title: RNA interference

text: Lumasiran was approved as a siRNA-based medication in 2020 for use in both the European Union and the United States. This medication is used for the treatment of primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1) in pediatric and adult populations. The drug is designed to reduce hepatic oxalate production and urinary oxalate levels through RNAi by targeting hydroxyacid oxidase 1 (HAO1) mRNA for breakdown. Lowering HAO1 enzyme levels reduces the oxidation of glycolate to glyoxylate (which is a substrate for oxalate). Lumasiran is administered subcutaneously by a healthcare professional with dosing based on body weight. Data from randomized controlled clinical trials indicate that the most common adverse reaction that was reported was injection site reactions. These reactions were mild and were present in 38 percent of patients treated with lumasiran.


title: RNA interference

text: Other investigational drugs using RNAi that are being developed by pharmaceutical companies such as Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals, Dicerna, Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, and Sylentis. These medications cover a variety of targets via RNAi and diseases.


title: RNA interference

text: Currently, both miRNA and SiRNA are currently chemically synthesized and so, are legally categorized inside EU and in USA as "simple" medicinal products. But as bioengineered siRNA (BERAs) are in development, these would be classified as biological medicinal products, at least in EU. The development of the BERAs technology raises the question of the categorization of drugs having the same mechanism of action but being produced chemically or biologically. This lack of consistency should be addressed.


title: RNA interference

text: To achieve the clinical potential of RNAi, siRNA must be efficiently transported to the cells of target tissues. However, there are various barriers that must be fixed before it can be used clinically. For example, "naked" siRNA is susceptible to several obstacles that reduce its therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, once siRNA has entered the bloodstream, naked RNA can be degraded by serum nucleases and can stimulate the innate immune system. Due to its size and highly polyanionic (containing negative charges at several sites) nature, unmodified siRNA molecules cannot readily enter the cells through the cell membrane. Therefore, artificial or nanoparticle encapsulated siRNA must be used. If siRNA is transferred across the cell membrane, unintended toxicities can occur if therapeutic doses are not optimized, and siRNAs can exhibit off-target effects (e.g. unintended downregulation of genes with partial sequence complementarity). Even after entering the cells, repeated dosing is required since their effects are diluted at each cell division. In response to these potential issues and barriers, two approaches help facilitate siRNA delivery to target cells: lipid nanoparticles and conjugates.


title: RNA interference

text: Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are based on liposome-like structures that are typically made of an aqueous center surrounded by a lipid shell. A subset of liposomal structures used for delivery drugs to tissues rest in large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) which may be 100 nm in size. LNP delivery mechanisms have become an increasing source of encasing nucleic acids and may include plasmids, CRISPR and mRNA.


title: RNA interference

text: The first approved use of lipid nanoparticles as a drug delivery mechanism began in 2018 with the siRNA drug patisiran, developed by Alnylam Pharmaceuticals. Dicerna Pharmaceuticals, Persomics, Sanofi and Sirna Therapeutics also worked to bring RNAi therapies to market.


title: RNA interference

text: Other recent applications include two FDA approved COVID-19 vaccines: mRNA-1273, developed by Moderna. and BNT162b, developed by a collaboration between Pfizer and BioNtech. These two vaccines use lipid nanoparticles to deliver antigen mRNA. Encapsulating the mRNA molecule in lipid nanoparticles was a critical breakthrough for producing viable mRNA vaccines, solving a number of key technical barriers in delivering the mRNA molecule into the host cell as distributed through apolipoprotein E (apoE) in the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). In December 2020, Novartis announced that positive results from phase III efficacy studies deemed inclisiran was a treatment for heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH) and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD).


title: RNA interference

text: In addition to LNPs, RNAi therapeutics have targeted delivery through siRNA conjugates (e.g., GalNAc, carbohydrates, peptides, aptamers, antibodies). Therapeutics using siRNA conjugates have been developed for rare or genetic diseases such as acute hepatic porphyria (AHP), hemophilia, primary hyperoxaluria (PH) and hereditary ATTR amyloidosis as well as other cardiometabolic diseases such as hypertension and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).


title: RNA interference

text: RNAi has been used for a variety of other applications including food, crops and insecticides. The use of the RNAi pathway has developed numerous products such as foods like Arctic apples, nicotine-free tobacco, decaffeinated coffee, nutrient fortified vegetation and hypoallergenic crops. The emerging use of RNAi has the potential to develop many other products for future use.


title: RNA interference

text: Antiviral treatment is one of the earliest proposed RNAi-based medical applications, and two different types have been developed. The first type is to target viral RNAs. Many studies have shown that targeting viral RNAs can suppress the replication of numerous viruses, including HIV, HPV, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), adenovirus and measles virus. The other strategy is to block the initial viral entries by targeting the host cell genes. For example, suppression of chemokine receptors (CXCR4 and CCR5) on host cells can prevent HIV viral entry.


title: RNA interference

text: While traditional chemotherapy can effectively kill cancer cells, lack of specificity for discriminating normal cells and cancer cells in these treatments usually cause severe side effects. Numerous studies have demonstrated that RNAi can provide a more specific approach to inhibit tumor growth by targeting cancer-related genes (i.e., oncogene). It has also been proposed that RNAi can enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents, providing a combinatorial therapeutic approach with chemotherapy. Another potential RNAi-based treatment is to inhibit cell invasion and migration.


title: RNA interference

text: Compared with chemotherapy or other anti-cancer drugs, there are a lot of advantages of siRNA drug. SiRNA acts on the post-transcriptional stage of gene expression, so it does not modify or change DNA in a deleterious effect. SiRNA can also be used to produce a specific response in a certain type of way, such as by downgrading suppression of gene expression. In a single cancer cell, siRNA can cause dramatic suppression of gene expression with just several copies. This happens by silencing cancer-promoting genes with RNAi, as well as targeting an mRNA sequence.


title: RNA interference

text: RNAi drugs treat cancer by silencing certain cancer promoting genes. This is done by complementing the cancer genes with the RNAi, such as keeping the mRNA sequences in accordance with the RNAi drug. Ideally, RNAi is should be injected and/or chemically modified so the RNAi can reach cancer cells more efficiently. RNAi uptake and regulation is monitored by the kidneys.


title: RNA interference

text: RNAi strategies also show potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases. Studies in cells and in mouse have shown that specifically targeting Amyloid beta-producing genes (e.g. BACE1 and APP) by RNAi can significantly reduced the amount of Aβ peptide which is correlated with the cause of Alzheimer's disease. In addition, this silencing-based approaches also provide promising results in treatment of Parkinson's disease and Polyglutamine disease.


title: RNA interference

text: The human immune system is divided into two separate branches: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the first defense against infection and responds to pathogens in a generic fashion. On the other hand, the adaptive immune system, a system that was evolved later than the innate, is composed mainly of highly specialized B and T cells that are trained to react to specific portions of pathogenic molecules.


title: RNA interference

text: The challenge between old pathogens and new has helped create a system of guarded cells and particles that are called safe framework. This framework has given humans an army systems that search out and destroy invader particles, such as pathogens, microscopic organisms, parasites, and infections. The mammalian safe framework has developed to incorporate siRNA as a tool to indicate viral contamination, which has allowed siRNA is create an intense innate immune response.


title: RNA interference

text: siRNA is controlled by the innate immune system, which can be divided into the acute inflammatory responses and antiviral responses. The inflammatory response is created with signals from small signaling molecules, or cytokines. These include interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-12 (IL-12) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). The innate immune system generates inflammation and antiviral responses, which cause the release pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). These receptors help in labeling which pathogens are viruses, fungi, or bacteria. Moreover, the importance of siRNA and the innate immune system is to include more PRRs to help recognize different RNA structures. This makes it more likely for the siRNA to cause an immunostimulant response in the event of the pathogen.


title: RNA interference

text: RNAi has been used to genetically engineer plants to produce lower levels of natural plant toxins. Such techniques take advantage of the stable and heritable RNAi phenotype in plant stocks. Cotton seeds are rich in dietary protein but naturally contain the toxic terpenoid product gossypol, making them unsuitable for human consumption. RNAi has been used to produce cotton stocks whose seeds contain reduced levels of delta-cadinene synthase, a key enzyme in gossypol production, without affecting the enzyme's production in other parts of the plant, where gossypol is itself important in preventing damage from plant pests.


title: RNA interference

text: Development efforts have successfully reduced the levels of allergens in tomato plants and fortification of plants such as tomatoes with dietary antioxidants. RNAi silencing of alpha-amylase have also been used to decrease Aspergillus flavus fungal growth in maize which would have otherwise contaminated the kernels with dangerous aflatoxins. Silencing lachrymatory factor synthase in onions have produced tearless onions and RNAi has been used in BP1 genes in rapeseeds to improve photosynthesis. SBEIIa and SBEIIb genes in wheat have been targeted in wheat in order to produce higher levels of amylose in order to improve bowel function, and Travella et al. 2006 employed RNAi for functional genomics an investigation of hexaploid bread races, while virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS, a subtype of RNAi) was used by Scofield et al. 2005 to investigate the mechanism of resistance provided by "Lr21" against wheat leaf rust in hexaploid wheat.


title: RNA interference

text: RNAi is under development as an insecticide, employing multiple approaches, including genetic engineering and topical application. Cells in the midgut of some insects take up the dsRNA molecules in the process referred to as environmental RNAi. In some insects the effect is systemic as the signal spreads throughout the insect's body (referred to as systemic RNAi).


title: RNA interference

text: Animals exposed to RNAi at doses millions of times higher than anticipated human exposure levels show no adverse effects. RNAi has varying effects in different species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths).


title: RNA interference

text: "Drosophila" spp., "Bombyx mori", "Locusta" spp., "Spodoptera" spp., "Tribolium castaneum", "Nilaparvata lugens", "Helicoverpa armigera", and "Apis mellifera" are models that have been widely used to learn how RNAi works within particular taxa of insects. "Musca domestica" has two "Ago2" genes and "Glossina morsitans" three, as found by Lewis et al. 2016 and Hain et al. 2010. In the case of the miRNA pathway "Diuraphis noxia" has two "Ago1"s, "M. domestica" two "Dcr1"s, "Acyrthosiphon pisum" two each of "Ago1" and "Loqs" and "Dcr1" and four of "Pasha". While in the piRNA, "G. morsitans" and "A. pisum" have two or three "Ago3"s each. This has led to identification of future insecticide development targets, and the modes of action and reasons for insecticide resistance of other insecticides.


title: RNA interference

text: Transgenic crops have been made to express dsRNA, carefully chosen to silence crucial genes in target pests. These dsRNAs are designed to affect only insects that express specific gene sequences. As a proof of principle, in 2009 a study showed RNAs that could kill any one of four fruit fly species while not harming the other three.


title: RNA interference

text: Alternatively dsRNA can be supplied without genetic engineering. One approach is to add them to irrigation water. The molecules are absorbed into the plants' vascular system and poison insects feeding on them. Another approach involves spraying dsRNA like a conventional pesticide. This would allow faster adaptation to resistance. Such approaches would require low cost sources of dsRNAs that do not currently exist.


title: RNA interference

text: Approaches to the design of genome-wide RNAi libraries can require more sophistication than the design of a single siRNA for a defined set of experimental conditions. Artificial neural networks are frequently used to design siRNA libraries and to predict their likely efficiency at gene knockdown. Mass genomic screening is widely seen as a promising method for genome annotation and has triggered the development of high-throughput screening methods based on microarrays.


title: RNA interference

text: Genome-scale RNAi research relies on high-throughput screening (HTS) technology. RNAi HTS technology allows genome-wide loss-of-function screening and is broadly used in the identification of genes associated with specific phenotypes. This technology has been hailed as a potential second genomics wave, following the first genomics wave of gene expression microarray and single nucleotide polymorphism discovery platforms.


title: RNA interference

text: One major advantage of genome-scale RNAi screening is its ability to simultaneously interrogate thousands of genes. With the ability to generate a large amount of data per experiment, genome-scale RNAi screening has led to an explosion of data generation rates. Exploiting such large data sets is a fundamental challenge, requiring suitable statistics/bioinformatics methods. The basic process of cell-based RNAi screening includes the choice of an RNAi library, robust and stable cell types, transfection with RNAi agents, treatment/incubation, signal detection, analysis and identification of important genes or therapeutical targets.


title: RNA interference

text: The process of RNAi was referred to as "co-suppression" and "quelling" when observed prior to the knowledge of an RNA-related mechanism. The discovery of RNAi was preceded first by observations of transcriptional inhibition by antisense RNA expressed in transgenic plants, and more directly by reports of unexpected outcomes in experiments performed by plant scientists in the United States and the Netherlands in the early 1990s. In an attempt to alter flower colors in petunias, researchers introduced additional copies of a gene encoding chalcone synthase, a key enzyme for flower pigmentation into petunia plants of normally pink or violet flower color. The overexpressed gene was expected to result in darker flowers, but instead caused some flowers to have less visible purple pigment, sometimes in variegated patterns, indicating that the activity of chalcone synthase had been substantially decreased or became suppressed in a context-specific manner. This would later be explained as the result of the transgene being inserted adjacent to promoters in the opposite direction in various positions throughout the genomes of some transformants, thus leading to expression of antisense transcripts and gene silencing when these promoters are active. Another early observation of RNAi came from a study of the fungus "Neurospora crassa", although it was not immediately recognized as related. Further investigation of the phenomenon in plants indicated that the downregulation was due to post-transcriptional inhibition of gene expression via an increased rate of mRNA degradation. This phenomenon was called "co-suppression of gene expression", but the molecular mechanism remained unknown.


title: RNA interference

text: Not long after, plant virologists working on improving plant resistance to viral diseases observed a similar unexpected phenomenon. While it was known that plants expressing virus-specific proteins showed enhanced tolerance or resistance to viral infection, it was not expected that plants carrying only short, non-coding regions of viral RNA sequences would show similar levels of protection. Researchers believed that viral RNA produced by transgenes could also inhibit viral replication. The reverse experiment, in which short sequences of plant genes were introduced into viruses, showed that the targeted gene was suppressed in an infected plant. This phenomenon was labeled "virus-induced gene silencing" (VIGS), and the set of such phenomena were collectively called "post transcriptional gene silencing."


title: RNA interference

text: After these initial observations in plants, laboratories searched for this phenomenon in other organisms. The first instance of RNA silencing in animals was documented in 1996, when Guo and Kemphues observed that, by introducing sense and antisense RNA to par-1 mRNA in "Caenorhabditis elegans" caused degradation of the par-1 message. It was thought that this degradation was triggered by single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), but two years later, in 1998, Fire and Mello discovered that this ability to silence the par-1 gene expression was actually triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Craig C. Mello and Andrew Fire's 1998 "Nature" paper reported a potent gene silencing effect after injecting double stranded RNA into "C. elegans". In investigating the regulation of muscle protein production, they observed that neither mRNA nor antisense RNA injections had an effect on protein production, but double-stranded RNA successfully silenced the targeted gene. As a result of this work, they coined the term "RNAi". This discovery represented the first identification of the causative agent for the phenomenon. Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.


title: RNA interference

text: Just after Fire and Mello's ground-breaking discovery, Elbashir et al. discovered, by using synthetically made small interfering RNA (siRNA), it was possible to target the silencing of specific sequences in a gene, rather than silencing the entire gene. Only a year later, McCaffrey and colleagues demonstrated that this sequence-specific silencing had therapeutic applications by targeting a sequence from the Hepatitis C virus in transgenic mice. Since then, multiple researchers have been attempting to expand the therapeutic applications of RNAi, specifically looking to target genes that cause various types of cancer. By 2006, the first applications to reach clinical trials were in the treatment of macular degeneration and respiratory syncytial virus. Four years later the first-in-human Phase I clinical trial was started, using a nanoparticle delivery system to target solid tumors.


title: RNA interference

text: The FDA approved the first siRNA-based drug (patisiran) in 2018. Givosiran and lumasiran later won FDA approval for the treatment of AHP and PH1 in 2019 and 2020, respectively. Inclisiran received EMA approval in 2020 for the treatment of high cholesterol and is currently under review by the FDA.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: McCune–Reischauer romanization () is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems. A modified version of McCune–Reischauer was the official romanization system in South Korea until 2002, when it was replaced by the Revised Romanization of Korean system introduced two years earlier. A variant of McCune–Reischauer is still used as the official system in North Korea.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: The system was first published in 1939 by George M. McCune and Edwin O. Reischauer. With a few exceptions, it attempts not to transliterate Korean hangul, but it represents the phonetic pronunciation.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: Under the McCune–Reischauer system, aspirated consonants like "p", "k", and "t" are distinguished by apostrophes from unaspirated ones, which may also be falsely understood as a separator between syllables (as in → "twichagi", which consists of the syllables "twi", "chʼa" and "gi"). The apostrophe is also used to mark transcriptions of ("n'g") as opposed to ("ng"): → "chan'gŭm" vs. → "changŭm"). These diverse applications of apostrophes made people confused once omitted. Also, the breve is used to differentiate vowels in Korean. So, if the apostrophe and breve are omitted from this system, it would make it impossible to differentiate the aspirated consonants k,t,p and ch from the unaspirated consonants k, t, p and ch, ("n'g") from ("ng"), and the vowels 으 and 우 from 오 and 어.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: An omission of the apostrophe on the internet and lack of a breve on keyboards were the primary reasons the South Korean government adopted a revised system of romanization in 2000. However, Korean critics aggressively claimed that the Revised System fails to represent and in a way that is easily recognizable and misrepresents the way that the unaspirated consonants are actually pronounced. However, the counterargument for this assertion is that it is impossible to find perfectly matching pairs of letters between the two different writing systems, Latin script and Hangul, and priority should be given to revised system of romanization created by the help of many Korean linguists at the National Academy of the Korean Language over a five-year period than the McCune–Reischauer system created by two foreigners with the help of three Korean linguists over a two-year period during the Japanese colonial era.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: Despite official adoption of the new system in South Korea, North Korea continues to use a version of McCune–Reischauer.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: For ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, and ㅈ, the letters "g", "d", "b", or "j" are used if voiced, "k", "t", "p", or "ch" otherwise. Pronunciations such as those take precedence over the rules in the table above.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: A third system, the Yale Romanization system, which is a transliteration system, exists but is used only in academic literature, especially in linguistics.


title: McCune–Reischauer

text: The Kontsevich system, based on the earlier Kholodovich system, is used for transliterating Korean into the Cyrillic script. Like McCune–Reischauer romanization it attempts to represent the pronunciation of a word, rather than provide letter-to-letter correspondence.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed were an Indian screenwriting duo, composed of Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar, working in Bollywood. They are noted for being the first Indian screenwriters to achieve star status, becoming the most successful Indian screenwriters of all time. They are regarded as "Hindi cinema's greatest screenwriters". They worked together on 24 films during 1971–1987, of which twenty were commercially and critically successful films. They worked together on 22 Bollywood films, as well as two Kannada films.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed revolutionized Indian cinema in the 1970s, transforming and reinventing the Bollywood formula, and pioneering the Bollywood blockbuster format. A significant departure from the romance films that had previously dominated Bollywood, Salim–Javed pioneered cultural phenomena such as the "angry young man" character archetype, the masala film, the Dacoit Western genre, and Bombay underworld crime films. Salim–Javed's films also had a wider impact on Indian society, with themes relevant to the socio-economic and socio-political climate of 1970s India, especially during The Emergency period, such as urban slum poverty, political corruption, and organized crime, while presenting progressive, feminist and anti-establishment themes, which resonated with Indian audiences in the 1970s and early 1980s. During their time working together, the duo won six Filmfare Awards, out of ten nominations. Their films are also among the highest-grossing Indian films of all time, including "Sholay" (1975), the highest-grossing Indian film ever at the time, as well as films such as "Seeta Aur Geeta" (1972), "Zanjeer" (1973), "Deewaar" (1975), "Kranti" (1981), and the "Don" franchise. "Sholay" is also considered to be one of the greatest Indian films of all time.


title: Salim–Javed

text: While working together, Salim Khan was largely responsible for developing the stories and characters, which were considered unconventional at the time, while Javed Akhtar was largely responsible for writing the dialogues. Many of the dialogues they wrote for their films have become famous. Although the dialogues are often referred to as Hindi, they are actually mostly in Urdu, a register of the Hindustani language. Coming from backgrounds in Urdu literature, they mostly included vocabulary from Urdu, and wrote their dialogues in Urdu script, with the Urdu dialogues then transcribed by an assistant into Devanagari script so that Hindi readers could also read the Urdu dialogues.


title: Salim–Javed

text: The duo made the writer's role popular with their names appearing in the posters of the films, and in some films they shared up to 25% of the profit. Their association lasted until 1982, when both decided to split after which Javed Akhtar moved into writing lyrics for around 80 films and scripts for 20 films from 1981 till present times, while Salim Khan wrote for 10 scripts between 1983 and 1996. They are credited together on two films after the split, "Zamana" (1985) and "Mr. India" (1987), due to these scripts being written earlier and made into film later after their split. In addition, their films had many South Indian remakes, which were often licensed directly from Salim–Javed, who owned the South Indian remake rights to their films.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim Khan was born on 24 November 1935 at Indore. He debuted as an actor after director K. Amarnath saw him at a wedding and was impressed by his good looks. He asked him to come to Mumbai, where he hired him as an actor for Rs. 500 a month. Salim Khan was earlier a junior technician for various films had not made any considerable mark in the field. Khan acted in various movies, in large and small parts, for seven years. He was unable to capture the public's interest, and, as a result, his career had stalled. Khan appeared in such films as Teesri Manzil (1966), "Sarhaadi Lootera" (1966) and "Diwaana" (1967), in total he has acted in 14 films till 1970. But he did not achieve success as an actor.


title: Salim–Javed

text: After working in 25 films, despite his handsome looks, he eventually understood that he "was not cut out to be an actor because I lacked the art of projection. But by then it was too late — how could I have gone back to Indore?" In the late 1960s, Salim Khan, who was struggling financially, decided to start shifting his focus away from acting and towards writing scripts, and continued to use the name Prince Salim. One of his more notable film scripts was "Do Bhai" (1969). He also began working with Abrar Alvi as a writing assistant.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Javed Akhtar was born on 17 January 1945. Early influences on Akhtar included Urdu novels by Pakistani author Ibn-e-Safi, such as the "Jasoosi Dunya" and "Imran" series of detective novels, as well as films like the Dilip Kumar starrers "Arzoo" (1950) and "Aan" (1952), Bimal Roy's "Do Bigha Zameen" (1953), "Shree 420" (1955) directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957).


title: Salim–Javed

text: Akhtar arrived in Mumbai on 4 October 1964. In his early years there, he wrote the dialogue for a minor film for Rs. 100. Occasionally, he worked as an assistant. He got a job as a dialogue-writer on "Yakeen" which flopped. He was unsuccessful in his individual ventures till 1971.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim met up with Javed Akhtar for first time during the making of the film "Sarhadi Lootera". Salim was a small-time actor, and "Sarhadi Lootera" was one of the last films he acted in before he turned his attention to writing. Javed was a clapper boy for the film and was later made the dialogue writer as director S.M. Sagar was unable to find a dialogue writer. While working in this film their friendship began.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim Khan used to assist writer/director Abrar Alvi at first and Javed Akhtar used to assist Kaifi Azmi. Abrar Alvi and Kaifi Azmi were neighbours, from there on Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar became friends. Since their individual work was flopping both of them ventured into script writing and they decided to team up in 1971. Realizing the lack of writers in the movie making industry, Salim gradually learnt about story telling and writing techniques used in films, along with close friend Javed Akhtar and began writing short transcripts. The duo hit it off well and formed a script-writing team that came to be known as Salim–Javed. Salim used to form stories and plots whereas Javed used to help Salim with the dialogues for those films. They used to brainstorm and come to conclusions regarding the final draft of the film. Akhtar first joined Khan to develop the story for "Adhikar" and "Andaz" (both 1971).


title: Salim–Javed

text: Initially in the 1970s there was no concept of having the same writer for the screenplay, story and dialogue nor were the writers given any credits in the title. Rajesh Khanna is credited with giving Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar their first chance to become screenplay writers by offering them work in "Haathi Mere Saathi" (1971). Javed Akhtar accepted in an interview that "One day, he went to Salimsaab and said that Mr. Devar had given him a huge signing amount with which he could complete the payment for his bungalow Aashirwad. But the film was a remake [of "Deiva Cheyal"] and the script of the original was far from being satisfactory. He told us that if we could set right the script, he would make sure we got both money and credit." Salim–Javed were hired by G. P. Sippy's Sippy Films as resident screenwriters and produced the screenplays for successful films like "Andaz, Seeta Aur Geeta, Sholay" and "Don". They have worked together in 24 films including two hit Kannada films (both starring Dr.Rajkumar) – "Premada Kanike" and "Raja Nanna Raja". Though they split in 1982, due to ego issues, some of the scripts they wrote were made into hit films later like "Zamana" and "Mr. India".


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed (as they are famously called) have scripted many commercially and critically accepted movies for movie making giants like Nasir Hussain ("Yaadon Ki Baaraat"), Prakash Mehra ("Zanjeer" and "Haath Ki Safai"), Ravi Tandon ("Majboor"), Yash Chopra ("Deewaar, Trishul" and "Kaala Patthar"), Yash Johar ("Dostana"), Ramesh Sippy ("Seeta Aur Geeta" and "Sholay"), Ramesh Talwar ("Zamana"), Shekhar Kapoor ("Mr. India") and with Chand Barot ("Don"). The duo split up in the early 1982 and ended their 12-year professional relationship because they developed ego issues. Of the 24 films they wrote the scripts for, the film which were not successful at box office include "Aakhri Dao" (1975), "Immaan Dharam" (1977), "Kaala Patthar" (1979) and "Shaan" (1981).


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim Khan after the split was not very active in films. Though he did write the scripts for about 10 films after his split with Javed Akhthar like "Naam" (1986), "Kabzaa", "Toofan (1989)", "Jurm" (1990), "Akayla, Patthar Ke Phool", "Mast Kalandar" (all in 1991), "Aa Gale Lag Jaa" (1994), "Majhdhaar" and "Dil Tera Diwana" (both 1996). Of these scripts, "Toofan, Akayla, Majhdaar, Aa Gale Lag Jaa" and "Dil Tera Deewana" failed at the box office. Salim Khan's eldest son, Salman Khan, made his film debut at the age of twenty two with "Biwi Ho To Aisi" in the year 1988 and eventually went on to become one of the most successful actors in the history of Bollywood. Salman Khan has collaborated with his father Salim Khan in "Patthar Ke Phool" and "Majhdhaar", and with Javed Akhtar in only one film – "Marigold" (2007), in his three-decade long career. Javed Akhtar, on the other hand, has worked in all the films produced by his children Farhan Akhtar and Zoya Akhtar's Excel Entertainment. Javed Akhtar started writing lyrics for films beginning with "Silsila" in 1981 and since 1982 has written lyrics for around 80 films and scripts for over 20 films till the present times. Javed and Salim were not even on talking terms after their split till 2012, when their original script "Zanjeer" was being remade into a 2013 film of the same name by producer Sumeet Mehra. Salim and Javed had filed a suit in the Bombay High Court in July 2013 claiming they had copyrights over the script, story and dialogues of the original film, produced by Prakash Mehra and demanded compensation from the makers of the remake. This court case brought them together again on talking terms.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Their last unofficial partnership was for the film "Baghban" (2003). Amitabh Bachchan requested to Javed Akhtar to write his final speech. Salman Khan, for his speech prior to that, requested his father Salim Khan to write his speech. However, neither Salim Khan nor Javed Akhtar were credited.


title: Salim–Javed

text: They have worked together in 24 films including two Kannada films – "Premada Kanike" and "Raja Nanna Raja". Though they split in 1982 some of the scripts they wrote were made into films later like Zamana and Mr. India. They are credited with the creation of the "angry young man" image of Amitabh Bachchan. For a significant number of his major hits, they wrote the screenplay, story and dialogue. They brought credibility to a profession which had previously been relegated to the background. It is due to their efforts and work that screenplay/story/dialogue writers are seeing the limelight. They fought for and achieved the mentioning of screenplay/story/dialogue writer's names on the movie posters.


title: Salim–Javed

text: According to Javed Akhtar, in their early periods, on the cinema posters, there were no names of script writer, story and screenplay. Realizing that the hard work is done by this duo, and not getting the appropriate recognition, Salim and Javed decided to paint their names on all the posters pasted in the city. They hired a rikshaw and put the paint bucket on that and did all the work themselves the entire night. After that, the directors also started to put their name on the posters.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed revolutionized Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood. At the time, Hindi cinema was experiencing thematic stagnation, dominated by family-friendly romance films with "romantic hero" leads. The arrival of the non-conformist screenwriter pair Salim–Javed marked a paradigm shift for the industry, with their creative innovations that proved to be a significant breakthrough for Hindi cinema, and resurrected Indian cinema.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed began the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films, in the 1970s, with films such as "Zanjeer" (1973) and "Deewaar" (1975). "Deewaar", which pitted "a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smuggler Haji Mastan" portrayed by Bachchan, was described as being "absolutely key to Indian cinema" by Danny Boyle.


title: Salim–Javed

text: They also pioneered the masala film format. "Yaadon Ki Baarat" (1973), directed by Nasir Hussain and written by Salim–Javed, has been identified as the first masala film and the "first" quintessentially "Bollywood" film. Salim–Javed subsequently went on to write more successful masala films in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Both of these trends, the violent crime film and the masala film, came together with the blockbuster "Sholay" (1975). It combined the dacoit film conventions of "Mother India" (1957) and "Gunga Jumna" (1961) with that of Spaghetti Westerns, spawning the Dacoit Western genre (also known as the "Curry Western"), which was popular in the 1970s. "Sholay" is considered to be one of the greatest Indian films of all time. It has been described as the ""Star Wars" of Bollywood", with its impact on Bollywood comparable to the impact "Star Wars" (1977) later had on Hollywood, while the villain Gabbar Singh (Amjad Khan) has been compared to Darth Vader. Salim–Javed also created the "Don" franchise, one of the biggest Indian film franchises.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed were also responsible for launching the career of Bollywood superstar Amitabh Bachchan. Salim Khan conceived the "angry young man" persona that he became famous for, and introduced him to directors Prakash Mehra and Manmohan Desai. Salim–Javed often wrote their scripts with Bachchan in mind for the lead role, and insisted he be cast for their films early in his career, including "Zanjeer", "Deewaar", and "Sholay", roles which established Bachchan as a superstar.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Their work was also highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films – the highly successful Rajkumar and Arathi starrers of 1976 – "Raja Nanna Raja" and "Premada Kanike", many of their Bollywood films had remakes produced in other South Indian film industries, including Tamil cinema, Telugu cinema and Malayalam cinema. While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, it was Salim–Javed who held the rights to their films in South India, where they sold the remake rights to various South Indian filmmakers, usually for around each, for films such as "Zanjeer", "Yaadon Ki Baarat", and "Don".


title: Salim–Javed

text: Much like their role in launching the career of Amitabh Bachchan, Salim–Javed also played an important role in launching the career of South Indian superstar Rajinikanth. Several Tamil remakes of their films became breakthroughs for Rajinikanth, who was cast in Amitabh Bachchan's role. The Tamil remake of "Don" (1978) in particular, "Billa" (1980), was a turning point in Rajinikanth's career, as his first blockbuster hit. He also starred in several other hit Salim–Javed adaptations in Bachchan's role, including "Thee" (1981), "Mr. Bharath" (1986), and "Naan Vazhavaippen" (1979). Of the four prominent south industries, their movies were remade the least in Kannada.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Screenwriter V. Vijayendra Prasad, responsible for a number of blockbusters in the early 21st century, including the South Indian franchise "Baahubali" and the 2015 Hindi film "Bajrangi Bhaijaan" (starring Salim's son Salman Khan), cited Salim–Javed as a major inspiration on his work, especially their screenplay for "Sholay", among other films.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Salim–Javed's films had a wider impact on Indian society. Their films reflected the socio-economic and socio-political realities of 1970s India, channeling the growing popular discontent and disillusionment among the masses, and the failure of the state in ensuring their welfare and well-being, in a time when prices were rapidly rising, commodities were becoming scarce, public institutions were losing legitimacy, and smugglers and gangsters were gathering political clout. There was also an unprecedented growth of slums across India in the 1970s, particularly in Bombay, the most famous being Dharavi, which was represented in "Deewaar" (1975).


title: Salim–Javed

text: Their films often dealt with themes relevant to Indian society at the time, such as urban poverty in slums, corruption in society, and the Bombay underworld crime scene. While inspired by Mehboob Khan's "Mother India" (1957) and Dilip Kumar's "Gunga Jumna" (1961), Salim–Javed reinterpreted their rural themes in a contemporary urban context reflecting the changing socio-political climate of 1970s India, which resonated with Indian audiences in the 1970s.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Some of their films in the 1970s, especially "Deewaar", were perceived by audiences to be anti-establishment. This was represented by the "angry young man", conceived by Salim–Javed and portrayed by Amitabh Bachchan, often presented as a vigilante or anti-hero, establishing Bachchan's image as the "angry young man" of Indian cinema. The "angry young man" was seen as a new kind of hero, with his suppressed rage giving a voice to the angst of the urban poor.


title: Salim–Javed

text: Their portrayal of female heroines was also progressive and feminist for Indian society the time. For example, "Seeta Aur Geeta" (1972) subverted the formula of Dilip Kumar starrer "Ram Aur Shyam" (1972), replacing twin brothers with twin sisters, and having the heroine Hema Malini eventually become the "hero" while male lead Dharmendra is in a mostly supporting role. Parveen Babi's character in "Deewaar" is portrayed as "a modern woman who felt no guilt or shame in having pre-marital sex, drinking or smoking," which was "novel and revolutionary" at the time, and she became seen as the "new Bollywood woman". Similar feminist undertones appear in "Sholay" (1975), where Basanti (Hema Malini) is a "straight-talking, earthy and independent young woman doing a man’s job".


title: Salim–Javed

text: Beyond their influence on Indian films, their work has also influenced international films. Their 1975 film "Deewaar" had an influence on Hong Kong cinema and in turn Hollywood cinema, by playing a key role in the creation of the heroic bloodshed crime genre of 1980s Hong Kong action cinema. "Deewaar", along with several later 1970s "angry young man" epics it inspired, such as "Amar Akbar Anthony" (1977), had similarities to elements later seen in 1980s Hong Kong heroic bloodshed films. Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers studio remade "Deewaar" as "The Brothers" (1979), which in turn inspired John Woo's internationally acclaimed breakthrough "A Better Tomorrow" (1986). "A Better Tomorrow" set the template for heroic bloodshed films, a genre that went on to have a significant influence on Hong Kong films in the 1980s and later Hollywood movies in the 1990s, inspiring filmmakers such as Quentin Tarantino along with John Woo's entry into Hollywood.


title: Salim–Javed

text: According to Loveleen Tandan, the screenwriter Simon Beaufoy, who wrote the screenplay for the Academy Award winning "Slumdog Millionaire" (2008), "studied Salim-Javed's kind of cinema minutely." In particular, "Deewaar" was praised by Danny Boyle and influenced the making of "Slumdog Millionaire". Actor Anil Kapoor (who stars in the film) noted that some scenes of "Slumdog Millionaire" "are like "Deewaar", the story of two brothers of whom one is completely after money while the younger one is honest and not interested in money." One of the techniques often used by Salim–Javed was their use of a montage sequence to represent a child growing into an adult, a technique that dates back to "Awaara" (1951), directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas. For example, "Deewaar" showed a character entering a temple as a child and then leaving the temple as an adult. "Slumdog Millionaire" paid homage to Salim–Javed by showing a montage sequence where two "brothers jump off a train and suddenly they are seven years older". In "Slumdog Millionaire", two characters have names referencing the duo: Salim K. Malik (brother of protagonist Jamal Malik) and Javed Khan (played by Mahesh Manjrekar).


title: Salim–Javed

text: Films with Salim–Javed writing credits that were nominated for or won the Filmfare Award for Best Film:


title: Salim–Javed

text: "Sholay" (1975) was ranked first in the British Film Institute's 2002 poll of "Top 10 Indian Films" of all time.


title: Salim–Javed

text: The following table lists the box office performance of Bollywood films written by Salim–Javed. The table covers the domestic box office in India, in addition to the overseas box office. The vast majority of the overseas box office for their films up until the 1980s came from the Soviet Union, which was the largest overseas market for Indian films up until then.


title: Salim–Javed

text: The gross revenue figures in the table do not take inflation into account. The gross revenue numbers given below are nominal figures, not inflation-adjusted figures. In terms of footfalls (ticket sales), the 22 films listed below are estimated to have sold a total of over tickets worldwide, averaging more than ticket sales per film.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: Bucha (, ) is a city in Ukraine's Kyiv Oblast. Administratively, it serves as the administrative center of Bucha Raion. It hosts the administration of Bucha urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Its population is approximately . Bucha Day is celebrated in the city between 11 and 13 September.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: The Battle of Bucha was part of the Kyiv offensive in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The battle lasted from 27 February 2022 to 31 March 2022 and ended with the withdrawal of Russian forces. Mayor Anatolii Fedoruk reported that Bucha had been fully retaken from Russian forces as of 31 March. After Ukrainian forces regained control of Bucha, reports and testimonies of war crimes committed by the Russian military began to circulate. These war crimes have been collectively labeled the Bucha massacre.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: According to a local historian from Bucha, Anatoliya Zborovsky, Bucha was named after a nearby river, the Bucha River, which referred to the strength of the river's currents in ancient times.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: According to an urban legend, during the construction of the railway station, the workers were not paid so they started a huge scandal, or "bucha" ( – scandal). The railway station received this name after its completion, so did the village.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: The settlement arose with the construction of the Kyiv–Kovel railway in 1898 around a small train stop by the along the Kyiv–Kovel railway similar to one in the modern city of Irpin. In close vicinity to the Bucha train stop, there was a small village called Yablunka, where there used to be a brick factory. Yablunka is mentioned in the 19th century Polish Geographic dictionary as the village of Jabłonka 37 versts away from Kyiv.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: During World War II, before the liberation of Kiev from Nazi forces in December 1943, Bucha was the location of the headquarters of the 1st Ukrainian Front commanded by General Vatutin.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: Bucha was granted city status on February 9, 2006 (previously, Bucha was an urban-type settlement within the Irpin city municipality). Until 18 July 2020, Bucha was incorporated as a city of oblast significance. In July 2020, as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Kyiv Oblast to seven, the city of Bucha was merged into Bucha Raion.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, heavy fighting took place in Bucha as part of the Kyiv offensive, resulting in severe Russian losses. The city was captured by Russian forces on 12 March. Mayor Anatoliy Fedoruk announced the recapture of Bucha by Ukrainian forces on 31 March 2022.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: On 2 April 2022, news reports and videos emerged showing streets in Bucha covered with the bodies of men dressed in civilian clothes. Some of those found had their hands tied. Among those killed were women and children. According to first estimations at least 280 bodies were found. There was also evidence that Russian soldiers had systemically tortured, mutilated and executed many Ukrainians in the basement of a summer camp. The event caused the Ukrainian government to call on the ICC to investigate whether or not Russia had committed war crimes. On April 7, the mayor of Bucha, Anatoliy Fedoruk, reported that almost 90% of the dead residents had bullet wounds, not shrapnel wounds.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: Bucha is located in Kyiv Oblast, 25 km west of Kyiv. It borders the cities of Irpin and Hostomel and the villages of Vorzel, Mykhailivka-Rubezhivka, and Blystavytsia.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: There is a stadium in Bucha named Yuvileiny Stadium, where some matches were held in October 2016 for the 2017 UEFA European Under-19 Championship qualification.


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: There is a glass factory in Bucha. Built in 1946, it was closed in 2016. There is a small train stop called "Sklozavodska".


title: Bucha, Kyiv Oblast

text: The town's main landmark is a 19th-century railway station located at the south edge of the city. Through the city runs a major highway .


title: Armillary sphere

text: An armillary sphere (variations are known as spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of objects in the sky (on the celestial sphere), consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centered on Earth or the Sun, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and other astronomically important features, such as the ecliptic. As such, it differs from a celestial globe, which is a smooth sphere whose principal purpose is to map the constellations. It was invented separately first in ancient China during the 4th century BC and ancient Greece during the 3rd century BC, with later uses in the Islamic world and Medieval Europe.


title: Armillary sphere

text: With the Earth as center, an armillary sphere is known as "Ptolemaic". With the Sun as center, it is known as "Copernican".


title: Armillary sphere

text: The flag of Portugal features an armillary sphere. The armillary sphere is also featured in Portuguese heraldry, associated with the Portuguese discoveries during the Age of Exploration. Manuel I of Portugal, for example, took it as one of his symbols where it appeared on his standard, and on early Chinese export ceramics made for the Portuguese court. In the flag of the Empire of Brazil, the armillary sphere is also featured.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3 features a large armillary sphere metal sculpture as an exhibit of Chinese inventions for international and domestic visitors.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The exterior parts of this machine are a compages [or framework] of brass rings, which represent the principal circles of the heavens.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut "b", to which is fixed one end of the quadrantal wire, and to the other end a small sun "Y", which is carried round the ecliptic "B"—"B", by turning the nut : and in the south pole of the ecliptic is a pin "d", on which is another quadrantal wire, with a small moon "Ζ" upon it, which may be moved round by hand : but there is a particular contrivance for causing the moon to move in an orbit which crosses the ecliptic at an angle of 5 degrees, to opposite points called the "moon's nodes"; and also for shifting these points backward in the ecliptic, as the "moon's nodes" shift in the heaven.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Within these circular rings is a small terrestrial globe "I", fixed on an axis "K", which extends from the north and south poles of the globe at "n" and "s", to those of the celestial sphere at "N" and "S". On this axis is fixed the flat celestial meridian "L L", which may be set directly over the meridian of any place on the globe, so as to keep over the same meridian upon it. This flat meridian is graduated the same way as the brass meridian of the common globe, and its use is much the same. To this globe is fitted the movable horizon "M", so as to turn upon the two strong wires proceeding from its east and west points to the globe, and entering the globe at the opposite points off its equator, which is a movable brass ring set into the globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe may be turned by hand within this ring, so as to place any given meridian upon it, directly under the celestial meridian "L". The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its outermost edge, within which are the points of the compass, for showing the amplitude of the sun and the moon, both in degrees and points. The celestial meridian "L" passes through two notches in the north and south points of the horizon, as in a common globe: both here, if the globe be turned round, the horizon and meridian turn with it. At the south pole of the sphere is a circle of 25 hours, fixed to the rings, and on the axis is an index which goes round that circle, if the globe be turned round its axis.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The whole fabric is supported on a pedestal "N", and may be elevated or depressed upon the joint "O", to any number of degrees from 0 to 90, by means of the arc "P", which is fixed in the strong brass arm "Q", and slides in the upright piece "R", in which is a screw at "r", to fix it at any proper elevation.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In the box "T" are two wheels (as in Dr Long's sphere) and two pinions, whose axes come out at "V" and "U"; either of which may be turned by the small winch "W". When the winch is put upon the axis "V", and turn backward, the terrestrial globe, with its horizon and celestial meridian, keep at rest; and the whole sphere of circles turns round from east, by south, to west, carrying the sun "Y", and moon "Z", round the same way, and causing them to rise above and set below the horizon. But when the winch is put upon the axis "U", and turned forward, the sphere with the sun and moon keep at rest; and the earth, with its horizon and meridian, turn round from horizon to the sun and moon, to which these bodies came when the earth kept at rest, and they were carried round it; showing that they rise and set in the same points of the horizon, and at the same times in the hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes round its hour-circle; but if the sphere be turned, the hour-circle goes round below the index.


title: Armillary sphere

text: And so, by this construction, the machine is equally fitted to show either the real motion of the earth, or the apparent motion of the heavens.


title: Armillary sphere

text: To rectify the sphere for use, first slacken the screw "r" in the upright stem "R", and taking hold of the arm "Q", move it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any place be at the side of the stem "R"; and then the axis of the sphere will be properly elevated, so as to stand parallel to the axis of the world, if the machine be set north and south by a small compass: this done, count the latitude from the north pole, upon the celestial meridian "L", down towards the north notch of the horizon, and set the horizon to that latitude; then, turn the nut "b" until the sun "Y" comes to the given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the sun will be at its proper place for that day: find the place of the moon's ascending node, and also the place of the moon, by an Ephemeris, and set them right accordingly: lastly, turn the winch "W", until either the sun comes to the meridian "L", or until the meridian comes to the sun (according as you want the sphere or earth to move) and set the hour-index to the XII, marked noon, and the whole machine will be rectified. — Then turn the winch, and observe when the sun or moon rise and set in the horizon, and the hour-index will show the times thereof for the given day.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Throughout Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes () to assist the observation of the stars. The Chinese also used the armillary sphere in aiding calendrical computations and calculations.


title: Armillary sphere

text: According to Needham, the earliest development of the armillary sphere in China goes back to the astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De in the 4th century BC, as they were equipped with a primitive single-ring armillary instrument. This would have allowed them to measure the north polar distance (declination) a measurement that gave the position in a "xiu" (right ascension). Needham's 4th century dating, however, is rejected by British sinologist Christopher Cullen, who traces the beginnings of these devices to the 1st century BC.


title: Armillary sphere

text: During the Western Han dynasty (202 BC9 AD) additional developments made by the astronomers Luoxia Hong (落下閎), Xiangyu Wangren, and Geng Shouchang (耿壽昌) advanced the use of the armillary in its early stage of evolution. In 52 BC, it was the astronomer Geng Shouchang who introduced the first permanently fixed equatorial ring of the armillary sphere. In the subsequent Eastern Han dynasty (23–220 AD) period, the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring by 84 AD. With the famous statesman, astronomer, and inventor Zhang Heng (張衡, 78–139 AD), the sphere was totally complete in 125 AD, with horizon and meridian rings. The world's first water-powered celestial globe was created by Zhang Heng, who operated his armillary sphere by use of an inflow clepsydra clock (see Zhang's article for more detail).


title: Armillary sphere

text: Subsequent developments were made after the Han dynasty that improved the use of the armillary sphere. In 323 AD the Chinese astronomer Kong Ting was able to reorganize the arrangement of rings on the armillary sphere so that the ecliptic ring could be pegged on to the equator at any point desired. The Chinese astronomer and mathematician Li Chunfeng (李淳風) of the Tang dynasty created one in 633 AD with three spherical layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observations, calling them 'nests' (chhung). He was also responsible for proposing a plan of having a sighting tube mounted ecliptically in order for the better observation of celestial latitudes. However, it was the Tang Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and monk Yi Xing in the next century who would accomplish this addition to the model of the armillary sphere. Ecliptical mountings of this sort were found on the armillary instruments of Zhou Cong and Shu Yijian in 1050, as well as Shen Kuo's armillary sphere of the later 11th century, but after that point they were no longer employed on Chinese armillary instruments until the arrival of the European Jesuits.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In 723 AD, Yi Xing (一行) and government official Liang Ling-zan (梁令瓚) combined Zhang Heng's water powered celestial globe with an escapement device. With drums hit every quarter-hour and bells rung automatically every full hour, the device was also a striking clock. The famous clock tower that the Chinese polymath Su Song built by 1094 during the Song dynasty would employ Yi Xing's escapement with waterwheel scoops filled by clepsydra drip, and powered a crowning armillary sphere, a central celestial globe, and mechanically operated manikins that would exit mechanically opened doors of the clock tower at specific times to ring bells and gongs to announce the time, or to hold plaques announcing special times of the day. There was also the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Being the head official for the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of astronomy, and improved the designs of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra clock, and sighting tube fixed to observe the pole star indefinitely. When Jamal al-Din of Bukhara was asked to set up an 'Islamic Astronomical Institution' in Khubilai Khan's new capital during the Yuan dynasty, he commissioned a number of astronomical instruments, including an armillary sphere. It was noted that "Chinese astronomers had been building [them] since at least 1092".


title: Armillary sphere

text: The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE). The "Goladīpikā"—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380 and 1460 CE by Parameśvara. On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere ("gola-yantra") was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."


title: Armillary sphere

text: The Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190c. 120 BC) credited Eratosthenes (276194 BC) as the inventor of the armillary sphere. Names of this device in Greek include "astrolabos" and "krikōtē sphaira" "ringed sphere". The English name of this device comes ultimately from the Latin "armilla" (circle, bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking the poles and representing the equator, the ecliptic, meridians and parallels. Usually a ball representing the Earth or, later, the Sun is placed in its center. It is used to demonstrate the motion of the stars around the Earth. Before the advent of the European telescope in the 17th century, the armillary sphere was the prime instrument of all astronomers in determining celestial positions.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In its simplest form, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, the "armilla" is one of the most ancient of astronomical instruments. Slightly developed, it was crossed by another ring fixed in the plane of the meridian. The first was an equinoctial, the second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were used as indices of the sun's positions, in combinations with angular divisions. When several rings or circles were combined representing the great circles of the heavens, the instrument became an armillary sphere.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Armillary spheres were developed by the Hellenistic Greeks and were used as teaching tools already in the 3rd century BC. In larger and more precise forms they were also used as observational instruments. However, the fully developed armillary sphere with nine circles perhaps did not exist until the mid-2nd century AD, during the Roman Empire. Eratosthenes most probably used a solstitial armilla for measuring the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus probably used an armillary sphere of four rings. The Greco-Roman geographer and astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100–170 AD) describes his instrument, the "astrolabon", in his "Almagest". It consisted of at least three rings, with a graduated circle inside of which another could slide, carrying two small tubes positioned opposite each other and supported by a vertical plumb-line.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Persian and Arab astronomers produced an improved version of the Greek armillary sphere in the 8th century, and wrote about it in the treatise of "Dhat al-Halaq" or "The instrument with the rings" by the Persian astronomer Fazari (d.c. 777). Abbas Ibn Firnas (d.887) is thought to have produced another instrument with rings (armillary sphere) in the 9th century which he gave to Caliph Muhammad I (ruled 852–886). The spherical astrolabe, a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, was invented during the Middle Ages in the Middle East. About 550 AD, Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument. The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates back to the Persian astronomer Nayrizi (fl. 892–902). Muslim astronomers also independently invented the celestial globe, which were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The armillary sphere was reintroduced to Western Europe via Al-Andalus in the late 10th century with the efforts of Gerbert d'Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II (r. 999–1003). Pope Sylvester II applied the use of sighting tubes with his armillary sphere in order to fix the position of the pole star and record measurements for the tropics and equator.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Chinese ideas of astronomy and astronomical instruments were introduced to Korea, where further advancements were also made. Jang Yeong-sil, a Korean inventor, was ordered by King Sejong the Great of Joseon to build an armillary sphere. The sphere, built in 1433 was named Honcheonui (혼천의,渾天儀).


title: Armillary sphere

text: The Honcheonsigye, an armillary sphere activated by a working clock mechanism was built by the Korean astronomer Song Iyeong in 1669. It is the only remaining astronomical clock from the Joseon dynasty. The mechanism of the armillary sphere succeeded that of Sejong era's armillary sphere (Honŭi 渾儀, 1435) and celestial sphere (Honsang 渾象, 1435), and the Jade Clepsydra (Ongnu 玉漏, 1438)'s sun-carriage apparatus. Such mechanisms are similar to Ch'oe Yu-ji (崔攸之, 1603~1673)'s armillary sphere(1657). The structure of time going train and the mechanism of striking-release in the part of clock is influenced by the crown escapement which has been developed from 14th century, and is applied to gear system which had been improved until the middle of 17th century in Western-style clockwork. In particular, timing device of Song I-yŏng's Armillary Clock adopts the early 17th century pendulum clock system which could remarkably improve the accuracy of a clock.


title: Armillary sphere

text: Further advances in this instrument were made by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), who constructed three large armillary spheres which he used for highly precise measurements of the positions of the stars and planets. They were described in his "Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica".


title: Armillary sphere

text: Armillary spheres were among the first complex mechanical devices. Their development led to many improvements in techniques and design of all mechanical devices. Renaissance scientists and public figures often had their portraits painted showing them with one hand on an armillary sphere, which represented the height of wisdom and knowledge.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The armillary sphere survives as useful for teaching, and may be described as a skeleton celestial globe, the series of rings representing the great circles of the heavens, and revolving on an axis within a horizon. With the earth as center such a sphere is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as center, as Copernican.


title: Armillary sphere

text: A representation of an armillary sphere is present in the modern flag of Portugal and has been a national symbol since the reign of Manuel I.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In the 1980s, Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. Hollow objects are typically cast in two halves, and Savage-Smith indicates that the casting of a seamless sphere was considered impossible, though techniques such as rotational molding have been used since at least the '60s to produce similarly seamless spheres. The earliest seamless globe was invented in Kashmir by the Muslim astronomer and metallurgist Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 1589–90 (AH 998) during Akbar the Great's reign; another was produced in 1659–60 (1070 AH) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu astronomer and metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahori in 1842 during Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists used the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.


title: Armillary sphere

text: An artwork-based model of an Armillary sphere has been used since the March 1, 2014 to light the Paralympic heritage flame at Stoke Mandeville Stadium, United Kingdom. The sphere includes a wheelchair that the user can rotate to spark the flame as part of a ceremony to celebrate the past, present and future of the Paralympic Movement in the UK. The Armillary Sphere was created by artist Jon Bausor and will be used for future Heritage Flame events. The flame in the first-ever ceremony was lit by London 2012 gold medallist Hannah Cockroft.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The armillary sphere is commonly used in heraldry and vexillology, being mainly known as a symbol associated with Portugal, the Portuguese Empire and the Portuguese discoveries.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In the end of the 15th century, the armillary sphere became the personal heraldic badge of the future King Manuel I of Portugal, when he was still a Prince. The intense use of this badge in documents, monuments, flags and other supports, during the reign of Manuel I, transformed the armillary sphere from a simple personal symbol to a national one that represented the Kingdom of Portugal and in particular its Overseas Empire. As a national symbol, the armillary sphere continued in use after the death of Manuel I.


title: Armillary sphere

text: In the 17th century, it became associated with the Portuguese dominion of Brazil. In 1815, when Brazil gained the status of kingdom united with that of Portugal, its coat of arms was formalized as a golden armillary sphere in a blue field. Representing Brazil, the armillary sphere became also present in the arms and the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Brazil became independent as an empire in 1822, the armillary sphere continued to be present in its national arms and in its national flag. The celestial sphere of the present Flag of Brazil replaced the armillary sphere in 1889.


title: Armillary sphere

text: The armillary sphere was reintroduced in the national arms and in the national Flag of Portugal in 1911.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain of the Household is the most senior officer of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom, supervising the departments which support and provide advice to the Sovereign of the United Kingdom while also acting as the main channel of communication between the Sovereign and the House of Lords. The office organises all ceremonial activity such as garden parties, state visits, royal weddings, and the State Opening of Parliament. They also handle the Royal Mews and Royal Travel, as well as the ceremony around the awarding of honours.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: For over 230 years, the Lord Chamberlain had the power to decide which plays would be granted a licence for performance. From 1737 to 1968, this meant that the Lord Chamberlain had the capacity to censor theatre at his pleasure.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain is always sworn of the Privy Council, is usually a peer and before 1782 the post was of Cabinet rank. The position was a political one until 1924. The office dates from the Middle Ages when the King's Chamberlain often acted as the King's spokesman in Council and Parliament.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The current Lord Chamberlain is the Lord Parker of Minsmere, who has been in office since 1 April 2021.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: During the early modern period, the Lord Chamberlain was one of the three principal officers of the Royal Household, the others being the Lord Steward and the Master of the Horse. The Lord Chamberlain was responsible for the "chamber" or the household "above stairs": that is, the series of rooms used by the Sovereign to receive increasingly select visitors, terminating in the royal bedchamber (although the bedchamber itself came to operate semi-autonomously under the Groom of the Stool/Stole). His department not only furnished the servants and other personnel (such as physicians and bodyguards, the Yeomen of the Guard and Gentlemen Pensioners) in intimate attendance on the Sovereign but arranged and staffed ceremonies and entertainments for the court. He had (secular) authority over the Chapel Royal, and through the reabsorption of the Wardrobe into the Chamber, was also responsible for the Office of Works, the Jewel House, and other functions more removed from the Sovereign's person, many of which were reorganized and removed from the Chamberlain's purview in 1782.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: As other responsibilities of government were devolved to ministers, the ordering of the Royal Household was largely left to the personal taste of the Sovereign. To ensure that the chamber reflected the royal tastes, the Lord Chamberlain received commands directly from the sovereign to be transmitted to the heads of subordinate departments.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: In 1594, the Lord Chamberlain, Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon, founded the Lord Chamberlain's Men, for which William Shakespeare was a part (and later a shareholder in the company) and for whom he wrote most of his plays during his career. Carey served under Elizabeth I of England at the time and was in charge of all court entertainment, a duty traditionally given to the Master of the Revels, a deputy of the Lord Chamberlain. Later, in 1603, James I of England, elevated the Chamberlain's Men to royal patronage and changed the name to the King's Men.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: In 1737, Sir Robert Walpole officially introduced statutory censorship with the Licensing Act of 1737 by appointing the Lord Chamberlain to act as the theatrical censor. The Licensing Act 1737 gave the Lord Chamberlain the statutory authority to veto the performance of any new plays: he could prevent any new play, or any modification to an existing play, from being performed for any reason, and theatre owners could be prosecuted for staging a play (or part of a play) that had not received prior approval.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: Historically though, the Lord Chamberlain had been exercising a commanding authority on London's theatre companies under the Royal Prerogative for many decades already. But by the 1730s the theatre was not controlled by royal patronage anymore. Instead it had become more of a commercial business. Therefore, the fact the Lord Chamberlain still retained censorship authority for the next 200 years gave him uniquely repressive authority during a period where Britain was experiencing "growing political enfranchisement and liberalization".


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: Even further confusion rested in the fact that Members of Parliament could not present changes to the censorship laws because although the Lord Chamberlain exercised his authority under statute law, he was still an official whose authority was derived from the Royal Prerogative.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: By the 1830s, it started to become clear that the theatre licensing system in England needed an upgrade. Playwrights, instead of representatives of minor theatres, actually initiated the final push for reform as they felt that their livelihoods were being negatively affected by the monopoly the larger theatres had on the industry, backed by the laws in the 1737 Act.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: A Select Committee was formed in 1832 with the purpose of examining the laws that affected dramatic literature. Their main complaints were the lack of copyright protection for their work and more importantly that only two patent theatres in London could legitimately perform new plays. After more pressure from playwrights and theatre managers, the findings of the committee were finally presented to Parliament.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: It was the proposals of this committee that Parliament implemented in the Theatres Act of 1843. The Act still confirmed the absolute powers of censorship enjoyed by the Lord Chamberlain but still slightly restricted his powers so that he could only prohibit the performance of plays where he was of the opinion that "it is fitting for the preservation of good manners, decorum or of the public peace so to do". The Act, however, did abolish the monopoly that the patent houses had in London, providing a minor win for playwrights and theatre managers wishing to produce new work.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: In 1909, a Joint Select Committee on Stage Plays (Censorship) was established and recommended that the Lord Chamberlain should continue to act as censor but that it could be lawful to perform plays without a licence from the Lord Chamberlain. However, King Edward VII refused to accept these recommendations. The outbreak of both World Wars put an end to any parliamentary initiatives to change the laws regarding theatre censorship for many years. In 1948, the first British Theatre Conference recommended the termination of theatre censorship with the plan to pursue parliamentary action to ratify this.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: In the 1960s the debate to abolish theatre censorship rose again as a new generation of young playwrights came on the scene. They gained popularity with their new plays in local establishments, but since many were refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain, they could not transfer to the West End. In the case of John Osborne's play "A Patriot for Me", the Lord Chamberlain at the time, Lord Cobbold, was irritated that the play was so widely publicized even though he had banned it and therefore pursued legal action. In the end, the play was allowed to continue as it was. At this point, several widely regarded authors had all been censored by the Lord Chamberlain at one time or another, including playwrights Henrik Ibsen and George Bernard Shaw. Another Joint Select Committee was founded to further debate on the issue and present a solution. This time the argument largely centered around this issue on the portrayal of living and recently dead individuals, particularly in reference to the monarchy as well as politicians.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: After much debate, the Theatres Act 1968 was finally passed; it officially abolished the censorship of the stage and repealed the Lord Chamberlain's power to refuse a licence to a play of any kind. The first London performance of the musical "Hair" was actually delayed until the Act was passed after a licence had been refused.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The battle regarding the abolition of censorship was largely a political one, fought on principle. Those who opposed the termination of this particular duty of the Lord Chamberlain were mostly concerned about how to protect the reputation of the royal family and the government instead of controlling obscenity and blasphemy on stage. However, this concern has largely been unfounded. Since the termination of censorship, British drama has flourished and produced several prominent playwrights and new works since. The abolishment of censorship opened a floodgate of theatrical creativity.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain is the most senior official of the Royal Household and oversees its business, including liaising with the other senior officers of the Household, chairing Heads of Department meetings, and advising in the appointment of senior Household officials. The Lord Chamberlain also undertakes ceremonial duties and serves as the channel of communication between the Sovereign and the House of Lords.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain's Office is a department of the Royal Household and its day-to-day work is headed by the Comptroller. It is responsible for organizing ceremonial activities including state visits, investitures, garden parties, the State Opening of Parliament, weddings and funerals.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: On State and ceremonial occasions, the Lord Chamberlain carries specific symbols that represent his office: a white staff and a key (which is worn at the hip pocket). These insignia are returned to the monarch when the Lord Chamberlain retires from office; but if the monarch dies, the white staff is symbolically broken by the Lord Chamberlain and placed on the coffin of the deceased Sovereign at the end of the State Funeral service. This was last done by the Lord Parker of Minsmere, who broke his staff over the coffin of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022.


title: Lord Chamberlain

text: The Lord Chamberlain is "ex-officio" the Chancellor of the Royal Victorian Order, having possession of a Badge corresponding to that office. As such, they are often appointed to the said Order either upon appointment as Lord Chamberlain, or later in their career. The Lord Chamberlain also regulates the design and the wearing of court uniform and dress and how insignia are worn.


title: Mukti Mohan

text: Mukti Mohan is an Indian dancer and actress. She participated in Star One's dance reality show "Zara Nachke Dikha 2" and emerged as the winner. She also appeared on the comedy show "Comedy Circus Ka Jadoo" on Sony Entertainment Television. She hosted "Dil Hai Hindustani 2" along with Raghav Juyal . She was a contestant on "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 6" and "". She appeared in the films "Blood Brothers", "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster", "Hate Story" and "Daruvu" and a YouTube web series "Inmates".


title: IEEE 802.11be

text: IEEE 802.11be Extremely High Throughput (EHT) is the potential next amendment of the 802.11 IEEE standard, which will likely be designated . It will build upon 802.11ax, focusing on WLAN indoor and outdoor operation with stationary and pedestrian speeds in the 2.4, 5, and 6 GHz frequency bands. Speeds are expected to reach a theoretical maximum of 30Gbps.


title: IEEE 802.11be

text: Development of the 802.11be amendment is ongoing, with a goal of an initial draft by March 2021, and a final version expected by early 2024.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon, spread over the Puri, khordha and Ganjam districts of Odisha state on the east coast of India, at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing into the Bay of Bengal, covering an area of over . It is the biggest lake of India after Vembanad Lake. This lake is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the largest brackish water lagoon in the world after The New Caledonian barrier reef. It has been listed as a tentative UNESCO World Heritage site. It is a salt water lake.


title: Chilika Lake

text: It is the largest wintering ground for migratory birds on the Indian sub-continent. The lake is home to a number of threatened species of plants and animals.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The lake is an ecosystem with large fishery resources. It sustains more than 150,000 fisher–folk living in 132 villages on the shore and islands.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The lagoon hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak migratory season. Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Kazakhstan, Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh and Himalayas come here. These birds travel great distances; some of them possibly travel as much as to reach Chilika Lake.


title: Chilika Lake

text: In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.


title: Chilika Lake

text: According to a survey, 45 percent of the birds are terrestrial in nature, 32 percent are waterfowl, and 23 percent are waders. The lagoon is also home to 14 types of raptors. Around 152 rare and endangered Irrawaddy dolphins have also been reported. Plus, the lagoon supports about 37 species of reptiles and amphibians.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The highly productive Chilika Lagoon eco-system with its rich fishery resources sustains the livelihood for many fishermen who live in and near the lagoon. The water spread area of the lagoon ranges between during the monsoon and summer respectively. A long, narrow, outer channel connects the lagoon to the Bay of Bengal, near the village Motto. More recently a new mouth has been opened by CDA which has brought a new lease of life to the lagoon.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Microalgae, marine seaweeds, sea grasses, fish and crab also flourish in the brackish water of the Chilika Lagoon. Especially the recovery of seagrass beds in recent years is a welcoming trend which may eventually result in re-colonization of endangered dugongs.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Geological evidence indicates that Chilika Lake was part of the Bay of Bengal during the later stages of the Pleistocene period (1.8 million to 10,000 years BP).


title: Chilika Lake

text: Excavations were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India at Golabai Sasan () just north of Chilika lake in Khurdha district. Golabai provides evidence of a sequence of Chilika area culture in three phases: Neolithic (c. 1600 BCE), Chalcolithic (c. 1400 BCE to c. 900 BCE) and Iron Age (c. 900 BCE to c. 800 BCE). Radiocarbon dating traced the earliest level of Golbai to 2300 BCE. The site is located on the left bank of the Malaguni River, a tributary of the Daya River, which flows into Chilika Lake. This location, which gave access to the sea via Chilika Lake, gives strong evidence of the maritime activities of this region. The recovery of many woodworking adzes and other artifacts shows that Golabai was a boat-building centre. Significantly, Golabai is the only excavated site in Odisha where boat building has been revealed. This also indicates that Chilika lake was very close to Golabai and it facilitated the maritime trade of people in the area during the ancient period.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Some ancient texts say the southern sector of Chilika was a major harbour for maritime commerce, when Kharavela (c. 209 BCE–after 170 BCE), the King of Kalinga, was known as the "Lord of the Sea".


title: Chilika Lake

text: Ptolemy (150 CE), the Greek geographer, referred to Palur as the port "Paloura", located close to the point of departure situated outside of the southern tip of the lake at Kantiagarh, from where ships bound for different parts of Southeast Asia sailed. After 639, the Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang mention a famous port ""Che-li-ta-loChing"" near the shore of the ocean which was a thoroughfare and resting place for seagoing traders and strangers from distant lands. This port was located at 'Chhatragarh' on the banks of Chilika Lake.


title: Chilika Lake

text: A fourth-century legend, often told to explain the birth of Chilika, states that the pirate king, Raktabahhu, planned to attack Puri with a huge fleet of ships. To avoid detection, he stealthily anchored out of sight, off the mouth to the sea. The deception was revealed by the ships' refuse floating to the shore, thus warning the town's people, who escaped with all their possessions. Raktabahu felt betrayed when he found an abandoned town and directed his fury towards the sea


title: Chilika Lake

text: that had betrayed him. The sea parted to let the army march in, then surged back, drowned the army and formed the present lake.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Archeological excavations discovered seventh-century ship anchors and stone memoirs dedicated to battle heroes at a village named Kanas, about north of Chilika on the banks of Nuna river, which flows into the lake. This gives evidence of a historic naval engagement off the coast.


title: Chilika Lake

text: A 10th-century text, the Brahmanda Purana, mentions Chilika Lake as an important centre of trade and commerce, and a shelter for ships sailing to Java, Malaya, Singhala, China and other countries. This suggests that the lake was then deep enough for berthing seagoing ships and had a channel to the sea big enough for loaded trading ships embarking to Southeast Asia. The villagers around Chilika Lake still observe an annual festival called ""Bali Yatra"" (Journey to Bali).


title: Chilika Lake

text: In 1803, the British entered the shores of the lake, reached Puri and occupied Odisha with the help of Fateh Muhammed. Fateh Muhammed, in turn, was rewarded by the British with freehold of the areas of Malud and Parikud, of the present day Garh Krishnaprasad revenue block.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Over the years, poets including Kabibar Radhanath Ray and Pandit Godavarish Mishra, freedom fighters and Saints have extolled historicity of the lake as pertinent to its cultural, spiritual, religious and scenic aspects.


title: Chilika Lake

text: "Gopabandhu Das, a famous Odiya poet, became impatient to see the beauty of the march of colorful sights and sounds of Chilika lagoon while going by train. He asked the speeding train to stop for a moment so that he could enjoy the beauty. It is because of the beauty that arrests him much".


title: Chilika Lake

text: The lake is of estuarine character in an ephemeral environment. Geological studies indicate that the coastline extended along the western shores of the lake in the Pleistocene era with its northeastern region lying under the sea. That the coastline has moved eastward over the ages is supported by the fact that the nearby Konarak Sun Temple, built originally on the seashore a few hundred years ago, is now about , away from the coast.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The catchment area of Chilika lake has a rock, sand and mud substratum. It contains a wide range of sedimentary particles such as clay, silt, sand, gravel and shell banks but the major part of the catchment area is silt. Around 1.6 million metric tons per year of sediment is deposited in Chilika lake by rivers Daya and several streams.


title: Chilika Lake

text: It is conjectured that a rise in worldwide sea levels over the last 6,000–8,000 years occurred with a pause in the rise of sea level about 7,000 years ago, which could have resulted in the formation of a sandy beach near the coast at the Southern sector. With the rise in the sea level, the sand beach grew gradually, progressed seaward to the northeast and formed the spit of Chilika. A fossil unearthed from the southwestern edge of the spit indicates that the lake was formed about 3,500–4,000 years ago. The abrupt change in the direction of the coast north of the lake, strong winds shifting sand to the shore, longshore drift (littoral drift), the presence or absence of strong river and tidal currents in different areas are the reasons attributed for the growth of the spit.


title: Chilika Lake

text: White bands of coral in the southern sector, at a height of , above the present water level, shows that the area was once marine and that the water was much deeper than present. The chronological development of the outer barrier spit of the lake has been dated by Optically stimulated luminescence studies of minerals. This was done on sixteen samples of the lake bed. The studies indicated doses of between 153 ± 3 mGy and 2.23 ± 0.07 Gy, corresponding to ages from 40 years at the top of the spit to 300 years at the bottom. The youngest ages are consistent with the age of the overlying vegetation. A clearly defined period of > of barrier construction 40 years ago is identified. Prior to that the deposition rate was relatively constant for 300 years.'"


title: Chilika Lake

text: Chilika Lake is a shallow bar-built estuary with large areas of mudflats. The western and southern margins of the lake are fringed by the Eastern Ghats hill range.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Several inland rivers, which bring silt into the lake, control the northern end of the lake. A long barrier beach called Rejhansa, formed by northerly currents in the Bay of Bengal, resulted in the formation of this shallow lake and forms its eastern side. As an ephemeral lake, its water surface area varies from in the summer monsoon season to in the winter dry season.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The lake has numerous islands. The larger islands, separated by shallow channels, lie between the barrier and the main body of the lake. A total of channels connect the lake with Bay of Bengal. The six major islands are "Parikud, Phulbari, Berahpura, Nuapara, Nalbana," and "Tampara". These islands, together with the "Peninsula of Malud", constitute the "Krishnaprasad Revenue Block" of Puri District.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The north shore of the lake is part of Khordha District and the western shore is part of Ganjam District. Due to siltation, the width of the barrier has fluctuated and the mouth to the sea has periodically been closed. The location of the mouth has also frequently shifted, generally towards the northeast. The mouth, which was wide in 1780, was only forty years later. The local fishermen, to maintain their livelihood, had to cut open the mouth regularly to gain access to the sea for fishing.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Water depth of the lake varies from in the dry season to in the rainy season. The width of the old channel to the sea, now reported to be about , is known as Magarmukha (Mouth of the Crocodile). The lake is divided into four separate zones namely, the southern, central, northern sectors and the outer channel area. A long outer channel connects the lake with the Bay of Bengal at Arakhuda village. The lake is vaguely pear-shaped and has a maximum length of with a mean width of .


title: Chilika Lake

text: Three hydrological subsystems control the Hydrology of the lake. The land-based system comprises distributaries of the Mahanadi River on the northern side, 52 river channels from the western side and the Bay of Bengal on the eastern side. Two of the three southern branches of the Mahanadi River that trifurcates at Cuttack,


title: Chilika Lake

text: feed the lake. 61% () of the total freshwater inflow into the lake is contributed by these two branches.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The second drainage system which is non–perennial accounts for 39% (). The important rivers of this drainage system are the Kansari, the Kusumi, the Janjira, and the Tarimi rivers. The annual total surface freshwater input to the lake is estimated to including direct precipitation over the lake contributing


title: Chilika Lake

text: All the inland river systems disgorge an annual flow of about of freshwater which is estimated to carry 13 million metric tons of silt into the lake. On the northeast, a channel connects the lake to the Bay of Bengal.


title: Chilika Lake

text: A tropical monsoon climate prevails over the drainage basin area of the lake. The lake experiences South–west and North-east monsoons during June to September and November to December respectively with an average annual rainfall of , with 72 rainy days. The maximum temperature of and minimum temperature of have been recorded. The wind speed varies from /hour with southerly and southwesterly direction due to the influence of the Southwest monsoon and from the north and northeasterly direction during the rest of the months.


title: Chilika Lake

text: The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) established an organized system of water quality measurements and limnological investigations indicating the following physico–chemical characteristics of the lake waters.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Adverse tidal exchange occurred due to the littoral drift along the coast line causing flow reduction and shifting of the lake mouth every year. Estimated sediment transport due to this is on the order of 100,000 metric tons. This adverse effect needed ameliorative actions.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Sediment cores were collected from different locations of the lake. The result indicated spatial variation of sedimentation rate in three zones of the lake of /year (Northern Sector), /year (Central Sector) and /year (SouthernSector). The non–uniform sedimentation rate along with the porosity and water content of the sediment cores were also analysed which indicated the lake had different deposition zones, with comparatively higher sedimentation rate in Northern and Central Sector and a slow rate in the Southern Sector.


title: Chilika Lake

text: In 1971, during Indira Gandhi's tenure as Prime Minister of India, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention due to its rich biodiversity as shown by the facts that:


title: Chilika Lake

text: The rapid expansion of commercial aquaculture of prawn has contributed significantly to the decline of the lakes fisheries and bird population.


title: Chilika Lake

text: Concerted action was initiated by the Odisha State Government with support from the Government of India to adopt adaptive conservation and management actions.


title: Chilika Lake

text: By 1993, the problems in Chilika were so severe that the lake was put under "The Montreux Record" as the lake was considered to have "undergone, to be undergoing, or to be likely to undergo change in its ecological character brought about by human action". The purpose was to stimulate remedial measures for the lake's conservation, supplemented with adequate monitoring. It was expected that such an action would benefit from the advice from Ramsar Advisory Mission and other identified technical assistance programs.


title: Chilika Lake

text: In summary, siltation from upstream led to shrinkage of the water surface area, decrease of salinity and prolific growth of invasive freshwater aquatic weed infestation, all of which had a serious negative impact on the habitat of wildlife and fishery resources.


title: Chilika Lake

text: In 1992, the Government of Odisha, concerned by the degradation of the lake's ecosystem and cognizant of significant numbers of people who were dependent upon the lake's resources, set up the Chilika Development Authority (CDA). The CDA was set up for restoration and overall development of the lake under the Indian Societies Registration Act as a parastatal body under the administrative jurisdiction of the Forest and Environment Department, with the following charter:


title: Chilika Lake

text: The governing body of the Authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Odisha State and has people's representatives (Members of Parliament and Legislative Assembly), representatives of the fisherfolk communities and secretaries of the key departments, experts and eminent scientists as its members.