title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity is neither normative in the numerical sense, as only a small minority of men may enact it, nor in an actual sense, as the cultural ideal of masculinity is often a fantasy figure, such as John Wayne or John Rambo. It also affects the construct and perception of the idealised male body from an exclusively Western perspective. Hegemonic masculinity may not even be the commonest pattern in the everyday lives of men. Rather, hegemony can operate through the formation of exemplars of masculinity, symbols that have cultural authority despite the fact that most men and boys cannot fully live up to them. Hegemonic masculinity imposes an ideal set of traits which stipulate that a man can never be unfeminine enough. Thus, fully achieving hegemonic masculinity becomes an unattainable ideal.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Complicity to the aforementioned masculine characteristics was another key feature of the original framework of hegemonic masculinity. Yet still since men benefit from the patriarchal dividend, they generally gain from the overall subordination of women. However, complicity is not so easily defined as pure subordination since marriage, fatherhood, and community life often involve extensive compromises with women rather than simple domination over them. In this way hegemony is not gained through necessarily violent or forceful means, but it is achieved through culture, institutions, and persuasions.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: The interplay of gender with class and race creates more extensive relationships among masculinities. For example, new information technology has redefined middle-class masculinities and working-class masculinities in different ways. In a racial context, hegemonic masculinity among whites sustains the institutional oppression and physical terror that have framed the making of masculinities in black communities. It has been suggested that historically suppressed groups like inner city African-American males exhibit the more violent standards of hegemonic masculinity in response to their own subordination and lack of control. This idea of marginalization is always relative to what is allowed by the dominant group, therefore creating subsets of hegemonic masculinity based on existing social hierarchies.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: As the earliest model of this concept grew, so did the scrutiny and criticisms surrounding it. The following principal criticisms have been identified since debate about the concept began in the early 1990s.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: The underlying concept of masculinity has been argued as flawed from both a realist and a poststructuralist point of view. To Jeff Hearn, the concept of masculinity is blurred, uncertain in its meaning, and tends to deemphasize issues of power and domination. To Alan Petersen, the concept of masculinity is flawed because it reduces the character of men or imposes a false unity of a fluid and contradictory reality. The concept of masculinity is criticized for being framed within a heteronormative conception of gender that oversimplified male-female difference and ignores differences and exclusions within the gender categories. The concept of masculinity is said to rest logically on a dichotomization of sex (biological) and gender (cultural) and thus marginalizes or naturalizes the body. Harry Brod observes that there is a tendency in the field of men's studies to proceed as if women were not a relevant part of the analysis and therefore to analyse masculinities by looking only at men and relations among men. Therefore, a consistently relational approach to gender is being called upon.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Early criticisms of the concept raised the question of who actually represents hegemonic masculinity. Many men who hold great social power do not embody other aspects of ideal masculinity. Patricia Yancey Martin criticizes the concept for leading to inconsistent applications sometimes referring to a fixed type and other times to whatever the dominant form is. Margaret Wetherell and Nigel Edley contend this concept fails to specify what conformity to hegemonic masculinity actually looks like in practice. Similarly Stephen M. Whitehead suggests there is confusion over who actually is a hegemonically masculine man. Inspired by Gramsci's differentiation between hegemony as a form of ideological consent and dominance as an expression of conflict, Christian Groes-Green has argued that when hegemonic masculinities are challenged in a society dominant masculinities are emerging based on bodily powers, such as violence and sexuality, rather than based on economic and social powers. Through examples from his fieldwork among youth in Maputo, Mozambique he shows that this change is related to social polarization, new class identities and the undermining of breadwinner roles and ideologies in a neoliberal economy.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: It has also been argued that the concept of hegemonic masculinity does not adequately describe a realness of power. Øystein Gullvåg Holter argues that the concept constructs power from the direct experience of women rather than from the structural basis of women's subordination. Holter believes in distinguishing between patriarchy and gender and argues further that it is a mistake to treat a hierarchy of masculinities constructed within gender relations as logically continuous with the patriarchal subordination of women. In response to the adverse connotations surrounding the concept, Richard Collier remarks that hegemonic masculinity is solely associated with negative characteristics that depict men as unemotional (see affect display), aggressive, independent, and non-nurturing without recognizing positive behaviours such as bringing home a wage or being a father.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Several authors have argued that the concept of hegemonic masculinity is based on an unsatisfactory theory of the subject because it does not rely enough upon discourses of masculinity. Wetherell and Edley argue that hegemonic masculinity cannot be understood as the characteristics that constitute any group of men. To Whitehead the concept fails to specify how and why some heterosexual men legitimate, reproduce, and generate their dominance and do so as a social minority since they are outnumbered by women and other men they dominate. A related criticism also derives from psychoanalysis which has criticized the lack of attention given to how men actually psychologically relate to hegemonic masculinity. For example, Timothy Laurie argues that the hegemonic masculinity framework lends itself to a modified essentialism, wherein the "achievement of masculine goals is frequently attributed to a way of thinking understood as inherent to the male psyche, and in relation to an innate disposition for homosocial bonding".


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: There is considerable evidence that hegemonic masculinity is not a self-reproducing form. Demetrakis Z. Demetriou suggests this is because a kind of simplification has occurred. He identifies two forms of hegemony, internal and external. External hegemony relates to the institutionalization of men's dominance over women and internal hegemony refers to the position of one group of men over all other men. Scholars commonly do not clarify or acknowledge the relationship between the two. This suggests that subordinated and marginalized masculinities do not impact the construction of hegemonic masculinity as much as critics suggest it should.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: In one of the most widely cited works analysing the concept, R. W. Connell and James Messerschmidt sought to reformulate their theory of hegemonic masculinity in light of certain criticisms. They readjusted their framework to address four main areas: the nature of gender hierarchy, the geography of masculine configurations, the process of social embodiment, and the dynamics of masculinities.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Gender hierarchy seeks to explain not only why men hold a superior position to women but how each group influences the other. Research has documented the durability of nonhegemonic patterns of masculinity, which may represent well-crafted responses to racial/ethnic marginalization, physical disability, class inequality, or stigmatized sexuality. Hegemony may be accomplished by the incorporation of such masculinities into functioning gender order rather than by active oppression in the form of degradation or violence. An example would include that of the mainstream adoption of black hip hop culture which was created in response to urban structural inequalities. Another example is that of "protest masculinity", in which local working-class settings, sometimes involving ethnically marginalized men, embodies the claim to power typical of regional hegemonic masculinities in Western countries, but lack the economic resources and institutional authority that underpins the regional and global patterns.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: This new emphasis on gender hierarchy seeks to take a more relational approach to women as well. Women are central in many of the processes constructing masculinities, as mothers, schoolmates, girlfriends, sexual partners, wives, and workers in the gender division of labour. Gender hierarchies are affected by new configurations of women's identity and practice so more attention has been given to the historical interplay of femininities and masculinities.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Change in locally specific constructions of hegemonic masculinity has been a consistent theme of masculinity research, but given the growing attention to globalization, the significance of transnational arenas for the construction of masculinity has also been argued. Charlotte Hooper described the deployment of masculinities in the arenas of international relations, and Connell proposed a model of "transnational business masculinity" among jet-setting corporate executives. Because of this, Connell and Messerschmidt have proposed hegemonic masculinities be analysed at three levels: local, regional, and global. The links between these levels are critical to gender politics since interventions at any level giving women more power and representation can influence from the top down or from the bottom up. Additionally, adopting a framework that distinguishes between the three levels allows one to recognize the importance of place without making generalizations about independent cultures or discourses.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Social embodiment calls for a more rigid definition of what a hegemonically masculine man is and how the idea is actually carried out in real life. The pattern of embodiment involved in hegemony has been recognized in the earliest formulations of the concept but called for more theoretical attention. The importance of masculine embodiment for identity and behaviour emerges in many contexts. For example, in youth, skill in physical activity becomes a prime indicator of masculinity. This notion continues to manifest itself into many different health and sexual practices such as eating meat or having multiple sexual partners. Marios Kostas writes in "Gender and Education" that "hegemonic masculinity is also related to professional success in the labour market, which describes the social definition of tasks into as either 'men's work' or 'women’s work' and the definition of some kinds of work as more masculine than others". The emergence of transgender issues has made it particularly clear that embodiment be given more focus in reconceptualizations. The circuits of social embodiment may be very direct and simple or may be long and complex, passing through institutions, economic relations, cultural symbols, and so forth without ceasing to involve material bodies.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: New theory has recognized the layering and potential internal contradictions within all practices that construct masculinities. This is a departure from a unitary masculinity and focus on compromised formations between contradictory desires or emotions. Masculinities are configurations of practice that are constructed, unfold, and change through time. One area of focus may represent that of Western fathers given the gender division of labour in child care, the "long hours culture" of professions and management, and the preoccupation of rich fathers with managing their wealth. While these practices may adhere to conventional Western ideas of hegemonic masculinity, this may not necessarily translate into a satisfying life experience. As gender relations evolve and women's movements grow stronger, the dynamics of masculinities may see a complete abolition of power differentials and a more equitable relationship between men and women and between men and other men. This positive hegemony remains a key strategy for contemporary efforts at reforming gender relations. Groes-Green has argued that Connell's theory of masculinities risks excluding the possibility of more gender equitable or "philogynous" forms of masculinity such as those he has identified in Mozambique. He urges social researchers to begin developing theories and concepts that can improve an understanding of how more positive, alternative and less dominant masculinities may develop even if these are always embedded in local gender power relations.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Children learn at an early age, mostly through educational and peer interactions, what it means to be a boy and what it means to be a girl, and are quick to demonstrate that they understand these roles. This notion of "doing" gender involves differentiating between boys and girls from the day they are born and perpetuating the discourses of gender difference. The idea of dualism of the genders are misconstrued by dominant ideology and feeds into social norms of masculinity. Children learn and show development of gender identity as an ongoing process, based on social situations. Gendered toys can play a large role in demonstrating the preferred actions and behaviour of young boys in early childhood. The male role is also reinforced by observing older boys and reactions of authority figures, including parents. The promotion of idealized masculine roles emphasizing toughness, dominance, self-reliance, and the restriction of emotion can begin as early as infancy. Such norms are transmitted by parents, other male relatives, and members of the community. Media representations of masculinity on websites such as YouTube often promote similar stereotypical gender roles.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Although gender socialization is well underway before children reach preschool, stereotypical differences between boys and girls are typically reinforced, rather than diminished, by their early educational childhood experiences. Teachers have a large role in reinforcing gender stereotypes by limiting children's choices at this young age, thus not allowing boys to explore their feelings or their understandings about gender freely. This is done through the endorsement of hegemonic masculinity embodying physical domination, strength, competitiveness, sport, courage, and aggression. These gendered performances are based on society's construction of femininity and masculinity in relation to heterosexuality. Heteronormativity is the standard for children; despite their obvious sexual innocence, heterosexuality is ingrained in children in their acting of gender from an early age.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Another factor that contributes to gendered behaviour and roles is the greater visibility, importance, and presence of males than females in literature, and in the language that teachers use for communication and instruction. Male-generic pronouns are a special problem in early childhood settings. A recommended method to help gender barriers disappear is specific training for teachers and more education on the topic for parents. Though, an ultimate conclusion by one author notes that young children know, feel, and think gender despite the wishes of adults to make gender disappear in their lives.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: A lifespan perspective must be considered when discussing gender normalization. But one must also consider cultural hegemony in this stage of the lifespan as a child develops more of an understanding of their culture and begins to display original ideas of cultural norms as well as social norms. According to the constructivist emphasis, the man/woman dichotomy is not the "natural" state, but rather a potent metaphor in Western cultures. Building social relationships and developing individuality are essential benchmarks for this age of middle childhood, which ranges from eight years old to puberty. A young boy is trying to navigate falling within the social structure that has been laid out for him, which includes interacting with both sexes, and a dominant notion of maleness. The gender environmentalism, which emphasizes the role of societal practices in generating and maintaining gender differentiation, still plays a part in this stage of life, but is possibly more influenced by immediate and close interactions with boys close to their age. The boys organize themselves in a hierarchical structure in which the high-status boys decide what is acceptable and valued – that which is hegemonically masculine – and what is not. A boy's rank in the hierarchy is chiefly determined by his athletic ability.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: One site where gender is performed and socialized is in sport. Violent sports such as football are fundamental in naturalizing the equation of maleness with violence. Displays of strength and violence, through sports like football, help to naturalize elements of competition and hierarchy as inherently male behaviour. There is considerable evidence that males are hormonally predisposed to higher levels of aggression on average than females, due to the effects of testosterone. However, the violent and competitive nature of sports like football can only be an exclusively masculine domain if girls and women are excluded from participating altogether. The only means through which women are permitted to participate in football is as the passive spectator or cheerleader, although women do sometimes participate in other violent contact sports, such as boxing.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: When a child engages in behaviour or uses something that is more often associated with the opposite sex, this is referred to as crossing gender borders. When gender borders are crossed in adolescence, the children are policed by themselves. Conflicts and disagreements between boys are resolved by name-calling and teasing, physical aggression, and exclusion from the group. This brings confusion to the natural order of building their individualism, and stifles their creativity and freeplay, critical to developing lifelong skills in problem solving and decision making. Another notion which further confuses youth is "multiple masculinities" is introduced where variables such as social class, race, ethnicity, generation, and family status determines how these young men must perform their masculinity. Boys who fail to fit the social norm are forced to enter adolescence having experienced alienation from their social group and marginalized from the social order they strive to achieve in this stage of life.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: The last stage of childhood, adolescence, marks the onset of puberty and the eventual beginning of adulthood. Hegemonic masculinity then positions some boys, and all girls, as subordinate or inferior to others. Bullying is another avenue in which young men assert their dominance over less "masculine" boys. In this bullying schema, adolescent boys are motivated to be at the top of the scale by engaging in more risk taking activities as well. Oftentimes bullying is motivated by social constructs and generalized ideas of what a young man should be. Gendered sexuality in adolescence refers to the role gender takes in the adolescent's life and how it is informed by and impacts others' perceptions of their sexuality. This can lead to gay bashing and other forms of discrimination if young men seem not to perform the appropriate masculinity.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: The male gender role is not biologically fixed, yet it is a result of the internalization of culturally defined gender norms and ideologies. In this stage this is an important point as developmental psychologists recognize change in relations with parents, peers, and even their own self-identity. This is a time of confusion and disturbance; they feel influenced as a result of asserted hegemonic masculinity as well as social factors that lead them to become more self-conscious. De Visser et al., show that although men need not engage in all masculine behaviour to be considered masculine, enacting in more masculine behaviours increases the likelihood they will be considered more masculine, otherwise known as building "masculine capital". It has been suggested that boys' emotional stoicism leaves them unable to recognize their own and others' emotions, which leaves a risk for developing psychological distress and empty interpersonal skills. Boys in their adolescence are pressured to act masculine in order to fit the hegemonic ideals, yet the possibility of suffering long-term psychological damage as a result looms overhead.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: The 1995 documentary "The Celluloid Closet" discusses the depictions of homosexuals throughout film history. In Jackson Katz's film "Tough Guise": "Violence, Media & the Crisis in Masculinity", he asserts:


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has been used in education studies to understand the dynamics of classroom life, including patterns of resistance and bullying among boys. It was also used to explore relations to the curriculum and the difficulties in gender-neutral pedagogy. It was used to understand teaching strategies and teacher identities among such groups as physical education instructors. This concept has also been helpful in structuring violence-prevention programs for youth. and emotional education programs for boys.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has greatly influenced criminology as data reflects that men and boys perpetuate more conventional crimes and more serious crimes than women and girls. Moreover, men are responsible for much more white-collar crime than women. The concept of hegemonic masculinity helped in theorizing the relationship among masculinities and a variety of crimes. It was also used in studies on specific crimes by boys and men, such as rape in Switzerland, murder in Australia, football hooliganism and white-collar crime in England, and assaultive violence in the United States. Regarding costs and consequences, research in criminology showed how particular patterns of aggression were linked with hegemonic masculinity, not because criminals already had dominant positions, but because they were pursuing them.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has also been employed in studying media representations of men. Because the concept of hegemony helps to make sense of both the diversity and the selectiveness of images in mass media, media researchers have begun mapping the relations between different masculinities. Portrayals of masculinity in men's lifestyle magazines have been studied and researchers found elements of hegemonic masculinity woven throughout them. Commercial sports are a focus of media representations of masculinity, and the developing field of sports sociology found significant use of the concept of hegemonic masculinity. It was deployed in understanding the popularity of body-contact confrontational sports which function as an endlessly renewed symbol of masculinity and in understanding the violence and homophobia frequently found in sporting environments. Rugby union, rugby league, American football, and ice hockey, and the prevalence of injuries and concussions in these sports, is a particularly salient example of the impacts of hegemonic masculinity. With the dominant mode of hegemonic masculinity valuing emotionlessness, invulnerability, toughness, and risk-taking, concussions have become normalized. Players have accepted them as simply "part of the game". If a man does not play through a concussion, he risks being blamed for the team's loss, or labelled as effeminate. It is noble to play in pain, nobler to play in agony, and noblest if one never exhibits any sign of pain at all. Coaches buy into this unwritten code of masculinity as well, by invoking euphemisms such as "he needs to learn the difference between injury and pain", while also questioning a player's masculinity to get him back on the field quickly. Players, coaches, and trainers subscribe to the hegemonic model, thus creating a culture of dismissiveness, often resulting in concussions, which can lead to brain diseases like CTE.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has been increasingly used to understand men's health practices and determinants. Practices such as playing through physical injuries and risk-taking sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex with multiple partners, have been studied. The concept has also been used to understand men's exposure to risk and their difficulty in responding to disability and injury. Hegemonic masculine ideals, especially stoicism, emotionlessness, and invulnerability, alongside shame and fear of judgement, can help explain an aversion to seeking mental health care. Men are less likely than women to seek professional services psychiatrists or counsellors, informal help through friends, and are more likely to report that they would never seek psychotherapy for depression. In fact, men who adhere to the masculine norm of stoicism have difficulty in identifying grief, sadness, or a depressed mood, some of the conventional diagnostic symptoms of depression. Recognition of weakness would be a recognition of femininity, and as such, men distract themselves, avoid the problem, or get angry – one of the few emotions permissible under hegemonic masculine norms – when depressive symptoms surface. On a global scale, the impact of hegemonic masculinity has been considered in determining unequal social and political relations which are deleterious to the health of both men and women.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has proved significant in organizational studies as the gendered character of workplaces and bureaucracies has been increasingly recognized. A particular focus has been placed on the military, where specific patterns of hegemonic masculinity have been entrenched but have been increasingly problematic. These studies found that negative hegemonically masculine characteristics related to violence and aggression were required to thrive in the military at all ranks and in all branches. Additionally homophobic ideals were commonplace and further subordinated men in these positions. Studies have also traced the institutionalization of hegemonic masculinities in specific organizations and their role in organizational decision making. This can be related to the glass ceiling and gender pay gap women experience.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: "Tough guy" attributes like unwillingness to admit ignorance, admit mistakes, or ask for help can undermine safety culture and productivity, by interfering with exchange of useful information. A Harvard Business School study found an intervention to improve the culture at Shell Oil during the construction of the Ursa tension leg platform contributed to increased productivity and an 84% lower accident rate.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hegemonic masculinity has impacted both conflict and international relations, serving as a foundation for militarism. Charlotte Hooper discusses how U.S. foreign policy, following the Vietnam War, was seen as a way of bolstering America's manhood. It was believed that the Vietcong, often categorized "as a bunch of women and children", had humiliated and emasculated America. In order to regain its manhood – both domestically and internationally – America needed to develop a hyper-masculinized and aggressive breed of foreign policy. Hooper also discusses the idea that since the international sphere is largely composed of men, it may greatly shape both "the production and maintenance of masculinities." War, then, exists in a unique feedback loop whereby it is not only perpetuated by hegemonic masculinity, but also legitimates masculinity. Post-conflict Cyprus, presents one such example, as Stratis Andreas Efthymiou discusses, Greek Cypriot hegemonic masculinity is constructed into the post-conflict culture. Embodying bravery, determination, the subordination of women and a taste for guns were key aspects for achieving GC masculinity. In addition, proudly serving conscription in a difficult unit and showing attachment to the nationalist ideals were the pinnacle attributes of the post-war male. In turn, hegemonic masculinity shaping and being shaped by nationalism and militarism places Greek Cypriot men who appeal to peace politics, cross the divide or interact with the ‘other’ at risk of failing the hegemonic model of masculinity. In other words, it is challenging for Greek Cypriot men to find a way to respectfully relate to their self, if they attempt to come closer to Turkish Cypriots, because of the nationalist militarist way that masculinity is shaped in Cyprus. Therefore, masculinity is reproduced and adapted through a co-constitutive relationship with militarism and nationalism.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hooper discusses how military combat has been fundamental to the very composition of masculinity "symbolically, institutionally", and culturally through body shape. Moreover, Hooper discusses how women are seen as life givers, while men are believed to be life takers. As a result, men can only exist as men if they are willing to charge into war, thereby expressing their "enduring 'natural aggression'." Furthermore, this perception also explains the traditional "exclusion of women from combat", while furthering the myth "that military service is the fullest expression of masculinity." This has troubling implications for the continuation of war, and for the enshrinement of masculine norms. Hooper also ideates about the instillation of militarized masculinity in boys, discussing how military service is a "rite of passage" for young men. As such, "war and the military represent one of the major sites where hegemonic masculinities" are formed and enshrined.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Militarized hegemonic masculinity has also impacted perceptions of citizenship as well as the LGBT community. Conscription is fairly common throughout the world, and has also been utilized in America during key conflicts. The majority of men expect conscription to be the price of adult citizenship, but religious objectors and homosexuals have been largely excluded from this. These restrictions have led to the perceived subordinate status of these groups, and their subsequent exclusion from full citizenship, in the same fashion that women have been excluded. This is reflective of the notion that men unable to, or unwilling to fight for their country are more effeminate, as they are breaking with hegemonic norms. The perceptions that homosexuals are unfit for service, and that women have a responsibility at home, is reflective of the heteronormative nature of the military. The institutional composition of the military, itself, reinforces this hegemony through the armed branch's subordination to a "dominating and organizationally competent" branch. Essentially, there is an armed wing, which is masculinized through conflict, and there is a dominating branch, that is masculinized through power. The hierarchical nature of the military is used to enforce, replicate, and enhance hegemonic masculinity.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Male rape is especially prevalent in male dominant environments, such as in the military and prison. In a 2014 "GQ" article titled "'Son, Men Don't Get Raped'", nearly 30 sexual assault survivors come forward to discuss rape in the military. According to The Pentagon, 38 military men are sexually assaulted every day. The majority of the victims' stories involve a highly ranked perpetrator, such as senior aides, recruiters, or sergeants, which are positions that young soldiers look up to. Some victims describe being weaker than the attacker and physically unable to stop the rape, while others felt too mentally dominated to speak up. Either way, the men were met with defeat and emasculation. In the article, the psychologist James Asbrand, who specializes in post-traumatic stress disorder, explains: "The rape of a male soldier has a particular symbolism. 'In a hyper masculine culture, what's the worst thing you can do to another man?' Force him into what the culture perceives as a feminine role. Completely dominate and rape him." Asbrand refers to the military as a hypermasculine environment, which is consistent with its media portrayal. Joining the army is considered a noble act for men, which military movies, advertisements, and video games reinforce. Because of this, it is no surprise that recruits would likely embody stereotypical masculine personas, and therefore contribute to an environment of competition.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Connell argues that an important feature of hegemonic masculinity is the use of "toxic" practices such as physical violence, which may serve to reinforce men's dominance over women in Western societies. Other scholars have used the term "toxic masculinity" to refer to stereotypically masculine gender roles that restrict the kinds of emotions that can be expressed (see affect display) by boys and men, including social expectations that men seek to be dominant (the "alpha male").


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: According to Terry Kupers, toxic masculinity serves to outline aspects of hegemonic masculinity that are socially destructive, "such as misogyny, homophobia, greed, and violent domination". These traits are contrasted with more positive aspects of hegemonic masculinity such as "pride in [one's] ability to win at sports, to maintain solidarity with a friend, to succeed at work, or to provide for [one's] family".


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Slovenian philosopher and writer Slavoj Žižek explains how the concept of toxic masculinity is an ideological category that has been turned into a clinical category, which means that there is a whole industry of pharmaceuticals and medical procedures that have arisen to deal with the now "medical" problem. In addition, others have argued that this process has ultimately worked to increase incarceration rates under the guise of intersectionality.


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hybrid masculinity is the use of aspects of marginalized gender expressions in the gender performance or identity of privileged men. Scholarship on hybrid masculinities suggests that they simultaneously distance themselves from traditional norms of masculinity while reproducing and reinforcing hegemonic masculinity. Hybrid masculinities allow men to negotiate masculinity in ways that mirror more inclusive behavior and attitudes, but leave larger institutional systems sustaining gender inequality undisturbed. Scholars note that "although 'softer' and more 'sensitive' styles of masculinity are developing among some privileged groups of men, this does not necessarily contribute to the emancipation of women; in fact, quite the contrary may be true." The term was introduced to describe the contemporary trend of men taking on politics and perspectives historically understood as "emasculating."


title: Hegemonic masculinity

text: Hybrid masculinity has been studied in relation to the manosphere, particularly beta males and incels as well as in research on gay male culture, teen behavioral issues, and contraception.


title: Genomics

text: Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to genetics, which refers to the study of "individual" genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of "all" of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.


title: Genomics

text: The field also includes studies of intragenomic (within the genome) phenomena such as epistasis (effect of one gene on another), pleiotropy (one gene affecting more than one trait), heterosis (hybrid vigour), and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome.


title: Genomics

text: From the Greek ΓΕΝ "gen", "gene" (gamma, epsilon, nu, epsilon) meaning "become, create, creation, birth", and subsequent variants: genealogy, genesis, genetics, genic, genomere, genotype, genus etc. While the word "genome" (from the German "Genom", attributed to Hans Winkler) was in use in English as early as 1926, the term "genomics" was coined by Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Maine), over beers with Jim Womack, Tom Shows and Stephen O’Brien at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986. First as the name for a new journal and then as a whole new science discipline.


title: Genomics

text: Following Rosalind Franklin's confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, James D. Watson and Francis Crick's publication of the structure of DNA in 1953 and Fred Sanger's publication of the Amino acid sequence of insulin in 1955, nucleic acid sequencing became a major target of early molecular biologists. In 1964, Robert W. Holley and colleagues published the first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, the ribonucleotide sequence of alanine transfer RNA. Extending this work, Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the triplet nature of the genetic code and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments. In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Fiers' group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA (whose genome encodes just four genes in 3569 base pairs [bp]) and Simian virus 40 in 1976 and 1978, respectively.


title: Genomics

text: In addition to his seminal work on the amino acid sequence of insulin, Frederick Sanger and his colleagues played a key role in the development of DNA sequencing techniques that enabled the establishment of comprehensive genome sequencing projects. In 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the "Plus and Minus technique". This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel (called polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded bacteriophage φX174, completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. The refinement of the "Plus and Minus" method resulted in the chain-termination, or Sanger method (see below), which formed the basis of the techniques of DNA sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analysis most widely used in the following quarter-century of research. In the same year Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam of Harvard University independently developed the Maxam-Gilbert method (also known as the "chemical method") of DNA sequencing, involving the preferential cleavage of DNA at known bases, a less efficient method. For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert and Sanger shared half the 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry with Paul Berg (recombinant DNA).


title: Genomics

text: The advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of genome sequencing projects. The first complete genome sequence of a eukaryotic organelle, the human mitochondrion (16,568 bp, about 16.6 kb [kilobase]), was reported in 1981, and the first chloroplast genomes followed in 1986. In 1992, the first eukaryotic chromosome, chromosome III of brewer's yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (315 kb) was sequenced. The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of "Haemophilus influenzae" (1.8 Mb [megabase]) in 1995. The following year a consortium of researchers from laboratories across North America, Europe, and Japan announced the completion of the first complete genome sequence of a eukaryote, "S. cerevisiae" (12.1 Mb), and since then genomes have continued being sequenced at an exponentially growing pace. , the complete sequences are available for: 2,719 viruses, 1,115 archaea and bacteria, and 36 eukaryotes, of which about half are fungi.


title: Genomics

text: Most of the microorganisms whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic pathogens, such as "Haemophilus influenzae", which has resulted in a pronounced bias in their phylogenetic distribution compared to the breadth of microbial diversity. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae") has long been an important model organism for the eukaryotic cell, while the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster" has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular genetics). The worm "Caenorhabditis elegans" is an often used simple model for multicellular organisms. The zebrafish "Brachydanio rerio" is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level, and the plant "Arabidopsis thaliana" is a model organism for flowering plants. The Japanese pufferfish ("Takifugu rubripes") and the spotted green pufferfish ("Tetraodon nigroviridis") are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, which contain very little noncoding DNA compared to most species. The mammals dog ("Canis familiaris"), brown rat ("Rattus norvegicus"), mouse ("Mus musculus"), and chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes") are all important model animals in medical research.


title: Genomics

text: A rough draft of the human genome was completed by the Human Genome Project in early 2001, creating much fanfare. This project, completed in 2003, sequenced the entire genome for one specific person, and by 2007 this sequence was declared "finished" (less than one error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled). In the years since then, the genomes of many other individuals have been sequenced, partly under the auspices of the 1000 Genomes Project, which announced the sequencing of 1,092 genomes in October 2012. Completion of this project was made possible by the development of dramatically more efficient sequencing technologies and required the commitment of significant bioinformatics resources from a large international collaboration. The continued analysis of human genomic data has profound political and social repercussions for human societies.


title: Genomics

text: The English-language neologism omics informally refers to a field of study in biology ending in "-omics", such as genomics, proteomics or metabolomics. The related suffix -ome is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the genome, proteome or metabolome respectively. The suffix "-ome" as used in molecular biology refers to a "totality" of some sort; similarly omics has come to refer generally to the study of large, comprehensive biological data sets. While the growth in the use of the term has led some scientists (Jonathan Eisen, among others) to claim that it has been oversold, it reflects the change in orientation towards the quantitative analysis of complete or near-complete assortment of all the constituents of a system. In the study of symbioses, for example, researchers which were once limited to the study of a single gene product can now simultaneously compare the total complement of several types of biological molecules.


title: Genomics

text: After an organism has been selected, genome projects involve three components: the sequencing of DNA, the assembly of that sequence to create a representation of the original chromosome, and the annotation and analysis of that representation.


title: Genomics

text: Historically, sequencing was done in "sequencing centers", centralized facilities (ranging from large independent institutions such as Joint Genome Institute which sequence dozens of terabases a year, to local molecular biology core facilities) which contain research laboratories with the costly instrumentation and technical support necessary. As sequencing technology continues to improve, however, a new generation of effective fast turnaround benchtop sequencers has come within reach of the average academic laboratory. On the whole, genome sequencing approaches fall into two broad categories, "shotgun" and "high-throughput" (or "next-generation") sequencing.


title: Genomics

text: Shotgun sequencing is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and including entire chromosomes. It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random firing pattern of a shotgun. Since gel electrophoresis sequencing can only be used for fairly short sequences (100 to 1000 base pairs), longer DNA sequences must be broken into random small segments which are then sequenced to obtain "reads". Multiple overlapping reads for the target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence. Shotgun sequencing is a random sampling process, requiring over-sampling to ensure a given nucleotide is represented in the reconstructed sequence; the average number of reads by which a genome is over-sampled is referred to as coverage.


title: Genomics

text: For much of its history, the technology underlying shotgun sequencing was the classical chain-termination method or 'Sanger method', which is based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication. Recently, shotgun sequencing has been supplanted by high-throughput sequencing methods, especially for large-scale, automated genome analyses. However, the Sanger method remains in wide use, primarily for smaller-scale projects and for obtaining especially long contiguous DNA sequence reads (>500 nucleotides). Chain-termination methods require a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA primer, a DNA polymerase, normal deoxynucleosidetriphosphates (dNTPs), and modified nucleotides (dideoxyNTPs) that terminate DNA strand elongation. These chain-terminating nucleotides lack a 3'-OH group required for the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two nucleotides, causing DNA polymerase to cease extension of DNA when a ddNTP is incorporated. The ddNTPs may be radioactively or fluorescently labelled for detection in DNA sequencers. Typically, these machines can sequence up to 96 DNA samples in a single batch (run) in up to 48 runs a day.


title: Genomics

text: The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies that parallelize the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once. High-throughput sequencing is intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-high-throughput sequencing, as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis operations may be run in parallel.


title: Genomics

text: The Illumina dye sequencing method is based on reversible dye-terminators and was developed in 1996 at the Geneva Biomedical Research Institute, by Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli. In this method, DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified with polymerase so that local clonal colonies, initially coined "DNA colonies", are formed. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA chains are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies to be captured by sequential images taken from a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and theoretically unlimited sequencing capacity; with an optimal configuration, the ultimate throughput of the instrument depends only on the A/D conversion rate of the camera. The camera takes images of the fluorescently labeled nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.


title: Genomics

text: An alternative approach, ion semiconductor sequencing, is based on standard DNA replication chemistry. This technology measures the release of a hydrogen ion each time a base is incorporated. A microwell containing template DNA is flooded with a single nucleotide, if the nucleotide is complementary to the template strand it will be incorporated and a hydrogen ion will be released. This release triggers an ISFET ion sensor. If a homopolymer is present in the template sequence multiple nucleotides will be incorporated in a single flood cycle, and the detected electrical signal will be proportionally higher.


title: Genomics

text: Sequence assembly refers to aligning and merging fragments of a much longer DNA sequence in order to reconstruct the original sequence. This is needed as current DNA sequencing technology cannot read whole genomes as a continuous sequence, but rather reads small pieces of between 20 and 1000 bases, depending on the technology used. Third generation sequencing technologies such as PacBio or Oxford Nanopore routinely generate sequencing reads >10 kb in length; however, they have a high error rate at approximately 15 percent. Typically the short fragments, called reads, result from shotgun sequencing genomic DNA, or gene transcripts (ESTs).


title: Genomics

text: Assembly can be broadly categorized into two approaches: "de novo" assembly, for genomes which are not similar to any sequenced in the past, and comparative assembly, which uses the existing sequence of a closely related organism as a reference during assembly. Relative to comparative assembly, "de novo" assembly is computationally difficult (NP-hard), making it less favourable for short-read NGS technologies. Within the "de novo" assembly paradigm there are two primary strategies for assembly, Eulerian path strategies, and overlap-layout-consensus (OLC) strategies. OLC strategies ultimately try to create a Hamiltonian path through an overlap graph which is an NP-hard problem. Eulerian path strategies are computationally more tractable because they try to find a Eulerian path through a deBruijn graph.


title: Genomics

text: Finished genomes are defined as having a single contiguous sequence with no ambiguities representing each replicon.


title: Genomics

text: The DNA sequence assembly alone is of little value without additional analysis. Genome annotation is the process of attaching biological information to sequences, and consists of three main steps:


title: Genomics

text: Automatic annotation tools try to perform these steps "in silico", as opposed to manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise and potential experimental verification. Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in the same annotation pipeline (also see below).


title: Genomics

text: Traditionally, the basic level of annotation is using BLAST for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on homologues. More recently, additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation. Some databases use genome context information, similarity scores, experimental data, and integrations of other resources to provide genome annotations through their Subsystems approach. Other databases (e.g. Ensembl) rely on both curated data sources as well as a range of software tools in their automated genome annotation pipeline. "Structural annotation" consists of the identification of genomic elements, primarily ORFs and their localisation, or gene structure. "Functional annotation" consists of attaching biological information to genomic elements.


title: Genomics

text: The need for reproducibility and efficient management of the large amount of data associated with genome projects mean that computational pipelines have important applications in genomics.


title: Genomics

text: Functional genomics is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects) to describe gene (and protein) functions and interactions. Functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene transcription, translation, and protein–protein interactions, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as DNA sequence or structures. Functional genomics attempts to answer questions about the function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts, and protein products. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods rather than a more traditional “gene-by-gene” approach.


title: Genomics

text: A major branch of genomics is still concerned with sequencing the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of functional genomics, mainly concerned with patterns of gene expression during various conditions. The most important tools here are microarrays and bioinformatics.


title: Genomics

text: Structural genomics seeks to describe the 3-dimensional structure of every protein encoded by a given genome. This genome-based approach allows for a high-throughput method of structure determination by a combination of experimental and modeling approaches. The principal difference between structural genomics and traditional structural prediction is that structural genomics attempts to determine the structure of every protein encoded by the genome, rather than focusing on one particular protein. With full-genome sequences available, structure prediction can be done more quickly through a combination of experimental and modeling approaches, especially because the availability of large numbers of sequenced genomes and previously solved protein structures allow scientists to model protein structure on the structures of previously solved homologs. Structural genomics involves taking a large number of approaches to structure determination, including experimental methods using genomic sequences or modeling-based approaches based on sequence or structural homology to a protein of known structure or based on chemical and physical principles for a protein with no homology to any known structure. As opposed to traditional structural biology, the determination of a protein structure through a structural genomics effort often (but not always) comes before anything is known regarding the protein function. This raises new challenges in structural bioinformatics, i.e. determining protein function from its 3D structure.


title: Genomics

text: Epigenomics is the study of the complete set of epigenetic modifications on the genetic material of a cell, known as the epigenome. Epigenetic modifications are reversible modifications on a cell's DNA or histones that affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence (Russell 2010 p. 475). Two of the most characterized epigenetic modifications are DNA methylation and histone modification. Epigenetic modifications play an important role in gene expression and regulation, and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as in differentiation/development and tumorigenesis. The study of epigenetics on a global level has been made possible only recently through the adaptation of genomic high-throughput assays.


title: Genomics

text: Metagenomics is the study of "metagenomes", genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics. While traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing rely upon cultivated clonal cultures, early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often the 16S rRNA gene) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial biodiversity had been missed by cultivation-based methods. Recent studies use "shotgun" Sanger sequencing or massively parallel pyrosequencing to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities. Because of its power to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life, metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world.


title: Genomics

text: Bacteriophages have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial genetics and molecular biology. Historically, they were used to define gene structure and gene regulation. Also the first genome to be sequenced was a bacteriophage. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying phage evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of prophage sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome: Overall, this method verified many known bacteriophage groups, making this a useful tool for predicting the relationships of prophages from bacterial genomes.


title: Genomics

text: At present there are 24 cyanobacteria for which a total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six "Prochlorococcus" strains, seven marine "Synechococcus" strains, "Trichodesmium erythraeum" IMS101 and "Crocosphaera watsonii" WH8501. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further "Prochlorococcus" and marine "Synechococcus" isolates, "Acaryochloris" and "Prochloron", the N-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria "Nodularia spumigena", "Lyngbya aestuarii" and "Lyngbya majuscula", as well as bacteriophages infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into the evolutionary origin of photosynthesis, or estimation of the contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the genomes that have been analyzed.


title: Genomics

text: Genomics has provided applications in many fields, including medicine, biotechnology, anthropology and other social sciences.


title: Genomics

text: Next-generation genomic technologies allow clinicians and biomedical researchers to drastically increase the amount of genomic data collected on large study populations. When combined with new informatics approaches that integrate many kinds of data with genomic data in disease research, this allows researchers to better understand the genetic bases of drug response and disease. Early efforts to apply the genome to medicine included those by a Stanford team led by Euan Ashley who developed the first tools for the medical interpretation of a human genome. The Genomes2People research program at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Broad Institute and Harvard Medical School was established in 2012 to conduct empirical research in translating genomics into health. Brigham and Women's Hospital opened a Preventive Genomics Clinic in August 2019, with Massachusetts General Hospital following a month later. The "All of Us" research program aims to collect genome sequence data from 1 million participants to become a critical component of the precision medicine research platform.


title: Genomics

text: The growth of genomic knowledge has enabled increasingly sophisticated applications of synthetic biology. In 2010 researchers at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced the creation of a partially synthetic species of bacterium, "Mycoplasma laboratorium", derived from the genome of "Mycoplasma genitalium".


title: Genomics

text: Population genomics has developed as a popular field of research, where genomic sequencing methods are used to conduct large-scale comparisons of DNA sequences among populations - beyond the limits of genetic markers such as short-range PCR products or microsatellites traditionally used in population genetics. Population genomics studies genome-wide effects to improve our understanding of microevolution so that we may learn the phylogenetic history and demography of a population. Population genomic methods are used for many different fields including evolutionary biology, ecology, biogeography, conservation biology and fisheries management. Similarly, landscape genomics has developed from landscape genetics to use genomic methods to identify relationships between patterns of environmental and genetic variation.


title: Genomics

text: Conservationists can use the information gathered by genomic sequencing in order to better evaluate genetic factors key to species conservation, such as the genetic diversity of a population or whether an individual is heterozygous for a recessive inherited genetic disorder. By using genomic data to evaluate the effects of evolutionary processes and to detect patterns in variation throughout a given population, conservationists can formulate plans to aid a given species without as many variables left unknown as those unaddressed by standard genetic approaches.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York (Pennsylvania Dutch: "Yarrick"), known as the White Rose City (after the symbol of the House of York), is the county seat of York County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is located in the south-central region of the state. The population within York's city limits was 43,718 at the 2010 census, a 7.0% increase from the 2000 census count of 40,862. When combined with the adjacent boroughs of West York and North York and surrounding Spring Garden, West Manchester, and Springettsbury townships, the population of Greater York was 108,386. York is the 11th largest city in Pennsylvania.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York, also known as Yorktown in the mid 18th to early 19th centuries, was founded in 1741 by settlers from the Philadelphia region and named for the English city of the same name. By 1777, most of the area residents were of either German or Scots-Irish descent. York was incorporated as a borough on September 24, 1787, and as a city on January 11, 1887.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York served as the temporary capital of the Continental Congress from September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778, during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Congress drafted and adopted the Articles of Confederation in York, though they were not ratified until March 1781. Congress met at the Court House (built 1754, demolished 1841, and rebuilt 1976 as Colonial Court House).


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York styles itself the first Capital of the United States, although historians generally consider it to be the fourth capital, after Philadelphia, Baltimore and (for one day) Lancaster. The claim arises from the assertion that the Articles of Confederation was the first legal document to refer to the colonies as "the United States of America". The argument depends on whether the Declaration of Independence, which also uses the term, would be considered a true legal document of the United States, being drafted under and in opposition to British rule. This does not, however, prevent modern businesses and organizations in the York area, such as the First Capital Dispensing Co., First Capital Engineering and First Capital Federal Credit Union from using the name.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The Conway Cabal, a political intrigue against General George Washington, had its origins in the Golden Plough Tavern in York.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: According to U.S. census reports from 1800 through 1840, York ranked within the nation's top 100 most populous urban areas.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: During the American Civil War (1861–1865), York became the largest Northern town to be occupied by the Confederate army when the division of Major General Jubal Anderson Early spent June 28–30, 1863, in and around the town while the brigade of John B. Gordon marched to the Susquehanna River at Wrightsville and back. Early laid York under tribute and collected food, supplies, clothing, shoes, and $28,000 in cash from citizens and merchants before departing westward obeying the revised orders of Robert E. Lee. The sprawling York U.S. Army Hospital on Penn Commons served thousands of Union soldiers wounded at the battles of Antietam and Gettysburg.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: In the Postbellum era (1865–1877), York remained a regional center for local agriculture, but increasingly became an important industrial center, with such industries as steam engines, railroad manufacturing, and papermaking coming to the forefront. York also features some unique architecture ranging from colonial era buildings to large gothic churches.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York Motor Car Co. built Pullman automobiles on North George St. from 1905 thorough 1917. An early and unique six-wheeled prototype was involved in one of the city's first known automobile accidents. Another model was driven to San Francisco and back over about one month to prove its reliability several years before the creation of the Lincoln Highway which ran through town, connecting New York and San Francisco.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York area had also been home for more than 100 years to the Pfaltzgraff company, which built its first pottery factory in the area in 1895 and continued manufacturing in York until 2005. Though now produced by the Hershey Company, the York Peppermint Pattie was created in York in 1940.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Throughout the middle 20th Century, the black residents of the city were subject to hostile racial prejudice and social injustices. Between 1955 and 1970, the people of York experienced racial discrimination leading to riots, most notably the 1969 York Race Riot, which resulted in the death of Lillie Belle Allen and Henry C. Schaad. These murders were largely left ignored until 31 years later, when allegations of murder and racial prejudice were raised against the mayor at the time, Charlie Robertson. Additionally, throughout the entire century, the city commonly held unopposed Ku Klux Klan rallies and public meetings, despite continuous racial tensions. Though the murders of Allen and Schaad were solved and the perpetrators were apprehended, the actions, which originate back to the beginnings of the hate group, continue to present day.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: In 2002, the city faced a budget shortfall of $1,000,000. Mayor John S. Brenner's plan to raise the money by asking York County's 302,000 adult residents to donate $3.32 to the city received national attention.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: After many years of attempting to secure funding for a stadium and a baseball team to play in it, the first decade of the century saw York realize both goals. In 2007, Santander Stadium, home of the York Revolution, opened in the Arch Street neighborhood. The stadium, along with other large projects such as the York County Judicial Center and the Codo 241 luxury apartment lofts, symbolizes York's extensive redevelopment efforts


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, of it is land and of it (1.14%) is water.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York has a humid continental climate ("Dfa") with hot, humid summers and moderately cold winters. The mean annual precipitation total of is fairly evenly spread throughout the year, and falls on an average of 126.6 days per annum. Record temperatures from the York COOP range from , set on July 2, 1901, down to , recorded on January 28, 1925, and January 21, 1994; at York Airport, with a considerably shorter period of record, the range is , set on July 22, 2011, down to as recently as March 6–7, 2015. The York COOP also holds the official statewide 24-hour precipitation record of set on June 22, 1972, due to the impact of Hurricane Agnes.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is the largest principal city of the York–Hanover–Gettysburg CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the York–Hanover metropolitan area (York County) and the Gettysburg micropolitan area (Adams County), which had a combined population of 473,043 at the 2000 census.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: As of the 2020 United States census, York had a population of 44,800. Of which, 38.1% were Hispanic/Latino, 32.4% were non-hispanic White, 23.1% were non-hispanic Black, 0.8% were Asian, 0.2% were Native American or Pacific Islander, and 5.4% were mixed or other.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: As of the 2010 census, the city was 51.2% White, 28.0% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 1.2% Asian, and 6.3% were two or more races. 28.5% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 40,862 people, 16,137 households, and 9,246 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 18,534 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 59.75% White, 25.13% African American, 0.42% Native American, 1.40% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 9.40% from other races, and 3.83% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17.19% of the population.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: There were 16,137 households, out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.0% were married couples living together, 20.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.7% were non-families. 33.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.17.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 28.4% under the age of 18, 11.4% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.0 males.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The median income for a household in the city was $26,475, and the median income for a family was $30,762. Males had a median income of $26,792 versus $20,612 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,439. About 20.0% of families and 23.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.8% of those under age 18 and 15.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York was the home of dental equipment and false teeth giant, Dentsply Sirona, until the company moved its headquarters to North Carolina in 2019. Though founded in New York by four men, the company moved its headquarters to the site of its factory in the 1900s, where it was run by one of the four founders, George H. Whiteley. Whiteley was an experienced ceramist who was familiar with the process of making artificial teeth. Whiteley was sent by the group to oversee the factory and his family presided over the factory for multiple generations. Dentsply Sirona is a NASDAQ listed company, and internationally known throughout the dentistry business.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York Barbell, located in Manchester Township, is a reseller of barbells and other equipment for weight training and bodybuilding, and is the home of the USA Weightlifting Hall of Fame. A large Harley-Davidson motorcycle factory, which employs roughly half of Harley's production workforce, is located just northeast of York in Springettsbury Township.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York area is home to two major manufacturers of modern hydro-power water turbines, Voith Hydro in West Manchester Township and American Hydro in Hellam Township, both of which manufacture enormous parts in their plants.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Spring Garden Township, directly south of York, is headquarters to York International, a Johnson Controls Company and one of the largest suppliers of HVAC systems in the United States. On February 2, 1998, a massive explosion occurred at the York International plant. A spark had set off a leak in the nearby propane storage house. The blast was felt up to 25 miles away, and blew out windows nearby as well as knocking down doors. About 20 people were injured in the blast and one person was killed, as the explosion occurred during a shift change.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The Stauffer Biscuit Company, owned by Meiji Seika of Japan since February 2004, is based in York and has produced animal crackers since 1871; it is currently based in Spring Garden Township. Just north of York in East Manchester Township is one of only four Starbucks roasting facilities in the world. The York area also boasts a BAE Systems facility in West Manchester Township which assembles various military tanks and equipment.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The Glatfelter manufacturing company, founded in 1864, is headquartered in York, though announced in February 2020 its plans to relocate to Charlotte, North Carolina in mid-year. Glatfelter had sold its nearby Spring Grove paper mill in 2018.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Christmas Tree Hill, a popular national Christmas, home decor, and gift retailer, is based in York since its founding in 1971. Their flagship location is housed in the historic Meadowbrook Mansion, constructed in East York in the early 1800s. The six columns on the mansion's front porch were reused from the second York County Courthouse cupola, which had been at 28 East Market Street from 1841 until taken down in 1898 to make room for the third courthouse.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Historic sites included the 1741 Golden Plough Tavern, the 1751 General Horatio Gates House, the 1766 York Meetinghouse, the 1863 Billmeyer House, the 1888 York Central Market, and the 1907 Moorish Revival Temple Beth Israel. Other notable buildings are the Laurel-Rex Fire Company House, Forry House, Farmers Market, Barnett Bobb House, Cookes House, United Cigar Manufacturing Company building, Stevens School, York Dispatch Newspaper Offices, and York Armory.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The city is home to four national historic districts: Fairmount Historic District, Northwest York Historic District, Springdale Historic District, and York Historic District.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Much of York's culture represents the city's evolving role as an agricultural and industrial center. The historic York State Fair, which claims to be the country's oldest, traces its roots to 1765. It runs every year in late July for 10 days, encompassing an entire week and two weekends. In addition to typical fair attractions, such as rides, games and contests, it also wins regional recognition for hosting many musical artists, such as Alabama, Gretchen Wilson, Carrie Underwood, Toby Keith, and Lynyrd Skynyrd.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The fairgrounds, branded the York Expo Center, also hosts the annual National Street Rod Association Street Rod Nationals East, the largest annual street rod event in the Eastern US. The event brings thousands of street rods into the city for a few days in June. On Friday afternoon the city holds a parade through the center of the city for participating vehicles.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York City Recreation and Parks helps sponsor the Olde York Street Fair each year on Mothers Day, the second Sunday of May – a tradition since the early 1980s. In recent years more than 150 art, craft and food vendors have lined Market and George streets. Average attendance was 60,000 people as of 2004, according to city officials.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is home to DreamWrights Center for Community Arts, The Belmont Theatre, The Pullo Center at Penn State York, and the Appell Center for the Performing Arts (formerly Strand-Capitol Performing Arts Center), which brings many nationally acclaimed acts to the York area. Performers here have included Kenny G, Bill Cosby, B.B. King, Béla Fleck, and George Carlin. The historic Capitol Theatre also features many independent and foreign films, making it the only venue in York (and sometimes the entire Susquehanna Valley) to feature some rare, yet critically acclaimed films. The Strand Studio has also branched out and offers live music, usually jazz & acoustic, for the community. In 2017, DreamWrights underwent the largest renovation in its 20-year history, adding a second performance space among other improvements.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York County History Center (YCHC) is a not-for-profit educational institution that preserves and uses its collections, historic sites, and museums to encourage exploration of the history and culture of York County, Pennsylvania. YCHC maintains eight historical sites that demonstrate 300 years of York County's history. The YCHC was founded in 1999 after a merger of the Historical Society of York County and the Agricultural and Industrial Museum of York County (AIM). Currently, the YCHC historical sites include the Worker's House (c. 1875), Golden Plough Tavern (c.1741), the Barnett Bobb Log House (1812), the Bonham House (c.1885) and old Eastern Market House (c.1886). In 1992, AIM acquired an industrial complex consisting of six buildings (c.1874 to 1955); three of the buildings were renovated and now house the industrial portion of the collection. The YCHC hosts a variety of events throughout the year, and holds the rights to the Murals of York, a group of murals that depict York's history. The History Center purchased a former Met-Ed steam plant in York in late 2015, and plans to turn it into a new history center. In 2016, what was the York County Heritage Trust rebranded as the York County History Center.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York Factory Whistle holds the world record for the loudest music without amplification from a non-musical instrument. Every Christmas Eve the whistle uses a compressor to create air pressure, then releases it through a series of tubes using a device much like a slide whistle. (Prior to 2010, the pressure was created using steam produced by a boiler.) The music has had a loudness of 140 dB and can be heard 10 to 12 miles away with proper weather conditions. Various Christmas music is played for a short time around midnight. It is thought that this annual tradition was started around 1925. Other sources put the tradition back to at least 1888. After the hosting New York Wire Cloth Company plant closed in 2013, Metso moved the whistle to their factory in York and the annual concert tradition has continued. Metso announced in August 2015 that it would close its York plant by the end of March 2016. As of December 2017, the building was still owned by Metso and the annual 25-minute York Factory Whistle Concert remained scheduled, along with two daytime rehearsal sessions. By December 2018, the hosting factory building was owned by 240 Arch LLC, and the air compressor (to be moved there for rehearsals and the concert) is trailer-mounted. Another early Christmas concert and Saturday-before practice were announced for 2019.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The alternative rock band Live is from York. Many of Live's songs are about the town including "Shit Towne" from their most successful album "Throwing Copper".


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is home to many veteran as well as up-and-coming talented artists and musicians from all genres including funk, blues, jazz, rock, experimental, country, and bluegrass. The rock band Hexbelt is known for its brand of "Susquehanna Hexbelt Swing" music. York hosts a variety of open mics and underground venues such as the Sign of the Wagon and The Depot. Astro Lasso, an electronic indie pop band from York managed by Frankie Muniz, toured with We the Kings in 2017.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York chapter of the Barbershop Harmony Society, performing as the White Rose Chorus, was founded in 1945.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York Revolution plays in the independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. After 36 years without professional baseball, the Revolution arrived in 2007 to fill the void left by the departed York White Roses. The Revolution are named after the city's colonial past, when the Continental Congress met in York and passed the Articles of Confederation during the Revolutionary War. The Revolution continue the old baseball rivalry between York and the nearby city of Lancaster. The Revolution play at PeoplesBank Park in York's Arch Street neighborhood. The stadium features a plaza and statue in honor of MLB Hall of Fame third baseman Brooks Robinson, a one-time member of the aforementioned White Roses, with whom he made his professional baseball debut in 1955. Robinson currently serves as a special assistant and advisor to Opening Day Partners, the group largely responsible for bringing professional baseball back to York.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: PeoplesBank Park has the distinction of having the tallest wall in baseball. At 37 feet, 8 inches, the left field wall of York's ballpark surpasses the height of the Green Monster at Fenway Park, the home of the Boston Red Sox.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The people of York (the "White Rose City") and the similar city of Lancaster (the "Red Rose City") across the Susquehanna River often engage in rivalry and competition that has its roots in the Wars of the Roses. Both cities take their names from the English cities, York and Lancaster, from which the opposing royal houses took their names in the 15th-century wars.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The War of the Roses All-Star Game is played in York every year over the weekend of Thanksgiving. The game pits the best high school football players in their senior seasons from the York-Adams League against a similar team from the Lancaster-Lebanon League. As the game only involves seniors and occurs during the first weekend of the PIAA District 3 football playoffs (players on teams which qualify for the playoffs do not participate), it is the final high school football game for each of the participants.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Former Minnesota Vikings, Atlanta Falcons, and San Francisco 49ers defensive lineman Chris Doleman graduated from York's William Penn High School. York was the birthplace of former New York Giants Linebacker Andre Powell, former Miami Dolphins running back Woodrow (Woody) Bennett, former Los Angeles Raiders and Atlanta Falcons Tackle/Guard Lincoln Kennedy and former Atlanta Falcons safety Omar Brown. Tampa Bay Buccaneers head coach, Bruce Arians, is also a graduate of William Penn Senior High School (1970). New York Giants Offensive Tackle William Beatty is also a York, Pennsylvania native. Former Pittsburgh Steelers fullback Jon Witman graduated from Eastern York High School.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The York Capitals indoor football team was founded in 2012 and began play with the American Indoor Football league in April 2013. The team moved to Harrisburg after its 2015 league championship and was renamed the Central Penn Capitals before it folded in 2016.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The Bob Hoffman Auditorium at York Barbell hosts a variety of powerlifting, Olympic lifting, strongman and bodybuilding competitions and shows.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is home to the "Plywood Hoods", a group of BMX freestylers, including Kevin Jones, who gained broad acclaim in the 1980s and 1990s.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is also the home of the York County Silver Bullets semiprofessional football team (Colonial Football Alliance). In their 2006 inaugural season, they had a record of 5–5 and gained a playoff berth, though lost in the first round.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: "The Pogo Squad", a group of about twelve extreme pogo performers, is located in York. They participate in area events, including the York St. Patrick's Day Parade, and perform shows. A photo of one member's pogo stunt against a sunset background won first place out of over 800 entries in a 2007 York newspaper photo contest.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York was home to the Thunder D'ohm Skateboard Park, now defunct. There has been a new park built entitled "Reid Menzer Memorial Skatepark", named for a York Catholic High School student who was killed riding a skateboard like a streetluge.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York US30 was a drag strip just outside York. It held the 1965 Super Stock championships – "the largest one day drag race" in the United States. An annual Musclecar Madness event is held in York to commemorate the defunct strip.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York will host the 2019 PDGA Amateur Disc Golf World Championships, having won against six other tournament-hosting bids. The tournament director will be Chas Ford. Disc golf courses to be used include those at Gifford Pinchot State Park, Codorus State Park, Muddy Run, and more. The week-long event will take place in mid-July.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York was featured during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, when National Public Radio's Michele Norris and Steve Inskeep chose to showcase the city in "The York Project: Race & the '08 Vote." The program was aired as a 7-part series and featured different York citizens discussing race relations, racial perceptions, and the emotions inspired by the 2008 election. Norris stated that York was chosen due to its central location in a battleground state, its rich history (including its strained race relations), and demographics.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: On June 19, 2009, Norris announced on the air that she was taking time off to write a book inspired by her conversations "with a diverse group of voters" in York, and "The Grace of Silence: A Memoir" was published in September 2010.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: In 2009, Kim Bracey won the Democratic primary and became the favored candidate for mayor. She won the general election in November against Republican opponent Wendell Banks and took office on the first Monday in 2010 as the city's first African-American and second woman mayor. Bracey won reelection in November 2013 against Libertarian challenger Dave Moser.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: Michael Helfrich defeated Bracey by only 133 votes in 2017. A Democratic city council president, Helfrich ran for mayor as a Republican after losing the Democratic primary election to Bracey by just over 300 votes. Helfrich was inaugurated as mayor on January 2, 2018.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York and the surrounding area are served by the York City, Dallastown, Eastern York, West York, Central York, York Suburban, Southern York County, Red Lion, Northeastern York, Dover, Hanover, South Western, Spring Grove, York County School of Technology and South Eastern public school districts. Some of the private Christian schools in the area include, Christian School of York, Shrewsbury Christian Academy, and York Catholic High School.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: There are also a number of charter schools in the area. Lincoln Charter School was established in 2000, Helen Thackston Charter School in 2009, and York Academy Regional Charter School in 2011.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The city is home to York College of Pennsylvania, which was founded in 1787; Penn State York; Harrisburg Area Community College's York Campus; YTI Career Institute (YTI), which offers accredited degree and diploma programs in the business, healthcare, and culinary fields; York Time Institute, which offers diplomas in clock repair and restoration. The city used to house the Art Institute of York-Pennsylvania, formerly Bradley Academy for the Visual Arts, until its closure in 2017, as well as the Yorktowne Business Institute (YBI) & School of Culinary Arts .


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is unusual in that it supports two daily newspapers, despite its relatively small size. The "York Daily Record/Sunday News" is published mornings, seven days a week, and "The York Dispatch" is published Monday through Friday mornings. The Dispatch was an afternoon paper until 2014. The Daily Record/Sunday News currently has the lead in terms of circulations of the daily newspapers.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is part of the Susquehanna Valley (Harrisburg/Lancaster/Lebanon/York) media market. The Fox affiliate WPMT 43, has its base of operations in York.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York has a Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV station called WRCT (White Rose Community Television) wrct.tv which used to be YCAT (York Community Access Television).


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The pop music radio station, WSBA AM 910, achieved high ratings in York, and nearby Harrisburg and Lancaster, during the 1960s and 1970s. WSBA, now a news-talk station, was the flagship station of Susquehanna Broadcasting, which had its corporate offices in York.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: The City of York is served by the York City Fire Department (Company 99). The YFD operates out of four fire stations, located throughout the city, and maintains a fire apparatus fleet of 6 engines, 2 trucks, 1 service, and other support units. The YFD staffs 3 engines, 1 truck and 1 duty Chief 24-hours a day. The YFD responds to approximately 2,700 emergency calls annually. The city and surrounding area are also served by York Area United Fire and Rescue (Company 89), First Capital EMS (MICU 5), UPMC LifeTeam EMS (MICU 2), York City Police, York County Regional Police, Spring Garden Township Police, as well as other police departments, ambulance stations, and fire companies.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is served, through public transportation, by Rabbit Transit, which operates multiple bus routes in the city and the surrounding suburbs. In 2006 a rabbitEXPRESS bus route was established to transport commuters to Harrisburg and back, making six round trips weekdays. Rabbit Transit introduced a new route on February 2, 2009, that provides three daily round trips between York and Timonium, Maryland. The $5 fare each way covers 80% of the operating costs.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: In addition to Rabbit Transit the city has a Greyhound/Trailways bus depot where service through Harrisburg to Syracuse, or to Baltimore and Washington, D.C. is provided by Greyhound Lines. Bieber Transportation Group formerly provided service to New York City along a route running by way of Lancaster, Reading, and Philadelphia and a route running by way of Lancaster, Reading, and the Lehigh Valley until service was discontinued on April 1, 2018. Intercity bus service to New York City was restored by OurBus on July 1, 2018.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: As recent as the late 1960s the station was the site of several train departures a day, run by the Pennsylvania Railroad heading north to Harrisburg and south, towards Baltimore and Washington, DC, including the "Buffalo Day Express," the "Northern Express," the "Spirit of St. Louis" and shuttle cars for the "Penn Texas." The last "Red Arrow" bound for Detroit departed from York in the latter half of the 1950s. Rail advocates have suggested commuter rail service could be started between York and Philadelphia with much of the necessary infrastructure already in place, using SEPTA's system. Transportation planners say this is too expensive, with bus and van services more feasible. The former Pennsylvania Railroad station for York now lies along the York County Heritage Rail Trail across from the baseball park.


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York does not have any commercial airports, though the small York Airport (THV) is located 7 miles southwest in Thomasville. The nearest major airports are Baltimore-Washington International (BWI) and Harrisburg International Airport (MDT).


title: York, Pennsylvania

text: York is the hometown of the protagonist of John Grisham's 2009 novel "The Associate". At the book's end, the protagonist happily abandons a well-paid but highly unpleasant job in a giant Wall Street law firm, returning to his hometown to work there with his lawyer father.


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: Julia Goldani Telles (born March 18, 1995) is an American actress and ballet dancer. She is known for playing Sasha Torres on the short-lived ABC Family series "Bunheads", Iris in the third season of "The Girlfriend Experience" and for her supporting role as Whitney Solloway on the Showtime original series "The Affair".


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: Goldani Telles was born in Los Angeles, California to a Brazilian mother and Mexican father. She moved with her parents to Rio de Janeiro when she was almost two years old. It was there that she was introduced to the world of ballet at the age of five. When the family relocated back to Los Angeles that year, Goldani Telles could speak only Portuguese and learned English after the family's move. Goldani Telles moved to New York City when she was thirteen and attended Professional Children's School in Manhattan, New York.


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: Goldani Telles trained at the School of American Ballet and Ballet Academy East, and appeared in numerous ballet performances including "Sleeping Beauty", "Nutcracker", "Don Quixote", and "Swan Lake". A case of tendonitis and labral tears in her hips at the age of 15 forced Goldani Telles to stop practicing ballet for a year; to avoid depression, she decided to take a drama course.


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: Goldani Telles studied at Columbia University. Her first role in television came in 2011 when she successfully auditioned for the part of Sasha Torres in ABC Family's "Bunheads". She did so having never had an acting job before and without head-shots or a résumé. Her agent felt "Bunheads" should have been one of her first auditions as he felt she would be comfortable with the dancing aspect of the show. The pilot episode was filmed in November 2011. "Bunheads" was picked up to series and ran for eighteen episodes from June 11, 2012 to February 25, 2013.


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: As well as "Bunheads", Goldani Telles also appeared in the Nat & Alex Wolff music video for the song "Greatest Prize" in early 2012.


title: Julia Goldani Telles

text: In May, 2021, Goldani Telles starred as Iris in the third season of the Starz series "The Girlfriend Experience."


title: Hillel the Elder

text: Hillel ( "Hīllēl"; variously called "Hillel HaGadol", "Hillel HaZaken", "Hillel HaBavli" or "HaBavli", was born according to tradition in Babylon c. 110 BCE, died 10 CE in Jerusalem) was a Jewish religious leader, sage and scholar associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and the founder of the House of Hillel school of tannaim.


title: Hillel the Elder

text: He is popularly known as the author of two sayings: (1) "If I am not for myself, who will be for me? And being for myself, what am I? And if not now, when?" and (2) the expression of the ethic of reciprocity, or "Golden Rule": "That which is hateful to you, do not do unto your fellow. That is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary; now go and learn."


title: Hillel the Elder

text: Hillel was born in Babylon. According to the Talmud, he descended from the Tribe of Benjamin on his father's side, and from the family of David on his mother's side.


title: Hillel the Elder

text: When Josephus speaks of Hillel's great-grandson, Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel I, as belonging to a very celebrated family, he probably refers to the glory the family owed to the activity of Hillel and Rabban Gamaliel Hazaken. Only Hillel's brother Shebna is mentioned; he was a merchant, whereas Hillel devoted himself to studying the Torah whilst also working as a woodcutter.


title: Hillel the Elder

text: Hillel lived in Jerusalem during the time of King Herod and the Roman emperor Augustus. In the Midrash compilation Sifre, the periods of Hillel's life are made parallel to those in the life of Moses. At the age of forty Hillel went to the Land of Israel; forty years he spent in study; and the last third of his life he was the spiritual head of the Jewish people. A biographical sketch can be constructed; that Hillel went to Jerusalem in the prime of his life and attained a great age. His 40 years of leadership likely covered the period of 30 BCE to 10 CE.