title: Axiology

text: The distinction between "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" value is central to axiology. One conceptualization holds that something is "intrinsically valuable" if it is "good in itself" or "good for its own sake". It is usually held that intrinsic value "depends" on certain features of the valuable entity. For example, an experience may be said to be intrinsically valuable "by virtue of" being (because it is) pleasurable or beautiful or "true" (e.g., the ascertainment of a fact can be said to be valuable in itself). "Extrinsic value", by contrast, is ascribed to things that are valuable only as a "means" to something else. "Substantive theories" of value try to determine which entities have intrinsic value. "Monist theories" hold that there is only one type of intrinsic value. The paradigm example of monist theories is hedonism, the thesis that only pleasure has intrinsic value. "Pluralist theories", on the other hand, contend that there are various different types of intrinsic value, for example, virtue, knowledge, friendship, etc. Value pluralists face the problem of explaining whether or how the different types of value can be compared when making rational decisions. Some philosophers state that values "do not exist" on the most fundamental level of reality. One such view holds that a value statement about something just expresses the speaker's approval or disapproval of this thing. This position is opposed by "realists about value".


title: Axiology

text: Between the 5th and 6th centuries BC, it was important in Greece to be knowledgeable if you were to be successful. Philosophers began to recognize that differences existed between the laws and morality of society. Socrates believed that knowledge had a vital connection to virtue, making morality and democracy closely intertwined. Socrates' student, Plato furthered the belief by establishing virtues which should be followed by all.


title: Axiology

text: With the fall of the government, values became individual, causing skeptic schools of thought to flourish, ultimately shaping an ontologically objective philosophy that is thought to have contributed to Christian Philosophy. During the medieval period, Thomas Aquinas made the distinction between natural and supernatural (theological) virtues. This concept led philosophers to distinguish between judgments based on fact and judgments based on values, creating the division between science and philosophy.


title: Axiology

text: Traditionally, philosophers held that an entity has "intrinsic value" if it is "good in itself" or "good for its own sake". "Intrinsic value" is contrasted with "extrinsic or instrumental value", which is ascribed to things that are valuable only as a "means" to something else. For example, tools like cars or microwaves are said to be extrinsically valuable by virtue of the function they perform, while the well-being they cause is intrinsically valuable, according to hedonism. The same entity can be valuable in different ways: some entities have both intrinsic and extrinsic values at the same time. Extrinsic values can form chains, in which one entity is extrinsically valuable because it is a means to another entity that is itself extrinsically valuable. It is commonly held that these chains must terminate somewhere and that the endpoint can only be intrinsically valuable. The distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic values is important for understanding various disagreements within axiology. Different substantive theories of value often agree on whether something, for example knowledge, is valuable while disagreeing on whether the value in question is intrinsic or extrinsic.


title: Axiology

text: The traditional conception of intrinsic value presented above has been criticized in contemporary philosophy on the grounds that it combines various distinct notions that are better discussed separately. One such contrast is between "intrinsic" and "final" values. On a more narrow conception, an "intrinsic" value is a value an entity has in virtue of its intrinsic properties. For example, assuming that the phenomenal aspect of a pleasant experience is an intrinsic property, we might say that the experience is intrinsically valuable because of this intrinsic property. An entity with "final" value, by contrast, is valuable for its own sake. It is usually accepted that there is a conceptual difference between intrinsic and final values. For example, the pleasure experience may be said to be intrinsically valuable on the one hand, and finally valuable on the other hand. But it has been disputed whether there are actual things where these value types can come apart. Proposed candidates for bearers of final non-intrinsic value include unique or rare items (e.g. a stamp) or historically significant items (e.g. the pen that Abraham Lincoln used to sign the Emancipation Proclamation). "Being-rare" and "having-been-used-by-someone" are "extrinsic" properties that may be responsible for their bearers having "final" value, i.e. being valuable for their own sake.


title: Axiology

text: Some philosophers have questioned whether extrinsic values should be regarded as values at all rather than as mere indications of values. One reason for considering this idea is that adding or removing extrinsically valuable things does not affect the value of the whole if all intrinsically valuable things are kept constant. For example, the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake had a negative extrinsic value because of all the damage it caused. But arguably, the world would not have been a better place if exactly the same damage had been caused without the earthquake.


title: Axiology

text: In axiology, it is often important to distinguish between the entity that is valuable and the features in virtue of which it is valuable. For example, an experience may be said to be valuable in virtue of being pleasurable. This distinction is particularly relevant for intrinsic values since it is commonly held that the intrinsic value of an entity supervenes on its intrinsic features. This means that the entity could not have a different intrinsic value unless it had different intrinsic features.


title: Axiology

text: Substantive theories of value focus on the features in virtue of which something has intrinsic value. Popular candidates for these features include pleasure, virtue and knowledge. Another question concerns the nature of the entities that are the bearers of value. The main approaches to this question can be divided into the Kantian tradition, which considers concrete things like persons to be the bearers of value, and the Moorean tradition, which holds that only states of affairs bear value. This difference is important when determining whether a value is extrinsic or intrinsic to an entity. Some philosophers hold that objects like Napoleon's hat are valuable because of their relation to extraordinary persons. From a Kantian perspective, this value must be extrinsic since it is based on the extrinsic property of having been worn by an extraordinary person. But from a Moorean perspective, it can be intrinsic since it is born not by the hat but by a state of affairs involving both the hat and Napoleon.


title: Axiology

text: The preceding discussion about the ontological categories of values and value-bearers assumes some form of realism: that there actually are valuable things. But the difficulties in reaching expert consensus in value-related fields like ethics, aesthetics or politics and considerations from naturalism have led various philosophers to doubt this assumption. The ensuing dispute between cognitivists and non-cognitivists is usually held on the level of value-statements or value-attitudes, either concerning all values or specifically concerning ethical values. Cognitivists assert that value-statements are "truth-apt", i.e. are either true or false, which is denied by non-cognitivists. Most cognitivists are realists about values: they believe that values are part of reality. Error theory, as originally articulated by J. L. Mackie, is an exception. Error theorists hold that all value-statements are false, and thereby truth-apt, because the world lacks value-features that would be needed to make them true. Non-cognitivists, on the other hand, go one step further by denying that value-statements are truth-apt. This position involves the difficulty of explaining how value-statements can be meaningful despite lacking a truth value. This challenge can be met in different ways. Emotivists, following A. J. Ayer, state that value-statements only express the emotions of the speaker and are intended to influence the actions of the listener. Prescriptivism, as developed by R. M. Hare, interprets value-statements as imperatives or commands. Simon Blackburn's quasi-realism states that value statements project emotional attitudes as though they were real properties.


title: Axiology

text: Substantive theories of value try to determine which entities have "intrinsic value". A traditional dispute in this field is between "monist" and "pluralist" theories. According to Chris Heathwood, monism and pluralism can be distinguished according to an evaluation of what is good in people and the concept of "value simpliciter" in terms of intrinsic value.


title: Axiology

text: Monist theories hold that there is only one type of intrinsic value. The paradigm example of monist theories is hedonism, the thesis that only pleasure has intrinsic value. Pluralist theories, on the other hand, contend that there are various different types of intrinsic value. They maintain that these types of intrinsic values cannot be reduced to a single feature of an act or entity. W. D. Ross, for example, holds that pleasure is only one type of intrinsic value besides other types, like knowledge. It is important to keep in mind that this disagreement only concerns "intrinsic" value, not value "at large". So hedonists may be happy to concede that knowledge is valuable, but only extrinsically so, given that knowledge can be helpful in causing pleasure and avoiding pain.


title: Axiology

text: Various arguments have been suggested in the monism-pluralism-dispute. Common-sense seems to favor value pluralism: values are ascribed to a wide range of different things like happiness, liberty, friendship, etc. without any obvious common feature underlying these values. One way to defend value monism is to cast doubt on the reliability of common-sense for technical matters like the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic value. This strategy is pursued by J. J. C. Smart, who holds that there is a psychological bias to mistake stable extrinsic values for intrinsic values. Value pluralists have often attempted to provide exhaustive lists of all value types, but different theorists have suggested very different lists. These lists seem to constitute arbitrary selections unless a clear criterion could be provided why all and only these items are included. But if a criterion was to be found then such a theory would no longer be pluralistic. This dilemma suggests that pluralism is inadequate as an explanation.


title: Axiology

text: One issue closely related to the monism-pluralism-debate is the problem of incommensurability: the question of whether there are incommensurable values. Two values are "incommensurable" if there is no fact as to whether one is better than or as good as the other: there is "no common value scale" according to which they could be compared. According to Joseph Raz, career choices between very different paths, for example, whether to become a lawyer or a clarinetist, are cases where incommensurable values are involved. Value pluralists often assert that values belonging to different types are incommensurable with each other. Value monists, by contrast, usually deny that there are incommensurable values. This question is particularly relevant for ethics. If different options available to the agent embody incommensurable values then there seems to be no rational way to determine what ought to be done since there is no matter of fact as to which option is better. Widespread incommensurability would threaten to undermine the practical relevance of ethics and rational choice.


title: Axiology

text: Many evaluative terms are found in everyday language, often with various different meanings. It is important for philosophers to distinguish these different meanings in order to avoid misunderstandings. One such distinction is between a "predicative" and an "attributive" sense of good and bad. In the "attributive" sense, an entity is good in relation to a certain kind. For example, a person with a clear voice may be a good singer or a knife with a blunt edge may be a bad knife. But this still leaves it open whether the entity in question is good or bad in an "unqualified" or "predicative" sense. For example, a person may be a bad assassin but being bad as an assassin is not bad in a predicative sense. Axiology is usually interested in the predicative sense of goodness. But some philosophers deny that such a sense exists and therefore hold that all value is relative to a kind.


title: Axiology

text: A second important distinction is that between "being good for a person" and "being good for the world". "Being good for a person" or "prudential value" has to do with this person's welfare or well-being. But what is good for one person may be bad for another person. For example, having a dry summer may be good for the hiker in virtue of the pleasant hiking conditions, but bad for the farmer, whose crop is dying because of a lack of water. In such cases, the question arises as to what is "good for the world" or "good simpliciter". Utilitarians can solve this problem by defining the "good for the world" as the sum of the "good for each persons".


title: Axiology

text: Philosophers often distinguish between "evaluative concepts" (like "good" or "bad") and "deontic concepts" (like "right", "fitting" or "ought"). The former belong to axiology proper and express what has worth or value while the latter belong to ethics (and related fields) and express what one ought to do. Philosophers have tried to provide a unified account of these two fields since they seem to be intimately related. Consequentialists see evaluative concepts as fundamental and define deontic concepts in terms of evaluative concepts. "Fitting-attitude theories", on the other hand, try to reduce evaluative concepts to deontic concepts. "Consequentialism" is an ethical theory that holds that, given a certain set of possible actions, we ought to perform the action that has the best overall consequences. So what we ought to do is defined in evaluative terms: whatever leads to the consequences with the highest value. "Fitting-attitude theories" are axiological theories that define the value of something in terms of the attitude that would be "fitting" to have towards this thing, for example, that it would be good to find a cure for cancer because this would be a fitting object of desire. These accounts build on the deontic notion that some of our attitudes towards the world are "fitting" or "right" to define what is "good".


title: Georgina Cates

text: Georgina Elaine Cates (born Clare Elaine Woodgate; 14 January 1975) is an English film and television actress.


title: Georgina Cates

text: Born Clare Elaine Woodgate in Colchester, Essex, Cates attended Colchester County High School for Girls and broke into television acting when she was 16 years old, playing the role of Jenny Porter on the BBC's "2point4 Children". After two series, she left the show to concentrate on acting in television dramas such as "Casualty" and "The Bill" and in low-budget films.


title: Georgina Cates

text: In 1995, Cates (then still known as Clare Woodgate) auditioned for the role of Stella in the film "An Awfully Big Adventure" but was not cast. On returning home, she dyed her hair red and reinvented herself as a 17-year-old Liverpudlian girl called Georgina Cates who had no previous acting experience. When she re-applied for the same role, the casting director hired her. She went on to appear in such films as "Frankie Starlight" (1995), "Illuminata" (1998), and "A Soldier's Sweetheart" (1998). She received critical acclaim for her role as Amanda in "Clay Pigeons" (1998) with Vince Vaughn and Joaquin Phoenix. After a seven-year break from the movie industry, Cates returned to the independent film genre to co-star in "Sinner", for which she won a Best Actress award at the Brooklyn Arts Council International Film & Video Festival.


title: Georgina Cates

text: In 1997, Cates married her second husband, American actor Skeet Ulrich, with whom she had twins. The couple separated in 2004 and divorced in 2005, citing irreconcilable differences.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: Fiddler's Green is an after-life where there is perpetual mirth, a fiddle that never stops playing, and dancers who never tire.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: In 19th-century English maritime folklore, it was a kind of after-life for sailors who had served at least fifty years at sea.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: Fiddler's Green appears in Frederick Marryat's novel "The Dog Fiend; Or, Snarleyyow", published in 1856, as lyrics to a sailors' song:


title: Fiddler's Green

text: Herman Melville describes a Fiddler's Green as a sailors' term for the place on land "providentially set apart for dance-houses, doxies, and tapsters" in his posthumous novella "Billy Budd, Sailor".


title: Fiddler's Green

text: "Fiddler's Green" is the title of a 1950 novel by Ernest K. Gann, about a fugitive criminal who works as a seaman after stowing away.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: The author Richard McKenna wrote a story, first published in 1967, titled "Fiddler's Green,” in which he considers the power of the mind to create a reality of its own choosing, especially when a number of people consent to it. The main characters in this story are also sailors, and have known of the legend of Fiddler's Green for many years.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: Fiddler's Green is an extrasolar colony mentioned in Robert A. Heinlein's novels "The Cat Who Walks Through Walls" and "Friday".


title: Fiddler's Green

text: In Neil Gaiman's "The Sandman" comic book series, Fiddler's Green is a place located inside of the Dreaming, a place that sailors have dreamed of for centuries. Fiddler's Green is also personified as a character as well as a location in the fictional world, the former largely based upon casual associations of G. K. Chesterton. In the 2022 TV adaption of the books, the personification is played by Stephen Fry. From November 12 to 14, 2004, a comic book convention promoted as "Fiddler's Green, A Sandman Convention" was held at the Millennium Hotel in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Author Neil Gaiman and several "Sandman" series artists, and others involved in the series' publication, participated in the convention, with profits benefiting the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: In Patrick O'Brian's novel "Post Captain", the character Jack Aubrey describes several seamen living together on land by saying, "We'll lay in beer and skittles – it will be Fiddler's Green!".


title: Fiddler's Green

text: The Cavalrymen's Poem, also entitled "Fiddlers' Green" was published in the US Army's "Cavalry Journal" in 1923 and became associated with the 1st Cavalry Division.


title: Fiddler's Green

text: The name has had other military uses. Many places associated with the US military have been named Fiddler's Green:


title: Svengoolie

text: Svengoolie is an American hosted horror movie television program. The show features horror and science fiction films and is hosted by the eponymous character Svengoolie, who was originally played by Jerry G. Bishop from 1970 to 1973, before Rich Koz succeeded him in the role from 1979 on. Before and after commercial breaks, Svengoolie presents sketches, tells jokes, and performs parody songs related to the films being aired. The show is a long-running local program in the Chicago area and in recent years expanded nationally, airing Saturday nights on MeTV.


title: Svengoolie

text: The show airs both low-budget and classic horror and science-fiction movies, with host "Svengoolie" – a telescoping of the words Svengali and ghoul – played by Rich Koz (pronounced "Koze"), who wears thick skull-like makeup around his eyes and cheekbones, a moustache, goatee, and long wig, all black, and a black top hat with a tuxedo jacket over a bright red, open-collared, button-down shirt.


title: Svengoolie

text: Just before and after commercial breaks, Svengoolie presents sketches, tells corny jokes, and performs song parody spoofs of the film being aired. Some shows were presented in what was later dubbed "Sven-surround" – a pun on "Sensurround", a brand name theater audio system – in which Svengoolie would joke as the film aired sometimes with humorous sound effects. (The creators of "Mystery Science Theater 3000" cited Svensurround as an inspiration.) This stunt was discontinued for a short time, then brought back due to viewer request, although as a clip segment aired outside the film.


title: Svengoolie

text: One relatively recent addition to the show is the simultaneous use of Twitter with the hashtag #svengoolie, allowing those watching to comment on the show.


title: Svengoolie

text: In August 2006, it was reported that WCIU had obtained broadcast rights to the classic Universal Monsters films of the 1930s and 1940s. These films had been requested since Svengoolie aired in the 1980s. By December 2006, the show featured four episodes of the Abbott and Costello "Meet" series, with Universal Studio Monsters and several Hammer Film Productions that were distributed by Universal-International. On May 5, 2007, Svengoolie presented Bela Lugosi's "Dracula" (1931), claiming that it was the first time the movie had been shown on local television in more than a decade.


title: Svengoolie

text: The show opens with a reference to early radio broadcasting: "Calling all stations, clear the air lanes, clear all air lanes for the big broadcast." This is a sound clip from the preview "trailer" of one of the four "Big Broadcast Of ... (1932, 1936, 1937, 1938)" movies. In a running gag throughout the series, Svengoolie's mentions of the Chicago suburb of Berwyn are met with an audio clip of several people groaning "BERWYN?!?" Another recurring gag involves rubber chickens thrown at Svengoolie after a weak joke, usually at the end of an episode's opening and closing sketches. Visitors assist the crew in throwing rubber chickens during taping. Frequently sound clips are used from Warner Bros. cartoons ("Oh we're the boys of the Chorus,"...etc.), radio broadcasts of "The Stan Freberg Show" ("Thank you for all those cards and letters, you folks in television LAND...", "Wun'erful, Wun'erful" and "Ow, OW, OW!!!" from "The HoneyEarthers"), and other sources.


title: Svengoolie

text: Many other incidental characters throughout the show's run have been voiced by Rich Koz and — during his tenure — Jerry G. Bishop, as well as WFLD staff announcer Jim Barton (during the "Son of" years).


title: Svengoolie

text: Rich Koz did most of the artwork for the show when he revived it as "Son of Svengoolie" at WFLD. For every episode, Koz researches the film to find interesting facts, then writes each episode, spending about four hours doing so.


title: Svengoolie

text: The camera shots and audio effects are handled by director Chris Faulkner and Kevin Reisberg, the show's assistant director.


title: Svengoolie

text: In 2014, the original casket prop used by both Bishop and Koz on camera was retired and donated to the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago. Segments showcasing the original casket continued to be rebroadcast on the MeTV schedule. Rebroadcasts often will use improved prints of the films if they have become available, while keeping the old comedy skits.


title: Svengoolie

text: The show's original title was "Screaming Yellow Theater". The title was derived from Screaming Yellow Zonkers, a yellow, sugary glazed popcorn snack, first produced in the 1960s. It debuted on September 18, 1970 on WFLD (Channel 32) and ran until September 7, 1973. Svengoolie was played then by Jerry G. Bishop. In later seasons, Rich Koz – a fan who sent in sketch ideas – became a show writer. In 1973, Kaiser Broadcasting took over WFLD from Field Communications and "Screaming Yellow Theater" was cancelled and replaced with "The Ghoul" from Cleveland. "The Ghoul" lasted until 1974 when it was taken off the air. Field Communications took WFLD back from Kaiser Broadcasting in 1978, which led


title: Svengoolie

text: On June 16, 1979, "Son of Svengoolie" debuted on WFLD, with Koz in the title role. The show also aired on Field Communications-controlled stations in Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco, and Detroit. The series ran until WFLD, then owned by Metromedia, was sold to Rupert Murdoch's Fox Television Stations Group in 1986 as part of the newly created Fox network. New management canceled the show, deciding that it did not fit the new programming direction. After 334 shows, the final episode aired January 25, 1986. Koz returned to WFLD in various capacities, mainly as the host of "Fox Kids Club" and "The Koz Zone" weekday afternoon children's programming, and appearing as an announcer on WFLD's 1988 New Year's Eve broadcast.


title: Svengoolie

text: Neal Sabin, the executive vice president of Weigel Broadcasting, brought the show back on December 31, 1994 on WCIU (Channel 26), using "Svengoolie" as the name; Koz took the role of Svengoolie when Bishop told Koz that he "believed he was grown up enough now to no longer be just the Son." Koz also hosts a weekly Three Stooges "Stooge-a-palooza" show on WCIU.


title: Svengoolie

text: The series was aired on Chicago's WWME-CA, Milwaukee stations WBME-CD and WMLW-TV, and occasionally on WMYS-LD in South Bend, Indiana. These stations are owned by Weigel Broadcasting. Beginning on April 2, 2011, Svengoolie's show became available nationally on the MeTV network through the efforts of Neal Sabin.


title: Svengoolie

text: A spin-off of both "Svengoolie" and MeTV's morning cartoon block "Toon In with Me", entitled "Sventoonie", premiered on MeTV on March 26, 2022. "Sventoonie" is hosted by "Toon In with Me"s Kevin Fleming as his puppet character Toony the Tuna, in character as "Sventoonie". In the series, Sventoonie reviews classic horror films and takes part in comedy sketches with his own cast, including occasional appearances by Svengoolie himself.


title: Svengoolie

text: Between 1979 and 1986, "Son of Svengoolie" won three Chicago Emmys at station WFLD. For its 25th anniversary in 2004, "Svengoolie" was presented with the Silver Circle Award by the Chicago/Midwest Chapter of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for "outstanding contributions to Chicago television."


title: Svengoolie

text: "Svengoolie" is also a consistent winner of the "Best Horror Host" award from the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards.


title: Svengoolie

text: Svengoolie appeared as a supporting character in a storyline in the "Dick Tracy" comic strip that started in April 2017.


title: Svengoolie

text: A special four-part crossover story in two-page parts featuring Svengoolie with the various DC Comics superheroes ran through the month of October 2019. DC Comics editor Dan Didio said the idea for this was a "fun mash-up" featuring the Justice League alongside elements of the "Svengoolie" show.


title: Kindle File Format

text: Kindle File Format is a proprietary e-book file format created by Amazon.com that can be downloaded and read on devices like smartphones, tablets, computers, or e-readers that have Amazon's Kindle app. E-book files in the Kindle File Format originally had the filename extension codice_1; version 8 (KF8) introduced HTML5 & CSS3 features and have the codice_2 extension, and version 10 introduced a new typesetting and layout engine featuring hyphens, kerning, & ligatures and have the codice_3 extension.


title: Kindle File Format

text: Kindle devices and apps are designed to use Amazon's e-book formats: AZW that is based on Mobipocket; in fourth generation and later Kindles, AZW3, also called KF8; and in seventh generation and later Kindles, KFX. Kindles now support the EPUB file format used by many other e-book readers. Similar to EPUB, Amazon's file formats are intended for reflowable, richly formatted e-book content and support DRM restrictions, but unlike EPUB, they are proprietary formats. AZW files debuted with the first Amazon Kindle in 2007.


title: Kindle File Format

text: Software such as the free and open source Calibre, Amazon's "KindleGen", and the email based Send-to-Kindle service are available to convert e-books into supported Kindle file formats. Kindle devices can also display some generic document formats such as plain text (TXT) and Portable Document Format (PDF) files; however, reflowing is not supported for these file types.


title: Kindle File Format

text: In late 2011, the Kindle Fire introduced "Kindle Format 8" (KF8), also known as AZW3 file format. AZW3 supports a subset of HTML5 and CSS3 features, while acting as a container for a backwards-compatible MOBI content document.


title: Kindle File Format

text: In August 2015, all the Kindle e-readers released within the previous two years were updated with a new typesetting and layout engine that adds hyphens, kerning and ligatures to the text; e-books that support this engine require the use of the "Kindle Format 10" (KFX) file format. E-books that support the enhanced typesetting format are indicated in the e-book's description on its product page.


title: Kindle File Format

text: In 2017, Amazon released Kindle Create, a tool that can convert Microsoft Word files to Kindle file format.


title: Kindle File Format

text: In 2022, while the Send-to-Kindle service only supported the original .mobi/.azw ebook formats (along with some other non-ebook file formats), Amazon announced removing this support in favor of .epub which will be converted to Amazon's KF8 (.azw3) from late-2022.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party (; ; ), commonly abbreviated as FrP, is a right-wing political party in Norway. The FrP has traditionally self-identified as classical-liberal and as a libertarian party but is generally positioned to the right of the Conservative Party, and is considered the most right-wing party to be represented in parliament. It is often described as moderately right-wing populist; this characterization has also been disputed in both academic and public discourse. By 2020, the party attained a growing national conservative faction. After the 2017 parliamentary election, it was Norway's third largest political party, with 26 representatives in the Storting. It was a partner in the government coalition led by the Conservative Party from 2013 to 2020.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party focuses on law and order, downsizing the bureaucracy and the public sector; the FrP self-identifies as an economic liberal party which competes with the left to represent the workers of Norway. The party has officially opposed Norwegian membership in the European Union since 2016, after having been neutral on the issue before. The Progress Party calls for a strict immigration policy, integration of immigrants and for the removal of illegal immigrants or foreigners who commit crimes. During its time in coalition government from 2013, the party oversaw the creation of a Minister for Integration and increased the process of deporting failed aslyum seekers or migrants with criminal convictions. It has been described as anti-immigration; nevertheless, the FrP also supports free migration to and from the European Union through the European Economic Community as well as helping refugees through the United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Progress Party has been positive to receiving the Ukrainians who became refugees due to the conflict.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party was founded by Anders Lange in 1973 as an anti-tax protest movement. Its development was greatly influenced by Carl I. Hagen, the party's long-standing leader between 1978 and 2006. Siv Jensen served as the party leader between 2006 and 2021, when in February 2021 she announced that she would be stepping down at the next party convention in May. She was succeeded by her deputy leader, Sylvi Listhaug on 8 May 2021.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party was founded at a meeting at the movie theater "Saga Kino" in Oslo on 8 April 1973, attended by around 1,345 persons. An address speech was held by Anders Lange, after whom the party was named the Anders Lange's Party for a Strong Reduction in Taxes, Duties and Public Intervention, commonly known as the Anders Lange's Party (ALP). Lange had some political experience from the interwar era Fatherland League and was part of the Norwegian resistance movement during the Second World War. Since the end of the war, he had worked as an independent right-wing political editor and public speaker. Lange held his first public speech as chairman of ALP at Youngstorget in Oslo on 16 May the same year. ALP was to a large extent inspired by the Danish Progress Party, which was founded by Mogens Glistrup. Glistrup also spoke at the event, which gathered around 4,000 attendees.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Originally, Anders Lange wanted the party to be an anti-tax protest movement rather than a common political party. The party had a brief political platform on a single sheet of paper that on one side listed ten things the party was "tired of", and on the other side ten things that they were in favour of. The protest was directed against what Lange claimed to be an unacceptable high level of taxes and subsidies. In the 1973 parliamentary election, the party won 5 percent of the vote and gained four seats in the Norwegian parliament. The main reasons for the success has later been seen by scholars as a mixture of tax protests, the charisma of Anders Lange, the role of television, the aftermath of the 1972 European Community membership referendum and the political development in Denmark. The first party conference was held in Hjelmeland in 1974, where the party established its first political conventions.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In early 1974, Kristofer Almås, Deputy Member of Parliament Carl I. Hagen, along with some others, broke away and formed the short-lived Reform Party. The background for this was a criticism of ALPs "undemocratic organisation" and lack of a real party program. However, in the same year, Anders Lange died; consequently Hagen stepped in as a regular Member of Parliament in Lange's place. As a result, the Reform Party merged back into ALP already the following year. The party adopted its current name, the "Progress Party", on 29 January 1977, inspired by the great success of the Danish Progress Party. The Progress Party performed poorly in the 1977 parliamentary election, and was left without parliamentary representation. In the 1978 party convention, Carl I. Hagen was elected as party chairman. Hagen soon started to expand the political program of the party, and built a conventional party organisation, a step which Lange and some of his followers had opposed. The party's youth organisation, the Progress Party's Youth, was also established in 1978. Hagen succeeded in sharpening the image of the party as an anti-tax movement. His criticism of the wisdom of hoarding billions of dollars in the "Oil Fund" hit a nerve owing to perceived declines in infrastructure, schools, and social services and long queues at hospitals.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: While the Progress Party dropped out of parliament altogether in 1977, it returned in the following 1981 parliamentary election with four representatives. In this election, the political right in general had a great upturn, which garnered the Progress Party increased support. The ideology of the party was sharpened in the 1980s, and the party officially declared that it was a libertarian party at its national convention in Sandefjord in 1983. Until then, the party had not had a clearly defined ideology. In the campaign for the 1985 parliamentary election, the party attacked many aspects of the Norwegian welfare state, and campaigned for privatization of medical care, education and government-owned enterprises as well as steep cuts in income tax. In the election, the party lost two of its four members of parliament, but was left with some power as they became the kingmaker. In May 1986, the party used this position to effectively throw out the governing Conservative-led government after it had proposed to increase gas taxes. A minority Labour government was established as a result.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The first real breakthrough for the party in Norwegian politics came in the 1987 local elections, when the party nearly doubled its support from 6.3% to 12.3% (county results). This was largely as immigration was for the first time seriously taken up as an issue by the party (although Hagen had already in the late 1970s called for a strongly restrictive immigration policy), successfully putting the issue on the national agenda. Its campaign had mainly been focused on the issue of asylum seekers, but was additionally helped by the infamous "Mustafa-letter", a letter read out by Hagen during the electoral campaign that portrayed the future Islamisation of Norway. In April 1988 the party was for the first time the second largest party in Norway in an opinion poll with 23.5%. In September 1988, the party further proposed in parliament for a referendum on the immigration policy, which was regarded by political scientists as the start of the party's 1989 election campaign. In 1989, the party made its breakthrough in national politics. In the 1989 parliamentary election, the party obtained 13%, up from 3.7% in 1985, and became the third largest party in Norway. It started to gain power in some local administrations. The first mayors from the party were Håkon Rege in Sola (1988–1989), Bjørn Bråthen in Råde (1990–1991) and Peter N. Myhre in Oslo (1990–1991).


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The 1993 parliamentary election halved the party's support to 6.3% and ten members of parliament. This drop in support can be seen as the result of an internal conflict within the party that came to a head in 1992, between the more radical libertarian minority and the majority led by Carl I. Hagen. The right-libertarians, or simply libertarians, had removed the party's focus on immigration, declaring it a "non-issue" in the early 1990s, which was heavily punished by voters in 1993 as well as 1991. Social conservative policy platforms had also been liberalised and caused controversy such as accepting homosexual partnership. The party's unclear stance on Norwegian membership of the European Union also contributed greatly to the setback, by moving the focus away from the party's stronger issues such as during the 1994 Norwegian European Union membership referendum.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: While many of the libertarians, including Pål Atle Skjervengen and Tor Mikkel Wara, had left the party before the 1993 election or had been rejected by voters, the conflict finally culminated in 1994. Following the party conference at "Bolkesjø Hotell" in Telemark in April of that year, four MPs of the "libertarian wing" in the party broke off as independents. This was because Hagen had given them an ultimatum to adhere to the political line of the party majority and parliamentary group, or else to leave. This incident was later nicknamed "Dolkesjø", a pun on the name of the hotel, with "dolke" meaning to "lit. stab (in the back) /betray".


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: These events have been seen by political scientists as a turning point for the party. Subsequently, the libertarians founded a libertarian organisation called the Free Democrats, which attempted to establish a political party but without success. Parts of the younger management of the party and the more libertarian youth organisation of the party also broke away and even tried to disestablish the entire youth organisation. The youth organisation was however soon running again, this time with more "loyal" members, although it remained more libertarian than its mother organisation. After this, the Progress Party had a more right-wing populist profile, which resulted in its gaining electoral support.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In the 1995 local elections, the Progress Party regained the level of support seen at the 1987 elections. This was said largely to have been as a result of a focus on Progress Party core issues in the electoral campaign, especially immigration, as well as the party dominating the media picture as a result of the controversy around the 1995 Norwegian Association meeting at Godlia kino. The latter particularly gained the party many sympathy votes, as a result of the harsh media storm targeted against Hagen. In the 1997 parliamentary election, the party obtained 15.3% of the vote, and for the first time became the second largest political party in Norway. The 1999 local elections resulted in the party's first mayor as a direct result of an election, Terje Søviknes in Os. 20 municipalities also elected a deputy mayor from the Progress Party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: While the Progress Party had witnessed close to 35% support in opinion polls in late 2000, its support fell back to 1997 levels in the upcoming election in 2001. This was largely a result of turmoil surrounding the party. The party's deputy leader Terje Søviknes became involved in a sex scandal, and internal political conflicts came to the surface; Hagen had already in 1999 tried to quiet the most controversial immigration opponents in the parliamentary party, who had gained influence since the 1994 national convention. In late 2000 and early 2001, opposition to this locally in Oslo, Hordaland and Vest-Agder sometimes resulted in expulsions of local representatives. Eventually Hagen also, in various ways, got rid of the so-called "gang of seven" ("syverbanden"), which consisted of seven members of parliament. In January 2001, Hagen claimed that he had seen a pattern where these had cooperated on several issues, and postulated that they were behind a conspiracy to eventually get Øystein Hedstrøm elected as party chairman. The seven were eventually suspended, excluded from or voluntarily left the party, starting in early 2001. They most notably included Vidar Kleppe (the alleged "leader"), Dag Danielsen, Fridtjof Frank Gundersen, as well as Jan Simonsen. Only Hedstrøm remained in the party, but was subsequently kept away from publicly discussing immigration issues.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: This again caused turmoil within the party; supporters of the excluded members criticized their treatment, some resigned from the party, and some of the party's local chapters were closed. Some of the outcasts ran for office in the 2001 election in several new county lists, and later some formed a new party called the Democrats, with Kleppe as chairman and Simonsen as deputy chairman. Though the "gang of seven" took controversial positions on immigration, the actions taken against them were also based on internal issues; it remains unclear to what degree the settlement was based primarily on political disagreements or tactical considerations. Hagen's main goal with the "purge" was an attempt to make it possible for non-socialist parties to cooperate in an eventual government together with the Progress Party. In 2007, he revealed that he had received "clear signals" from politicians in among other the Christian Democratic Party, that government negotiations were out of the question so long as certain specific Progress Party politicians, including Kleppe and Simonsen (but not Hedstrøm), remained in the party. The more moderate libertarian minority in Oslo, including Henning Holstad, Svenn Kristiansen and Siv Jensen, now improved their hold in the party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In the 2001 parliamentary election the party lost the gains it had made according to opinion polling but maintained its position from the 1997 election, it got 14.6% and 26 members in the parliament. The election result allowed them to unseat the Labour Party government of Jens Stoltenberg and replace it with a three-party coalition led by Christian Democrat Kjell Magne Bondevik. However, the coalition continued to decline to govern together with the Progress Party as they considered the political differences too large. The Progress Party eventually decided to tolerate the coalition, as it promised to invest more in defence, open more private hospitals and open for more competition in the public sector. In 2002 the Progress Party again advanced in the opinion polls and for a while became the largest party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The local elections of 2003 were a success for the party. In 36 municipalities, the party gained more votes than any other; it succeeded in electing the mayor in only 13 of these, but also secured 40 deputy mayor positions. The Progress Party had participated in local elections since 1975, but until 2003 had only secured a mayoral position four times, all on separate occasions. The Progress Party vote in Os—the only municipality that elected a Progress Party mayor in 1999—increased from 36.6% in 1999 to 45.7% in 2003. The party also became the single largest in the counties of Vestfold and Rogaland.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In the 2005 parliamentary elections, the party again became the second largest party in the Norwegian parliament, with 22.1% of the votes and 38 seats, a major increase from 2001. Although the centre-right government of Bondevik which the Progress Party had tolerated since 2001 was beaten by the leftist Red-Green Coalition, Hagen had before the election said that his party would no longer accept Bondevik as Prime Minister, following his consistent refusal to formally include the Progress Party in government. For the first time the party was also successful in getting members of parliament elected from all counties of Norway, and even became the largest party in three: Vest-Agder, Rogaland and Møre og Romsdal. After the parliamentary elections in 2005, the party also became the largest party in many opinion polls. The Progress Party led November 2006 opinion polls with a support of 32.9% of respondents, and it continued to poll above 25 percent during the following years.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In 2006, after 27 years as leader of the party, Hagen stepped down to become Vice President of the Norwegian parliament Stortinget. Siv Jensen was chosen as his successor, with the hope that she could increase the party's appeal to voters, build bridges to centre-right parties, and head or participate in a future government of Norway. Following the local elections of 2007, Progress Party candidates became mayor in 17 municipalities, seven of these continuing on from 2003. Deputy mayors for the party however decreased to 33. The party in general strongly increased its support in municipalities where the mayor had been elected from the Progress Party in 2003.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In the months before the 2009 parliamentary elections, the party had, as in the 2001 election, rated very highly in opinion poll results which however declined towards the actual election. Earlier in the year, the Progress Party had achieved above 30% in some polls which made it the largest party by several percentage points. With such high gains, the election result was in this case relatively disappointing. Before the election the gains continued to decrease, with most of these losses going to the Conservative Party which had a surprisingly successful campaign. The decline in support over a longer period of time can also be seen as the Labour Party was since 2008 accused of "stealing" policies from the Progress Party. The Progress Party did, regardless, achieve a slight gain from the 2005 election with 22.9%, the best election result in the party's history. It also for the first time got represented in the Sami Parliament of Norway in 2009, with three representatives. This made it the fourth largest party in the Sami parliament, and second largest of the nationwide parties. In the 2009 informal school elections, it became the largest party in Norway with 24% of the votes.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: While other parties before had refused the Progress Party's efforts to join governing coalitions at the national level owing to concerns about the party's alleged populism and positions on immigration issues, after the election the Conservative Party stated they wanted to be "a bridge between the Progress Party and the centre." The position arose as the Progress Party vowed to not support any government coalition that it itself was not a part of, while centrist parties rejected participating in a government coalition together with the party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Since early 2010, opinion polls regularly showed a majority support for the Progress Party and Conservative Party together. The Progress Party however saw a strong setback for the 2011 local elections. The party lost 6% in vote share, while the Conservative Party gained 9%. According to political scientists, most of the setback could be explained by a low turnout of Progress Party supporters.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In coalition with the Conservative Party, the party won the 2013 parliamentary election and helped form its first ever government, the Solberg's Cabinet, although the Progress Party itself lost seats and is now the third largest party instead of the second largest. The parties won renewed support for the government in the 2017 parliamentary election, which was expanded to include the centrist Liberal Party and the Christian Democratic Party in 2018.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party withdrew from the government coalition in January 2020. The cause of the withdrawal was repatriation to Norway of a Norwegian citizen who volunteered in the Islamic State. The position of the Progress Party was that no such person should receive assistance to return to Norway. The Solberg cabinet undertook the repatriation despite the protests from the Progress Party, over what they considered humanitarian considerations.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In February 2021, Jensen announced that she would stand down as party leader. She was replaced by former deputy leader and immigration minister Sylvi Listhaug in May 2021. Listhaug had previously been endorsed as a potential future leader by both Jensen and former chairman Carl I. Hagen.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party officially identifies itself in the preamble of its platform as a liberal ("liberalistisk"; "liberal", "libertarian") party, built on Norwegian and Western traditions and cultural heritage, with a basis in a Christian understanding of life and humanist values. Its main declared goal is a strong reduction in taxes and government intervention.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Many within the party reject the description of the party as liberal. The party has a wing that identifies itself as economically liberal or libertarian, and a wing that identifies itself as national-conservative and focuses strongly on anti-immigration politics. According to scholar Anders Ravik Jupskås, the national conservative faction has been gaining ground in the 2010s; while members of the party leadership tend to identify as liberals or libertarians, the national conservative wing has strong support among the membership. The party's largest chapter, the Oslo chapter, adopted a resolution that calls for the party to declare itself as national conservative and to replace liberalism with a "Norway first" policy aiming at making Norway a "patriotic beacon" in Europe, with a focus on anti-immigration politics and rejection of the scientific consensus on climate change, that includes "a complete ban on non-western immigration" and a referendum on immigration; the Oslo chapter's MP Christian Tybring-Gjedde said that "very few people agree" with the stated ideology of liberalism in the party programme because "liberalism in its extreme form means open borders" and because "liberalism is a dead ideology." Former party leader Carl I. Hagen has supported this initiative, stating that liberal values don't belong in the Progress Party and arguing that the party should become national conservative instead of "liberal extremist". The Progress Party is sometimes described as right-wing populist, a categorization that is rejected both by the party itself and by other observers, including Prime Minister Erna Solberg and some academics. It has also been described as Europe's most moderate populist party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The core issues for the party revolve around immigration, crime, foreign aid, the elderly and social security in regards to health and care for the elderly. The party is regarded as having policies on the right in most of these cases, both fiscally and socially, though in some cases, like care for the elderly, the policy is regarded as being on the left. It has been claimed that the party changed in its first three decades, in turn from an "outsider movement" in the 1970s, to American-style libertarianism in the 1980s, to right-wing populism in the 1990s. From the 2000s, the party has to some extent sought to moderate its profile in order to seek government cooperation with centre-right parties. This has been especially true since the expulsion of certain members around 2001, and further under the lead of Siv Jensen from 2006, when the party has tried to move and position itself more towards conservatism and also seek cooperation with such parties abroad. The party values are officially focused on civil liberties, individualism and limited government. A local group within the party, centered around Oslo, expressed a desire for a more nationalistic policy, inspired by the Centre Party. They emphasize patriotism and openly prioritize the interests of Norway and the Norwegian people in a "Norway first" policy. They also promote a complete halt to non-western immigration, and express support for climate change denial. The party has often criticised and called for a reduction of Norwegian foreign aid. The program of the party considers humanitarian action abroad to be preferable, when possible, to receiving refugees from affected areas.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party has for decades been a proponent for shortening wait times for hospital treatment in Norway. 270,000 Norwegians were waiting for medical treatment in 2012-13. In the OECD publication "Health at a Glance 2011", Norway had among the longest wait times for elective surgery and specialist appointments among eleven countries surveyed. Since 2013, the Solberg Cabinet has been successful in reducing the average wait times for hospital care.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party aims to reduce the power of the state and the public sector. It believes that the public sector should only be there to secure a minimum standard of living, and that individuals, businesses and organisations should take care of various tasks instead of the public sector, in most cases. The party also generally advocates the lowering of taxes, various duties as well increased market economy. The party also notably want to invest more of Norway's oil wealth in infrastructure (particularly roads, broadband capacity, hospitals, schools and nursing homes) and the welfare state. This position, that has used a sense of a welfare crisis to support demands to spend more of the oil fund now rather than later, is part of its electoral success.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party wants to strongly reduce taxation in Norway, and says that the money Norwegians earn, is theirs to be kept. They want to remove inheritance tax and property tax. The party advocates increased spending of Norway's Oil Fund on investments in infrastructure and aims to eliminate the existing budgetary rules which set a limit on such spending.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party regards the family to be a natural, necessary and fundamental element in a free society. It regards the family to be a carrier of traditions and culture, and to have a role in raising and caring for children. The party also wants all children to have a right of visitation and care from both parents, and to secure everyone's right to know who their biological parents are. The party opposed the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2008, questioning how children would "cope" with the law. In schools, the party wants to improve the working environment for teachers and students by focusing more on order, discipline and class management. The party wants more individual adaptation, to implement grades in basic subjects from fifth grade, open more private schools and decrease the amount of theory in vocational educations.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: During the national convention in May 2013, the party voted in favor of both same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption. The party has for several years been a proponent for legalizing blood donation for homosexuals.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party believes that artists should be less dependent on public support, and instead be more dependent on making a living on what they create. The party believes that regular people should rather decide what good culture is, and demands that artists on public support should offer something the audience wants. It also wants to abolish the annual licence fee for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation and privatise the company. Otherwise, the party wants to protect and secure Norwegian cultural heritage.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Since the party distances itself from discrimination and special treatment based on gender, religion and ethnic origin, the party wants to dissolve the Sami Parliament of Norway, which is based on ethnic classifications. The party wants to uphold Sami culture, but wants to work against any special treatment based on ethnic origin regarding the right of use of water and land.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party is also a proponent of a ban on wearing the burka and niqab in public spaces, schools and universities, first proposing the idea in 2010. This policy for schools and universities was ultimately achieved in 2018.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party supports an increase in police forces, and more visible police on the streets. It wants to implement tougher punishments, especially for crime regarding violence and morality offences. The party also wants to establish an ombudsman for victims and relatives, as it believes today's supportive concern focus too much on the criminals rather than the victims. It wants the police to be able to use more non-lethal weapons, such as electroshock weapons. It also does not accept any use of religious or political symbols with the police uniform, and wants to expel foreign citizens who are convicted of crime with a frame of more than three months imprisonment.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: From the second half of the 1980s the economic and welfare aspects of immigration policy were mainly a focus of Progress Party criticism, including the strains placed by immigration on the welfare state. During the 1990s the party shifted to focus more on cultural issues and conflicts, a development which can also be seen in the general public debate, including among its political opponents. In 1993, it was the first party in Norway to use the notion of "integration politics" in its party programme. While the party has made numerous proposals on immigration in parliament, it has rarely received majority support for them. Its proposals has largely been rejected by the remaining political parties, as well as the mass media. Although the party's immigration policies have been compared to those of the Danish People's Party and the Sweden Democrats, leading party members have rather chosen to compare its immigration policies with those of the Dutch People's Party for Freedom and Democracy and the Danish Venstre, when those parties were in government.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Generally, the party wants a stricter immigration policy, so that only those who are in need of protection according to the UN Refugee Convention are allowed to stay in Norway. Progress Party MPs have also stated that high levels of immigration combined with poor integration leads to both Norwegian and broadly Western values such as tolerance, freedom of speech and democracy being undermined and that politicians on the political left have enabled social issues through relaxing immigration policies. In a speech in the 2007 election campaign, Siv Jensen claimed that the immigration policy was a failure because it let criminals stay in Norway, while throwing out people who worked hard and followed the law. The party claims the immigration and integration policy to be naïve. In 2008, the party wanted to "avoid illiterates and other poorly resourced groups who we see are not able to adapt in Norway"; which included countries as Somalia, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The party opposes that asylum seekers are allowed stay in Norway on humanitarian grounds or due to health issues, and seeks to substantially limit the number of family reunifications. The party has also called for a referendum on the general immigration policy. In government, the party supported creating a Minister for Integration in the cabinet and a zero tolerance policy on illegal immigration combined with deportation of illegal immigrants and non-citizens who had committed serious felonies. Some commentators noted that Norway deported a record number of failed asylum seekers and illegal residents during the period when the party provided support to the Conservatives from 2013 to 2021.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party is also opposed to repatriating Norwegian citizens who leave the country to join terrorist organisations such as Islamic State and withdrew their support to the Solberg cabinet in January 2020 over the government's decision to repatriate a Norwegian national on humanitarian grounds who had escaped to join ISIS.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: A poll conducted by "Utrop" in August 2009 showed that 10% (14% if the respondents answering "Don't know" are removed) of immigrants in Norway would vote for the Progress Party, only beaten by the Labour Party (38% and 56% respectively), when asked. More specifically, this constituted 9% of both African and Eastern European immigrants, 22% of Western European immigrants and 3% of Asian immigrants. Politicians with immigrant background are increasingly active in the party, most notably Iranian-Norwegian Mazyar Keshvari and former leader of the youth party, Indian-Norwegian Himanshu Gulati.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party was for many years open to a referendum on Norwegian membership of the European Union, although only if a majority of the public opinion was seen to favour it beforehand. The party eventually grew to consider membership of Norway in the European Union to be a "non-issue", believing there to be no reason for a debate of a new referendum. In 2016, the party officially adopted a position against Norwegian membership in the EU.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party regards NATO to be a positive basic element of Norway's defense, security and foreign policy. It also wants to strengthen transatlantic relations in general, and Norway's relationship with the United States more specifically. The party considers its international policy to "follow in the footsteps of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher."


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: Of all the major political parties in Norway, the Progress Party has shown the strongest support for Israel. Recently, it has supported the right of Israel to defend itself against rocket attacks from Hamas, and was the only party in Norway which supported Israel through the Gaza War. The party has for many years also wanted to relocate the Norwegian embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The party sees the most viable form of foreign aid policy to be for developing countries to gradually manage themselves without Western aid. It believes that free trade is the key for developing countries to gain economic growth, and that "the relationship between aid and development is at best unclear." The party is strongly critical of "forced contribution to government development aid through taxation", which it wants to limit, also as it believe this weakens the individual's personal sense of responsibility and generosity (voluntary aid). The party instead supports an increase in support for global health and vaccination initiatives against global epidemics such as HIV, AIDS and tuberculosis, and to increase the support after emergencies and disasters.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party does not belong to any international political groups, and does not have any official sister parties. Historically the party has not compared itself to other European parties, and has sought to rather establish its own identity. An international secretary for the party in the same year said that the party had been connected with a "misunderstood right-wing radical label", partly because people with nationalistic and "hopeless attitudes" had previously been involved in the party. Such persons were said no longer to be involved.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: The Progress Party was originally inspired by its Danish counterpart, the Progress Party, which ultimately lost parliamentary representation and fell into the fringes of Danish politics. In recent years, the Norwegian party has rather considered Denmark's Venstre to be its sister party. Although Venstre formally is aligned with the Norwegian Liberal Party, some politicians of the party has voiced support for the Progress Party. The party has been compared by some journalists to the Danish People's Party while others such as political scientist Cas Mudde has regarded the Progress Party to be somewhere in between these two parties. Some prominent individual Progress Party politicians, including former Justice Minister Per-Willy Amundsen and Christian Tybring-Gjedde, expressed an interest in partnership with Sweden Democrats (SD), but the party at large does not support such collaboration. Party leader Sylvi Listhaug has stated that while the party has common ground with the Sweden Democrats on immigration and law & order, the differences in economic policy prevent cooperation or the Progress Party considering the SD as a sister party.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: While the party has been compared by some commentators to European populist parties ranging from the French National Front and the Dutch Pim Fortuyn List, the Progress Party has often distanced itself from parties on the extreme right and has turned down offers of alliances from other European far-right parties. In 2009 the British Conservative Party invited party leader Siv Jensen to hold a lecture in the House of Commons, which was seen as a further recognition of the party internationally.


title: Progress Party (Norway)

text: In the United States, the Progress Party generally supports the Republican Party, and was in 2010 called "friends" by the Republican Party chairman as he said he looked forward to the "continued growth of the party and free market conservative principles." The party has also been described as Reaganite. Party leader Siv Jensen attended the 2008 Republican National Convention in Saint Paul, Minnesota. In 2018, parliamentary members Christian Tybring-Gjedde and former Minister of Justice Per-Willy Amundsen nominated President Donald Trump for the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize. Trump was nominated due to his historic summit in North Korea and due to his work for "disarmament, peace, and reconciliation between North and South Korea."


title: Tweedledum and Tweedledee

text: Tweedledum and Tweedledee are characters in an English nursery rhyme and in Lewis Carroll's 1871 book "Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There". Their names may have originally come from an epigram written by poet John Byrom. The nursery rhyme has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19800. The names have since become synonymous in western popular culture slang for any two people whose appearances and actions are identical.


title: Tweedledum and Tweedledee

text: The words "Tweedle-dee and Tweedle-dum" make their first appearance in print as names applied to the composers George Frideric Handel and Giovanni Bononcini in "one of the most celebrated and most frequently quoted (and sometimes misquoted) epigrams", satirising disagreements between Handel and Bononcini, written by John Byrom (1692–1763): in his satire, from 1725.


title: Tweedledum and Tweedledee

text: Although Byrom is clearly the author of the epigram, the last two lines have also been attributed to Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope. While the familiar form of the rhyme was first printed in "Original Ditties for the Nursery" (c. 1805), Byrom may have drawn on an existing rhyme.


title: Tweedledum and Tweedledee

text: The characters are perhaps best known from Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice Found There" (1871). Carroll, having introduced two fat little men named Tweedledee and Tweedledum, quotes the nursery rhyme, which the two brothers then go on to enact. They agree to have a battle, but never have one. When they see a monstrous black crow swooping down, they take to their heels. The Tweedle brothers never contradict each other, even when one of them, according to the rhyme, "agrees to have a battle". Rather, they complement each other's words, which led John Tenniel to portray them as twins in his illustrations for the book.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: In Judaism and Christianity, the tree of life () is first described in of the Book of Genesis as being "in the midst of the Garden of Eden" with the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (). After the fall of man, "lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever", cherubim and a flaming sword are placed at the east end of the Garden to guard the way to the tree of life. The tree of life has become the subject of some debate as to whether or not the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is the same tree.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: In the Bible outside of Genesis, the term "tree of life" appears in Proverbs () and Revelation (). It also appears in 2 Esdras () and 4 Maccabees (), which are included among the Jewish apocrypha.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: According to the Greek Apocalypse of Moses, the tree of life is also called the Tree of Mercy. Adam believed the oil of the tree of Life would relieve him of his ailments and sent Seth and Eve to the doors of the Garden to beg for some oil of the tree of Life.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: Karl Budde, in his critical study of 1883, proposed that there was only one tree in the body of the Genesis narrative, and that it had been portrayed in two ways: one as the tree in the middle of the Garden, and two as the forbidden tree. Claus Westermann gave recognition to Budde's theory in 1976.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: Ellen van Wolde noted that among Bible scholars "the trees are almost always dealt with separately and not related to each other" and that "attention is almost exclusively directed to the tree of knowledge of good and evil, whereas the tree of life is paid hardly any attention."


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church has traditionally understood the tree of life in Genesis as a prefiguration of the Cross, which humanity could not partake of until after the incarnation, death and resurrection of Jesus.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: In "The City of God" (xiii.20-21), Augustine of Hippo offers great allowance for "spiritual" interpretations of the events in the garden, so long as such allegories do not rob the narrative of its historical reality. Enlightenment theologians (culminating perhaps in Brunner and Niebuhr in the twentieth century) sought for figurative interpretations because they had already dismissed the historical possibility of the story.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: Others sought very pragmatic understandings of the tree. In the "Summa Theologica" (Q97), Thomas Aquinas argued that the tree served to maintain Adam's biological processes for an extended earthly animal life. It did not provide immortality as such, for the tree, being finite, could not grant infinite life. Hence after a period of time, the man and woman would need to eat again from the tree or else be "transported to the spiritual life." The common fruit trees of the garden were given to offset the effects of "loss of moisture" (note the doctrine of the humors at work), while the tree of life was intended to offset the inefficiencies of the body. Following Augustine in the "City of God" (xiv.26), “man was furnished with food against hunger, with drink against thirst, and with the tree of life against the ravages of old age.”


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: John Calvin ("Commentary on Genesis" 2:8), following a different thread in Augustine ("City of God", xiii.20), understood the tree in sacramental language. Given that humanity cannot exist except within a covenantal relationship with God, and all covenants use symbols to give us "the attestation of his grace", he gives the tree, "not because it could confer on man that life with which he had been previously endued, but in order that it might be a symbol and memorial of the life which he had received from God." God often uses symbols; he doesn't transfer his power into these outward signs, but "by them He stretches out His hand to us, because, without assistance, we cannot ascend to Him." Thus he intends man, as often as he eats the fruit, to remember the source of his life, and acknowledge that he lives not by his own power, but by God's kindness. Calvin denies (contra Aquinas and without mentioning his name) that the tree served as a biological defense against physical aging. This is the standing interpretation in modern Reformed theology as well.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: According to Jewish mythology, in the Garden of Eden there is a tree of life or the "tree of souls" that blossoms and produces new souls, which fall into the Guf, the "Treasury of Souls". The Angel Gabriel reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then Lailah, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: The tree of life is represented in several examples of sacred geometry and is central in particular to the Kabbalah, where it is represented as a diagram of ten nodes called sefirot (singular sefirah), or the ten emanations or attributes of God. It portrays how God, the Creator, demonstrates his creative energy throughout the universe, via angels and then to humans. Each of the tree's branches (sefirot) represents a different category of creative force that is overseen by a different Archangel. Believers claim that by focusing on the various energies one by one, people can develop a closer spiritual union with God. Kabbalah is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism.


title: Tree of life (biblical)

text: The tree of life is mentioned explicitly in the 2006 film "The Fountain"; it is discussed in connection with the Hebrew Genesis book.


title: Oxalis

text: Oxalis ( (American English) or (British English)) is a large genus of flowering plants in the wood-sorrel family Oxalidaceae, comprising over 550 species. The genus occurs throughout most of the world, except for the polar areas; species diversity is particularly rich in tropical Brazil, Mexico, and South Africa.


title: Oxalis

text: Many of the species are known as wood sorrels (sometimes written "woodsorrels" or "wood-sorrels") as they have an acidic taste reminiscent of the sorrel proper ("Rumex acetosa"), which is only distantly related. Some species are called yellow sorrels or pink sorrels after the color of their flowers instead. Other species are colloquially known as false shamrocks, and some called sourgrasses. For the genus as a whole, the term oxalises is also used.


title: Oxalis

text: These plants are annual or perennial. The leaves are divided into three to ten or more obovate and top-notched leaflets, arranged palmately with all the leaflets of roughly equal size. The majority of species have three leaflets; in these species, the leaves are superficially similar to those of some clovers. Some species exhibit rapid changes in leaf angle in response to temporarily high light intensity to decrease photoinhibition.


title: Oxalis

text: The flowers have five petals, which are usually fused at the base, and ten stamens. The petal color varies from white to pink, red or yellow; anthocyanins and xanthophylls may be present or absent but are generally not both present together in significant quantities, meaning that few wood-sorrels have bright orange flowers. The fruit is a small capsule containing several seeds. The roots are often tuberous and succulent, and several species also reproduce vegetatively by production of bulbils, which detach to produce new plants.


title: Oxalis

text: Coast Range ecoregion of the North American Pacific Northwest, or the Sydney Turpentine-Ironbark Forest in southeastern Australia where least yellow sorrel ("O. exilis") is common. In the United Kingdom and neighboring Europe, common wood sorrel ("O. acetosella") is the typical woodland member of this genus, forming large swaths in the typical mixed deciduous forests dominated by downy birch ("Betula pubescens") and sessile oak ("Quercus petraea"), by sycamore maple ("Acer pseudoplatanus"), common bracken ("Pteridium aquilinum"), pedunculate oak ("Q. robur") and blackberries ("Rubus fruticosus" agg.), or by common ash ("Fraxinus excelsior"), dog's mercury ("Mercurialis perennis") and European rowan ("Sorbus aucuparia"); it is also common in woods of common juniper ("Juniperus communis" ssp. "communis"). Some species – notably Bermuda-buttercup ("O. pes-caprae") and creeping woodsorrel ("O. corniculata") – are pernicious, invasive weeds when escaping from cultivation outside their native ranges; the ability of most wood-sorrels to store reserve energy in their tubers makes them quite resistant to most weed control techniques.


title: Oxalis

text: A 2019 study suggested that species from this genus have a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing "Bacillus" endophytes, storing them in plant tissues and seeds, which could explain its ability to spread rapidly even in poor soils.


title: Oxalis

text: Tuberous woodsorrels provide food for certain small herbivores – such as the Montezuma quail ("Cyrtonyx montezumae"). The foliage is eaten by some Lepidoptera, such as the Polyommatini pale grass blue ("Pseudozizeeria maha") – which feeds on creeping wood sorrel and others – and dark grass blue ("Zizeeria lysimon").


title: Oxalis

text: Wood sorrel (a type of oxalis) is an edible wild plant that has been consumed by humans around the world for millennia. In Dr. James Duke's "Handbook of Edible Weeds," he notes that the Native American Kiowa people chewed wood sorrel to alleviate thirst on long trips, the Potawatomi cooked it with sugar to make a dessert, the Algonquin considered it an aphrodisiac, the Cherokee ate wood sorrel to alleviate mouth sores and a sore throat, and the Iroquois ate wood sorrel to help with cramps, fever and nausea.


title: Oxalis

text: The fleshy, juicy edible tubers of the oca ("O. tuberosa") have long been cultivated for food in Colombia and elsewhere in the northern Andes mountains of South America. It is grown and sold in New Zealand as "New Zealand yam" (although not a true yam), and varieties are now available in yellow, orange, apricot, and pink, as well as the traditional red-orange.


title: Oxalis

text: The leaves of scurvy-grass sorrel ("O. enneaphylla") were eaten by sailors travelling around Patagonia as a source of vitamin C to avoid scurvy.


title: Oxalis

text: In India, creeping wood sorrel ("O. corniculata") is eaten only seasonally, starting in December–January. The Bodos of north east India sometimes prepare a sour fish curry with its leaves. The leaves of common wood sorrel ("O. acetosella") may be used to make a lemony-tasting tea when dried.


title: Oxalis

text: A characteristic of members of this genus is that they contain oxalic acid (whose name references the genus), giving the leaves and flowers a sour taste which can make them refreshing to chew. The crude calcium oxalate ranges from 13 to 25 mg/g fresh weight for woodsorrel as compared to 1.3 to 1.8 mg/g for spinach. In very large amounts, oxalic acid may be considered slightly toxic, interfering with proper digestion and kidney function. However, oxalic acid is also present in more commonly consumed foods such as spinach, broccoli, brussels sprouts, grapefruit, chives, and rhubarb, among many others. A non-medical expert summary is that, on the one hand, the risk of sheer toxicity, actual poisoning from oxalic acid in persons with normal kidney function is "wildly unlikely", while, in the other hand, the mechanical effects of crystals of calcium oxalate contribute substantially to some pathological conditions, such as gout and (especially) nephrolithiasis.


title: Oxalis

text: While any oxalic acid-containing plant, such as "Oxalis", is toxic to humans in some dosage, the U.S. National Institutes of Health note that oxalic acid is present in many foodstuffs found in the supermarket and its toxicity is generally of little or no consequence for people who eat a variety of foods.


title: Oxalis

text: In the past, it was a practice to extract crystals of calcium oxalate for use in treating diseases and as a salt called "sal acetosella" or "sorrel salt" (also known as "salt of lemon"). Growing oca tuber root caps are covered in a fluorescent slush rich in harmaline and harmine which apparently suppresses pests. Creeping wood sorrel and perhaps other species are apparently hyperaccumulators of copper. The Ming Dynasty text "Precious Secrets of the Realm of the King of Xin" from 1421 describes how "O. corniculata" can be used to locate copper deposits as well as for geobotanical prospecting. It thus ought to have some potential for phytoremediation of contaminated soils.


title: Oxalis

text: Several species are grown as pot plants or as ornamental plants in gardens, for example, "O. versicolor".


title: Oxalis

text: Some varieties have double flowers, for example the double form of "O. compressus". Some varieties are grown for their foliage, such as the dark purple-leaved "O. triangularis".


title: Oxalis

text: Species with four regular leaflets – in particular "O. tetraphylla" (four-leaved pink-sorrel) – are sometimes misleadingly sold as "four-leaf clover", taking advantage of the mystical status of four-leaf clover.


title: Abyssal zone

text: The abyssal zone or abyssopelagic zone is a layer of the pelagic zone of the ocean. "Abyss" derives from the Greek word , meaning bottomless. At depths of , this zone remains in perpetual darkness. It covers 83% of the total area of the ocean and 60% of Earth's surface. The abyssal zone has temperatures around through the large majority of its mass. Due to there being no light, there are no plants producing oxygen, which instead primarily comes from ice that had melted long ago from the polar regions. The water along the seafloor of this zone is actually devoid of oxygen, resulting in a death trap for organisms unable to quickly return to the oxygen-enriched water above. This region also contains a much higher concentration of nutrient salts, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica, due to the large amount of dead organic material that drifts down from the above ocean zones and decomposes. The water pressure can reach up to 76 megapascal.


title: Abyssal zone

text: The area below the abyssal zone is the sparsely inhabited hadal zone. The zone above is the bathyal zone.


title: Abyssal zone

text: The deep trenches or fissures that plunge down thousands of meters below the ocean floor (for example, the mid-oceanic trenches such as the Mariana Trench in the Pacific) are almost unexplored. Previously, only the bathyscaphe "Trieste", the remote control submarine "Kaikō" and the "Nereus" have been able to descend to these depths. However, as of March 25, 2012 one vehicle, the "Deepsea Challenger" was able to penetrate to a depth of 10,898.4 meters (35,756 ft).


title: Abyssal zone

text: Without producers, the cornerstone of most ecosystems, a unique ecosystem forms. Rather than relying on producers to form the base of the food pyramid, organisms living in the abyssal zone must feed on the dead organic detritus that falls from oceanic layers above. The biomass of the abyssal zone actually increases near the seafloor as compared to areas above as most of the decomposing material and decomposers rest on the seabed.


title: Abyssal zone

text: The sea floor of the abyssal zone consists of or is layered by different materials depending on the depth of the sea floor. If the seafloor is around 4000m below sea level, the seafloor usually consists of calcareous shells of foraminifera zooplankton and phytoplankton. At depths greater than 4000m below sea level, the seafloor lacks these shells, as they dissolve once they reach a depth greater than 4000m. This leaves behind a seafloor consisting mostly of brown clay and the remaining silica from dead zooplankton and phytoplankton. In some areas of this zone, organisms are able to sustain themselves off the products of hydrothermal vents. Some bacterial species use the vents to create and use chemical energy to produce food. For example, many of these organisms convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfate to produce chemical energy. They use that energy to synthesize the carbon-based compounds they use as food. These organisms are then preyed upon by other organisms, meaning that the bacteria can also take the place of plants as part of the bedrock for this ecosystem.


title: Abyssal zone

text: Organisms that live at this depth have had to evolve to overcome challenges provided by the abyssal zone. Fish and invertebrates had to evolve to withstand the sheer cold and intense pressure found at this level. They also had to not only find ways to hunt and survive in constant darkness but to thrive in an ecosystem that has less oxygen and biomass, energy sources or prey items, than the upper zones. To survive in a region with so few resources and low temperatures, many fish and other organisms developed a much slower metabolism and require much less oxygen than those in upper zones. Many animals also move very slowly to conserve energy. Their reproduction rates are also very slow, to decrease competition and conserve energy. Animals here typically have flexible stomachs and mouths so that when scarce food items are found they can consume as much as possible.


title: Abyssal zone

text: Other challenges faced by life in the abyssal zone are the pressure and darkness caused by the zone’s depth. Many organisms living in this zone have evolved to minimize internal air spaces, such as swim bladders. This adaptation helps to protect them from the extreme pressure, which can reach around 75 MPa (11,000 psi). The absence of light also spawned many different adaptations, such as having large eyes or the ability to produce their own light (bioluminescence). Large eyes would allow the detection and use of any light available, no matter how small. Commonly, animals in the abyssal zone are bioluminescent, producing blue light, because the blue wavelength of light is attenuated over greater travel distances than other wave lengths. Due to this lack of light, complex designs and bright colors are not needed. Most fish species have evolved to be transparent, red, or black so they better blend in with the darkness and don't waste energy on developing and maintaining bright or complex designs.


title: Abyssal zone

text: The abyssal zone is made up of many different types of organisms, including microorganisms, crustaceans, molluscan (bivalves, snails, and cephalopods), different classes of fishes, and possibly some animals that have yet to be discovered. Most of the fish species in this zone are characterized as demersal or benthopelagic fishes. Demersal fishes are a term that refers to fishes whose habitat is very close to (typically less than five meters) or on the seafloor. Most fish species fit into that classification because the seafloor contains most of the abyssal zone’s nutrients so the most complex food web or greatest biomass would be in this region of the zone.


title: Abyssal zone

text: For benthic organisms in the abyssal zone, species would need to have evolved morphological traits that could keep them out of oxygen-depleted water above the sea floor or a way to extract oxygen from the water above, but also, allow the animal access to the seafloor and the nutrients located there. There are also animals that spend their time in the upper portion of the abyssal zone, and even sometimes spending time in the zone directly above, the bathyal zone. While there are a number of different fish species representing many different groups and classes, like Actinopterygii or ray-finned fish, there are no known members of the class Chondrichthyes, animals such as sharks, rays, and chimaeras, that make the abyssal zone their primary or constant habitat. Whether this is due to the limited resources, energy availability, or other physiological constraints is unknown. Most Chondrichthyes species only go as deep as the bathyal zone.


title: Abyssal zone

text: As with all of the rest of the natural world climate change has negative effects. Due to the zone’s depth, increasing global temperatures do not affect it as quickly or drastically as the rest of the world, but the zone is still afflicted by ocean acidification. Along with climate change and ocean acidification, pollutants, such as plastics, are also present in this zone. Plastics are especially bad for the abyssal zone due to the fact that these organisms have evolved to eat or try to eat anything that moves or appears to be detritus, resulting in most organisms consuming plastics instead of nutrients. Both ocean acidification and pollution are decreasing the already small biomass that resides within the abyssal zone. Another problem caused by humans is overfishing. Even though no fishery can fish for organisms anywhere near the abyssal zone, they are still causing harm. The abyssal zone depends on dead organisms from the upper zones sinking to the seafloor, since their ecosystem lacks producers due to lack of sunlight. As fish and other animals are removed from the ocean, the frequency and amount of dead material reaching the abyssal zone decreases. A future problem for the abyssal zone could be deep sea mining operations. The talks and planning for this industry are already underway. This could be disastrous for this extremely fragile ecosystem since the ecological dangers from mining for deep sea minerals are many. Mining could increase the amount of pollution in not only the abyssal zone, but in the ocean as a whole, and would physically destroy habitats and the seafloor. This industry represents a looming threat to the abyssal zone and the rest of the ocean's inhabitants.


title: Frankish language

text: Frankish (reconstructed endonym: *), also known as Old Franconian or Old Frankish, was the West Germanic language spoken by the Franks from the 5th to 9th century.


title: Frankish language

text: After the Salian Franks settled in Roman Gaul, its speakers in Picardy and Île-de-France were outnumbered by the local populace who spoke Proto-Romance dialects. However, a number of modern French words and place names, including the eventual country's name of "France", have a Frankish (i.e. Germanic) origin. France itself is still known by terms literally meaning the "Frankish Realm" in languages such as German (), Yiddish ( ), Dutch (), the derived Afrikaans (), and Danish () as well as Swedish and Norwegian ().


title: Frankish language

text: Between the 5th and 9th centuries, Frankish spoken in Northwestern France, present-day Belgium and the Netherlands is subsequently referred to as Old Dutch, whereas the Frankish varieties spoken in the Rhineland were heavily influenced by Elbe Germanic dialects and the Second Germanic consonant shift and would form part of the modern Central Franconian and Rhine Franconian dialects of German and Luxembourgish.


title: Frankish language

text: The Old Frankish language is poorly attested and mostly reconstructed from Frankish loanwords in Old French, and from Old Dutch, as recorded in the 6th to 12th centuries. A notable exception is the Bergakker inscription, which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish.


title: Frankish language

text: Germanic philology and German studies have their origins in the first half of the 19th century when Romanticism and Romantic thought heavily influenced the lexicon of the linguists and philologists of the time, including pivotal figures such as the Brothers Grimm. As a result, many contemporary linguists tried to incorporate their findings in an already existing historical framework of "stem duchies" and (lit. "old tribes", i.e. the six Germanic tribes then thought to have formed the "German nation" in the traditional German nationalism of the elites) resulting in a taxonomy which spoke of "Bavarian", "Saxon", "Frisian", "Thuringian", "Swabian" and "Frankish" dialects. While this nomenclature became generally accepted in traditional Germanic philology, it has also been described as "inherently inaccurate" as these ancient ethnic boundaries (as understood in the 19th century) bore little or limited resemblance to the actual or historical linguistic situation of the Germanic languages. Among other problems, this traditional classification of the continental West Germanic dialects can suggest stronger ties between dialects than is linguistically warranted. The Franconian group is a well known example of this, with East Franconian being much more closely related to Bavarian dialects than it is to Dutch, which is traditionally placed in the Low Franconian sub-grouping and with which it was thought to have had a common, tribal origin.


title: Frankish language

text: In a modern linguistic context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and refers to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the High German consonant shift, which took place between 600 and 700 CE. After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Dutch not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so to varying degrees. As a result, the distinction between Old Dutch and Old Frankish is largely negligible, with Old Dutch (also called Old Low Franconian) being the term used to differentiate between the affected and non-affected variants following the aforementioned Second Germanic consonant shift.


title: Frankish language

text: The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, rendering some individual varieties difficult to classify.


title: Frankish language

text: The language spoken by the Franks was part of the West Germanic language group, which had features from Proto-Germanic in the late Jastorf culture (ca. 1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of phonological and morphological innovations not found in North and East Germanic. The West Germanic varieties of the time are generally split into three dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic), Istvaeonic (Weser-Rhine Germanic) and Irminonic (Elbe Germanic). While each had its own distinct characteristics, there certainly must have still been a high degree of mutual intelligibility between these dialects. In fact, it is unclear whether the West Germanic continuum of this time period, or indeed Franconian itself, should still be considered a single language or if it should be considered a collection of similar dialects.


title: Frankish language

text: In any case, it appears that the Frankish tribes, or the later Franks, fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group, with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest (still seen in modern Dutch), and more Irminonic (High German) influences towards the southeast.


title: Frankish language

text: The scholarly consensus concerning the Migration Period is that the Frankish identity emerged during the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller Germanic groups, including the Salii, Sicambri, Chamavi, Bructeri, Chatti, Chattuarii, Ampsivarii, Tencteri, Ubii, Batavi, and Tungri. It is speculated that these tribes originally spoke a range of related Istvaeonic dialects in the West Germanic branch of Proto-Germanic. Sometime in the 4th or 5th centuries, it becomes appropriate to speak of Old Franconian rather than an Istvaeonic dialect of Proto-Germanic.


title: Frankish language

text: Very little is known about what the language was like during this period. One older runic sentence (dating from around 425–450 AD) is on the sword sheath of Bergakker which is either the singular direct attestation of the Old Franconian language or the earliest attestation of Old Low Franconian (Old Dutch) language. Another early sentence from the early 6th century AD (that is described as the earliest sentence in Old Dutch as well) is found in the Lex Salica. This phrase was used to free a serf:


title: Frankish language

text: During this early period, the Franks were divided politically and geographically into two groups: the Salian Franks and the Ripuarian Franks. The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Salian Franks during this period is sometimes referred to as early "Old Low Franconian", and consisted of two groups: "Old West Low Franconian" and "Old East Low Franconian". The language (or set of dialects) spoken by the Ripuarian Franks are referred to just as Old Franconian dialects (or, by some, as Old Frankish dialects).