title: Anthony Geary

text: Anthony Geary was born May 29, 1947, in Coalville, Utah, a son of a contractor father and homemaker mother.


title: Anthony Geary

text: Geary made his first appearance on television in an episode of "Room 222" and later appeared in "All in the Family", "The Mod Squad", "Mannix", "Marcus Welby, M.D.", "The Streets of San Francisco", and "Barnaby Jones". Geary's first daytime role was in NBC soap opera "Bright Promise" from 1971 to 1972.


title: Anthony Geary

text: He played George Curtis, who was a rapist, in "The Young and the Restless" and in 1978 was hired for a 13-week story arc to play Luke Spencer in ABC soap "General Hospital". Luke Spencer began as a hit man and later became a rapist who fell in love with and subsequently married his victim, Laura Webber (played by Genie Francis). His portrayal of Luke Spencer on "General Hospital" was well received and grew into a full contract role. The 1981 on-screen wedding of his character and Laura Webber holds the record as the highest-rated soap opera episode of all time.


title: Anthony Geary

text: He holds the distinction of winning a record eight Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. He was first nominated in 1980 and had his first win in 1982. Geary was nominated again in 1983, before leaving the show in 1984. Over the next several years he took roles in various theater and television productions, as well as in several films, but not at the level of success he had hoped for. Despite the popularity of his work as Luke Spencer, filmmakers such as Oliver Stone pigeonholed Geary based solely on the fact that he was a "soap actor". In a conscious effort to distance himself from "General Hospital", he actively sought a role in "Weird Al" Yankovic's film debut "UHF" (1989), that of the quietly eccentric scientist Philo (named for television pioneer Philo Farnsworth). Geary, a fan of Yankovic, went so far as to grow his hair out like Albert Einstein's and stay in character as Philo when meeting the film's casting team; he immediately landed the role.


title: Anthony Geary

text: In 1991, Geary returned to "General Hospital" as Luke's cousin and look-alike Bill Eckert, due to the actor's desire to play someone other than Luke. However, due to poor feedback from the viewing public, the character was killed off and Geary resumed the role of Luke in 1993. Tony appeared in more than 50 stage plays, including an award-winning one-man show titled Human Scratchings in 1996. He was nominated in 1997 and 1998 for Daytime Emmys for Outstanding Lead Actor, and had his second win in 1999, and his third in 2000. He received another nomination in 2003, and had his fourth win in 2004. When Geary won for the fifth time in 2006, he set the record for the most lead actor wins. Geary received another Emmy nomination in 2007, and in 2008, he again set a record for most lead actor wins with his sixth Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actor.


title: Anthony Geary

text: Geary set a record in 2012 with his seventh Daytime Emmy win and again in 2015 for his eighth win for Outstanding Leading Actor in a Drama Series after 16 nominations for the same role of General Hospital's Luke Spencer. Geary publicly announced on Friday, May 8, 2015, that he would be leaving his role on "General Hospital". Geary finished taping his last scenes on the "General Hospital" set on June 23, 2015. His last air date was July 27, 2015. He later made a cameo appearance on a May 2017 episode to facilitate the retirement of co-star and former on-screen wife Tracy (played by Jane Elliot).


title: Anthony Geary

text: An exception to his series of dramatic roles is the part of a scientist/studio engineer in the comedy movie "UHF". He also appeared in 1987's "Disorderlies", with rappers the Fat Boys.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael Pereira da Silva (; born 9 July 1990), commonly known as Rafael or Rafael da Silva, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays for Campeonato Brasileiro Série A club Botafogo. He normally plays as a right-back, but can also play on the right side of midfield. He and his twin brother, Fábio, began their careers with Fluminense before joining Manchester United in January 2008. After seven years in England that included three Premier League titles, Rafael joined Lyon in August 2015 for a fee of up to £2.5 million.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael has two caps for Brazil, having made his debut in a 3–1 victory over Denmark on 26 May 2012. He has also played for Brazil at under-17 level and was part of the silver medal-winning under-23 side at the 2012 Summer Olympics.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael was born in Petrópolis, approximately one hour's drive away from Rio de Janeiro in Rio de Janeiro state, and began playing football from the age of five. He began his career with amateur side Boa Esperança, playing as a striker. He and his identical twin, Fábio, were then spotted by a representative of Fluminense playing five-a-side in their neighbourhood; he invited them to join the club and they began living there when they were 11 years old.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Upon joining Fluminense, Rafael was converted to play at full-back by the youth team coach. The club then took part in the 2005 Nike Premier Cup in Hong Kong, where Rafael was spotted by Manchester United scout Les Kershaw, who remarked that the twins reminded him of "two little whippets". Kershaw then telephoned Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson and recommended that the club sign the Silva twins. Manchester United got in touch with Fluminense and asked permission for the twins to travel to Manchester to train with them in 2005. Shortly afterwards, a scout claiming to represent Arsenal visited the twins and asked them to come to England to train with Arsenal without the permission of Fluminense; however, they were dissuaded from this by their mother, who reminded them that they had been with Fluminense since they were 11, and that they should show the club some loyalty. Therefore, they decided to sign for Manchester United over Arsenal, and the two clubs agreed a deal in February 2007; the twins moved to Manchester in January 2008 without ever having played for the Fluminense first team.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: The twins decided to sign for Manchester United, and a deal was agreed between the two clubs in February 2007. The twins moved to Manchester in January 2008, but were unable to play in matches until they turned 18 in July 2008. Rafael made his first appearance for the club in a 2–0 friendly win over Peterborough United on 4 August. Rafael was then registered in the club's senior squad for the 2008–09 season and was assigned the number 21 shirt. Rafael made his competitive debut for Manchester United on the opening day of the 2008–09 Premier League season, replacing Fraizer Campbell in their 1–1 home draw against Newcastle United on 17 August.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael's first start for Manchester United came on 23 September in their 3–1 home victory over Middlesbrough in the Third Round of the League Cup. Rafael made first start in European competition in United's 3–0 away win over Aalborg BK in the UEFA Champions League on 30 September. Rafael made his first Premier League start in Manchester United's 4–0 home win over West Bromwich Albion on 18 October. On 8 November, Rafael scored his first goal for Manchester United, netting a 90th minute consolation goal in a 2–1 defeat to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. On 19 April 2009, in the FA Cup semi-final against Everton, Rafael and his twin brother Fábio started a match together for Manchester United for the first time. United, however, lost the match 4–2 on penalties. At the end of Rafael's first professional season, he and his Manchester United teammate Jonny Evans were shortlisted as nominees for the PFA Young Player of the Year award. The two of them, however, were beaten to the award by Aston Villa's Ashley Young. In recognition of his successful first season in English football, Rafael was handed a two-year extension to his Manchester United contract, tying him to the club until 2013.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 27 October 2009, Fábio, Rafael's twin brother, was booked for a foul committed by Rafael in United's 2–0 League Cup victory over Barnsley. Manchester United appealed and The FA agreed it was a case of mistaken identity, transferring the card over to Rafael. On 30 December, Rafael scored the second goal of his Manchester United career and the first at Old Trafford in a 5–0 league win over Wigan Athletic. On 7 April 2010, Rafael was sent off for the first time in his United career, receiving two yellow cards either side of half-time against Bayern Munich in the second leg of the Champions League quarter-final tie. Despite United winning the game, they were eliminated from the competition due to the away goals rule when the aggregate score was 4–4. Despite this red card, Sir Alex Ferguson praised Rafael for his performance and stated that "he absolutely dominated Franck Ribéry".


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 16 January 2011, Rafael was sent off for a second occasion, collecting two bookings in a 0–0 league draw against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. Rafael received an £8,000 fine and a warning about his future conduct by The FA following his red card. Rafael suffered a concussion in United's 3–2 away victory over Blackpool on 25 January, the match following his one-game ban, and was taken to hospital for X-rays before later being released. Rafael collided with Blackpool's Marlon Harewood during the second half, which resulted in ten minutes of stoppage time, and forced Rafael out of United's FA Cup tie away to Southampton on 29 January.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael made his first competitive start of the season since the Community Shield victory back in August against Crystal Palace in the League Cup on 20 November 2011, a game which United lost 2–1 in extra time. On 31 December, Rafael started his first league game of the season against Blackburn Rovers, playing in an unusual defensive midfield role with Park Ji-sung before moving to right-back for the second half. He was later replaced by Will Keane in the 85th minute.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 2 July 2012, Rafael signed a new four-year contract to keep him at the club until 2016. For the 2012–13 season, he was given the number 2 shirt, previously worn by Gary Neville, who retired in 2011. After missing the opening game of the season, he returned to play against Fulham on 25 August 2012, and scored United's third goal (and his third for the club) in a 3–2 win. On 23 September 2012, Rafael scored the equalising goal in a 1–2 United win at Anfield over Liverpool. After receiving a layoff from Shinji Kagawa, he cut inside onto his left foot and curled a shot past Pepe Reina and into the top corner. On 23 October 2012, Rafael made his 100th appearance for United in a 3–2 win over Portuguese side Braga. On 23 February 2013, Rafael scored United's first goal in a 2–0 league win away to Queens Park Rangers, hitting the ball on the half-volley from 25 yards out, through a crowd of players and into the top corner of the goal. On 5 May, Rafael was sent off against Chelsea for a challenge on David Luiz.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 27 September 2014, Rafael was named man of the match for his performance in the 2–1 victory over West Ham United.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 8 September 2020, Turkish club İstanbul Başakşehir announced the signing of Rafael on a free transfer, on a two-year contract with the option of a third year.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: On 8 September 2021, Rafael joined Brazilian club Botafogo on a two-and-a-half-year contract. He and his twin brother Fábio supported the club when they were young.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael played for Brazil's national under-17 team at the 2007 FIFA U-17 World Cup in South Korea. He was approached by Portugal national team head coach Carlos Queiroz and asked to play for Portugal's senior side, as both Rafael and Fábio hold Portuguese citizenship. Rafael indicated a willingness to take Queiroz up on his offer if he did not end up playing for Brazil, while Fábio remained set on playing for Brazil. On 26 July 2010, Rafael was called up to the Brazilian senior team for the first time, as he was included in new coach Mano Menezes' first squad for their friendly against the United States on 10 August.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael was originally left out of the Brazil squad for their friendlies in May and June 2012, but was later called up to replace the injured Dani Alves. Porto right back Danilo was selected ahead of Rafael for the game against Denmark on 26 May, but he did eventually come on as a substitute to make his senior international debut. On 26 July 2012, Rafael scored Brazil under-23's first goal at the 2012 Olympics in a 3–2 victory over Egypt. In December 2013, "The Times" reported that he had considered representing England at international level, however he decided against it. He was not eligible for England as he had earlier represented Brazil in 2007 at U17 level in a FIFA-recognised "official competition", meaning that the only national teams he could choose between would be Brazil and Portugal, the nations he was eligible to represent at the time he played in the 2007 South American Under-17 Football Championship.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Along with his brother Fábio, Rafael has been praised for his energetic style, and has been described as an "excellent footballer" by Sir Alex Ferguson. Les Kershaw, the former Manchester United academy manager who spotted them, described the pair as being like "two little whippets", praising how "when they got knocked down, they just got straight back up again and got on with it. They were like bouncing balls... very, very quick". "The Times" has called them "Brazil's answer to the Neville brothers (Gary and Phil Neville)".


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael's twin brother Fábio is also a professional footballer; both twins signed for Manchester United at the same time in 2008. The twins' elder brother, Luiz Henrique Pereira da Silva, used to play for América-MG in Brazil and Brescia in Italy, but moved with his wife to England when the twins signed for Manchester United. After a six-week wait for international clearance, Luiz Henrique signed for Radcliffe Borough, but he and his wife returned to Brazil in early 2009 in preparation for the birth of their child, where he returned to England few months later.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Despite starting their careers at Fluminense, both Fábio and Rafael are actually supporters of their local rivals Botafogo.


title: Rafael (footballer, born 1990)

text: Rafael is married to Carla. On 4 January 2012, the couple had their first child, a girl named Eduarda.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Stewart International Airport, officially New York Stewart International Airport , is a public/military airport in Orange County, New York, United States. It is in the southern Hudson Valley, west of Newburgh, south of Kingston, and southwest of Poughkeepsie, approximately north of Manhattan, New York City. The airport is located within the towns of Newburgh and New Windsor. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, in which it is categorized as a non-hub primary commercial service facility.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Developed in the 1930s as a military base to allow cadets at the nearby United States Military Academy at West Point to learn aviation, it has grown into a significant passenger airport for the mid-Hudson region and continues as a military airfield, housing the 105th Airlift Wing of the New York Air National Guard and Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 452 (VMGR-452) of the United States Marine Corps Reserve. The Space Shuttle could have landed at Stewart in an emergency.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: After its closure as a U.S. Air Force base in the 1970, an ambitious plan by Governor Nelson Rockefeller to expand and develop the airport led to a protracted struggle with local landowners that led to reforms in the state's eminent domain laws but no actual development of the land acquired. In 1981 the 52 American hostages held in Iran made their return to American soil at Stewart.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 2000 the airport became the first U.S. commercial airport privatized when United Kingdom-based National Express was awarded a 99-year lease on the airport. After postponing its plans to change the facility's name after considerable local opposition, it sold the rights to the airport seven years later; the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey board voted to acquire the remaining 93 years of the lease and later awarded AFCO AvPorts the contract to operate the facility. The Port Authority rebranded the airport as New York Stewart International Airport in 2018 to emphasize its proximity to New York City.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 1930 Thomas "Archie" Stewart, an early aviation enthusiast and descendant of prominent local dairy farmer Lachlan Stewart, convinced his uncle Samuel Stewart to donate "Stoney Lonesome", split between the towns of Newburgh and New Windsor, to the nearby city of Newburgh for use as an airport. With the city strapped for cash due to the Depression, however, it was unable to develop it in any way.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 1934 Douglas MacArthur, then superintendent of the United States Military Academy, proposed flight training cadets at the airport. The city sold the land to the military academy for one dollar. A small dirt airstrip was cleared and graded. One of the gates at USMA has been known as Stoney Lonesome Gate ever since.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: During World War II many barracks and other buildings, which still stand, were built on the base. In January 2008, the Town of New Windsor received a $2.5 million grant from the state to demolish 30–40 buildings as part of the redevelopment of the former base. First Columbia, the developer, said that 20–30 could be retained and reused.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: After the creation of the United States Air Force following World War II, the army airfield was converted to an air force base while still being used for training of cadets at West Point. Stewart became the home of Headquarters 1st Region Army Air Defense Command in 1966. It remained so until the deactivation of the Nike Hercules system at the end of 1974. The air force base was deactivated in 1970 and it officially remained unoccupied by the Air Force until 1983 when the 105th Airlift Wing (105 AW) and the 213th Engineer Installation Squadron (213 EIS) of the New York Air National Guard took up quarters. The Air National Guard unit has flown support missions not only for U.S. military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan but also for humanitarian relief efforts.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: This area of the airport, now called Stewart Air National Guard Base, was home to the Air Force C-5 Galaxy aircraft before being replaced by the newer and smaller C-17 Globemaster III in 2011. Stewart ANGB also hosts VMGR-452, a Marine Corps Reserve squadron flying the KC-130J.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In the early 1970s, Governor Nelson Rockefeller's administration saw the potential for Stewart to support the metropolitan area. Its long runway made it particularly attractive for intercontinental service via supersonic transport (SST), then under development in the U.S. and elsewhere.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The Metropolitan Transportation Authority was the first government body to try to convert it into the New York metropolitan area's fourth major airport. It tripled the airport's territory, extending its land well beyond its previous western boundary at Drury Lane, a two-lane rural road. The state government used its eminent domain powers to take 7,500 acres (30 km) for terminals, runways and a buffer zone expanding the airport from Newburgh into neighboring towns of Montgomery and a small portion of Hamptonburgh. The land was bounded by I-84 to the north, Route 207 along the south and roughly by Rock Tavern and Maybrook in the west.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Area residents who were already fighting a large power plant proposal at nearby Storm King Mountain fiercely fought the expansion. They took the state to court, ultimately forcing the legislature to write and pass the New York State Eminent Domain Procedure Act, a sweeping overhaul of its existing law on the subject. In order to get the last holdouts off their land, state officials pledged that outside the proposed airport facilities, none of the land taken would ever be redeveloped, a promise that was to haunt them years later.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: By the time the land was finally available, the 1973 oil crisis and the attendant increase in the price of jet fuel had forced airlines to cut back, and some of the airport's original backers began arguing it was no longer economically viable. US SST development was canceled in 1971, undercutting another argument for the project. Malcolm Wilson, Rockefeller's successor, put the project on hold; and his successor, Hugh Carey, ended it permanently in 1976.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In early 1981, the 52 U.S. hostages held at the former U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran, returned to American soil there following two weeks at U.S. bases in Germany and 444 days of captivity, ending the Iran hostage crisis. The route they took from there to West Point is marked today as "Freedom Road."


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The next year the state transferred control from MTA to its own Department of Transportation (NYSDOT), with a mandate to improve and develop the airport. Three years later W.R. Grace became the first private tenant when it built a corporate jet hangar, and the following year an industrial park was built nearby. Finally, in 1990, commercial airline service began with American Airlines offering service with three daily round trips to both Chicago and Raleigh/Durham.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: As the 1980s wore on, veterans of earlier battles over Stewart returned to start new ones. NYSDOT and the Stewart Airport Commission found themselves overseeing not only the airport but the acres of now-vacant land the state had acquired a decade before. After turning over management of most of the property to the state's Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), which was better equipped for the task, it still faced the problem of what to do with the land.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The region's needs had changed. With IBM and other large industrial concerns cutting workers and closing plants, and people leaving, a large swath of buildable land with few environmental problems was seen by many in the local business community as a goose's golden egg. It couldn't be a sprawling airport, but it could be something else, they thought.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: But those people who remained or moved up from more crowded areas to the south had begun to enjoy the outdoor recreation possibilities the lands, referred to variously as the Stewart Properties or the buffer, offered. Mountain bikers, horses, dirt bikers, ATVers, and hikers had all begun to explore and create trails, and DEC's management opened up the area as a popular spot for local hunters and anglers. DEC had also released captured beavers on the properties, who built dams and created new wetlands.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: One local hunter, Ben Kissam, formed the Stewart Park and Reserve Coalition (SPARC) in 1987 to oppose efforts to develop the lands. They and other environmentalists and conservationists argued that the whole area would be better off left as a park, pointing to the growing diversity of species on the lands and the state's original promise not to redevelop the area. They were joined, too, by some area residents who said that the existing air traffic, particularly the military


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Also generating a lot of noise was the continuing debate in Orange County about what to do with the land, with participants' choice of words ("buffer" vs. "properties") suggesting where they stood, and interpretations differing about just how much of the land was really meant to serve as a buffer.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The administration of Mario Cuomo tried several times to come up with a plan that would balance these interests, but failed. As one of its last acts, it started a renovation of the passenger terminal using a federal grant.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: SWF had occasionally had scheduled air-taxi service, but in April 1990 American Airlines arrived with three Boeing 727-200 nonstops a day to Chicago and three more to their new hub in Raleigh–Durham. Nonstop flights to Dallas Fort/Worth were later added as well. Jet nonstops to Atlanta (Delta) and Pittsburgh (USAir) appeared in the next couple of years; Delta later added Cincinnati and USAir tried Baltimore.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 1994 George Pataki campaigned on improving efficiencies by privatizing money-losing state projects. Ronald Lauder, who had written a book about European successes in privatizations, suggested Stewart be privatized. Pataki created the New York State Council on Privatization and appointed Lauder its chair.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Federal law at the time required that all airports providing passenger service had to be owned by some public entity. With much support from the New York delegation, the United States Congress eventually passed legislation allowing five airports to be privatized as a pilot program, providing certain conditions, such as approval by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and by the carriers representing at least two-thirds of the airport's flights.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 1997 the state formally began, through the Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC), the process of soliciting bids for a 99-year lease on the airport and, potentially, the adjacent undeveloped lands as well, whatever bidders wanted. Efforts by SPARC, now headed by Kissam's widow Sandra, and other citizen activists to find out about who might be bidding and what they planned to do with Stewart were blocked by the state's invocation of a clause in its State Finance Law prohibiting disclosure of competitive bids prior to the award of the contract, an interpretation that survived a court challenge.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Two years later, after approval by the state's attorney general and comptroller as well as the FAA and the carriers, the contract was awarded to the UK-based National Express PLC, the only one of five bidders to have declined to present at a special forum organized a week prior to award, and also a company Lauder had praised in his book for its success with the UK's national bus service and subsequent acquisition of East Midlands Airport, leading to some suspicions that the state had always intended to give them the airport from the beginning. NEG (National Express Group) was prepared to pay $35 million for the lease, and after working out the details Pataki handed over a ceremonial key at the passenger terminal in late 2000.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The award also ended, for the most part, the controversy over whether to develop the properties or not. NEG was uninterested in the lands west of Drury Lane, and Pataki announced with the privatization deal that he was directing that ownership as well as management of 5,600 acres (22.4 km) of the lands west of an envelope DOT retained around Drury for possible future development or disposal be transferred directly to DEC, which has since made that portion Stewart State Forest.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Stewart was one of the many regional airports to be used during the Emergency Ground Stop after the September 11th Attacks, taking in dozens of planes forced to land.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Simultaneously with the privatization, the state proceeded with long-held plans to build a new interchange on Interstate 84 at Drury Lane, which would also be widened. A four-lane east–west access road, International Boulevard, would also be created to better solve the airport's longstanding access problems (see below). Conveniently, the initial price tag, $35 million, was exactly the amount bid by National Express. The new exit, designated 5A, was opened in the fourth quarter of 2007. The new north–south route is now designated Route 747.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Another complication emerged due to the proximity of the Catskill Aqueduct of New York City's water supply system to the exit; a proposed widening of Drury between the interstate and Route 17K would have required that a bridge be built over the aqueduct to protect it from the vibrations associated with heavy trucks, adding to the cost of the whole project. An alternative emerged during a value-engineering study of simply rerouting Drury to create another four-way intersection further down 17K, which was ultimately done.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Whether the properties along Drury could even be developed in any measure remains to be seen, as a good portion of that parcel is either wetlands or a trapezoid-shaped Runway Protection Zone in which the FAA mandates that nothing be built, and the remainder is land considered by conservationists to be the best land in the properties.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: SPARC, the Orange County Federation of Sportsmen's Clubs and the national Sierra Club filed a lawsuit in federal court alleging that required environmental reviews were not done or done improperly; that action tied up the exit's construction for a while. In March 2005, an area slated for wetlands mitigation under the plans was found to harbor purple milkweed, a Species of Special Concern on the National Heritage Program's rare plant list. SPARC and its co-plaintiffs sought an injunction against further action such as the consideration of bids, yet that went ahead anyway.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The controversy was settled by a deal announced on November 21 of that year. SPARC accepted a compromise where in exchange for the construction of the exit and access road 1,700 acres (6.8 km) of the remaining buffer lands would be added to the forest and restrictions would be imposed on development of the remaining 400 acres (1.6 km) in the northeast corner of the properties, near the exit.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In July 2006, the state formally transferred ownership of the state forest from DOT to DEC, ending the process of creating Stewart State Forest. Orange County was not thrilled with the state's decision to charge it $3.7 million for the area near the exit, saying that it was too much on top of the costs it would incur putting in infrastructure. DOT says it's just asking fair market value for the land.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: NEG's marketing initiatives included several proposed new names for the airport to emphasize its proximity to the city. The last one, in 2006, which would have dropped the "Stewart" name entirely, met with local opposition and was ultimately dropped.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Stewart has a limited selection of flights available and is relatively uncrowded most of the day. Some tenants have moved into nearby former military buildings, but most remain as unoccupied as they were the day the base was closed down. It has drawn some passengers from western Connecticut who might otherwise have flown out of Hartford. But most of the fliers within Stewart's catchment area have continued to prefer Albany International Airport, Newark or other metropolitan airports.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Delta pulled out of the airport shortly after the privatization announcement, ostensibly to better serve new routes it had won to Latin America, leaving it to codeshare partners Comair and ASA. Even one of the "tourist draws" for the airport evaporated in 2003 when the Concorde was grounded. Its pilots had used the lengthy runway to practice touch-and-go landings.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: NEG's dealings with the state were not as harmonious as they were initially represented; documents made public by SPARC after the privatization was completed showed that there were many lingering issues between the two parties even at that time and that NEG had in fact considered breaking the deal at one point (as it would later ultimately do). The company has gone through some local management shuffles as well, and the parent corporation's sale of East Midlands, considered the example it would follow with Stewart, was a cause for concern in the region.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: While some local officials expressed disappointment, others saw NEG as getting out of the airport business entirely to concentrate on its core business in the bus and rail sectors. They hoped at first that another European company with experience running privatized airports would be interested, and industry analysts said the timing was good. Governor Eliot Spitzer promised area leaders that Stewart would be a top priority for his administration, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which runs the New York area's three main airports, expressed interest in assuming NEG's obligations. Allegiant Air pulled out of Stewart in early 2007 but later returned and currently serves the airport. Both AirTran Airways and JetBlue announced plans for service from Stewart in 2007. AirTran, which had previously served Newburgh in 1995, was subsequently acquired by and merged into Southwest Airlines, which in turn currently does not serve the airport.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On January 25, 2007, the Port Authority voted to buy the lease for Stewart. It took over operating control on November 1, 2007, after New Jersey's acting governor Richard Codey signed a bill the New Jersey Legislature had to pass, changing the law to allow the move. The PA will pay NEG $78.5 million for the remaining 93 years on its lease. The day after the takeover, an opening ceremony was held in which New York State Governor Eliot Spitzer attended and the Port Authority flag was raised. It has set aside $500 million in its ten-year capital improvement plan to expand the airport. After the takeover, law enforcement became the responsibility of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Although 2006's bad numbers may have led NEG to pull out, Stewart's commercial service seemed to be on the rise. Shortly after taking over, the PA reported that the airport's traffic for 2007 would be triple that of 2006. It was reported in January 2008 that Stewart had achieved its goal and had handled 970,000 passengers in 2007.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: A 2007 plan envisioned changing Stewart's image over the next 20 years: major renovations such as a new terminal, a train station next to the new terminal connecting the airport to Metro North via a new spur from the Port Jervis Line, a extension of runway 16–34, new taxiways, and a major expansion of the cargo facilities. A new control tower has been built. In the fourth quarter of 2007 Interstate 84's new Drury Lane exit, NY Route 747, and International Boulevard opened.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In addition to commercial and passenger services, Stewart excels in many other areas not seen by the public. NEG had some success selling private helicopter shuttle service to midtown Manhattan's heliports to business travelers from Stewart at rates competitive with those offered from JFK Airport; it also remains a popular place to service corporate jets due to the large space available.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Cargo services are also part of the mix – FedEx Express maintains a large distribution presence just outside the airport, as does the U.S. Postal Service, whose main general-mail facility for the mid-Hudson region is not far away. Importers of plant and animal products also route their flights to Stewart and the USDA inspection facility for those is nearby, on Drury Lane.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 2005, the airport was used to transport emergency personnel and supplies to help the cleanup after the destruction of Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the Gulf Coast.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: With its long runway, Stewart bills itself as an "efficient diversion airport" for aircraft intending to land at one of the three major New York City airports (Newark, LaGuardia, and JFK), especially during bad weather. The largest such diversion occurred during the January 2018 blizzard, when a Singapore Airlines Airbus A380 on a Frankfurt-JFK flight diverted to Stewart after JFK closed. While the airport's runways are sufficiently long to allow such a large aircraft to land and take off, the plane was so large it could not use any of the terminal building's gates. Passengers had to leave the plane using stairs, and were transported to New York City by bus.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: American Airlines, which had served Stewart since 1990, ended American Eagle regional jet service to Chicago O'Hare International Airport on September 5, 2007. In 1991, American was operating up to five mainline departures a day nonstop to Chicago O'Hare with Boeing 727-200 jetliners.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The Port Authority sees Stewart as offering relief to those airports and (especially) Teterboro, estimating it could handle five times its present passenger volume. It will probably follow its standard procedure and contract the actual operations of the airport out.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In February 2008, the PA's new general manager, Diannae Ehler, said she had been discussing the possibility of foreign flights with a number of European carriers. She felt encouraged and hoped that by 2009 there could be regular passenger service between Stewart and some European destinations.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In September 2010, it was announced that Apple Vacations would begin non-stop charter service to Cancún. Flights are operated by Allegiant Air.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On August 20, 2013, Allegiant Air announced that it would be returning to Stewart with new flights to St. Petersburg/Clearwater after leaving the airport in 2007. Flights began on October 31, 2013.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In May 2015, the Port Authority announced it was considering changing the airport's name to "New York International Airport at Stewart Field." Its stated rationale was to give the airport "global status," to ensure that its name appears higher in Internet searches done by travelers abroad, in keeping with the business model followed by many low-cost European airlines of flying into less busy airports further from the cities they serve in order to keep expenses down. Many local residents were cool to the idea, since the Stewart family name has a long history with the airport and the PA had promised it would never change the name when it took over.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On December 5, 2016, General Manager Edmond Harrison announced that Norwegian Air Shuttle planned to set up a base at Stewart for flights to Europe using its Irish subsidiary. The first international flight departed for Edinburgh on June 15, 2017. On September 14, 2019, Norwegian Air Shuttle ended service.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: By 2020, American Eagle had reduced service to one daily flight to Philadelphia. This flight was suspended on October 7, 2020, was resumed on January 5, 2021, then ended on September 30, 2021.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On September 30, 2021, about two years after the low cost long haul flights operated by Norwegian Air Shuttle ended, a new European carrier - Norse Atlantic Airways - announced it would operate flights from Europe to Stewart by the first quarters of 2022. Later, however, the airline announced that they would begin flights to JFK instead of Stewart.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On June 9, 2022, Icelandic airline Play began a daily service to Keflavik with connections to other European destinations.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: New York Stewart International Airport covers 1,552 acres (628 ha) at an elevation of 491 feet (150 m) above mean sea level. It has two asphalt runways and one helipad.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: The east–west runway 9–27 is long by wide, but the landing threshold at each end is displaced . Aircraft landing to the east have a landing distance available restriction, an additional reduction in length, making only usable for landing. Runway 27 has available for landing. The full length is available for takeoff in both directions. Runway 9 has an instrument landing system for category I and category II approaches and an ALSF2 approach lighting system. Runway 27 got an instrument landing system in recent years, but without any approach lighting landing minimums for this runway are higher.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: For the 12-month period ending November 30, 2017 the airport had 47,081 aircraft operations, an average of 129 per day: 54% general aviation, 18% air taxi, 17% military, and 10% scheduled commercial. In June 2018, 85 aircraft were then based at this airport: 43 jet, 3 multi-engine, 27 military, 5 single-engine, and 7 helicopter.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 392,464 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 197,655 in 2009 and 201,684 in 2010.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: One of the biggest impediments to the use of Stewart by more airlines and passengers has been getting to it. The Drury Lane exit and the access road, International Boulevard, are intended to remedy this.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: There have been plans to possibly implement a light rail connection along Broadway in Newburgh that could conceivably go out to Stewart from the ferry connection with the Metro-North passenger line across the Hudson River in Beacon. This project does not appear likely to happen any time soon. Currently, the only connection is via a shuttle bus.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In 2006, with construction of the Drury Lane exit underway, Senator Charles Schumer put his weight behind getting federal aid for another long-discussed access improvement: a rail link to the nearby Metro-North Port Jervis Line, to give passengers an express train trip from the airport into the city or Newark Airport via Secaucus Junction. This would entail acquiring property and laying new tracks, to link to the existing line somewhere near the Salisbury Mills station. NEG had had success with the similar Gatwick Express and Midland Mainline rail-air connections in its native Britain. While the federal government has approved the idea, the money has not yet been appropriated.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Starting in June 2017, to support Norwegian's growth in making the airport a terminal for visitors to New York City, Coach USA began providing a bus service between the airport and Port Authority Bus Terminal in Manhattan. This service is operating under the name "Stewart Airport Express."


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On the morning of August 20, 1987, an Emery Worldwide (operating as Rosenbalm Aviation Flight 74) Douglas DC-8-63 collided with Airborne Express Flight 124, operated by a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31, on Runway 09/27 in fog. The Emery airplane landed without first receiving clearance while the Airborne Express plane, which had landed just prior to the DC-8, was taxiing on the runway. Both aircraft were repaired and returned to service.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: In the early-morning hours of September 5, 1996, the pilots of Federal Express Flight 1406, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 from Memphis to Boston reported smoke in the cargo compartment and made an emergency landing at Stewart to fight the fire. All five crewmembers escaped with only minor injuries but, despite a prompt effort by the firefighting teams from the ANG base (which also handle the civilian airport's fire protection needs) the fire completely consumed the aircraft. Two years later, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) traced the source of the fire to an area where some flammables had been stored but could not pin down exactly which had combusted, and faulted the captain for failing to get full information on potentially hazardous materials being shipped.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: Early on the morning of November 21, 2007, a single-engine Cirrus piloted by Brian Early of Wayne, Pennsylvania, got lost in the fog on its approach and crashed in the state forest. He had been dropping off his two passengers, a son and one of his friends, to visit friends of theirs at West Point for Thanksgiving. It took rescuers three hours to find the wreckage using the plane's transponder. Early was killed but the younger men survived.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: A small aerobatic plane crashed at the airport August 28, 2015, killing the pilot, who was practicing stunts at Stewart for the two-day New York Air Show that was to be held there starting the following day. The two-seater single-engine fixed-wing Giles G-202, a homebuilt aircraft, assembled from a kit, was completing dramatic climbs and dives as a crowd of mostly journalists watched below. Around 2 p.m., as the pilot went into a dive followed by a steep corkscrew climb, part of the tail appeared to break off, witnesses said and photographs indicated. The plane then crossed the crowd line and spun over the heads of spectators, crashing in a wooded area behind the crowd. The pilot, the plane's only occupant, was identified as the plane's owner, Andrew Wright of Austin, Texas. The National Transportation Safety Board and the New York State Police were to investigate to determine the crash's probable cause, the state police and Federal Aviation Administration said. The NTSB determined that the resin bond between two parts had failed under stress after repeated aileron rolls. Examination of the bond between the horizontal stabilizer and the flange that attached it to the left side of the fuselage revealed that a portion had a poor bond, with the resin inadequately transferring between the two surfaces. The accident was compared to a similar event in France on the same type of aircraft. As a result of these accidents, the Giles' designer specified several new procedures for aircraft flight handling and inspection.


title: Stewart International Airport

text: On August 21, 2018, a Gulfstream IV carrying musician Post Malone and 15 other people made a successful precautionary landing after two main tires blew during takeoff from Teterboro Airport. After circling Teterboro for nearly an hour, in hopes of making an emergency landing, the plane was diverted to Westfield-Barnes Regional Airport in western Massachusetts where it once again circled the airspace, burning fuel before its descent attempt in order to lighten the plane's weight. Once again, the plane was diverted to Stewart International Airport due to Stewart being equipped with longer runways, meaning pilots would not need to engage reverse thrusters or spoilers, thereby lessening the weight on the landing gear and the plane's remaining tires. Ultimately, the plane landed on Runway 9, which is nearly double the length of the longest runway at Teterboro Airport.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Lucian Lincoln "Lin" Wood Jr. (born October 19, 1952) is an American attorney and conspiracy theorist.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Following his graduation from law school in 1977, Wood worked as a personal injury lawyer, focusing on medical malpractice litigation. He became known as a "celebrity lawyer" specializing in defamation lawsuits. Wood first drew media attention in relation to his representation of Richard Jewell, the security guard falsely accused in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta in 1996. Wood's representation of Jewell helped transform him from a personal injury lawyer to a nationally known defamation lawyer.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In addition to representing Jewell, Wood has represented the family of JonBenét Ramsey and former U.S. representative Gary Condit in defamation suits. He was also hired by Republican political candidate Herman Cain to respond to allegations of sexual harassment.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: By 2020, Wood was frequently garnering attention through his promotion of conspiracy theories, both in his capacity as a lawyer and as a political commentator and social media personality. After Joe Biden won the presidential election, Wood promoted falsehoods and conspiracy theories on behalf of President Donald Trump, who he claimed actually won the election with 70% of the vote. Wood claimed that a secret cabal of international communists, Chinese intelligence, and Republican officials had contrived to steal the election from Trump. Sometimes in association with Trump's attorney Sidney Powell, Wood litigated on the president's behalf in many failed lawsuits, which sought to prevent the certification of legally cast ballots in the presidential election.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In the latter part of 2020, Wood's social media activities attracted considerable attention. Wood called for the imprisonment of Georgia Governor Brian Kemp and Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger, based on the conspiracy theory that the two Republican officials worked with the Chinese to help rig the vote for Biden. Wood made allegations against Chief Justice John Roberts reflecting QAnon conspiracy theories. He suggested that Vice President Mike Pence would "face execution by firing squad" and called for the arrest of then-Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, both for treason. Delaware Supreme Court Judge Craig A. Karsnitz revoked Wood's permission to appear "pro hac vice" before the Court, writing that there was "no doubt" that Wood's tweets were among the factors that incited the storming of the U.S. Capitol by a pro-Trump mob in January 2021.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In August 2021, U.S. District Judge Linda Parker formally sanctioned Wood, Powell and seven other pro-Trump lawyers for their suit seeking to overturn Trump's election loss. The court determined that the nine attorneys had participated in "a historic and profound abuse of the judicial process," namely filing a baseless, frivolous lawsuit in order to undermine public confidence in the democratic process. The court ordered Wood and the other lawyers to pay costs to the State of Michigan and City of Detroit for their expenses in defending against the lawsuit, and referred them to their respective state disciplinary authorities for possible disbarment for conduct violating the rules of ethics for attorneys. Wood is a 9/11 truther, claiming "no planes" hit the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001 and that the planes visible in the footage are "CGI." According to posts made on his social media, he believes the Earth is flat, writing "Is the Earth flat or is it a spinning ball??? The answer is found in the Holy Bible. Do the research. Connect the dots. Draw your own conclusion.".


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood was born in Raleigh, North Carolina and was raised in Macon, Georgia from the age of three. He stated that his family struggled financially, with frequent episodes of domestic abuse involving his parents. He has one sister, Diane Wood Stern, born February 1951, and a half-sister, Linda Martin, born in 1946. After a school dance, the then 16-year-old Wood returned home to find his father had beaten his mother to death. L. Lin Wood Sr. pleaded guilty to involuntary manslaughter, a charge reduced from first-degree murder. He served a little over two years in prison. Wood has stated that it was this experience that solidified his earlier decision to become a lawyer.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood lived with friends and graduated from Mark Smith High School in Macon, Georgia in 1970. He attended Mercer University, graduating "cum laude" in 1974, and Mercer University School of Law, graduating "cum laude" in 1977. He was admitted to the Georgia Bar. From 1977 to 1996, Wood litigated personal injury cases and medical malpractice cases in the State of Georgia.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Lin Wood rose to prominence after representing Richard Jewell, who was falsely accused of perpetrating the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta, and he subsequently represented clients in high-profile defamation cases.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood's first libel and defamation client was Richard Jewell, the security guard accused in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta in 1996. Wood sued a number of media outlets, as well as Jewell's employer. Wood reached monetary settlements from Jewell's employer, CNN, and NBC, while "Time" published a clarification, but paid no settlement. In 2012, after fifteen years of litigation, the Georgia Supreme Court upheld trial court decisions ruling against Jewell in his libel suit against the Atlanta Journal-Constitution.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Jewell was quickly followed by other high-profile cases, including John and Patsy Ramsey, the parents of JonBenét Ramsey, whose 1996 murder is still unsolved. Wood represented John and Patsy Ramsey and their son Burke, pursuing defamation claims on their behalf against St. Martin's Press, Time Inc., The Fox News Channel, American Media, Inc., "Star", "The Globe", Court TV and "The New York Post". The lawsuit against "Star" was settled.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: John and Patsy Ramsey were also sued in two separate defamation lawsuits arising from the publication of their book, "The Death of Innocence". The suit was brought by two individuals named in the book as having been investigated by Boulder police as suspects in JonBenét's murder. The Ramseys were defended in those lawsuits by Lin Wood and three other Atlanta attorneys, James C. Rawls, Eric P. Schroeder, and S. Derek Bauer. The lawsuits against the Ramseys were dismissed.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In 2016, Wood represented Burke Ramsey, older brother of murder victim JonBenet Ramsey, in a pair of related lawsuits stemming from the CBS network docuseries "". The first suit was filed against Dr. Werner Spitz, a Michigan-based forensic pathologist, over his assertion in a promotional CBS Detroit radio interview that Burke killed his sister when a young child. The other suit was against CBS and other parties involved in the docuseries, where the same allegations were made. Both lawsuits were settled out of court.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood represented former U.S. Congressman Gary Condit, and the alleged victim in the Kobe Bryant case.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In November 2011, Wood was hired by then-presidential candidate Herman Cain, in his efforts to fight off sexual harassment accusations.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood was a lead attorney in a whistleblower case against DaVita Healthcare. The suit was settled in 2015 for $450 million plus up to $45 million in fees.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood was the lead attorney in Nicholas Sandmann's defamation suits against a number of media companies, including CNN and "The Washington Post". Sandmann, a student at Covington Catholic High School, was a party to the January 2019 Lincoln Memorial confrontation. In January 2020, Wood settled with CNN, and in July 2020, the suit was settled with "The Washington Post".


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In December 2019, Wood lost a multi-million defamation case for Vernon Unsworth against Elon Musk who had branded him a "pedo guy". The case was lost because the jury felt that Musk's tweet did not properly identify Unsworth, as he was not mentioned by name.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In 2020 and 2021, Wood represented U.S. representative for Georgia's 14th congressional district, Marjorie Taylor Greene. He also represented Mark and Patricia McCloskey, the couple who aimed firearms towards Black Lives Matter protestors in St. Louis in June 2020.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood has claimed that President Trump won the presidential election with 70% of the vote, and that a secret cabal of international communists, Chinese intelligence, and Republican officials had conspired to steal the election from Trump. While litigating on Trump's behalf, he falsely asserted to the media and in court that more votes were cast in Michigan during the 2020 presidential election than the entire population of eligible voters in the state, a conclusion he drew from a mistaken comparison of the Michigan vote total with Minnesota population data.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood has circulated multiple videos alleging that Cobb County, Georgia shredded evidence of voter fraud in the November 2020 general election, and his Twitter profile includes the hashtag #WWG1WGA (where we go one, we go all), a slogan associated with the far-right QAnon conspiracy theory.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood called for would-be Republican voters to "threaten to withhold your votes" and monetary support for Georgia's Republican candidates for the Senate, incumbents David Perdue and Kelly Loeffler, if they did not demand "investigations" into the election.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: At the end of December 2020, Wood launched a series of baseless allegations on Twitter: he implied that Chief Justice John Roberts was involved in the death of Justice Antonin Scalia, suggested that Roberts was a child trafficker, declared that the deceased Jeffrey Epstein was actually alive, and that Epstein could reveal the truth about Roberts. At the start of January 2021, Wood declared his belief that Vice President Mike Pence would "face execution by firing squad" for "treason", after Pence's lawyers fought a lawsuit which was aimed at making Pence refuse to count electoral votes for Joe Biden. Wood also called for Roberts and Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell to be arrested for treason. Wood was criticized for these comments, and responded by insisting that he is not insane.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In early January 2021, Wood continued promoting unfounded conspiracy theories linked to QAnon, alleging that Roberts had committed child rape and child murder, and was being blackmailed for this by ten intelligence agencies of various nations. Wood said that hacker group Lizard Squad obtained the information; a former member of Lizard Squad denied this. Wood also baselessly claimed that QAnon supporter Isaac Kappy was murdered for attempting to transmit the information to then-President Trump (Kappy committed suicide in 2019). On January 11, 2021, Delaware Superior Court Judge Craig A. Karsnitz gave Wood's social media postings in his published reasons for an order revoking Wood's right to appear before the court. Karsnitz described the allegations about Roberts as "too disgusting and outrageous to repeat," and stated that he had "no doubt" that Wood's tweets (along with "many other things") played a role in inciting the attack on the Capitol that occurred a few days before.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: On January 6, 2021, before the College vote count, through a Twitter Post, Wood called for the immediate resignation of Vice President Mike Pence, Deputy Attorney general Rod Rosenstein and Supreme Court Justice John Roberts and asserted that charges should be brought against Pence and Rosenstein. His Twitter account was permanently suspended after the January 2021 storming of the Capitol by a pro-Trump mob. After the attack on the Capitol, Wood falsely claimed that members of the pro-Trump mob were antifa activists in disguise and that Vice President Mike Pence was a "child molester". Wood subsequently called for the execution of Pence on Parler, writing, "Get the firing squads ready. Pence goes FIRST." Parler removed several of Wood's posts due to violations of their community guidelines, including the one calling for Pence's execution.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In May 2021, Wood (alongside Sidney Powell and Michael Flynn) was a keynote speaker at a QAnon conference in Dallas, Texas.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: On November 13, 2020, after Joe Biden defeated Trump in the presidential election in Georgia, Wood filed a lawsuit in the federal district court in Atlanta, naming himself as plaintiff. Wood claimed that Georgia's procedures for handling absentee ballots had been unconstitutional since March 2020 and sought to block certification of the state's election results. Wood later also claimed that Georgia's recounting of votes was flawed.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood's lawsuit failed on November 19, 2020, when U.S. District Judge Steven Grimberg, who was appointed by Trump, found "no basis in fact or in law" to stop Georgia's certification of its election results at such a late stage, as this would "breed confusion and potential disenfranchisement". The judge ruled that Wood had no legal standing to bring the lawsuit, and had brought the case too late. Wood failed to show that he had been harmed, while his proposal would "harm the public in countless ways".


title: L. Lin Wood

text: A three-judge panel on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit unanimously affirmed the district court's dismissal of the suit on December 5, 2020. The court found that Wood had failed "to allege a particularized injury" and his request to delay certification was in any case moot because Georgia had by then already certified its election results.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: On December 18, 2020, Wood filed another lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia. Wood sought an emergency injunction to halt the Senatorial runoff election for the two United States Senate seats from Georgia. The complaint contained a remarkable typographical error in that it was verified by Wood "under plenty of perjury" rather than "under penalty of perjury". U.S. District Judge Timothy Batten denied Wood's request for a temporary restraining order on December 28, 2020, stating that Wood lacked standing to file the lawsuit, that his claims of potential voter fraud were "too speculative," and that overall the lawsuit had "no basis in fact or law."


title: L. Lin Wood

text: On December 7, 2020, Wood lost the federal lawsuits he litigated with Sidney Powell in Michigan, where they had argued to overturn Joe Biden's victory in the state and award the victory to President Donald Trump. In denying their request for relief, U.S. District Judge Linda V. Parker stated that the plaintiffs had only offered "theories, conjecture, and speculation" of potential vote switching, that the "ship has sailed" for most of the relief requested, and that much of what was sought "is beyond the power of any court". Parker also suggested that Wood and Powell's motive for filing the case was not to win, but to shake "people's faith in the democratic process and their trust in our government" and that granting their requests would "greatly harm the public interest."


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In January 2021, the city of Detroit filed a motion to call for sanctions against Wood, Powell, and other lawyers who filed the unsuccessful case challenging Michigan's election results. In a July 2021 court hearing, Wood argued that he could not be sanctioned. He said his name was "placed on" the complaint, but he "had no involvement whatsoever with it". Wood said that he had "generally indicated" to Powell that if she required a "trial lawyer", he would "certainly be willing or available to help her", while Powell said she believed that she added Wood to the case with him knowing about it, but also said that may have been a "misunderstanding". Although the court prohibited "broadcasting of judicial proceedings", Wood posted a two-minute video of the court hearing on the Telegram messaging application, later deleting it.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: On August 25, 2021, the Court ruled that Wood, Powell, and the other plaintiff's counsel "filed this lawsuit in bad faith and for an improper purpose"; ordered them to pay attorney's fees of some of the defendants; and referred them to their respective state bars for disciplinary action. The court determined that the pro-Trump attorneys had participated in "a historic and profound abuse of the judicial process," namely filing a baseless, frivolous lawsuit in order to undermine public confidence in the democratic process.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Based on his actions in election-related cases, Judge Karsnitz ordered Wood to show cause why his right to appear "pro hac vice" in a Delaware Superior Court defamation case where he was representing Carter Page; Wood's right to appear was revoked on January 11, 2021. In explaining his decision, Judge Karsnitz wrote that Wood's actions in the Georgia and Wisconsin election-related lawsuits "exhibited a toxic stew of mendacity, prevarication, and surprising incompetence." Karsnitz agreed with Judge Batten that the Georgia lawsuit was a "textbook [example of] frivolous litigation," and stated that the initial pleadings in the Wisconsin case "would not survive a law school civil procedure class." Judge Karsnitz concluded that he was satisfied that "it would be inappropriate and inadvisable to continue Mr. Wood's permission to practice before this court." In issuing the order, Karsnitz was highly critical of Wood's social media postings, though he stated that his decision was based on Wood's litigation conduct.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In August 2020, Wood was sued by three of his former law firm colleagues, in a lawsuit which alleged that Wood owed them money because he breached a contract regarding a settlement between them when the trio tried to leave his law firm. The lawsuit also alleged that Wood had fraudulently induced them with "abusive" communications, including that "God Almighty" was directing him. Wood responded that the lawsuit was a "shakedown" for money, claiming that the communications were "irrelevant" and from "a difficult time in my personal life arising primarily from my family's reaction to my faith in Jesus Christ."


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In 2021, the Georgia State Bar commenced an investigation to determine whether Wood violated the state's rules of professional conduct in his election-related litigation. As part of that investigation the state bar sought a mental health examination of Wood, which Wood unsuccessfully attempted to block. Wood was later, separately referred to the Georgia State Bar for possible discipline over the Michigan election litigation in which he participated, a lawsuit the Michigan judge found was filed "in bad faith and for improper purpose."


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood lived in Atlanta, Georgia from 1955 until 2020. In April 2020 he purchased property in South Carolina, and moved there later that year. He formally changed his legal residency to South Carolina in February 2021. In February 2021, Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger's office announced that it was investigating the possibility that Wood had committed voter fraud due to questions over whether Wood had been a legal resident of the state when he cast his vote in the 2020 elections in Georgia. According to Georgia law, if someone moves to another state with the intention of establishing residence, they are no longer a resident of Georgia.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: Wood has four children, two of whom are attorneys. According to documents submitted in court, Wood is estranged from his adult children and his grandchild.


title: L. Lin Wood

text: In 2016, Wood and Mercer University announced a one million dollar fund set up by Wood at his alma mater to be called the "L. Lin Wood Fund for the Enhancement of Mercer Law School".


title: Home computer

text: Home computers were a class of microcomputers that entered the market in 1977 and became common during the 1980s. They were marketed to consumers as affordable and accessible computers that, for the first time, were intended for the use of a single nontechnical user. These computers were a distinct market segment that typically cost much less than business, scientific or engineering-oriented computers of the time such as those running CP/M or the IBM PC, and were generally less powerful in terms of memory and expandability. However, a home computer often had better graphics and sound than contemporary business computers. Their most common uses were playing video games, but they were also regularly used for word processing and programming.


title: Home computer

text: Home computers were usually sold already manufactured in stylish metal or plastic enclosures. However, some home computers also came as commercial electronic kits like the Sinclair ZX80 which were both home and home-built computers since the purchaser could assemble the unit from a kit.


title: Home computer

text: Advertisements in the popular press for early home computers were rife with possibilities for their practical use in the home, from cataloging recipes to personal finance to home automation, but these were seldom realized in practice. For example, using a typical 1980s home computer as a home automation appliance would require the computer to be kept powered on at all times and dedicated to this task. Personal finance and database use required tedious data entry.


title: Home computer

text: By contrast, advertisements in the specialty computer press often simply listed specifications, assuming a knowledgeable user who already had applications in mind. If no packaged software was available for a particular application, the home computer user could program one—provided they had invested the requisite hours to learn computer programming, as well as the idiosyncrasies of their system. Since most systems arrived with the BASIC programming language included on the system ROM, it was easy for users to get started creating their own simple applications. Many users found programming to be a fun and rewarding experience, and an excellent introduction to the world of digital technology.


title: Home computer

text: The line between 'business' and 'home' computer market segments vanished completely once IBM PC compatibles became commonly used in the home, since now both categories of computers typically use the same processor architectures, peripherals, operating systems, and applications. Often the only difference may be the sales outlet through which they are purchased. Another change from the home computer era is that the once-common endeavour of writing one's own software programs has almost vanished from home computer use.


title: Home computer

text: As early as 1965, some experimental projects, such as Jim Sutherland's ECHO IV, explored the possible utility of a computer in the home. In 1969, the Honeywell Kitchen Computer was marketed as a luxury gift item, and would have inaugurated the era of home computing, but none were sold.


title: Home computer

text: Computers became affordable for the general public in the 1970s due to the mass production of the microprocessor starting in 1971. such as the Altair 8800 had front-mounted switches and diagnostic lights (nicknamed "blinkenlights") to control and indicate internal system status, and were often sold in kit form to hobbyists. These kits would contain an empty printed circuit board which the buyer would fill with the integrated circuits, other individual electronic components, wires and connectors, and then hand-solder all the connections.


title: Home computer

text: While two early home computers (Sinclair ZX80 and Acorn Atom) could be bought either in kit form or assembled, most home computers were only sold pre-assembled. They were enclosed in plastic or metal cases similar in appearance to typewriter or hi-fi equipment enclosures, which were more familiar and attractive to consumers than the industrial metal card-cage enclosures used by the Altair and similar computers. The keyboard - a feature lacking on the Altair - was usually built into the same case as the motherboard. Ports for plug-in peripheral devices such as a video display, cassette tape recorders, joysticks, and (later) disk drives were either built-in or available on expansion cards. Although the Apple II series had internal expansion slots, most other home computer models' expansion arrangements were through externally accessible 'expansion ports' that also served as a place to plug in cartridge-based games. Usually the manufacturer would sell peripheral devices designed to be compatible with their computers as extra cost accessories. Peripherals and software were not often interchangeable between different brands of home computer, or even between successive models of the same brand.


title: Home computer

text: To save the cost of a dedicated monitor, the home computer would often connect through an RF modulator to the family TV set, which served as both video display and sound system.


title: Home computer

text: The rise of the home computer also led to a fundamental shift during the early 1980s in where and how computers were purchased. Traditionally, microcomputers were obtained by mail order or were purchased in person at general electronics retailers like RadioShack. Silicon Valley, in the vanguard of the personal computer revolution, was the first place to see the appearance of new retail stores dedicated to selling only computer hardware, computer software, or both, and also the first place where such stores began to specialize in particular platforms.


title: Home computer

text: By 1982, an estimated 621,000 home computers were in American households, at an average sales price of . After the success of the Radio Shack TRS-80, the Commodore PET and the Apple II in 1977, almost every manufacturer of consumer electronics rushed to introduce a home computer. Large numbers of new machines of all types began to appear during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Mattel, Coleco, Texas Instruments and Timex, none of which had any prior connection to the computer industry, all had short-lived home computer lines in the early 1980s. Some home computers were more successful – the BBC Micro, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Atari 800XL and Commodore 64 sold many units over several years and attracted third-party software development.


title: Home computer

text: Almost universally, home computers had a BASIC interpreter combined with a line editor in permanent read-only memory which one could use to type in BASIC programs and execute them immediately or save them to tape or disk. In direct mode, the BASIC interpreter was also used as the user interface, and given tasks such as loading, saving, managing, and running files. One exception was the Jupiter Ace, which had a Forth interpreter instead of BASIC. A built-in programming language was seen as a requirement for any computer of the era, and was the main feature setting home computers apart from video game consoles.


title: Home computer

text: Still, home computers competed in the same market as the consoles. A home computer was often seen as simply as a higher end purchase than a console, adding abilities and productivity potential to what would still be mainly a gaming device. A common marketing tactic was to show a computer system and console playing games side by side, then emphasizing the computer's greater ability by showing it running user-created programs, education software, word processing, spreadsheet and other applications while the game console showed a blank screen or continued playing the same repetitive game. Another capability home computers had that game consoles of the time lacked was the ability to access remote services over telephone lines by adding a serial port interface, a modem, and communication software. Though it could be costly, it permitted the computer user to access services like Compuserve and private or corporate bulletin board systems and viewdata services to post or read messages, or to download or upload software. Some enthusiasts with computers equipped with large storage capacity and a dedicated phone line operated bulletin boards of their own. This capability anticipated the internet by nearly twenty years.


title: Home computer

text: Some game consoles offered "programming packs" consisting of a version of BASIC in a ROM cartridge. Atari's BASIC Programming for the Atari 2600 was one of these. For the ColecoVision console, Coleco even announced an expansion module which would convert it into a full-fledged computer system. The Magnavox Odyssey² game console had a built-in keyboard to support its C7420 Home Computer Module.


title: Home computer

text: Books of type-in program listings like BASIC Computer Games were available dedicated for the BASICs of most models of computer with titles along the lines of "64 Amazing BASIC Games for the Commodore 64". While most of the programs in these books were short and simple games or demos, some titles such as "Compute!"s SpeedScript series, contained productivity software that rivaled commercial packages. To avoid the tedious process of typing in a program listing from a book, these books would sometimes include a mail-in offer from the author to obtain the programs on disk or cassette for a few dollars. Before the Internet, and before most computer owners had a modem, books were a popular and low-cost means of software distribution—one that had the advantage of incorporating its own documentation. These books also served a role in familiarizing new computer owners with the concepts of programming; some titles added suggested modifications to the program listings for the user to carry out. Applying a patch to modify software to be compatible with one's system or writing a utility program to fit one's needs was a skill every advanced computer owner was expected to have.


title: Home computer

text: During the peak years of the home computer market, scores of models were produced, usually as individual design projects with little or no thought given to compatibility between different manufacturers or even within product lines of the same manufacturer. Except for the Japanese MSX standard, the concept of a computer platform was still forming, with most companies considering rudimentary BASIC language and disk format compatibility sufficient to claim a model as "compatible". Things were different in the business world, where cost-conscious small business owners had been using CP/M running on Z80 based computers from Osborne, Kaypro, Morrow Designs and a host of other manufacturers. For many of these businesses, the development of the microcomputer made computing and business software affordable where they had not been before.


title: Home computer

text: Introduced in August 1981, the IBM Personal Computer would eventually supplant CP/M as the standard platform used in business. This was largely due to the IBM name and the system's 16 bit open architecture, which expanded maximum memory tenfold, and also encouraged production of third-party clones. In the late 1970s, the 6502-based Apple II series had carved out a niche for itself in business, thanks to the industry's first killer app, VisiCalc, released in 1979. However the Apple II would quickly be displaced for office use by IBM PC compatibles running Lotus 1-2-3. Apple Computer's 1980 Apple III was underwhelming, and although the 1984 release of the Apple Macintosh introduced the modern GUI to the market, it wasn't common until IBM-compatible computers adopted it. Throughout the 1980s, businesses large and small adopted the PC platform, leading, by the end of the decade, to sub-US$1000 IBM PC XT-class white box machines, usually built in Asia and sold by US companies like PCs Limited.


title: Home computer

text: In 1980 Wayne Green, the publisher of "Kilobaud Microcomputing", recommended that companies avoid the term "home computer" in their advertising as "I feel is self-limiting for sales ... I prefer the term "microcomputers" since it doesn't limit the uses of the equipment in the imagination of the prospective customers". With the exception of Tandy, most computer companies – even those with a majority of sales to home users – agreed, avoiding the term "home computer" because of its association with the image of, as "Compute!" wrote, "a low-powered, low-end machine primarily suited for playing games". Apple consistently avoided stating that it was a home-computer company, and described the IIc as "a serious computer for the serious home user" despite competing against IBM's PCjr home computer. John Sculley denied that his company sold home computers; rather, he said, Apple sold "computers for use in the home". In 1990 the company reportedly refused to support joysticks on its low-cost Macintosh LC and IIsi computers to prevent customers from considering them as "game machines".


title: Home computer

text: Although the Apple II and Atari computers are functionally similar, Atari's home-oriented marketing resulted in a game-heavy library with much less business software. By the late 1980s, many mass merchants sold video game consoles like the Nintendo Entertainment System, but no longer sold home computers.


title: Home computer

text: Toward the end of the 1980s, clones also became popular with non-corporate customers. Inexpensive, highly compatible clones succeeded where the PCjr had failed. Replacing the hobbyists who had made up the majority of the home computer market were, as "Compute!" described them, "people who want to take work home from the office now and then, play a game now and then, learn more about computers, and help educate their children". By 1986 industry experts predicted an "MS-DOS Christmas", and the magazine stated that clones threatened Commodore, Atari, and Apple's domination of the home-computer market.


title: Home computer

text: The declining cost of IBM compatibles on the one hand, and the greatly increased graphics, sound, and storage abilities of fourth generation video game consoles such as the Sega Genesis and Super Nintendo Entertainment System on the other, combined to cause the market segment for home computers to vanish by the early 1990s in the US. In Europe, the home computer remained a distinct presence for a few years more, with the low-end models of the 16-bit Amiga and Atari ST families being the dominant players, but by the mid-1990s even the European market had dwindled. The Dutch government even ran a program that allowed businesses to sell computers tax-free to its employees, often accompanied by home training programs. Naturally, these businesses chose to equip their employees with the same systems they themselves were using. Today a computer bought for home use anywhere will be very similar to those used in offices – made by the same manufacturers, with compatible peripherals, operating systems, and application software.


title: Home computer

text: Many home computers were superficially similar. Most had a keyboard integrated into the same case as the motherboard, or, more frequently, a mainboard—while the expandable home computers appeared from the very start (the Apple II offered as many as seven expansion slots), as the whole segment was generally aimed downmarket, few offers were priced or positioned high enough to allow for such expandability. Some systems have only one expansion port, often realized in the form of cumbersome "sidecar" system, such as on the TI-99/4, or required finicky and unwieldy ribbon cables to connect the expansion modules.


title: Home computer

text: Sometimes they were equipped with a cheap membrane or chiclet keyboard in the early days, although full-travel keyboards quickly became universal due to overwhelming consumer preference. Most systems could use an RF modulator to display 20–40 column text output on a home television. Indeed, the use of a television set as a display almost defines the pre-PC home computer. Although dedicated composite or "green screen" computer displays were available for this market segment and offered a sharper display, a monitor was often a later purchase made only after users had bought a floppy disk drive, printer, modem, and the other pieces of a full system. The reason for this was that while those TV-monitors had difficulty displaying the clear and readable 80-column text that became the industry standard at the time, the only consumers who "really" needed that were the power users utilizing the machine for business purposes, while the average casual consumer would use the system for games only and was content with the lower resolution for which a TV worked fine. An important exception was the Radio Shack TRS-80, the first mass-marketed computer for home use, which included its own 64-column display monitor and full-travel keyboard as standard features.


title: Home computer

text: This "peripherals sold separately" approach is another defining characteristic of the home computer era. A first time computer buyer who brought a base C-64 system home and hooked it up to their TV would find they needed to buy a disk drive (the Commodore 1541 was the only fully compatible model) or Datasette before they could make use of it as anything but a game machine or TV Typewriter.


title: Home computer

text: In the early part of the 1980s, the dominant microprocessors used in home computers were the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 (Apple, Commodore, Atari, BBC Micro) and Zilog Z80 (TRS-80, ZX81, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 128, Amstrad CPC). One exception was the TI-99 series, announced in 1979 with a 16-bit TMS9900 CPU. The TI was originally to use the 8-bit 9985 processor designed especially for it, but this project was cancelled. However, the glue logic needed to retrofit the 16-bit CPU to an 8-bit 9985 system negated the advantages of the more powerful CPU. Another exception was the Soviet Elektronika BK series of 1984, which used the fully 16-bit and powerful for the time 1801 series CPU, offering a full PDP-11 compatibility and a fully functional Q-Bus slot, though at the cost of very anemic RAM and graphics. The Motorola 6809 was used by the Radio Shack TRS-80 Color Computer, the Fujitsu FM-7, and Dragon 32/64.


title: Home computer

text: Processor clock rates were typically 1–2 MHz for 6502 and 6809 based CPU's and 2–4 MHz for Z80 based systems (yielding roughly equal performance), but this aspect was not emphasized by users or manufacturers, as the systems' limited RAM capacity, graphics abilities and storage options had a more perceivable effect on performance than CPU speed. For low-price computers the cost of RAM memory chips contributed greatly to the final product price to the consumer, and fast CPUs demanded expensive, fast memory. So designers kept clock rates only adequate; in some cases like the Atari and Commodore 8-bit machines, coprocessors were added to speed processing of graphics and audio data. For these computers clock rate was considered a technical detail of interest only to users needing accurate timing for their own programs. To economize on component cost, often the same crystal used to produce color television compatible signals was also divided down and used for the processor clock. This meant processors rarely operated at their full rated speed, and had the side-effect that European and North American versions of the same home computer operated at slightly different speeds and different video resolution due to different television standards.


title: Home computer

text: Initially, many home computers used the then-ubiquitous compact audio cassette as a storage mechanism. A rough analogy to how this worked would be to place a recorder on the phone line as a file was uploaded by modem to "save" it, and playing the recording back through the modem to "load". Most cassette implementations were notoriously slow and unreliable, but 8" drives were too bulky for home use, and early 5.25" form factor drives were priced for business use, out of reach of most home buyers. An innovative alternative was the Exatron Stringy Floppy, a continuous loop tape drive which was much faster than a datacassette drive and could perform much like a floppy disk drive. It was available for the TRS-80 and some others. A closely related technology was the ZX Microdrive developed by Sinclair Research in the UK for their ZX Spectrum and QL home computers.


title: Home computer

text: Eventually mass production of 5.25" drives resulted in lower prices, and after about 1984 they pushed cassette drives out of the US home computer market. 5.25" floppy disk drives would remain standard until the end of the 8-bit era. Though external 3.5" drives were made available for home computer systems toward the latter part of the 1980s, almost all software sold for 8-bit home computers remained on 5.25" disks; 3.5" drives were used for data storage, with the exception of the Japanese MSX standard, on which 5.25" floppies were never popular. Standardization of disk formats was not common; sometimes even different models from the same manufacturer used different disk formats. Almost universally the floppy disk drives available for 8-bit home computers were housed in external cases with their own controller boards and power supplies contained within. Only the later, advanced 8-bit home computers housed their drives within the main unit; these included the TRS-80 Model III, TRS-80 Model 4, Apple IIc, MSX2, and Commodore 128D. The later 16-bit machines such as the Atari 1040ST (not the 520ST), the Commodore Amigas, and the Tandy 1000s did house floppy drive(s) internally. At any rate, to expand any computer with additional floppy drives external units would have to be plugged in.


title: Home computer

text: Toward the end of the home computer era, drives for a number of home computer models appeared offering disk-format compatibility with the IBM PC. The disk drives sold with the Commodore 128, Amiga and Atari ST were all able to read and write PC disks, which themselves were undergoing the transition from 5.25" to 3.5" format at the time (though 5.25" drives remained common on PCs until the late 1990s, due to existence of the large software and data archives on five-inch floppies). 5.25" drives were made available for the ST, Amiga and Macintosh, otherwise 3.5" based systems with no other use for a 5.25" format. Hard drives were never popular on home computers, remaining an expensive, niche product mainly for BBS sysops and the few business users.


title: Home computer

text: Various copy protection schemes were developed for floppy disks; most were broken in short order. Many users would only tolerate copy protection for games, as wear and tear on disks was a significant issue in an entirely floppy-based system. The ability to make a "working backup" disk of vital application software was seen as important. Copy programs that advertised their ability to copy or even remove common protection schemes were a common category of utility software in this pre-DMCA era.


title: Home computer

text: In another defining characteristic of the home computer, instead of a command line, the BASIC interpreter served double duty as a user interface. Coupled to a character-based screen or line editor, BASIC's file management commands could be entered in direct mode. In contrast to modern computers, home computers most often had their operating system (OS) stored in ROM chips. This made startup times very fast – no more than a few seconds – but made OS upgrades difficult or impossible without buying a new unit. Usually only the most severe bugs were fixed by issuing new ROMs to replace the old ones at the user's cost. Also, the small size and limited scope of home computer "operating systems" (really little more than what today would be called a kernel) left little room for bugs to hide.


title: Home computer

text: Although modern operating systems include extensive programming libraries to ease development and promote standardization, home computer operating systems provided little support to application programs. Professionally written software often switched out the ROM based OS anyway to free the address space it occupied and maximize RAM capacity. This gave the program full control of the hardware and allowed the programmer to optimize performance for a specific task. Games would often turn off unused I/O ports, as well as the interrupts that served them. As multitasking was never common on home computers, this practice went largely unnoticed by users. Most software even lacked an exit command, requiring a reboot to use the system for something else.


title: Home computer

text: In an enduring reflection of their early cassette-oriented nature, most home computers loaded their disk operating system (DOS) separately from the main OS. The DOS was only used for disk and file related commands and was not required to perform other computing functions. One exception was Commodore DOS, which was not loaded into the computer's main memory at all – Commodore disk drives contained a 6502 processor and ran DOS from internal ROM. While this gave Commodore systems some advanced capabilities – a utility program could sideload a disk copy routine onto the drive and return control to the user while the drive copied the disk on its own – it also made Commodore drives more expensive and difficult to clone.


title: Home computer

text: Many home computers had a cartridge interface which accepted ROM-based software. This was also used for expansion or upgrades such as fast loaders. Application software on cartridge did exist, which loaded instantly and eliminated the need for disk swapping on single drive setups, but the vast majority of cartridges were games.


title: Home computer

text: From the introduction of the IBM Personal Computer (ubiquitously known as the PC) in 1981, the market for computers meant for the corporate, business, and government sectors came to be dominated by the new machine and its MS-DOS operating system. Even basic PCs cost thousands of dollars and were far out of reach for typical home computerists. However, in the following years technological advances and improved manufacturing capabilities (mainly greater use of robotics and relocation of production plants to lower-wage locations in Asia) permitted several computer companies to offer lower-cost PC style machines that would become competitive with many 8-bit home-market pioneers like Radio Shack, Commodore, Atari, Texas Instruments, and Sinclair. PCs could never become as affordable as these because the same price-reducing measures were available to all computer makers. Furthermore, software and peripherals for PC style computers tended to cost more than those for 8-bit computers because of the anchoring effect caused by the pricey IBM PC. As well, PCs were inherently more expensive since they could not use the home TV set as a video display. Nonetheless, the overall reduction in manufacturing costs narrowed the price difference between old 8-bit technology and new PCs. Despite their higher absolute prices PCs were perceived by many to be better values for their utility as superior productivity tools and their access to industry-standard software. Another advantage was the 8088/8086's wide, 20-bit address bus: the PC could access more than 64 kilobytes of memory relatively inexpensively (8-bit CPUs, which generally had multiplexed 16-bit address buses, required complicated, tricky memory management techniques like bank-switching). Similarly, the default PC floppy was double-sided with about twice the storage capacity of floppy disks used by 8-bit home computers. PC drives tended to cost less because they were most often built-in, requiring no external case, controller, and power supply. The faster clock rates and wider buses available to later Intel CPUs compensated somewhat for the custom graphics and sound chips of the Commodores and Ataris. In time the growing popularity of home PCs spurred many software publishers to offer gaming and children's software titles.


title: Home computer

text: Many decision makers in the computer industry believed there could be a viable market for office workers who used PC/DOS computers at their jobs and would appreciate an ability to bring diskettes of data home on weeknights and weekends to continue work after-hours on their "home" computers. So the ability to run industry-standard MS-DOS software on affordable, user-friendly PCs was anticipated as a source of new sales. Furthermore, many in the industry felt that MS-DOS would eventually (inevitably, it seemed) come to dominate the computer business entirely, and some manufacturers felt the need to offer individual customers PC-style products suitable for the home market.


title: Home computer

text: In early 1984 market colossus IBM produced the PCjr as a PC/DOS-compatible machine aimed squarely at the home user. It proved a spectacular failure because IBM deliberately limited its capabilities and expansion possibilities in order to avoid cannibalizing sales of the profitable PC. IBM management believed that if they made the PCjr too powerful too many buyers would prefer it over the bigger, more expensive PC. Poor reviews in the computer press and poor sales doomed the PCjr.