title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: In the world, we can see that things are caused. But it is not possible for something to be the cause of itself because this would entail that it exists prior to itself, which is a contradiction. If that by which it is caused is "itself" caused, then it too must have a cause. But this cannot be an infinitely long chain, so, there must be a cause which is not itself caused by anything further. This everyone understands to be God.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: As in the First Way, the causes Aquinas has in mind are not sequential events, but rather simultaneously existing dependency relationships: Aristotle's efficient cause. For example, plant growth depends on sunlight, which depends on gravity, which depends on mass. Aquinas is not arguing for a cause that is first in a sequence, but rather first in a hierarchy: a principal cause, rather than a derivative cause.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: In the world we see things that are possible to be and possible not to be. In other words, perishable things. But if everything were contingent and thus capable of going out of existence, then, nothing would exist now. But things clearly do exist now. Therefore, there must be something that is imperishable: a necessary being. This everyone understands to be God.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The argument begins with the observation that things around us come into and go out of existence: animals die, buildings are destroyed, etc. But if "everything" were like this, then, at some time nothing would exist. Some interpreters read Aquinas to mean that assuming an infinite past, all possibilities would be realized and everything would go out of existence. Since this is clearly not the case, then there must be at least one thing that does not have the possibility of going out of existence. However, this explanation seems to involve the fallacy of composition (quantifier shift). Moreover, it does not seem to be in keeping with Aquinas' principle that, among natural things, the destruction of one thing is always the generation of another. Alternatively, one could read Aquinas to be arguing as follows: if there is eternal change, so that things are eternally being generated and corrupted, and since an eternal effect requires an eternal cause (just as a necessary conclusion requires necessary premises), then there must exist an eternal agent which can account for the eternity of generation and corruption. To hold the alternative, namely that an infinite series of contingent causes would be able to explain eternal generation and corruption would posit a circular argument: Why is there eternal generation and corruption? Because there is an eternal series of causes which are being generated and corrupted. And why is there an infinite series of causes which are being generated and corrupted? Because there is eternal generation and corruption. Since such an explanation is not acceptable, there must be (at least one) eternal and necessary being.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: We see things in the world that vary in degrees of goodness, truth, nobility, etc. For example, well-drawn circles are better than poorly drawn ones, healthy animals are better than sick animals. Moreover, some substances are better than others, since living things are better than non-living things, and animals are better than plants, in testimony of which no one would choose to lose their senses for the sake of having the longevity of a tree. But judging something as being "more" or "less" implies some standard against which it is being judged. For example, in a room full of people of varying heights, at least one must be tallest. Therefore, there is something which is best and most true, and most a being, etc. Aquinas then adds the premise: what is most in a genus is the cause of all else in that genus. From this he deduces that there exists some most-good being which causes goodness in all else, and this everyone understands to be God.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The argument is rooted in Aristotle and Plato but its developed form is found in Anselm of Canterbury's "Monologion". Although the argument has Platonic influences, Aquinas was not a Platonist and did not believe in the Theory of Forms. Rather, he is arguing that things that only have partial or flawed existence indicate that they are not their own sources of existence, and so must rely on something else as the source of their existence. The argument makes use of the theory of transcendentals: properties of existence. For example, "true" presents an aspect of existence, as any existent thing will be "true" insofar as it is true that it exists. Or "one," insofar as any existent thing will be (at least) "one thing."


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The premise which seems to cause the most difficulty among interpreters of the fourth way is that the greatest in a genus is the cause of all else in the genus. This premise does not seem to be universally true, and indeed, Aquinas himself thinks that this premise is not always true, but only under certain circumstances: namely, when 1) the lesser things in the genus need a cause, and 2) there is nothing outside the genus which can be the cause. When these two conditions are met, the premise that the greatest in the genus is the cause of all else in that genus holds, since nothing gives what it does not have. Since Aquinas is dealing specifically with transcendentals like being and goodness, and since there is nothing outside the transcendentals, it follows that there is nothing outside the genus which could be a cause (condition 2). Moreover, if something has less than the maximum being or goodness or truth, then it must not have being or goodness or truth in itself. For example, how could what has circularity itself be less than fully circular? Therefore, whatever has less than the maximum being or goodness or truth must need a cause of their being and goodness and truth (condition 1).


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: We see various objects that lack intelligence in the world behaving in regular ways. This cannot be due to chance since then they would not behave with predictable results. So their behavior must be set. But it cannot be set by themselves since they are non-intelligent and have no notion of how to set behavior. Therefore, their behavior must be set by something else, and by implication something that must be intelligent. This everyone understands to be God.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: This is also known as the Teleological Argument. However, it is not a "Cosmic Watchmaker" argument from design (see below). Instead, as the 1920 Dominican translation puts it, "The fifth way is taken from the governance of the world".


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The Fifth Way uses Aristotle's final cause. Aristotle argued that a complete explanation of an object will involve knowledge of how it came to be (efficient cause), what material it consists of (material cause), how that material is structured (formal cause), and the specific behaviors associated with the type of thing it is (final cause). The concept of final causes involves the concept of dispositions or "ends": a specific goal or aim towards which something strives. For example, acorns regularly develop into oak trees but never into sea lions. The oak tree is the "end" towards which the acorn "points," its disposition, even if it fails to achieve maturity. The aims and goals of intelligent beings is easily explained by the fact that they consciously set those goals for themselves. The implication is that if something has a goal or end towards which it strives, it is either because it is intelligent or because something intelligent is guiding it.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: It must be emphasized that this argument is distinct from the design argument associated with William Paley and the Intelligent Design movement. The latter implicitly argue that objects in the world "do not" have inherent dispositions or ends, but, like Paley's watch, will not naturally have a purpose unless forced to do some outside agency. The latter also focus on complexity and interworking parts as the effect needing explanation, whereas the Fifth Way takes as its starting point "any" regularity. (E.g., that an eye has a complicated function therefore a design therefore a designer) but an argument from final cause (e.g., that the pattern that things exist with a purpose itself allows us to recursively arrive at God as the ultimate source of purpose without being constrained by any external purpose).


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Many scholars and commenters caution against treating the Five Ways as if they were modern logical proofs. This is not to say that examining them in that light is not academically interesting.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Criticism of the cosmological argument, and hence the first three Ways, emerged in the 18th century by the philosophers David Hume and Immanuel Kant.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Kant argued that our minds give structure to the raw materials of reality and that the world is therefore divided into the phenomenal world (the world we experience and know), and the noumenal world (the world as it is "in itself," which we can never know). Since the cosmological arguments reason from what we experience, and hence the phenomenal world, to an inferred cause, and hence the noumenal world, since the noumenal world lies beyond our knowledge we can never know what's there. Kant also argued that the concept of a necessary being is incoherent, and that the cosmological argument presupposes its coherence, and hence the arguments fail.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Hume argued that since we can conceive of causes and effects as separate, there is no necessary connection between them and therefore we cannot necessarily reason from an observed effect to an inferred cause. Hume also argued that explaining the causes of individual elements explains everything, and therefore there is no need for a cause of the whole of reality.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The 20th-century philosopher of religion Richard Swinburne argued in his book, "Simplicity as Evidence of Truth", that these arguments are only strong when collected together, and that individually each of them is weak.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: The 20th-century Catholic priest and philosopher Frederick Copleston devoted much of his work to a modern explication and expansion of Aquinas' arguments.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: More recently the prominent Thomistic philosopher Edward Feser has argued in his book "Aquinas: A Beginner’s Guide" that Richard Dawkins, Hume, Kant, and most modern philosophers do not have a correct understanding of Aquinas at all; that the arguments are often difficult to translate into modern terms. He has defended the arguments in a book at length.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Atheist philosopher J.H. Sobel offers objections to the first three Ways by challenging the notion of sustaining efficient causes and a concurrent actualizer of existence. Atheist philosopher Graham Oppy has offered critiques of the arguments in his exchanges with Edward Feser and in his published work.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Biologist Richard Dawkins' book "The God Delusion" argues against the Five Ways. According to Dawkins, "[t]he five 'proofs' asserted by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century don't prove anything, and are easily [...] exposed as vacuous."


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: In "Why there almost certainly is a God: Doubting Dawkins", philosopher Keith Ward claims that Dawkins mis-stated the five ways, and thus responds with a straw man. For example, for the fifth Way, Dawkins places it in the same position for his criticism as the Watchmaker analogy- when in fact, according to Ward, they are vastly different arguments. Ward defended the utility of the five ways (for instance, on the fourth argument he states that all possible smells must pre-exist in the mind of God, but that God, being by his nature non-physical, does not himself stink) whilst pointing out that they only constitute a proof of God if one first begins with a proposition that the universe can be rationally understood. Nevertheless, he argues that they are useful in allowing us to understand what God will be like given this initial presupposition.


title: Five Ways (Aquinas)

text: Eastern Orthodox theologian David Bentley Hart says that Dawkins "devoted several pages of "The God Delusion" to a discussion of the 'Five Ways' of Thomas Aquinas but never thought to avail himself of the services of some scholar of ancient and medieval thought who might have explained them to him ... As a result, he not only mistook the Five Ways for Thomas's comprehensive statement on why we should believe in God, which they most definitely are not, but ended up completely misrepresenting the logic of every single one of them, and at the most basic levels." Hart said of Dawkins treatment of Aquinas' arguments that:


title: Bomberman

text: As of 2002, the series has sold over 10 million copies. The most recent iteration, "Amazing Bomberman", was released on August 5, 2022 on Apple Arcade.


title: Bomberman

text: Most games in the "Bomberman" franchise largely revolve around two modes of play; single player campaigns where the player must defeat enemies and reach an exit to progress through levels, and multiplayer modes where players must attempt to eliminate each other and be the last one standing. Gameplay involves strategically placing down bombs, which explode in multiple directions after a certain amount of time, in order to destroy obstacles and kill enemies and other players. The player can pick up various power-ups, giving them benefits such as larger explosions or the ability to place more bombs down at a time. The player is killed if they touch an enemy or get caught up in a bomb's explosion, including their own, requiring players to be cautious of their own bomb placement. In addition to the main maze-based "Bomberman" games, some spin-off titles involve adventure, platformer, puzzle, and kart racing gameplay.


title: Bomberman

text: The 1985 game for Famicom / Nintendo Entertainment System (and "Atomic Punk" for Game Boy) begins with "Bomberman" (the eponymous character of the game) who worked day in and day out making bombs in an underground compound, but he dreamed of liberty, so he plotted his escape. After hearing a rumor that robots reaching the surface become human, he decides to escape. He was aided by the only skill he knew, bomb making. He uses the bombs to destroy the enemies preventing his escape and to clear blocked walls. When he reaches the surface, he transforms into an organic human being and becomes known as the "Runner". This storyline is not present in some versions, such as "Bomberman Party Edition", and this setting was largely abandoned but used for connections with Hudson's "Lode Runner" games and "".


title: Bomberman

text: In the "Bomberman" for the TurboGrafx-16, Bomberman is used as a prototype for further Bomberman robots by Dr. Mitsumori. To distinguish him from other Bombermen, the main character is given the name White Bomberman (or White Bomber). In earlier appearances, the second Bomberman model (known as Black Bomberman) was usually the rival or the main antagonist.


title: Bomberman

text: In the "Super Bomberman" series, the two characters would regularly join forces to handle bigger threats, most notably the evil alien Professor Bagura and the Five Dastardly Bombers, the Hige Hige Bandits (led by Mujoe and Dr. Mechado), as well as a mysterious rival known as Regulus.


title: Sodapoppin

text: Thomas Chance Morris (born February 15, 1994), better known as Sodapoppin, is an American Twitch streamer and YouTuber. He has one of the largest followings on Twitch, with over 8.7 million followers and over 398.3 million views as of August 15, 2022; he also has over 1.11 million subscribers and over 444.5 million views on YouTube. According to Social Blade, Morris sits at the number 10 spot for the most followers on Twitch; he also ranks number 15 for the largest total number of views on the platform. He is a co-owner of and content creator for gaming organization One True King.


title: Sodapoppin

text: Morris began streaming on Twitch in 2012 after switching from Xfire. He was a successful "World of Warcraft" player, reaching top rank with over half of Twitch's "WoW" followers viewing him. Morris streamed other games before switching to online gambling.


title: Sodapoppin

text: In 2014 and 2015, Morris was streaming blackjack gambling on casino websites, winning and losing thousands of dollars on any given day. In May 2015, Morris lost $5,000 on one hand with over 43,000 viewers watching him.


title: Sodapoppin

text: Morris co-owned Canadian esports organization Northern Gaming, which was founded in May 2016. In August 2017, the organization was purchased by NRG Esports, which is owned by Shaquille O'Neal, Alex Rodriguez, and others. Morris subsequently joined its ownership group and became an advisor of NRG Esports. In regards to Northern Gaming's short-lived career, "Esports Insider" stated, "It's the end of a short road for Northern Gaming, but their story will be looked back on as an example of achieving quick success in esports."


title: Sodapoppin

text: Morris eliminated fellow streamer Dr Disrespect out of the H1Z1 Invitational tournament in October 2017. Nonetheless, Morris failed to make the top ten.


title: Sodapoppin

text: Morris has been credited for causing a spike in popularity of social deduction game "Among Us", which was originally released in 2018 but exploded in popularity in the Summer 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Forest Willard, programmer and co-founder of Innersloth, "The first thing we really noticed was a Twitch stream from Sodapoppin. We had various moments where we were like, 'We're doing well,' but it was that point where we saw that a lot of people and other streamers started to climb onboard."


title: Sodapoppin

text: On July 21, 2022, gaming organization One True King announced Morris as their newest member and co-owner.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Spellbound is a 1945 American psychological thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, and starring Ingrid Bergman, Gregory Peck, and Michael Chekhov. It follows a psychoanalyst who falls in love with the new head of the Vermont hospital in which she works, only to find that he is an imposter suffering dissociative amnesia, and potentially, a murderer. The film is based on the 1927 novel "The House of Dr. Edwardes" by Hilary Saint George Saunders and John Palmer.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Filming of "Spellbound" took place in the summer of 1944 in Vermont, Utah, and Los Angeles. "Spellbound" was released theatrically in New York City on Halloween 1945, after which its U.S. release expanded on December 28, 1945. The film received favorable reviews from critics and was a major box-office success, grossing $6.4 million in the United States, and breaking ticket sales records in London. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including for Best Picture and Best Director, and won in the category of Best Original Score.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Dr. Constance Petersen is a psychoanalyst at a mental hospital in Vermont. The hospital's director, Dr. Murchison, is forced into retirement shortly after returning from an absence due to nervous exhaustion. His replacement, Dr. Anthony Edwardes, turns out to be surprisingly young. Petersen is immediately smitten with him.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: They fall in love. One day, while kissing him, Petersen notices that this Edwardes has a peculiar phobia about sets of parallel lines against a white background. She compares his signature with an autographed copy of one of his books, realizing that they do not match and he is an impostor. He confides to her that he has killed the real Edwardes and taken his place. Suffering from amnesia, he does not know who he really is. Petersen believes he is an innocent man with a guilt complex. Overnight, he disappears. At the same time, it becomes public knowledge that the man is an impostor, and that the real Edwardes is missing and may have been killed.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Petersen tracks him down to a New York City hotel, where he is living under the pseudonym John Brown. Despite his insistence for her to leave, she convinces him that psychoanalysis can break through his amnesia and uncover his former memories. The two travel to Rochester, New York, and stay with Dr. Alexander Brulov, Petersen's former mentor.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: The two doctors analyze a dream that Brown had. He is playing cards in a mysterious club when a scantily-clad woman resembling Petersen starts kissing everybody there. His card partner, an older man, is accused of cheating and threatened by the club's masked proprietor. The scene changes to the older man standing on the precipice of a sloped roof and falling off. The proprietor is found to be standing behind a chimney and dropping a wheel he held in his hands. Brown's dream concludes with him being chased down a hill by a great pair of wings.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Brown's phobia of dark lines on white turns out to be based on ski tracks in the snow and the older man in his dream is the real Edwardes, who met his demise in a skiing accident. The detail of the wings makes them deduce that it must have been the Gabriel Valley ski lodge. Brown and Petersen travel there to recreate the circumstances of Edwardes' death. However, Brown fears that, if he really was Edwardes' murderer, he may impulsively kill again in the same situation.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: As they go down the slope, Brown remembers details of his former life: he has a guilt complex, rooted in a childhood accident where he killed his brother by knocking him onto a spiked fence. He also recognizes the cliff where Edwardes fell off and recalls his real name: John Ballantyne. Petersen and John later meet with the police, who find Edwardes' body with Ballantyne's directions. However, the corpse has a bullet wound in his back. Ballantyne is arrested, tried, and convicted of murder.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Heartbroken, Petersen returns to the hospital. Murchison, once again the director, lets slip that he knew Edwardes slightly and did not like him, contradicting his earlier statement that they had never met. This inspires Petersen to re-examine her notes of Ballantyne's dream: the masked proprietor represents Murchison and the wheel represents a revolver. Murchison therefore murdered Edwardes and left the gun on the ski slope.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Confronting Murchison to prove her hunch, Petersen gets him to admit that the man in the dream likely represents himself. She presents her accusation, and Murchison replies that she got every detail right but one: he still has the revolver, and draws it on her. Deciding to phone the police, Petersen points out that while he could plead insanity and get a lesser charge for Edwardes' murder, shooting her would guarantee his execution. She leaves the office, and Murchison turns the gun on himself.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: In the final scene, Petersen and Ballantyne, now married, receive well-wishes from Dr. Brulov before departing on their honeymoon at Grand Central Terminal.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Spellbound" was made over contract disagreements between Alfred Hitchcock and producer David O. Selznick. Hitchcock's contract with Selznick began in March 1939, but only resulted in three films: "Spellbound", "Rebecca" (1940) and "The Paradine Case" (1947). ("Notorious" was sold to RKO in mid-production.) Selznick had wanted Hitchcock to make a film based upon Selznick's own positive experience with psychoanalysis; Selznick, at Hitchcock's suggestion, purchased the rights to the 1927 novel "The House of Dr. Edwardes" by Hilary St. George Saunders and John Palmer (who had co-written it under the pseudonym Francis Beeding), for approximately $40,000.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: In December 1943, Hitchcock and his wife, Alma Reville, began working on a treatment of the novel, and consulted prominent British psychologists and psychoanalysts so as to accurately represent the psychological elements of the story. However, the following month, in January 1944, Hitchcock hired Angus MacPhail, with whom he had collaborated on several war-related short films, to co-author the treatment. MacPhail was ultimately given the adaptation credit, and the extent to which Reville was involved in the final product is unknown. Following the completion of the treatment, screenwriter Ben Hecht began writing the screenplay.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Between May and July 1944, Selznick submitted numerous drafts of Hecht's screenplay for approval from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), who objected to various words and phrases in it, including "sex menace," "frustrations," "libido," and "tomcat." This resulted in some alterations in the screenplay, including the removal of most of a character named Mary Carmichael, a violent nymphomaniac at Green Manors. However, the suicide of Dr. Murchison in the screenplay—which typically violated the MPAA's rules against depicting suicide—was allowed to remain, as it was reasoned by Selznick that the character was clearly "of unsound mind," rendering him an exception.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Selznick originally wanted Joseph Cotten, Dorothy McGuire, and Paul Lukas to play the roles ultimately portrayed by Peck, Bergman, and Chekhov, respectively. Greta Garbo was considered for the role of Dr. Constance Petersen. Hitchcock wanted Joseph Cotten to portray Dr. Murchison. Selznick also wanted Jennifer Jones to portray Dr. Petersen but Hitchcock objected.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Selznick brought in his own therapist, May Romm, MD, to serve as a technical advisor on the production. Dr. Romm and Hitchcock clashed frequently.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Further contention was caused by the hiring of surrealist artist Salvador Dalí to conceive certain scenes in the film's key dream sequence. However, the sequence conceived and designed by Dalí and Hitchcock, once translated to film, proved to be too lengthy and complicated for Selznick, so the vast majority of what had been filmed ultimately was edited out. Two minutes of the dream sequence appear in the final film, but according to Ingrid Bergman, the original had been twenty minutes long. The cut footage apparently is now considered lost footage, although some production stills have survived in the Selznick archives. Eventually, Selznick hired William Cameron Menzies, who had worked on "Gone With the Wind", to oversee the set designs and direct the sequence. Hitchcock himself had very little to do with its actual filming.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Both Bergman and Peck were married to others at the time of production—Bergman to Petter Aron Lindström, and Peck to Greta Kukkonen—but they had a brief affair during filming. Their secret relationship became public knowledge when Peck confessed to Brad Darrach of "People" in an interview in 1987, five years after Bergman's death. "All I can say is that I had a fiery kinda love for her, and I think that’s where I ought to stop… I was young. She was young. We were involved for weeks in close and intense work."


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Hitchcock's cameo appearance in the film occurs approximately at the forty-minute mark, when he can be seen exiting an elevator at the Empire State Hotel, carrying a violin case and smoking a cigarette. The trailer for "Spellbound"s original theatrical release in America made a great deal of fuss over this cameo of Hitchcock's, showing the footage twice and even freeze-framing Hitchcock's brief appearance while a breathless narrator informs us that this ordinary-looking man is, in fact, Hitchcock himself.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Spellbound" was shot in black and white, except for two frames of bright red at the conclusion, when Dr. Murchison's gun is fired into the camera. This detail was deleted in most 16mm and video formats but was restored for the film's DVD release and airings on Turner Classic Movies.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Parts of the film were shot in Alta, Utah at the Alta Lodge and Wasatch Ranch. The film's picnic sequence between Peck and Bergmans' characters was filmed at the Cooper Ranch in Northridge, Los Angeles, while other sequences—such as the train depot scene—were filmed on the Universal Studios lot.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: The film features an orchestral score by Miklós Rózsa that pioneered the use of the theremin, performed by Dr. Samuel Hoffmann. Selznick originally wanted Bernard Herrmann, but when Herrmann became unavailable, Rózsa was hired and eventually won the Oscar for his score. Although Rózsa considered "Spellbound" to contain some of his best work, he said "Alfred Hitchcock didn't like the music — said it got in the way of his direction. I haven't seen him since." During the film's protracted post-production, considerable disagreement arose about the music, exacerbated by a lack of communication between producer, director, and composer. Rózsa had scored another film, "The Lost Weekend", before "Spellbound" was released and had used the theremin in that score as well. This led to allegations that he had recycled music from Selznick's film in the Paramount production. Meanwhile, Selznick's assistant tampered with the "Spellbound" scoring by replacing some of Rózsa's material with earlier music by Franz Waxman and Roy Webb. The tangled history of the scoring process has been explored by Jack Sullivan ("Hitchcock's Music", 2006) and especially Nathan Platte ("Making Music in Selznick's Hollywood", 2018), both of which qualify and sometimes contradict the early accounts of the participants.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Rózsa's music achieved great popularity outside the film. Selznick's innovative use of promotional recordings for radio broadcast made the themes familiar and eventually inspired Rózsa to prepare a full-scale "Spellbound Concerto" for piano, theremin, and orchestra. This work became a popular staple in the movie concerto genre and has received multiple recordings. Intrada Records made the first recording of the film's complete score with the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra. This album also included music not heard in the finished film.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Spellbound" opened theatrically in New York City on Halloween 1945, and the following week in Los Angeles, on November 8, 1945. It was subsequently given a wide release in the United States on December 28, 1945. It earned rentals of $4,975,000 in North America.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Upon the film's British release, it broke every box office record in London, in both famous theaters, Pavilion and Tivoli Strand, for a single day, week, month, holiday and Sundays.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Newsweek's" review evaluated the film as "a superior and suspenseful melodrama;" Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote that the story was "a rather obvious and often-told tale ... but the manner and quality of its telling is extraordinarily fine ... the firm texture of the narration, the flow of continuity and dialogue, the shock of the unexpected, the scope of image—all are happily here." "Variety" wrote that Bergman gave a "beautiful characterization" and that Peck "handles the suspense scenes with great skill and has one of his finest screen roles to date." "Harrison's Reports" wrote: "Very good! ... The performances of the entire cast are superior, and throughout the action an overtone of suspense and terror, tinged with touches of deep human interest and appealing romance, is sustained." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" wrote that "when the film stops trying to be esoteric and abandons arcane mumbling for good, rousing melodrama, it moves along in the manner to which Hitchcock has accustomed us ... Fortunately, the English expert hasn't forgotten any of his tricks. He still has a nice regard for supplementary characters, and he uses everything from train whistles to grand orchestral crescendos to maintain excitement at a shrill pitch ... All in all, you'd better see this one."


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Spellbound" placed fifth on "Film Daily"'s annual poll of 559 critics across the United States naming the best films of the year.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 85% fresh, based on 40 reviews. Its critical consensus says: “"Spellbound"'s exploration of the subconscious could have benefitted from more analysis, but Alfred Hitchcock's psychedelic flourishes elevate this heady thriller along with Ingrid Bergman and Gregory Peck's star power”.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: On September 28, 2018, Jake Wilson of The Age put "Spellbound" on his “top five” list, observing: “Today this seems above all a forward-thinking portrait of a woman battling for authority in a man's world.”


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: In 1999, Anchor Bay Entertainment released "Spellbound" for the first time on DVD. The Criterion Collection subsequently issued a DVD release in 2002. In 2012, MGM Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray.


title: Spellbound (1945 film)

text: "Spellbound" was performed as a one-hour radio adaptation on "Lux Radio Theatre" on March 8, 1948. On January 25, 1951 "Screen Directors Playhouse" also did a one-hour adaptation. Both versions starred Joseph Cotten.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: In 2008, intimate and private photographs of Hong Kong actor Edison Chen with various women, including actresses Gillian Chung, Bobo Chan, Rachel Ngan, and Cecilia Cheung, were unlawfully distributed over the Internet. The scandal shook the Hong Kong entertainment industry and received high-profile media attention locally and around the world. Many local newspapers headlined the story consecutively during the first fortnight of February 2008, relegating coverage of the 2008 Chinese winter storms to secondary prominence during Chinese New Year.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: In a crackdown which itself became a controversial item, the Hong Kong police enlisted the assistance of Interpol to stem the spread of the photographs. Ten people were arrested in connection with the distribution of the photographs. A computer technician was convicted of three counts of obtaining access to a computer with dishonest intent, and received a custodial sentence of eight and a half months.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The police crackdown raised questions over violations of the privacy and free speech rights of Internet users. The manner in which actors, their management, and the police handled the situation, in turn, made those arrested into heroes for some Internet users.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Chen admitted being the author and copyright owner of most of the photographs, and stated that the private photographs had been stolen and published illegally without his consent. He made a public apology, especially to the women involved, and also announced that he would "step away indefinitely" from the Hong Kong entertainment industry.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: In November 2006, Chen purchased a pink PowerBook personal computer, a photograph of which he published on his blog. It may have come from Elite Multimedia, a computer shop in Hong Kong's Central district. According to the police, Chen brought his computer to the shop for repairs in 2007. Employees who discovered over 1,300 intimate photographs of Chen and numerous female celebrities may have secretly copied these files. According to Chen, the image files were deleted before the computer was taken in for repairs.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Chen's photographs were reportedly made some time between 2003 and 2006. One close friend indicated that Chen liked to take photographs during intimate moments with his sexual partners, of whom 14 were celebrities, and privately showed these to a select group of close friends.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The first intimate photograph, with likenesses of Chen and Gillian Chung, was posted on the Hong Kong Discuss Forum at approximately 8:30 p.m. on 27 January 2008. Although the original post was deleted after a few hours, the image did the rounds at other major forums in Hong Kong such as Uwants and HKGolden. Chung's management agency, Emperor Entertainment Group (EEG), immediately challenged its authenticity, and filed a police report. The following day, a second explicit photograph of Chen with another starlet appeared on the Internet. EEG denounced the person who released it. Gillian Chung had taken a leave of absence, and would not comment on the matter. Shaped by the denials, the initial media consensus was that the photographs were hoaxes. Nevertheless, the story became the headline of major local Hong Kong newspapers.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Over a few hours on 29 January, several more photographs appeared on the Internet. On one, journals identified Cecilia Cheung from her distinctive tattoo set. The photographs became the talk of the town, and local discussion forums became saturated. Journals established with known video footage that the photographs were taken inside Chen's residence. Nevertheless, Cheung's solicitors denounced the upload as a "malicious, immoral and irresponsible act".


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Assistant Commissioner of Police (Crime) Vincent Wong Fook-chuen said that 19 officers from the Commercial Crime Bureau were investigating. The police and photographic experts authenticated the photos involving the first three female celebrities. Police requested Internet service providers to stamp out all local traces of the as yet unclassified "offensive material". Related discussion threads were progressively deleted. The police retrieved the IP addresses of more than 30 Internet users who allegedly posted photographs.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: After the exposure of the eighth photograph, Chen quietly left Hong Kong and flew to Boston. On 4 February, Chen released a 90-second video clip in English in which he took responsibility and apologised to those who may have been affected by the posting of photographs.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 6 February, a forum user leaked hundreds more photographs in defiance of the police. The uploader, dubbed by the public as "Kira", promised to release a 32-minute video the next day. Two days later, three pictures of a young woman showering appeared on the Internet. The subject was rapidly identified as 18-year-old Vincy Yeung, Chen's girlfriend and niece of Albert Yeung, chairman of EEG. The police confirmed these three images were among the 1,300 photographs known to them. Having said there were only six participants, the police explained the appearance of a seventh, saying that her photographs had been erroneously grouped with one of the other females.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Gillian Chung was the first starlet to make a public appearance. After a New Year celebration with fans on 11 February, she delivered a brief statement to the press in which she apologised for the hurt caused to those around her. Emperor sought closure by stating that neither it nor any of its artists would be making any further statement about the incident. The press conference drew mixed response from the media and the public. An "Apple Daily" commentary was particularly scathing about the hypocrisy of Chung and of her management company for only obliquely hinting at her "licentiousness". On 14 February, two new nude photographs surfaced – one featuring an unidentified woman fellating Chen, and another showed a woman lying on a bed.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Chen returned to Hong Kong on 21 February, and immediately held a press conference asking for forgiveness and announcing his indefinite departure from the Hong Kong entertainment industry. Chen confirmed that the photographs belonged to him and were private, and stated that they were obtained without his consent and then made public. His lawyer emphasised that reproduction whether in whole or in part would constitute copyright infringement.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Chen was questioned by police for several days consecutively, and "Sing Tao Daily" revealed that a cache of computer disks and other storage devices containing in excess of 10,000 images were found in Chen's residence. Media reported that five "new" celebrities had been identified by police, who gave only cryptic descriptions. Investigations were said to have been hampered by Chen's caution, and by the lack of co-operation of the "new" female victims: some had left town, and one had already publicly denied her involvement. Chen denied that he had been blackmailed.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Over the course of the two-week period, a total of over a hundred images each of Gillian Chung, Bobo Chan, Candice Chan, and Cecilia Cheung fellating him were exposed, as well as Chen performing cunnilingus to Chung; there were also approximately another hundred nude photos featuring various others, namely Mandy Chen, Rachel Ngan, Maggie Q and Vincy Yeung, who was photographed while taking a bath.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 31 January 2008, an unemployed man identified as 29-year-old Chung Yik-tin (鍾亦天) was arrested for allegedly uploading one image; 12 pictures were found on his computer. The next day he was arraigned but denied bail because he was suspected of blackmailing the actor and actresses. Chung Yik-tin spent Chinese New Year in detention. After investigating the connection between the suspect and artists, the police were satisfied that blackmail was not involved. Chung was unconditionally released from detention on 15 February, and charges against him were dropped.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 2 February, police arrested four men and two women in connection with the distribution of the photographs. Of the six, three men and a woman were released on HK$20,000 (US$2,560) bail and ordered to report back to the police in eight weeks. On 4 February, a 29-year-old man became the eighth person to be detained in connection with the disseminating of nude photos; 23-year-old Sze Ho-Chun (史可雋) was also arrested. He was charged with "dishonest use of computers with criminal intent", which has a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment. Sze appeared in Eastern Court on 5 February, where he denied the charge and was released on HK$50,000 bail. The case was adjourned to 22 February.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Assistant Commissioner Wong said the source of the pictures had been traced, but he would not confirm reports stating that they had been taken from Chen's computer. He added that the authenticity of the photographs was no longer in question. Wong also said of the six women found in the photographs, four were local celebrities and two were unknown to the police. None of the women were named. Wong was certain that no overseas artists were involved. He said that whilst it was not a crime to transfer the pictures to friends, those who had posted the images to Internet web pages could be in breach of the law. On 5 February, as another of the suspects was released on HK$50,000 bail, six more related photographs surfaced on the Internet. In the early hours on Chinese New Year's Eve, several hundred more photographs appeared on the Internet; there were two new faces.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Arrest number ten occurred on 10 February. Kwok Chun-wai, a 24-year-old logistics clerk, had allegedly posted the link to a local discussion forum after uploading a compressed file containing over a hundred images to a site in Cyprus. Kwok was released on HK$10,000 bail. He pleaded guilty to three counts of publishing an obscene article. On 24 July 2008, he was sentenced to two months in prison, suspended for two years.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Web sites on the mainland are usually more sensitive to political issues than to pornography, and for several weeks major sites such as Baidu permitted the images to be disseminated. During this time, photographs were also posted on the popular mainland China chat room, Tianya Club, and had been viewed nearly 20 million times a day. Around 20 February however, mainland sites took action to prevent access to the photos.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: A crackdown began in neighbouring Guangdong province on the manufacturing, selling and spreading the CD-ROMs of the celebrity photos, which sold "like hotcakes" in Shenzhen. Police arrested 10 people suspected of the production in Shenzhen. Police in Beijing announced on 21 February that it would act to stop the circulation of the photographs. Officials declared that showing the photos to friends or posting them on blogs or online forums, even without profit motive, could be punishable by detention for up to 15 days; transmission of more than 200 of the photos as a package on the internet would be met with criminal prosecution.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: A Taiwanese man aged 24, Huang Wei-lun, was arrested in Taipei County on suspicion of posting the explicit photos and videos in his blog and instructing net surfers how to download the images. Police in Kaohsiung warned of the two-year penalty for selling pornographic CDs, and raided shops and arcades where discs of Edison Chen's photographs have been selling slowly, for . One observer remarked that young people did not buy discs as they can get the photographs easily from the internet.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 2 February, Commissioner of Police Tang King Shing warned that anyone with the pictures on their computer "could be" in breach of the law, even if there was no record of distribution. This led to an immediate objection by lawmaker "Long Hair" Leung Kwok-hung, who led a protest of about two dozen people outside police headquarters in Wan Chai. They accused the police of sowing confusion and creating an atmosphere of "White Terror" among netizens. Leung urged Commissioner Tang to clarify whether merely keeping the pictures violated the law. Some opinions disagree on distributing the photos.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The denial of bail for Chung Yik-tin sparked controversy over the subjective application of the law. Legislator Ronny Tong accused the police of humiliating a suspect by their excessively hasty actions. The police's selectiveness in this case, as compared with previous cases of pornography distribution on the Internet, was also the focus of public attention. The local Chairman of the Internet Society and legislator Regina Ip said that it was inevitable that police would apply the law selectively, for it would be impractical to take action against every person who had committed an offence in Hong Kong.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Commentary in the newspaper "Ming Pao" also remarked on the widespread outrage about the perceived selective application of legal principles – that a person charged with an apparently minor offence being denied bail whilst two others, unnamed, with allegedly heavier involvement in the spread of the photographs were allowed out on bail. A commentary in "Apple Daily" decried the "clear intimidation of netizens" by the police, and for arresting people without bringing the alleged main source and victim (Chen) for interrogation.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: While publishing an "obscene" (淫褻) article carries a maximum sentence of 3 years, an "indecent" (不雅) article only carries a maximum sentence of 12 months. "Ming Pao" revealed on 14 February that it had received interim classification from the Obscene Articles Tribunal (OAT) relating to five photographs it had submitted for opinion. Three of these photographs were classified as "indecent" while two were considered "obscene". The only photograph which was in circulation on 27 January, allegedly posted by Chung Yik-tin, was "indecent". Thus, the journal raised the question that Chung may have been charged with a wrong offence. Also, the law applies only after OAT's classification. Since the police arrested and charged Chung before classification, some viewed the arrest as unlawful. An Assistant Professor at the University of Hong Kong questioned whether an amended charge of "Publishing an Indecent Article" applied to photographs uploaded onto the Internet.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Although Chen agreed to co-operate with the authorities, he refused to return to Hong Kong to give evidence in the trial. A team of four lawyers and a magistrate were thus flown out to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada for a hearing beginning on 23 February 2009 at taxpayers' expense. Legislator Ronny Tong questioned the "extravagancy" of this hearing, and suggested there may be an easier and cheaper way to collect Chen's evidence.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: During the hearing, which was presided over by Supreme Court of British Columbia Justice Elaine Adair, with Hong Kong's Chief Magistrate Tong Man (唐文) as co-commissioner, Chen confirmed that Cecilia Cheung, Gillian Chung, Bobo Chan and Rachel Ngan were indeed involved. He testified that the photographs, taken from 2001 to 2006, were consensual, and were only shown to the women involved. He professed his "huge shock" at seeing the images on the Internet, citing that he had deleted the images before sending his computer in for repairs in summer of 2006.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Computer technician Sze Ho-chun was convicted on 13 May 2009 of three counts of obtaining access to a computer with dishonest intent, and received a custodial sentence of eight and a half months. However, there was no evidence that he uploaded the pictures to the Internet.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 3 February, a small group led by Leung Kwok-hung protested the abuse of power by the police. One week later, there was a larger protest demonstrated against alleged "discriminatory" law enforcement against Internet users. The involvement of local celebrities led to complaints that the wave of arrests were indicative of a legal double standard: protesters claimed that the police failed to investigate other cases of nude photos being published without their subject's permission. Approximately 300 people marched on police headquarters in Wan Chai. They petitioned the police to apologise publicly, to release Chung Yik-tin, to stop "an abuse of power", and also demanded the resignation of Commissioner Tang. In the wake of the scandal, some citizens also became more concerned about the integrity of the law and some citizens felt that some were more equal than others in Hong Kong.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The police were widely criticised for their handling of the case: in a survey by the "South China Morning Post", some 48 percent of respondents believed the police had created unnecessary fear among the Internet community, and a similar percentage were dissatisfied with the police handling of the case. However, Assistant Commissioner Wong insisted that they had "not departed from normal practices" and had "acted correctly under the laws".


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: As a consequence of the scandal, Chen was pulled from the upcoming Stephen Fung movie "Jump"; credit card company Manhattan Titanium withdrew all advertisements featuring Chen, and Chen's appearance in "The Dark Knight" was downgraded to a cameo. the "LA Times" reported that Pepsi China, Standard Chartered Bank, Samsung, Levi's and the Hong Kong Metro, had dropped Chen or declined to renew ad campaigns involving him.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: A hundred police officers were present throughout Chen's press conference on 21 February, and some citizens complained about the waste of manpower. The police emphasised the importance of maintaining public order in light of the great public and media interest in the case. The triads reportedly offered a HK$500,000 reward to anybody who hacked off Chen's hand. This contributed to fears for Chen's safety upon his return, and heavy police protection.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 12 March 2009, after Chen had appeared at a publicity event in Singapore, a threatening letter said to have originated in the US containing a bullet was delivered to a Cable TV station mailbox. Secretary for Security Ambrose Lee said violence or intimidation would not be tolerated.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Emperor declared that Gillian Chung was on sick leave following the incident, Hong Kong Disneyland Resort dropped the use of a Twins music video for the celebration of the Chinese New Year because of Chung's involvement in the controversy. Preparations for the Twins concerts in Hong Kong, originally scheduled for 12–16 April, were postponed.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Chung's appearance at a charity programme on 17 February met with around 2,100 complaints to the Broadcasting Authority, 373 to TVB, and 202 to the Television and Entertainment Licensing Authority (TELA). The Broadcasting Authority passed all the correspondence received to TVB.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: On 26 February 2008, the "South China Morning Post", citing the Dalian Evening News, reported that Chung and Nicholas Tse (husband of Cecilia Cheung) had been dropped from the Beijing Olympics opening ceremony by artistic director Zhang Yimou. Tse did appear at the closing ceremony, sharing the stage with Jackie Chan, Emil Chau, Andy Lau, and others. Twins "temporarily" dissolved in late June 2008, four months after Gillian was caught up in the scandal.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: She recused herself from public for more than a year following the incident and later apologised for hurting the people around her. During the hiatus, she took classes in many areas which she hoped would serve her professionally. During the course of her disappearance from public view, fellow Twins member Charlene Choi twice publicly denied rumours of suicide attempts by Chung. Chung revealed she decided that suicide would not have solved any problems; she said her mother was supportive of her quitting the industry.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Interviewed in an episode of TVB's Be My Guest in March 2009, Chung admitted she loved Chen, and let him take photos of them engaging in sex because she feared to lose him. It was reported that Chung, under contract with Emperor Entertainment Group in 2008, did not receive any salary for the duration of the scandal, and even struggled to pay rent.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: After Chen's statement to court, Cheung broke silence in the matter on a televised interview on iCable on 27 February. She heavily criticised Chen for shedding crocodile tears, saying that he had not returned calls and had switched off his telephone when the incident came to light. She accused him of hypocrisy in a bid to win the public's forgiveness while hurting others caught up in the scandal. She denied rumours of a rift with her husband and in-laws.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: Taiwanese pop stars Jolin Tsai and Elva Hsiao, who have collaborated with Chen on various projects, fearing damage to their reputations from rumours, both issued statements through their agents that they had "never been involved with Chen". They each issued "rewards" of ($3.3 million) defying anyone to come forward with legally authenticated photographs.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The scandal has shocked the general public and ignited debate about sexual morality. The blanket coverage of the local press, their reporting style, and the appearance of photographs has also been met with public complaints to TELA. TELA suspected that at least two journals violated the Obscene Articles Ordinance, and sent copies of issue No. 936 of "Next Magazine" and issue No. 531 of the "Oriental Sunday" magazine to the OAT for classification. The Tribunal returned an interim classification of "Class I", meaning the magazines were "neither obscene nor indecent", and TELA demanded a full public hearing to review its decision. The OAT, the method of selecting its adjudicators, and the Obscene Articles Ordinance, came under fire. It reportedly classified Michelangelo's "David" as "indecent" by adhering rigidly to a definition.


title: Edison Chen photo scandal

text: The images reached China mostly through an image-sharing service on Baidu ("Tieba"). Beijing Network News Council (BNNC) held a meeting on 18 February to discuss the "romantic pictures", and criticised Baidu for spreading the pictures. Other web sites that actively discouraged the photo distribution, namely Sohu, Sina and Netease, were praised by BNCC.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Afonso I of Portugal (; born 1106, 1109 or 1111; died 1185), also called Afonso Henriques, nicknamed the Conqueror () by the Portuguese, and El-Bortukali (in Arabic "the Portuguese") and "Ibn-Arrink" or "Ibn Arrinq" (in Arabic or "son of Henry", "Henriques") by the Moors whom he fought, was the first king of Portugal. He achieved the independence of the County of Portugal, establishing a new kingdom and doubling its area with the "", an objective that he pursued until his death.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Afonso was the son of Teresa of León and Henry of Burgundy, rulers of the County of Portugal. Henry died in 1112, leaving Theresa to rule alone. Unhappy with Theresa's romantic relationship with Galician Fernando Pérez de Traba and his political influence, the Portuguese nobility rallied around Afonso, who revolted and defeated his mother at the Battle of São Mamede in 1128 and became Count of Portugal soon afterwards. In 1139, Afonso renounced the suzerainty of the Kingdom of León and established the independent Kingdom of Portugal.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Afonso actively campaigned against the Moors in the south. In 1139 he won a decisive victory at the Battle of Ourique, and in 1147 he conquered Santarém and Lisbon from the Moors, with help from men on their way to the Holy Land for the Second Crusade. He secured the independence of Portugal following a victory over León at Valdevez and received papal approval through "Manifestis Probatum". Afonso died in 1185 and was succeeded by his son, Sancho I.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Afonso was the son of Teresa, the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León and Castile, and her husband, Henry of Burgundy. According to the "Crónica de Portugal de 1419" the future Portuguese king was born in Guimarães, which was at the time the most important political center of his parents. This was accepted by most Portuguese scholarship until in 1990 Torquato de Sousa Soares proposed Coimbra, the center of the county of Coimbra and another political center of Afonso's progenitors, as his birthplace, which caused outrage in Guimarães and a polemic between this historian and José Hermano Saraiva. Almeida Fernandes later proposed Viseu as the birthplace of Afonso basing himself on the "Chronica Gothorum", which states Afonso was born in 1109, a position followed by José Mattoso in his biography of the king. Abel Estefânio has suggested a different date and thesis, proposing 1106 as the birth date and the region of Tierra de Campos or even Sahagún as likely birth places based on the known itineraries of Henry and Teresa. His place of baptism is also under suspicion: according to tradition the place is indicated as being in the Church of São Miguel do Castelo, in Guimarães, however there are doubts because of the date of the consecration of the Church, made in 1239. There are those who argue that the baptism actually took place in the Cathedral of Braga where he was baptized by Primate Archbishop Saint Gerald of Braga, which is politically sound for Count Henry to have the highest ranking clergy baptize his heir.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Henry and Teresa reigned jointly as count and countess of Portugal until his death on 22 May 1112 during the siege of Astorga, after which Teresa ruled Portugal alone. She would proclaim herself queen (a claim recognised by Pope Paschal II in 1116) but was captured and forced to reaffirm her vassalage to her half-sister, Urraca of León.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: It is not known who was the tutor of Afonso. Later traditions, probably started with João Soares Coelho (a bastard descendant of Egas Moniz through a female line) in the mid-13th century and ampliated by later chronicles such as the "Crónica de Portugal de 1419", asserted he had been Egas Moniz de Ribadouro, possibly with the help of oral memories that associated the tutor to the house of Ribadouro. Yet, contemporary documents, namely from the chancery of Afonso in his early years as count of Portucale, indicate according to the historian José Mattoso that the most likely tutor of Afonso Henriques was Egas Moniz's oldest brother, Ermígio Moniz, who, besides being the senior brother within the family of Ribadouro, became the "dapifer" and "majordomus" of Afonso I from 1128 until his death in 1135, which indicates his closer proximity to the prince.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In an effort to pursue a larger share in the Leonese inheritance, his mother Teresa joined forces with Fernando Pérez de Trava, the most powerful count in Galicia. The Portuguese nobility disliked the alliance between Galicia and Portugal and rallied around Afonso. The Archbishop of Braga was also concerned with the dominance of Galicia, apprehensive of the ecclesiastical pretensions of his new rival the Galician Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, Diego Gelmírez, who had claimed an alleged discovery of relics of Saint James in his town, as a way to gain power and riches over the other cathedrals in the Iberian Peninsula. In order to stop her son Afonso from overthrowing her, Teresa exiled him when he was twelve in the year 1120. In 1122, Afonso turned fourteen, the adult age in the 12th century. In symmetry with his cousin, Afonso made himself a knight on his own account in the Cathedral of Zamora in 1125. After the military campaign of Alfonso VII against his mother in 1127, Afonso revolted against her and proceeded to take control of the county from its queen.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In 1128, near Guimarães at the Battle of São Mamede, Afonso and his supporters overcame troops under both his mother and her lover, Count Fernando Peres de Trava of Galicia. Afonso exiled his mother to Galicia, and took over rule of the County of Portucale. Thus the possibility of re-incorporating Portucale into a Kingdom of Portugal and Galicia as before was eliminated and Afonso became sole ruler following demands for greater independence from the county's church and nobles. The battle was mostly ignored by the Leonese suzerain who was occupied at the time with a revolt in Castille. He was also, most likely, waiting for the reaction of the Galician families. After Teresa's death in 1131, Afonso VII of León and Castille proceeded to demand vassalage from his cousin. On 6 April 1129, Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself Prince of Portugal or Prince of the Portuguese, an act informally allowed by Afonso VII, as it was thought to be Afonso Henriques's right by blood, as one of two grandsons of the Emperor of Hispania.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Afonso then turned his arms against the persistent problem of the Moors in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on 25 July 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and straight after was (possibly unanimously) proclaimed King of the Portuguese by his soldiers, establishing his equality in rank to the other realms of the Peninsula, although the first reference to his royal title dates from 1140. The first assembly of the Portuguese Cortes convened at Lamego (wherein he would have been given the crown from the Archbishop of Braga, to confirm his independence) is a 17th-century embellishment of Portuguese history.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Complete independence from Alfonso VII of León's suzerainty, however, could not be achieved by military means alone. The County of Portugal still had to be acknowledged diplomatically by the neighboring lands as a kingdom and, most importantly, by the Catholic Church and the pope. Afonso wed Mafalda of Savoy, daughter of Count Amadeus III of Savoy, and sent ambassadors to Rome to negotiate with the pope. He succeeded in renouncing the suzerainty of his cousin, Alfonso VII of León, becoming instead a vassal of the papacy, as the kings of Sicily and Aragon had done before him.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In Portugal he built several monasteries and convents and bestowed important privileges to religious orders. He is notably the builder of Alcobaça Monastery, to which he called the Cistercian Order of his uncle Bernard of Clairvaux of Burgundy. In 1143, he wrote to Pope Innocent II to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the Iberian Peninsula. Bypassing any king of León, Afonso declared himself the direct liege man of the papacy. Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarém (see Conquest of Santarém) and Lisbon in 1147 (see Siege of Lisbon). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the Tagus River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of León regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a war, taking the side of the Aragonese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son Sancho was engaged to Dulce of Aragon. Finally after winning the Battle of Valdevez, the Treaty of Zamora (1143) established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of León that Portugal was a fully independent kingdom.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In 1169 the now old King Afonso was possibly disabled in an engagement near Badajoz, by a fall from his horse and slamming against the castle gate, and made prisoner by the soldiers of King Ferdinand II of León, his son-in-law. He spent months at the hot springs of São Pedro do Sul, but never recovered and from this time onward the Portuguese king never rode a horse again. However, it is not certain if this was because of the disability: according to the later Portuguese chronistic tradition, this happened because Afonso would have to surrender himself again to Ferdinand or risk war between the two kingdoms if he ever rode a horse again. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia (north of the Minho River) in the previous years. This event became known in Portuguese history as the Disaster of Badajoz ("o Desastre de Badajoz").


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In 1179 the privileges and favors given to the Catholic Church were compensated. With consistent effort by several parties, such as the primate archbishop of Braga, Paio Mendes, in the papal court, the papal bull "Manifestis Probatum" was promulgated accepting the new king as vassal to the pope exclusively. In it Pope Alexander III also acknowledged Afonso as king and Portugal as an independent kingdom with the right to conquer lands from the Moors.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In 1184, the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf rallied a great Almohad force to retaliate against the Portuguese raids done since the end of a five-year truce in 1178 and besieged Santarém, which was defended by Afonso's son Sancho. The Almohad siege failed when news arrived the archbishop of Compostella had come to the defense of the city and Fernando II of León himself with his army. The Almohads ended the siege and their retreat turned into a rout due to panic in their camp, with the Almohad caliph being injured in the process (according to one version, because of a crossbow bolt) and dying on the way back to Seville. Afonso died shortly after on 6 December 1185. The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their nation. There are mythical stories that it took 10 men to carry his sword, and that Afonso wanted to engage other monarchs in personal combat, but no one would dare accept his challenge. It is also told, despite his honourable character, that he had a temper. Several chronicles give the example of a papal legate that brought a message from Pope Paschal II refusing to acknowledge Afonso's claim as king: either after committing or saying a small offense against him or after being simply read the letter, Afonso almost killed, in his rage, the papal representative, taking several portucalense nobles and soldiers to physically restrain the young would-be king.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In July 2006, the tomb of the king (which is located in the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra) was to be opened for scientific purposes by researchers from the University of Coimbra (Portugal) and the University of Granada (Spain). The opening of the tomb provoked considerable concern among some sectors of Portuguese society and Portuguese State Agency for Architectural Patrimony ("Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico" – IPPAR) halted the opening, requesting more protocols from the scientific team because of the importance of the king in the nation's heart and public thought.


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: In 1146, Afonso married Mafalda, daughter of Amadeus III, Count of Savoy and Mahaut of Albon, both appearing together for the first time in May of that year confirming royal charters. They had the following issue:


title: Afonso I of Portugal

text: Before his marriage to Mafalda, King Afonso fathered his first son with Chamoa Gómez, daughter of Count Gómez Núñez and Elvira Pérez, sister of Fernando and Bermudo Pérez de Traba:


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Jerry Quarry (May 15, 1945 – January 3, 1999), nicknamed "Irish" or "The Bellflower Bomber", was an American professional boxer. During the peak of his career from 1968 to 1971, Quarry was rated by "The Ring" magazine as the most popular fighter in the sport. His most famous bouts were against Muhammad Ali. Accumulated damage from lack of attention to defense against larger men at the top level, no head guard sparring, and attempted comebacks in 1977, 1983 and 1992 resulted in Quarry developing an unusually severe case of dementia pugilistica. Unable to perform everyday tasks, dependent on his family, and with the fortune he had earned frittered away, Quarry died at 53 years old.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry's family includes three other pro boxers (his father and two brothers). Jerry's father first put gloves on his son when Jerry was five years. Jerry fought first as a Junior Amateur, winning his first trophies at the age of eight. Later, he contracted nephritis, a debilitating illness which sidelined him for years.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry came to notice by winning the 1965 National Golden Gloves championship in Kansas City at age 19. Weighing just 183 pounds, Quarry knocked out each of his five opponents in the tournament, a feat unmatched. Quarry had over 200 fights in his amateur career. He turned professional in 1965.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Despite starting in May, Quarry had 14 matches in 1965 at the start of his pro career. Many of his early career fights took place at the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, where he became established as a draw. Quarry supplemented meager boxing pay by working as a tire changer at a Greyhound bus terminal. He had three draws on his record by the time of his first loss, which came in his 21st bout in July 1966 against crafty spoiler Eddie Machen, known for his feat of breaking Sonny Liston's run of knockouts.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry had various television roles in series TV of the period. One notable role was as himself, in the episode "The Strongest Man In The World" of "I Dream of Jeannie", which aired on November 18, 1968.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: In mid-1967, the World Boxing Association (W.B.A.) held a tournament to replace Muhammad Ali, who had been stripped of his title for refusing induction into the military after being drafted. The tournament was expanded to include eight heavyweights, and did not include Joe Frazier, who had accepted a title belt outside the WBA.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: When the tournament was expanded, Quarry was included. Quarry's first tournament bout was a rematch of his fourth draw fight earlier that year against former world champion Floyd Patterson.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: In both matches, Quarry dominated the early rounds with multiple knockdowns of Patterson, but faded in the latter stages. He hung on better in the second bout, and was given a split-decision victory. His second tournament match was a KO win against fellow Californian Thad Spencer, who was highly lauded and ranked coming into the match. In the final against crafty ex-middleweight Jimmy Ellis, Quarry prior to the bout sustained a broken back from an injury on the diving board at a pool that later developed into gangrene.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Ellis was wary of Quarry's unorthodox tactic (displayed to great effect against Patterson) of retreating into the ropes then catching his opponent with a sudden two-fisted attack and Quarry lost a majority decision. After a layoff of six months, Quarry returned after the Ellis loss to post another streak of wins. Notable among these was a lopsided 12-round decision win over 1964 U.S. Olympian Buster Mathis. The win over the ranked (and much bigger) Mathis positioned Quarry for his second title shot.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Joe Frazier had not yet KO'd Ellis, but was considered by many to be the most legitimate heavyweight champion. Quarry met Frazier June, 23rd, 1969 at New York City's Madison Square Garden, where Quarry could count on fan support. The fight was "Fight of The Year" for "Ring Magazine".


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Frazier and Quarry went head-to-head and Frazier's high-tempo pressure came to dominate and the fight was stopped in the 7th round after Quarry, bleeding from the nose and with a very large cut under the eye, took a series of hard punches without moving away or hitting back.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Returning quickly after the loss to Frazier, Quarry won two bouts before meeting Canadian George Chuvalo in December, 1969. The bout against Chuvalo, then unranked, would be the subject of controversy. Quarry was well ahead, when in the seventh round, Chuvalo knocked Quarry down. Quarry rose at the count of four, then took a knee but on rising exactly at the count of ten, he found referee Zach Clayton ruled a KO.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Noteworthy among them was a 6th-round KO win over fellow Californian Mac Foster. Foster came into the bout ranked #1 with a record of 24–0, with all 24 wins by KO. Quarry was ranked #6, and weighed 195 for the bout. Foster weighed 215. It was a very impressive, dominating win by Quarry which figured to put him back in line for another title shot.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: At this time, exiled former champion Muhammad Ali had successfully sued to win the right to return as a professional boxer. Ali approached every one of the ten ranked heavyweights for a match. Quarry was the only one willing to face him, and so got the nod for the first bout against Ali in his return. The bout received tremendous publicity and arguably remains today as Quarry's most famous bout.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: The bout took place at the City Auditorium in Atlanta, Georgia on October 26, 1970. Ali dominated the first two rounds, moving well and scoring with his left jab and combinations. Quarry was able to land only a handful of punches, most of them glancing blows. In the third round, Quarry was badly cut by a right hand over his left eye following an exchange with Ali. Trainer Teddy Bentham, a veteran cutman, realized the cut was too severe for Quarry to continue, even though he argued to continue. Referee Tony Perez waved the bout over before the start of the 4th round, which was ruled a 3rd round technical KO. Quarry disputed the decision and demanded a rematch against Ali, which he would later receive.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Following the loss to Ali, Quarry had his second six-month layoff. He focused on television roles during this period, appearing on a number of television shows. In June, 1971, he returned to start another streak of wins. Noteworthy among them was a revenge of his earlier draw against tall Tony Doyle at the Playboy Club in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin with a lopsided decision. He then KO'd British and European champion Jack Bodell in the first round. That fight was held in London. His second fight there during this streak was against Larry Middleton. Middleton was the kind of tall, quick boxer with long reach who often gave Quarry trouble in bouts. Quarry won a very narrow, controversial decision against Middleton.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: By then, Quarry had lobbied long and hard for a rematch against Ali. He finally was allowed that rematch a month after the Middleton bout. The second bout against Ali took place at the Las Vegas Convention Center on June 27, 1972. Their match was the headlining bout of a fight card that Ali called "The Soul Brothers Versus The Quarry Brothers." Bob Arum promoted the fight, with Ali playing up the obvious racial differences between his black fighters and the white Quarrys. In an earlier bout, Jerry's brother Mike, a high-ranked light heavyweight contender was KO'd by Light heavyweight champion and devastating puncher Bob Foster, and seriously injured.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Ali weighed 216 for their bout, Quarry 198. The bout was eventful. At the opening bell, Quarry rushed Ali, got under his shoulders and lifted him briefly off the canvas before referee Mike Kaplan separated the fighters. Ali dominated most of the fight, using his jab. Visibly tired at the end of the 6th round, Quarry came out for the seventh and was hit by a half-dozen shots by Ali, who waved the referee in to stop the fight, which Quarry protested. Nevertheless, the fight was stopped in favor of Ali.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: The bout was a difficult night for the Quarry family, who were racially insulted by black fight fans and Ali/King supporters. This Ali bout magnified for observers the racial overtones that existed throughout Quarry's career. Greatly supported by white Americans, he had been called a "white hope", or "The Great White Hope". He was also therefore derided by many black American boxing fans of the era for the same reason.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: After Ali, Quarry, now managed by Gil Clancy, bounced back to post another streak of wins. He seemed to mature as a fighter here, and 1973 was perhaps his greatest year as a heavyweight.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Despite deterioration in his movement and reflexes, and now having very scarred facial tissue, Quarry gave possibly the two best performances of his career next. After defeating Randy Neumann (21-2) in January, Quarry was placed into a bout similar to his previous Mac Foster match, as a ranked tune-up for a higher ranked contender. Ron Lyle was 19–0 with 17 knockouts, and the tough ex-convict was in line for a title shot when he met Quarry in February. The 6'3" Lyle weighed 219 for the bout, Quarry 200. Despite trailing early on, Quarry took control of the fight in the middle rounds and thoroughly outboxed Lyle for a lopsided 12-round decision win in an action packed fight.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: During this time, Quarry got a chance to show off his athletic ability. On the ABC television show "The Superstars", he competed against other heavyweight boxers in a series of athletic contests. Winning that competition, he qualified for the Superstars final that year, and finished fourth to three NFL football players, an impressive showing. Noteworthy in those performances was his ability to hit a baseball.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Two wins later, Don King brought Quarry in to meet hard-punching Earnie Shavers in December. Shavers was 46–2 with 44 KOs. In another bout filled with the same racial overtones as the second Ali bout, Quarry surprised Shavers. After receiving a few hard shots, he landed a big punch in the 1st round and followed that up to win a stunning first-round KO win. King reportedly left Shavers in the ring and tore up his contract to manage him. Heavyweight champion George Foreman was in attendance, and negotiations for a title bout were already in motion for mid-1974. After the Shavers bout, Foreman reportedly backed away from that proposed bout. He later claimed to have dodged Quarry, whom he never formally met in the ring.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry later claimed to be 'locked out' of big-opportunity fights in 1974 by King, and found himself desperately looking for quality opponents that might get him a title shot. In June 1974, he agreed to rematch Joe Frazier. Quarry was the same size as at their first bout, but Frazier, now 212 pounds, was bigger. Quarry attempted to box Frazier this time, but due to the years of punishment, even in the recent wins against hard hitters Lyle and Shavers, he was more open to Frazier's shots and less mobile than he used to be.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Straight away, a determined Frazier began to connect hard punches at the physically diminished Quarry who couldn't muster the movement to evade Frazier. Staggering him with a trademark left hook at the end of the first round, Frazier then began landing solidly with both hands to Quarry's head and body, beginning a sickening beat down. Quarry was already on wobbly legs when Frazier dropped with a hard left hook to the stomach just before the bell ending the 4th round. Quarry was visibly injured by the blow, but tried unsuccessfully to continue. The fight continued, with Frazier backing away from Quarry after opening up bad cuts over both eyes. Joe Louis, however, waved Frazier back on. After landing a few more clean head shots, Louis finally stopped the fight early in the 5th round, a one-sided thrashing. Louis never refereed another fight.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry could still attract crowds. He had made millions in the ring without ever being champion at a time when few had ever made that much money in boxing. He continued his television acting work, and had by now briefly helped road-manage the rock band Three Dog Night.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: After a win in February, 1975, Quarry begged to be put in line for a fight with contender Ken Norton. When first choices Oscar Bonavena and Jimmy Young bowed out with injuries, Quarry was placed into the Norton bout on 18 days notice. Norton had been training for five months.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: The Norton fight was Quarry's 62nd pro fight. Norton, who was about the same age as Quarry, was 32–3. The 6'3" Norton weighed 218 for the bout, Quarry 207 with little training beforehand. Clancy was once again in Quarry's corner. The fight took place March 24, 1975. The fight was a war of hard punches, with Norton connecting well early against Quarry with shot reflexes, a sitting duck for Norton's attacks. He was cut badly in the 3rd round, and attacked Norton so he would have a chance to win before the fight was stopped. Norton survived a tough Quarry attack and continued his assault. The fight was stopped in the 5th round after Quarry came under a barrage of clean shots to the head.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry retired for over two and a half years after the Norton fight. His career record was at 50–8–4 at this time, with 32 wins by KO. He had two losses each to Frazier and Ali plus one apiece to Norton, Chuvalo, Ellis and Eddie Machen to this point. He had been ranked as high as the No. 1 contender three times. At around this time, Quarry signed a contract with the ABC to be a boxing commentator.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: In mid-1977, a return match was being put together which would put Quarry in against a ranked heavyweight. The ranked heavyweight would be Italian Lorenzo Zanon. The match was to be televised on ABC, where Quarry was contracted. But both fighters signed to have the bout televised on CBS. When Quarry, who often negotiated his own fight contracts, signed the bout to CBS, he lost his ABC contract.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: The comeback match took place in November 1977, at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Quarry, weighing 209, looked slow and a shell of his former self, was clearly outboxed over seven rounds by Zanon. But Quarry caught him with a hard right in the 8th round, and won the fight by KO in the 9th.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Despite winning, it was a poor performance, and Quarry retired again afterward, this time for almost six years.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: During those years, Quarry was married and divorced twice. He also lost a great deal of his fortune in failed business investments. No longer doing television work, he decided to return to the ring. With the Cruiserweight division now created, Quarry returned in that weight class. When he returned in August 1983, he was 38 years old.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry was already beginning to show the effects of his lengthy boxing career. A "Sports Illustrated" reporter was researching an article about health problems among retired boxers, especially among those who started as child boxers. The reporter met Quarry, and although he appeared to be in good health, Quarry's performance on several simple cognitive tests was shockingly poor.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: He suffered from dementia pugilistica, atrophy of the brain from repeated blows to the head. A 1983 CT scan of Quarry's brain done for the article showed evidence of brain atrophy, including the characteristic cavum septi pellucidi found in many boxers with long careers.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Despite these developing facts, Quarry had two wins in 1983, but the fights accelerated his mental decline. He retired again and was inactive as a boxer from 1984 to 1992, but Quarry continued to decline physically and mentally. His entire boxing fortune completely gone by 1990, Quarry filed for Social Security at age 45.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Denied a boxing license in many states because of his condition, Quarry found a loophole in Colorado which allowed him to schedule an October 30, 1992 bout with Ron Cramner, a cruiserweight 16 years Quarry's junior. At age 47 years and 6 months old, Quarry provided nothing more than a 6-round punching bag for the younger fighter, losing all six rounds and the decision.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Within a few years of his final bout Quarry was unable to feed or dress himself and had to be cared for by relatives, mainly his brother James, the only one of the four brothers not to box professionally.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Jerry's brother, Mike, who had contended for the light-heavyweight championship, was himself beginning to show signs of dementia pugilistica in later life, and died as a result on June 11, 2006. Another brother, Bobby, has Parkinson's disease.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry was hospitalized with pneumonia on December 28, 1998, and then suffered cardiac arrest. He never regained consciousness and died on January 3, 1999, at the age of 53. His body was interred at Shafter Cemetery in Shafter, California.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: A foundation was established in his honor to battle boxing-related dementia, a condition that has afflicted many boxers and brought Quarry's life to an early end.


title: Jerry Quarry

text: Quarry's overall professional record was 53–9–4 with 32 KOs. Frazier, in his autobiography, said of Quarry: "A very tough man. He could have been a world champion, but he cut too easily." Foreman similarly lauded Quarry.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Sir John Arthur Brabham (2 April 1926 – 19 May 2014) was an Australian racing driver who was Formula One World Champion in , , and . He was a founder of the Brabham racing team and race car constructor that bore his name.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Brabham was a Royal Australian Air Force flight mechanic and ran a small engineering workshop before he started racing midget cars in 1948. His successes with midgets in Australian and New Zealand road racing events led to his going to Britain to further his racing career. There he became part of the Cooper Car Company's racing team, building as well as racing cars. He contributed to the design of the mid-engined cars that Cooper introduced to Formula One and the Indianapolis 500, and won the Formula One world championship in 1959 and 1960. In 1962 he established his own Brabham marque with fellow Australian Ron Tauranac, which in the 1960s became the largest manufacturer of customer racing cars in the world. In the 1966 Formula One season Brabham became the first – and still, the only – man to win the Formula One world championship driving one of his own cars. He was the last surviving World Champion of the 1950s.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Brabham retired to Australia after the 1970 Formula One season, where he bought a farm and maintained business interests, which included the Engine Developments racing engine manufacturer and several garages.


title: Jack Brabham

text: John Arthur 'Jack' Brabham was born on 2 April 1926 in Hurstville, New South Wales, then a commuter town outside Sydney. Brabham was involved with cars and mechanics from an early age. At the age of 12, he learned to drive the family car and the trucks of his father's grocery business. Brabham attended technical college, studying metalwork, carpentry, and technical drawing.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Brabham's early career continued the engineering theme. At the age of 15 he left school to work, combining a job at a local garage with an evening course in mechanical engineering. Brabham soon branched out into his own business selling motorbikes, which he bought and repaired for sale, using his parents' back veranda as his workshop.


title: Jack Brabham

text: One month after his 18th birthday on 19 May 1944 Brabham enlisted into the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). Although he was keen on becoming a pilot, there was already a surplus of trained aircrew and the Air Force instead put his mechanical skills to use as a flight mechanic, of which there was a wartime shortage. He was based at RAAF Station Williamtown, where he maintained Bristol Beaufighters at No. 5 Operational Training Unit. On his 20th birthday, 2 April 1946, Brabham was discharged from the RAAF with the rank of leading aircraftman. He then started a small service, repair, and machining business in a workshop built by his uncle on a plot of land behind his grandfather's house.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Brabham started racing after an American friend, Johnny Schonberg, persuaded him to watch a midget car race. Midget racing was a category for small open-wheel cars racing on dirt ovals. It was popular in Australia, attracting crowds of up to 40,000. Brabham records that he was not taken with the idea of driving, being convinced that the drivers "were all lunatics" but he agreed to build a car with Schonberg.


title: Jack Brabham

text: At first Schonberg drove the homemade device, powered by a modified JAP motorcycle engine built by Brabham in his workshop. In 1948, Schonberg's wife persuaded him to stop racing and on his suggestion Brabham took over. He almost immediately found that he had a knack for the sport, winning on his third night's racing. From there he was a regular competitor and winner in Midgets (known as Speedcars in Australia) at tracks such Sydney's Cumberland Speedway, the Sydney Showground, and the Sydney Sports Ground, as well as interstate tracks such as Adelaide's Kilburn and Rowley Park speedways and the Ekka in Brisbane. Brabham has since said that it was "terrific driver training. You had to have quick reflexes: in effect you lived—or possibly died—on them." Due to the time required to prepare the car, the sport also became his living. Brabham won the 1948 Australian Speedcar Championship, the 1949 Australian and South Australian Speedcar championships, and the 1950–1951 Australian championship with the car.


title: Jack Brabham

text: After successfully running the midget at some hillclimbing events in 1951, Brabham became interested in road racing. He bought and modified a series of racing cars from the Cooper Car Company, a British constructor, and from 1953 concentrated on this form of racing, in which drivers compete on closed tarmac circuits. He was supported by his father and by the Redex fuel additive company, although his commercially aware approach—including the title "RedeX Special" painted on the side of his Cooper-Bristol—did not go down well with the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport (CAMS), which banned the advertisement. Brabham competed in Australia and New Zealand until early 1955, taking "a long succession of victories", including the 1953 Queensland Road Racing championship. During this time, he picked up the nickname "Black Jack", which has been variously attributed to his dark hair and stubble, to his "ruthless" approach on the track, and to his "propensity for maintaining a shadowy silence". After the 1954 New Zealand Grand Prix, Brabham was persuaded by Dean Delamont, competitions manager of the Royal Automobile Club in the United Kingdom, to try a season of racing in Europe, then the international centre of road racing.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Upon arriving in Europe on his own in early 1955, Brabham based himself in the UK, where he bought another Cooper to race in national events. His crowd-pleasing driving style initially betrayed his dirt track origins: as he put it, he took corners "by using full [steering] lock and lots of throttle". Visits to the Cooper factory for parts led to a friendship with Charlie and John Cooper, who told the story that after many requests for a drive with the factory team, Brabham was given the keys to the transporter taking the cars to a race. Brabham soon "seemed to "merge" into Cooper Cars": he was not an employee, but he started working at Cooper daily from the midpoint of the 1955 season building a Bobtail mid-engined sports car, intended for Formula One, the top category of single seater racing. He made his Grand Prix debut at the age of 29 driving the car at the 1955 British Grand Prix. It had a 2-litre engine, half a litre less than permitted, and ran slowly with a broken clutch before retiring. Later in the year Brabham, again driving the Bobtail, tussled with Stirling Moss for third place in a non-championship Formula One race at Snetterton. Although Moss finished ahead, Brabham saw the race as a turning point, proving that he could compete at this level. He shipped the Bobtail back to Australia, where he used it to win the 1955 Australian Grand Prix before selling it to help fund a permanent move to the UK the following year with his wife Betty and their son Geoff.


title: Jack Brabham

text: Brabham briefly and unsuccessfully campaigned his own second hand Formula One Maserati 250F during 1956, but his season was saved by drives for Cooper in sports cars and Formula Two, the junior category to Formula One. At that time, almost all racing cars had their engines mounted at the front but Coopers were different, having the engine placed behind the driver, which improved their handling. In 1957, Brabham drove another mid-engined Cooper, again only fitted with a 2-litre engine, at the Monaco Grand Prix. He avoided a large crash at the first corner and was running third towards the end of the race when the fuel pump mount failed. After more than three hours of racing, the exhausted Brabham, who "hated to be beaten", pushed the car to the line to finish sixth. The following year, he was Autocar Formula Two champion in a Cooper, while continuing to score minor points-scoring positions with the small-engined Coopers in the World Drivers' Championship and driving for Aston Martin in Sportscars. His schedule necessitated a considerable amount of travel on the roads of Europe. Brabham's driving on public roads was described as "safe as houses", unlike many of his contemporaries—on the way back from the 1957 Pescara Grand Prix, passenger Tony Brooks took over driving after Brabham refused to overtake a long line of lorries. In late 1958, Brabham rekindled his interest in flying and began taking lessons. He bought his own plane and on gaining his licence began to make heavy use of it piloting himself, his family, and members of his team around Europe to races.


title: Jack Brabham

text: In 1959, Cooper obtained 2.5-litre engines for the first time and Brabham put the extra power to good use by winning his first world championship race at the season-opening Monaco Grand Prix after Jean Behra's Ferrari and Stirling Moss's Cooper failed. More podium places were followed by a win in the British Grand Prix at Aintree after Brabham preserved his tyres to the end of the race, enabling him to finish ahead of Moss who had to pit to replace worn tyres. This gave him a 13-point championship lead with four races to go. At the Portuguese Grand Prix at Monsanto Park, Brabham was chasing race leader Moss when a backmarker moved over on him and launched the Cooper into the air. The airborne car hit a telegraph pole, throwing Brabham onto the track, where he narrowly avoided being hit by one of his teammates but escaped with no serious injury. With two wins each, Brabham, Moss, and Ferrari's Tony Brooks were all capable of winning the championship at the final event of the season, the United States Grand Prix at Sebring. Brabham was among those up until 1 am the morning before the race working on the Cooper team cars. The next day, after pacing himself behind Moss, who soon retired with a broken gearbox, he led almost to the end of the race before running out of fuel on the last lap. He again pushed the car to the finish line to place fourth, although in the event this was unnecessary as his other title rival, Brooks, finished only third. His championship-winning margin over Brooks was four points. According to Gerald Donaldson, "some thought [his title] owed more to stealth than skill, an opinion at least partly based on Brabham's low-key presence."