antirrhinum" is a genus that has been used from the earliest genetic studies of Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin and was used as a model by Erwin Baur (Tolety 2011). Together with closely related genera, it has become a model organism for the investigation of the genetic basis of plant development, particularly floral development.


title: Antirrhinum

text: The genus is a typical example of incomplete dominance by the red allele with the anthocyanin pigment. Any cross between red-flowered and white-flowered snapdragons, give an intermediate and heterozygous phenotype with pink flowers, that carries both the dominant and recessive alleles.


title: Antirrhinum

text: Several species of "Antirrhinum" are self-incompatible, meaning that a plant cannot be fertilised by its own pollen. Self-incompatibility in the genus has been studied since the early 1900s. Self-incompatibility in "Antirrhinum" species is controlled gametophytically and shares many important features with self-incompatibility systems in Rosaceae and Solanaceae.


title: Antirrhinum

text: In addition to growing the plants for cut flowers, the seeds have been used to extract edible oils, particularly in Russia, while the leaves and flowers have been considered to possess antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) properties and have been used in poultices. A green dye has also been extracted from the flowers.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Tesla, Inc. has been criticized for its cars, workplace culture, business practices, and occupational safety. Many of the company's criticisms are also directed toward Elon Musk, the company's CEO and Product Architect. Critics have also accused Tesla of deceptive marketing, unfulfilled promises, and fraud, with Elon Musk usually included as well. The company is currently facing criminal and civil investigations into its self-driving claims. Critics have highlighted Tesla's downplaying of issues, and Tesla's alleged retaliation against several whistleblowers.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: The safety and quality of Tesla cars and services have been questioned against the company's claims. There have been hundreds of reports of sudden unintended acceleration, brake failures, and "whompy wheels" – collapsing wheels due to faulty car suspension. These safety and quality problems have been compounded by the poor wait times of Tesla's customer service. Some features such as Autopilot, Full Self-Driving beta, and Passenger Play (a feature allowing riders to play Tesla games while in motion) have been criticized for their careless deployment. Critics have noted that some Tesla cars have had poor build quality due to rushed testing, leading to a high ratio of flawed vehicles. Others criticized the company's "stealth" vehicle recalls, requiring customers to sign non-disclosure agreements and intentional disregard about vehicles' fire risk.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Relationships between Elon Musk, Tesla board members, employees, and unions have been complicated, partly resulting in a high turnover rate. Musk has been noted for his erratic behavior, dispute of his founder title, and overpromises. Employees have reported poor treatment and policies, resulting in a high injury rate, with some having faced sexual harassment, racism, and union-busting incidents. Tesla's environmental practices, use of cryptocurrencies, and compliance with open source licenses have been mentioned by critics. Detractors also claim that Tesla and Musk's public relations activities have been used to deflect criticisms.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Musk and his company have been frequently accused of engaging in fraud, such as in their buyout of SolarCity, selling defective vehicles, overpromising, and posting reckless tweets. One tweet resulted in Musk agreeing to pay a fine and step down as Tesla's chairman. Proponents and opponents of Tesla have accused each other of conflict of interests, believing Tesla's stock valuation is either under- or overvalued.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: The so-described "SolarCity debacle" led a group of Tesla shareholders to file a lawsuit alleging Musk breached his fiduciary duties and unjustly enriched himself in Tesla's buyout of SolarCity in 2016. The shareholders claim that Musk knew SolarCity was going broke before the buyout, that Musk failed to properly recuse himself from the deal-making process, and that the deal was, in effect, a bailout of Musk's cousins Peter and Lyndon Rive. In order to gain shareholder support for the buyout, Musk unveiled the Solar Roof in October 2016, but the Solar Roof tiles that Musk displayed were later revealed to be fake. The trial was held in July 2021. The court ruled in Musk's favor in April 2022 and has been appealed. Lawyers and legal academics criticized the ruling as a mistake.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Tesla was sued along with SolarCity in July 2018 for SolarCity allegedly firing three employees improperly after they blew the whistle on fraudulent sales records at the company. In June 2020, the lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In September 2018, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) charged Musk with securities fraud for his "false and misleading" statements after tweeting that he had "funding secured" to take Tesla private. The SEC also charged Tesla with failing to have adequate controls and procedures in place regarding Musk's tweets.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Musk settled the fraud charges with the SEC in 2018, agreeing to pay a $20 million fine and stepping down as Tesla's chairman. Tesla also agreed to pay a $20 million fine and put in place additional controls to oversee Musk's communications.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: According to "The Wall Street Journal", the SEC told Tesla in May 2020 that the company had failed "to enforce these procedures and controls despite repeated violations by Mr. Musk". A lawsuit filed in March 2021 alleges that Musk violated his fiduciary duty to Tesla by continuing to send "erratic" tweets in violation of the SEC settlement, and that the board has failed to control Musk. On April 1, 2022, a federal judge ruled that Musk "recklessly made the [2018] statements with knowledge as to their falsity". Comments made by Musk later in April 2022 disputing the factual basis of his settlement with the SEC likely violated the terms of the settlement agreement.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In 2017, a lawsuit alleged Tesla made materially false and misleading statements regarding its preparedness to produce Model 3 cars. The U.S. Department of Justice also began an investigation in 2018 into whether Tesla misled investors and misstated production figures about the Model 3. The lawsuit was dismissed in Tesla's favor in March 2019.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In November 2019, hedge fund manager David Einhorn accused Elon Musk of "significant fraud" and in April 2020, questioned Tesla's accounting, in particular their large accounts receivable balance. Later in 2020, numerous reporters and financial analysts speculated that Tesla could be the next Wirecard scandal.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: , Tesla is facing a criminal probe from the US Department of Justice over claims it has made about its "Full Self-Driving" driver-assist system or capability. The company has been criticized for selling and promoting its so-called Full Self-Driving (FSD) beta add-on, when in fact the software requires drivers' constant supervision and is not actually capable of full self-driving. Tesla's Full Self-Driving beta is generally considered a SAE Level 2 advanced driver-assistance system, similar to competitors' offerings such as General Motors' Super Cruise and Ford's Co-Pilot360. Legal scholars William Widen and Philip Koopman argue that Tesla has misrepresented FSD beta as SAE Level 2 in order to "avoid regulatory oversight and permitting processes required of more highly automated vehicles". They argue that FSD beta should actually be considered a SAE Level 4 technology, and have urged state Departments of Transportation in the U.S. to classify it as such, because publicly available videos show that "beta test drivers operate their vehicles "as if" to validate SAE Level 4 (high driving automation) features, often revealing dramatically risky situations created by use of the vehicles in this manner."


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Tesla has benefited from increased sales and profit margins due to sales of the FSD option in particular, priced at $15,000 . In April 2019, when Tesla was low on capital, Musk announced that Tesla would have one million robotaxis on the road by the end of 2020; a few weeks later Tesla sold stock to raise an additional $3 billion, solving its cash troubles.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Elon Musk has repeatedly claimed that Tesla vehicles will be capable of full autonomy in the near future, but a Freedom of Information Act request made by PlainSite revealed that Tesla told the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in December 2020 they "do not expect significant enhancements" to the Full Self-Driving software that would enable full self-driving. In May 2021, the California DMV said it was investigating whether Tesla violated state regulations by misleading customers in its claims about "full self-driving". Bryant Walker Smith, an autonomous vehicle law expert at the University of South Carolina, said "it's so obviously clear that there's a contradiction" between what Tesla is saying in its marketing of Full Self-Driving versus what its lawyers and engineers have told the DMV. Smith said that using the name Full Self-Driving "leaves the domain of the misleading and irresponsible to something that could be called fraudulent". In August 2022, records surfaced showing that the California DMV had formally accused Tesla of false advertising Autopilot and FSD in July.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In Germany in July 2020, authorities ruled that Tesla misled consumers regarding the "abilities of its automated driving systems" and banned it from using certain marketing language implying autonomous driving capabilities. Upon appeal, that decision was reversed in 2021 by a higher court under the condition that Tesla clarify the capabilities of Autopilot on its website.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In a 2021 lawsuit against Tesla, Texas police officers claimed "systematic fraud" involving Tesla Autopilot after a Model X crashed into two parked police cars. , a trial has been requested. In September 2022, Tesla was sued by drivers in a proposed class action suit over alleged false advertising of Autopilot and FSD.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In mid 2020, Tesla was accused of reselling defective "lemon" cars in the U.S. and Europe, followed by accounts of Norway Tesla service centers using lemons as loaners. Multiple customers have accused Tesla of knowingly selling defective vehicles in China as well. In September 2021, a Chinese court ruled that Tesla had acted in a fraudulent manner by reselling a customer a defective used Model S car.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Critics argue that Tesla has published misleading safety claims about its Autopilot driver-assistance system, and that Tesla cars are actually less safe with Autopilot activated. Tesla's "public beta" release of Autopilot has been called unsafe and irresponsible, as critical safety features aren't thoroughly tested before being released to consumers. The National Transportation Safety Board has criticized Tesla for neglecting driver safety, calling certain Autopilot features "completely inadequate", and cited Autopilot as the probable cause of multiple deadly crashes involving Tesla vehicles. A 2019 study found that Autosteer increased the odds of airbag deployment by a factor of 2.4. A 2020 study found that drivers were more distracted when they used Autopilot, and the researchers called on Tesla to take more steps to ensure drivers stay attentive. Another 2020 study identified significant inconsistencies, abnormalities, and unsafe behavior with Autopilot on three Tesla Model 3 cars. Numerous videos have shown misuse and apparent malfunctions of Autopilot leading to collisions, and between 2016 and 2022 at least fifteen fatalities have involved the use of Autopilot, nine of which occurred in the United States.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: The Center for Auto Safety and Consumer Watchdog have criticized Tesla for what they believe are deceptive marketing practices related to Autopilot. Studies by AAA and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety have shown the name "Autopilot" to be misleading, causing drivers to think the system is safer than it actually is. A German court ruled in 2020 that Tesla had misled consumers by using the terms "Autopilot" and "Full Self Driving".


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: As of March 2021, the NHTSA was investigating 23 recent accidents involving Tesla vehicles that may have been on Autopilot. Tesla's Autopilot technology has struggled to detect crossing traffic and stopped vehicles, including stationary emergency vehicles, which has led to multiple fatal crashes. (Tesla released an "Emergency Light Detection" over-the-air update to Autopilot in September 2021, and the NHTSA questioned why it didn't issue a recall.) Additionally, an MIT study published in September 2021 found that Tesla Autopilot is not as safe as it claims and leads to drivers becoming inattentive from regular use of the system.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In February 2022, NHTSA began an investigation of phantom braking at highway speeds after 354 complaints from customers concerning a group of about 416,000 Tesla vehicles. The complaints describe rapid deceleration that can occur repeatedly without warning and apparently at random. One owner of a 2021 Tesla Model Y reported a violent deceleration to the NHTSA from 80 mph to 69 mph in less than a second. In May 2022, the NHTSA said in a letter that they had received over 750 complaints about this issue.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: In June 2022, NHTSA announced it was investigating 16 instances in which Autopilot shut off less than a second before a collision. "Fortune" suggested this "might indicate the system was designed to shut off when it sensed an imminent accident". "Fortune" also pointed out that Musk has frequently claimed that "accidents cannot be the fault of the company, as data it extracted invariably showed Autopilot was not active in the moment of the collision". Senator Ed Markey praised the NHTSA investigation, criticizing Tesla for disregarding safety rules and misleading the public about its "Autopilot" system.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Tesla has also been criticized by industry observers and safety advocates for its "fast-and-loose approach" to developing its automated-driving technology. Critics argue that pedestrians, cyclists, and other drivers didn't sign up to take part in Tesla's "lab experiment" of testing Full Self Driving with amateur drivers on public roads. In July 2021, many videos surfaced showing dangerous behavior in Tesla vehicles using the latest version of the Full Self Driving add-on.


title: Criticism of Tesla, Inc.

text: Tesla initially required all customers to sign a non-disclosure agreement in order to take part in their so-called FSD Beta testing program, which journalists noted as an attempt by Tesla to hide the system's flaws and protect itself from critics who argue that Tesla is actually making roads more dangerous. In response, the NHTSA sent a formal letter to Tesla asking about the terms of the NDA. Since then, videos of incidents from many beta testers have been posted online. Billionaire software safety advocate Dan O'Dowd aired a commercial claiming to show a Tesla running over child-sized mannequins several times; this generated a cease-and-desist letter from Tesla, which O'Dowd dismissed.