title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Alan II was also allied to Theobald I of Blois, the count of Chartres. Alan II had married Theobald's sister, Adelaide, giving Theobald influence all the way to Rennes. However Alan II's death left a void in Brittany leaving it vulnerable to encroachment by either the Normans or the Angevins. In turn the recently widowed Fulk II, Count of Anjou, Theobald's ally, married Alan II's widow. Upon his death, Alan II was succeeded by his son Drogo. Drogo's rule set the precedent for the role of a regent during the minority of a ducal heir. Throughout his reign, Drogo was under the shared regency of his uncle the Count of Blois, Theobald I (who entrusted the administration of the duchy to Wicohen, Archbishop of Dol, and the Count of Rennes Juhel Berengar as administrators), and his stepfather, the Fulk II, Count of Anjou.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Under Drogo, the duchy continued to experience political instability and he was unable to sustain his line. Drogo died in 958. Two of Alan II's illegitimate sons, Hoël and Guerich, attempted to act as Counts of Nantes and preserve their claim to duchy but were eventually unsuccessful. In 990 Juhel Berengar's son Conan I, the grandson of Pascweten, became Duke and the title passed to the House of Rennes. Conan I ruled for only two years and died fighting against his brother-in-law Fulk III, Count of Anjou at the Battle of Conquereuil on 27 June 992. He was succeeded by his oldest son Geoffrey I. Blois threatened Conan's succession. Duke Geoffrey I, a member of the House of Nantes, entered into a dynastic alliance with Richard II, Duke of Normandy in a diplomatic double marriage between the two houses. The church-sanctioned marriage ceremonies were held at Mont Saint-Michel. Geoffrey I married Hawise of Normandy, Richard II's sister; and Richard II married Judith of Brittany, Geoffrey I's sister and Conan I's daughter.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The 11th century was marked by a failed alliance with Normandy. William the Conqueror challenged the Breton dukes, and they formed an alliance with the French king.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The death of Geoffrey I, in 1008, allowed Richard II to intervene directly in Brittany during the minority of his nephew, Alan III, against rebellious counts who attempted to take advantage of the youthful duke. The guardianship would be reciprocated later when Alan III was named as one of the primary guardians of William of Normandy. By designating Alan III as a guardian of William, Robert I was "involving a close family member who would not compete with his heir". In his guardianship of Duke William, Alan III was allied with Count Gilbert and Robert II, Archbishop of Rouen, William's uncles. However, when Archbishop Robert died in 1037 instability surfaced. Alan III countered the instability by reinforcing the power of the Norman ducal house providing Robert I's two youngest brothers with land and title. However, by October 1, 1040, Alan III was killed by poison while besieging a rebel castle in Vimoutiers. Tension increased in Normandy following his death, with Count Gilbert dying shortly thereafter. A rival faction in the guardianship of Normandy emerged, one that would intervene in Brittany, suppressing Alan III's heir, Conan II, from claiming his inheritance.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: At around eight years of age, Conan II succeeded his father Alan III as Duke of Brittany, with the ducal regency entrusted to Alan's brother Odo, Count of Penthièvre. However, by the time Conan II reached his majority at age sixteen, around 1048, Odo refused to relinquish power. During the dynastic conflict between uncle and nephew, Hoel of Cornouaille supported Odo in suppressing Conan's inheritance. Odo was Hoèl's brother-in-law as he was married to Hoel's sister Agnes of Cornouaille. By 1057, Conan II captured and imprisoned Odo. He came to terms with Hoèl of Cornouaille later that year. Conan II faced numerous threats posed by the pro-Norman faction in Brittany, including revolts sponsored by William, Duke of Normandy for whom Conan's father had served as Guardian. William supported challengers to Conan's authority, encouraging them to rebel against the Breton duke, his cousin. William continued courting the family of Odo, who was imprisoned. In response, Conan promoted his own legitimate claim as Duke of Normandy over William, as the Catholic Church began preferring legitimate heirs born in church-sanctioned marriage over out-of-wedlock issue. This rivalry led to war between Normandy and Brittany.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The 1064–1065 war between Brittany and Normandy (the Breton-Norman War) was sparked after Duke William supported the rebellion against Conan II led by Rivallon I of Dol. In 1065, before his invasion of Anglo-Saxon England, William of Normandy warned his rivals in Brittany and Anjou to abstain from any attacks on his duchy, on the grounds that his mission bore the papal banner. However, Conan II rebuffed the warning and declared that he would press any advantage against William. While William plotted to take the English crown, Conan consolidated his authority in Brittany and planned to take advantage of William's absence to invade Normandy. First, however, he needed to neutralize Anjou, another historic rival. Once Anjou was pacified he planned to advance into Maine and then into Normandy. However, during his 1066 siege of Angers, Conan was found dead after wearing poisoned riding gloves. Duke William was widely suspected of organizing the assassination.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: William the Conqueror successfully invaded England in 1066 with an army that included some Bretons. William was able to attract Bretons into his expeditionary army for the upcoming campaign to claim the English crown., perhaps in part because the Breton commanders in Duke William's army were the second-sons of Breton lords, such as Alain Le Roux (son of Eudas of Penthièvre). The Bretons within the Conquest army represented at least three major groupings, two of which would become relevant to the long-term future of the duchy. One group was represented by Ralph de Gael, briefly the Earl of Suffolk. In 1075 he was among the leaders of a "Breton revolt". Ralph escaped returning to Brittany where he also revolted against the Breton Duke before eventually reconciling with the duchy. To the south and west of England, William granted lands to groups of Breton nobles who were more fractious than united, whether in Brittany or in England. This group had no one singular leader who could serve a unifying role . Their numbers included Herve of Leon, the viscount of Leon, who was briefly the Earl of Wiltshire. The third group were those nobles associated with the Richmond-Penthièvre family. Odo of Penthièvre was a principal antagonist of Conan II. Under William I, three of Odo of Penthièvre's sons (Alan, Stephen and Brien) were granted substantial lands in England, including the Honour of Richmond, lands in Suffolk, and the Earldoms of Richmond and Cornwall.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Also in 1066, Hawise succeeded her brother Conan II as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. She married Hoël of Cornouaille. Hoel ruled as Hoel II, Duke of Brittany and started the House of Kernev which continued to rule Brittany until 1156 (see below). Hoël inherited a divided Brittany which was split into six largely independent regions: Rennes, Panthièvre, Léon, Cornouaille, the Broërec, and Nantes. Ducal power was non-existent in Panthièvre and Léon, and even in the rest of Brittany the duke's powers did not extend beyond his own personal lands. The barons in Brittany did not feel that they were in any way vassals of the duke, owing him service in exchange for their lands, and only attended the ducal courts when they felt it was in their own interests to do so.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: However, the historic rivalry between Brittany and Normandy resurfaced at the close of the 11th century. By 1075, Hoèl returned to the traditional Breton policy of opposing Norman expansion with an alliance with the young king Philip I of France. Ralph de Gael, in exile in Brittany after the unsuccessful 1075 rebellion in England, led incursions into Normandy from his base in Dol. In 1076, King William of England retaliated by leading an army into Brittany to eject Ralph, but was met with a rare defeat by an allied army of Bretons and French forces. In the peace negotiations which followed William offered his second daughter Constance in marriage to the Breton heir Alan IV, though nothing came of the betrothal at the time.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: By 1086, Alan IV was forced to abandon his duchy after an invasion launched by William I of England. However, a peace settlement was reached that same year and in the negotiations that followed Alan IV was forced into marriage with King William I's second daughter Constance of England. The marriage ceremonies may have taken place in Bayeux in Normandy. William of Malmesbury wrote that Constance was unpopular at the Breton court because of her 'severe and conservative' manner. William of Malmesbury also alleged that Alan IV had Constance poisoned to death, but this was unverified However, Orderic Vitalis wrote that as duchess, Constance did all she could to further the welfare of the Bretons, who grieved deeply at her death in 1090.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In 1092, Alan IV donated property to Redon Abbey by charter, and by 1093, married his second wife, Ermengarde of Anjou as part of a political alliance with Fulk IV, Count of Anjou to counter Anglo-Norman influence. With Ermengarde, he had a son, Geoffrey, who died young, Conan III, and a daughter Hawise. Hawise was married to count Baldwin VII of Flanders. In 1098, Alan IV joined the First Crusade, leaving Brittany under the regency of his wife Ermengarde of Anjou until his return early in the 12th century. Ermengarde ruled from Nantes rather than Rennes, as it was closer to her home county of Anjou.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Alan IV returned from Crusade in 1101. In 1112, Alan IV's son Conan III inherited Brittany on the abdication of his father, who retired to the monastery of Redon. By 1113, Conan III married Maude, an illegitimate daughter of King Henry I of England. With Maude he had three children, Hoel, Bertha, and Constance. During his reign he strengthened the rule of the duchy.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: During the dynastic struggle between Stephen of England (Stephen of Blois) and the dispossessed Empress Matilda, Conan III allied himself with King Stephen. Empress Matilda's unpopular marriage with Geoffrey V of Anjou was forced upon her by her father Henry I. It reflected the historic rivalry between Brittany, Normandy, and Anjou.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Conan III sought to counter Angevin influence and preserve Breton independence. In his alliance with Stephen, Conan III looked for greater influence with Stephen, who needed allies on the continent to out-flank Matilda. Matilda was able to consolidate power in Normandy and Anjou. Brittany's position to the west of the Angevin controlled territory exposed a wide frontier for Stephen to exploit against Matilda.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In 1138, Conan III's daughter, Bertha, was married to Alan of Penthièvre, a supporter of King Stephen. For his support, Stephan created Conan's son-in-law Alan as 1st Earl of Richmond in the second creation, a title previously held by Alan's uncle Alain Le Roux. Later, when Alan died in 1146, Bertha returned home to Brittany from England. On his death-bed in 1148, Conan III disinherited his son Hoel, Count of Nantes from succession to the duchy. With this surprise move, Bertha became his heiress and successor as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. However, Hoel was to retain the county of Nantes.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Duchess Bertha, as dowager countess of Richmond, continued Brittany's alliance with Stephen's England against the Angevins. However this strategy became untenable after 1153, when Stephen's son Eustace died suddenly. Eustace's death provided an opportunity for Matilda's son, Henry FitzEmpress, to land an invasion army in England and press for his mother's claims. In the Treaty of Wallingford, Stephen was forced to recognize Henry FitzEmpress as his heir, with Matilda abdicating her claim in her son's favour. The treaty exposed Brittany to retaliatory incursions from Henry FitzEmpress and his brother Geoffery FitzEmpress.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: On the death of Bertha in early 1156, her son, Conan IV, expected to inherit the ducal throne. However, he was denied his inheritance by his stepfather Odo, Viscount of Porhoët (also known as Odo II), Bertha's second husband; Odo II refused to relinquish his authority over Brittany. To consolidate his hold on power, Odo II entered into a pact with the disinherited Hoel, Count of Nantes, to divide Brittany between them. But at the same time, Hoel was under threat of rebellion in Nantes, sponsored by Geoffrey Fitzempress, and he could not send any aid to Eudas. Conan IV landed in Brittany and took Rennes, while his ally Raoul de Fougères captured and imprisoned Eudas. Conan IV was formally enthroned as Duke of Brittany in Rennes. While Conan IV was consolidating his inheritance in 1156, Geoffrey FitzEmpress successfully took Nantes from Hoel.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Upon Geoffrey's death in 1158, Conan IV seized Nantes, reuniting the Duchy once again. However, Henry II, now King of England, seized the Earldom of Richmond, Conan's paternal inheritance. Henry demanded the return of Nantes, and when he obtained control of it from Conan IV, became the Count of Nantes, without obligation to the Duke of Brittany (later dukes would eventually reunite Nantes to Brittany).


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Henry II of England continued to stoke revolts and rebellions in Brittany against Conan IV. In response, Conan IV took the Breton counties of Tréguier and Guingamp from his uncle Count Henri, a supporter of Henry II of England. Richmond was returned to Conan IV later that year in an agreement reached with Henry II of England.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: By 1160 Conan was forced to yield to Henry. In the peace negotiations which followed, Conan was obliged to marry Henry's cousin, Margaret of Scotland, in 1160.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Later, Conan IV was faced with additional revolts from barons, possibly sponsored by Henry II. Conan appealed to Henry II for aid to end the revolts. For his aid Henry II insisted on the betrothal of Conan's only daughter and heiress Constance to Henry's son Geoffrey Plantagenet, continuing the policy of interweaving the Breton succession with the Plantagenet's succession.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Upon her father's abdication in 1166, Constance became duchess, although Henry II held the Duchy until Constance married Geoffrey. Geoffrey and Constance ruled jointly until 1186, when Geoffrey was stamped to death in a riding accident during a tournament in Paris. Constance thereafter ruled the Duchy on her own. Henry II of England next arranged for Constance to marry Ranulph de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester on 3 February 1188 or 1189. Henry II died in 1189 and was succeeded by Richard I as King of England. Lacking a male heir, King Richard I of England officially proclaimed his nephew, Constance's son, Arthur I of Brittany, as his heir presumptive in a treaty signed with Philip Augustus and Tancred of Sicily.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: To promote her son's position and inheritance, Constance, Duchess of Brittany included Arthur in the government of Brittany in 1196. The same year, Constance's marriage with Ranulph deteriorated, with Ranulph imprisoning Constance. Her imprisonment sparked rebellion across Brittany on her behalf. Ranulph bowed to growing pressure and had the Duchess released in 1198. Once back in Brittany, Constance had her marriage to Ranulph annulled in 1199 (there was no issue from this marriage). Later that year, Constance took Guy of Thouars as her 'second' husband at Angers. Throughout these years, Constance advised her son Arthur towards a French alliance, pursuing the policy of her late husband Geoffrey II, despite his designation as Richard I's heir. In Constance bore Guy of Thouars two or three daughters. The first born, Alix of Thouars, was followed by Catherine of Thouars (1201-c. 1240) and maybe Margaret of Thouars (1201-c. 1216/1220). Constance died due to complications during the delivery.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In the 13th century England's alliance with Brittany collapsed under King John of England. When Richard I died in 1199, Philip agreed to recognize Arthur of Brittany as count of Anjou, Maine, and Poitou, in exchange for Arthur swearing fealty to him, and thereby becoming a direct vassal of France. However, in 1202, 15-year-old Arthur was captured by the English while besieging Mirebeau. By 1203, the imprisoned Arthur was transferred to Rouen, under the charge of William de Braose, the court favorite of King John. Arthur vanished mysteriously in April 1203. Arthur's legal successor was Eleanor of Brittany. However John of England had Eleanor captured and imprisoned at Corfe Castle in Dorset.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Recognizing that John of England could have Eleanor married to a vassal loyal to England, who would rule Brittany through her, Philip II formally recognized Constance's infant daughter Alix as hereditary Duchess of Brittany. Initially Alix's father Guy of Thouars acted as regent. Philip II of France was maneuvering to keep Brittany within his sphere of influence. The marriage of the infant Alix to Capetian cadet Pierre Mauclerc in 1213, began the new House of Dreux. After Guy of Thouars' regency, Alix ruled as nominal duchess with her husband Pierre as Duke "jure uxoris". In 1214, King John sent an expedition into France, in part to establish Eleanor as his puppet duchess, but after his defeat also recognized Alix and Peter as rulers of the Duchy. Eleanor was kept captive in England until her death in 1241, ending the line of Geoffrey II.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In 1235, the stage was set for the next century's Breton War of Succession when Peter I dispossessed the heir of the Penthièvre Dynasty in order to give the countship of Penthièvre to his second child, Yolande.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Beginning in the 13th century, the Duchy of Brittany experienced nearly a century of peace. Peter I continued as Regent for a time for his son John I. When John I reached his majority, Peter I ceded him the Ducal crown and left Brittany on Crusade. John I married Blanche of Navarre. Upon the death of his sister Yolande of Brittany, John I seized the countship of Penthièvre for himself. John I in turn was succeeded by his son John II. John II married Beatrice of England and ruled until 1305.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In the 14th century, the Breton War of Succession ensued; the title of Duke passed to the House of Montfort. John II died in 1305 and was succeeded by this son, Arthur II as Duke. Arthur II ruled independently of the French crown. His reign included several administrative innovations including the creation of several "battles" or districts meant to provide a stronger defense, and the creation of the Estates of Brittany, marking a critical step towards a parliamentary form of government. Arthur II's reign is also distinguished by his two marriages, the first to Mary of Limoges and the second to Yolande of Dreux, Queen of Scotland.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Arthur II's son by Mary of Limoges, John III became Duke but failed to produce a living heir, despite three marriages. John III's succession efforts were focused on his attempts to deny his half brother, John of Montfort from inheriting the Ducal Crown. He attempted to name the King of France as heir in an act that defied all precedents to maintain Brittany as an independent sovereign state. The Breton nobles predictably rejected the attempt and Brittany's independence continued. John III died in 1341 without a succession plan.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: John III's half-brother, John of Montfort, claimed the title of Duke, but his claim was rejected by the King of France who favored the competing claims of Joan of Penthièvre and her husband Charles of Blois, who also claimed the Ducal title. The Breton War of Succession between the claimants ensued when John of Montfort refused to cede his rights in their favor. The Breton War of Succession was fought from 1341 to 1364 between these two Breton houses, the House of Blois Châtillon and the House of Montfort.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: During the war, John of Montfort was imprisoned in Paris. Hostilities abated for a short time, and he was freed under the Treaty of Malestroit in 1341. He died in 1345, leaving his son John as the Montfort claimant to the ducal title. John's widowed Duchess Consort, Joanna of Flanders, acted as regent for her son John and continued the war in his name. The House of Montfort emerged victorious with substantial help from English allies Under the terms of their surrender, Joan was allowed to keep Penthièvre and retained the title Duchess of Brittany for life. Under the Treaties of Guerande, semi-Salic succession was agreed under which, if the reigning member of the House of Montfort died without legitimate male issue, the eldest direct legitimate male descendant of Joan would inherit the Ducal crown of Brittany. John IV, Duke of Brittany ruled with difficulty after the Breton civil war, and was forced into exile in England for a second time in 1373 where he lived in the court of Edward III.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The House of Montfort's victory strengthened the position of England in Brittany. One of the effects of the Breton War of Succession was to intensify the rivalries between England and France with Brittany as the contested prize. The Houses of Penthièvre and Montfort were united in the sense of their opposition to the attempted annexation of Brittany by Charles V of France as a consequence of this Breton civil war. The French king sent the Constable of France, Bertrand de Guesclin, into Brittany with the goal of uniting it to the French crown. When the Breton nobles rebelled against this proposed unification, John IV was able to return from England, assisted once again by a strong army including his English ally, and was able to re-establish his rule. The deposed Joan of Penthièvre joined in the efforts to return John IV to Brittany to defend the Duchy against the advances of Charles V. John IV had three wives but only his third wife, Joan of Navarre, bore him children. John IV died on 1 November 1399. Joan remained a widow for four years acting as a regent for her son John V. The House of Montfort's difficulties in maintaining the Ducal crown continued when John V, Duke of Brittany succeeded his father. By 1417, the Duke of Brittany were styled "rulers by the Grace of God".


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The intrigues and contests between the House of Montfort and the House of Penthièvre continued well after the Breton War of Succession. John IV's successor, John V, Duke of Brittany, was kidnapped by the son of Joan of Penthièvre. He was freed through the efforts of his wife the Duchess of Brittany, Joan of France and the remaining wealth of the Penthièvre family was confiscated. John V was succeeded first by his son Francis I. Since Francis I had no male heir, he was followed by a younger son of John V, Peter II. When Peter II died without issue, the Ducal Crown passed to his uncle Arthur III. He was, in turn, succeeded by his nephew Francis II.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The reign of Francis II was notable in many respects including two wars against Charles VIII of France, both of which were lost, the establishment of the Parlement of Brittany, and the death of all of his children save for his daughter Anne of Brittany. Francis II's rule as Duke was also marked by continued intrigues with the House of Penthièvre. Joan of Penthièvre's later descendants, the Brosse line of the House of Penthièvre through Jean de Brosse, were denied their claims to the Ducal Crown in the 15th century, possibly as an alteration of the rules of inheritance by the then Duke of Brittany Francis II. The wars with France eventually cost Ducal Brittany its independence, while the Parlement ensured a degree of autonomy that would continue through the reign of Louis XIV of France. That Francis II's sole heir was his daughter Anne assured an inheritance contest on his death that would pit the power of the House of Montfort against conflicting treaty obligations to the House of Penthièvre in Brittany, and the House of Valois in France, and would also be a test of the Breton tradition of semi-Salic law in which a daughter could be the principal inheritor. The position of the King of France dominated these events through two wars. After the first war, under the Treaty of Verger, the marriage of Francis II's sole surviving issue, Anne, would need to be approved by the King of France.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Francis II worked to seek a husband for Anne who would be strong enough to defend Brittany from further influence from the French Crown. Duchesse Anne of Brittany was initially betrothed to Edward, Prince of Wales, the son of Edward IV of England, but upon the king's death his son disappeared and the English throne passed to Richard III of England. Anne was then married to Maximillian I of Austria.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: However, relations between Brittany and France deteriorated and Francis II was forced into the last Franco-Breton war, which he lost. At the end of the second war between Francis II and Charles VIII of France, the so-called Mad War, Anne of Brittany's first marriage to Maximillian was declared illegal on the basis that the French King had not approved it under the terms of the Treaty of Verger. Anne was married to Charles VIII of France in a ceremony that was validated by Pope Innocent III. Once they were married, Charles did not allow Anne to use the title Duchess of Brittany. However, upon his death, Anne returned to Brittany and took steps to return the Duchy to independent rule under herself as Duchess. The children of Charles and Anne did not reach adulthood and this presented a new Breton succession problem as well as one for France. Both succession issues were solved upon Anne's marriage to Louis XII of France but at the cost of restoring and furthering the independence of Brittany.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In 1499, the birth of Anne of Brittany's sole heir with Louis XII of France, her daughter Claude of France, introduced a new succession issue in Brittany and France. In Brittany, with the provisions of the Treaty of Guerande set aside by the Estates of Brittany, Claude could claim to be Duchess of Brittany in her own right, as several Duchesses by right of inheritance had done over the centuries. France, however operated under strict Salic law, requiring a male heir. The French requirement was solved upon Claude's marriage to Francis I of France. The birth of Claude's sons Francis (who became Francis III, Duke of Brittany, as well as the Dauphin of France) and Henry II of France represented a resolution to these contrasting succession issues but accelerated the loss of Brittany's independence and the eventual disappearance of the Ducal title as an independent sovereign Ducal crown.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Anne of Brittany's second marriage making her Queen Consort of France continued into the 16th century; and she died in 1514. Queen Claude of France, reigned as duchess of Brittany from 1514, but under her husband king Francis was not able to maintain an independent government in the Duchy of Brittany. Claude's son Francis I was invested as duke of Brittany. But this act meant next to nothing to advance Breton independence. Some members of the House of Penthièvre were appointed as royal governors of Brittany by the French. Their failure to reassert their Ducal rights successfully hastened the merger of the Ducal crown into the Kingdom of France. At this time the title Duke of Brittany began to lose independent sovereign status and began to become only titular in character; the Breton region lost independence and became a province of France.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: During the Middle Ages, the Kings of France considered that the Duchy of Brittany was feudally a part of their Kingdom of France (i.e. it was within the traditional borders of the realm, and the King of France was deemed to be overlord of the Duchy). In practice, however, the Duchy of Brittany was a largely independent sovereign state.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The independent sovereign nature of the Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. The Duchy was inherited by his daughter, Anne, but King Charles VIII of France, determined to bring the territory under royal control, had her marriage annulled and then forced her to marry him in a series of actions that were acknowledged by the Pope. As a result, the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany were placed in the personal union of their marriage, and the King of France also held the title of Duke of Brittany "jure uxoris". During their marriage, Charles VIII prohibited Anne of Brittany from using the title Duchess of Brittany, and imposed a Royal Governor from the House of Penthièvre on the Duchy.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Legally, however, the Duchy remained separate from France proper; the two titles were linked only by the marriage of the King and Queen and, in 1498 when Charles VIII died childless, the title "Duke of Brittany" remained with Anne, rather than passing to the heir of France, Louis XII. Anne of Brittany returned to Brittany and began to re-establish an independent sovereign rule. However, the new French king, Louis XII married Anne himself, and so the King of France was once more Duke of Brittany "jure uxoris". Legally, Brittany still remained distinct, and its future remained dependent on the Ducal bloodline, now held by the House of Montfort. When Anne died, Brittany passed to her daughter and heiress, Claude, rather than remaining with the King of France, her father.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Claude married the future King of France, Francis I. By this marriage, and through the succession to the French crown, the King of France became Duke of Brittany "jure uxoris" once more.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Claude's death in 1524 separated the Duchy from the crown again, and (it would transpire) for the final time. Because Claude, like her mother, was sovereign Duchess, the title of 'Duke' did not remain with her husband, but instead passed to her son, Francis III of Brittany, who was also Dauphin of France. Legally, the Crown and Duchy were again separate, but the Duke was a child, and the Duchy had been governed as an integral part of France for years; the King had little trouble in maintaining royal control over the Duchy. Breton independence was effectively ended when in 1532 the Estates of Brittany proclaimed the perpetual union of Brittany with the French crown. Legally, the Duchy was part of France.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Francis III remained Duke of Brittany, but died without attaining the French crown in 1536. He was succeeded by his brother Henry, who was the first person to become both King of France and Duke of Brittany in his own right. Any trace of Breton independence ended with the ascension of Henry, as Henry II of France, to the French throne. The French Crown and Breton Duchy were now united by inheritance, and the merging of Brittany into France was thus completed. Henry II was not crowned separately as Duke of Brittany. However Henry attempted to create a separate legal status for Brittany vis-a-vis the Kingdom of France similar to the position of the Duchy of Cornwall to the Kingdom of Great Britain. In some histories it is meant to be a ducal territory he would attempt to preserve for himself and his heirs if he were to lose the French Crown. This attempt at legal separation did not survive his reign.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: When Henry III (last direct male from Claude of France) died, Brittany passed as part of the Crown to the next heir of France, Henry of Navarre, rather than to Claude's most senior heirs (either Henry II, Duke of Lorraine or Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia). While these nobles were technically Henry's heirs, there were problems with both claimants to the Ducal crown. The most important issue was that the crown, as a Sovereign Duke, could not be separated from that of the French Crown. Meanwhile, the French Crown and the Spanish Crown had been permanently separated beginning with the reign of Philip of Spain.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In 1582, Henry III of France, last living male-line grandson of Claude, Duchess of Brittany, made Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur, his brother-in-law and a leader of Catholic League, governor of Brittany. Invoking the hereditary rights of his wife Marie de Luxembourg, he endeavoured to make himself independent in that province from 1589 onward, and organized a government at Nantes, proclaiming their young son Philippe Louis de Lorraine-Mercœur "prince and duke of Brittany". (Infanta Isabella was the eldest daughter of the eldest sister of Henry III but being female weakened her status, and her position as Infanta all but blocked inheritance to the Breton Duchy.) Through maternal ancestry he was the direct primogenitural heir of Duchess Joan, of the House of Penthièvre, wife of Charles of Blois. Mercœur organized a government at Nantes, supported by the Spaniards. He prevented Henry IV's attempts to subjugate Brittany until 20 March 1598, when Mercœur was forced to surrender. Henry IV then had one of his own illegitimate sons marry the young daughter of the Mercœurs, and thereby assured direct French control of the province. Mercœur subsequently went in exile to Hungary.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The title "Duke of Brittany" largely ceased to be used as a title of the King of France. When it appeared the title was bestowed by the King of France to one of his direct descendants, and was in any event titular in status.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Under the Kings of France the nobles of Brittany continued to enjoy the privileges that had been accorded them by the various independent Dukes of Brittany. Brittany's Celtic legal traditions were maintained, to a degree, and the Estates of Brittany and the Parlement of Brittany were kept separate from the French parliamentary system in Paris. The Breton noble privileges protected in this parliamentary system included exemption from taxes, representation in the Breton Parlement, and the maintenance of Breton titles in the tradition of the Duchy rather than that of France, including, in theory, the application of Brittany's form of semi-Salic, rather than pure Salic Law to the succession issues.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: After Henry II, the title Duke of Brittany was not used for over 200 years. The title Duke of Brittany reappeared when a great-grandson of Louis XIV was named Louis, Duke of Brittany; He was the last holder of the title prior to the French Revolution and did not live to inherit the French throne. At his death the title in essence became defunct.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Claims on the titular Ducal title by Spanish nobles at various times were not to be considered legitimate by the French, and its use by Louis XIV demonstrated that as the title had merged into the crown of France only the King could assert the title himself or bestow it on another. Louis XIV's actions with regard to the Ducal title also underscored the fact that the Spanish or cadet branch of the House of Bourbon had relinquished all French claims and inheritance rights as a condition of gaining the crown of Spain under the Treaty of Utrecht.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Shortly before the French Revolution the leaders of the Parlement of Brittany issued Remonstrances to Louis XVI, in part to remind the King of his duties as Duke and to preserve the privileges of the Breton people under the Treaty of Union. The King's response was to close the Breton Parlement. The Remontrances were delivered to the King by Members of the Breton Parlement led by the Comte de Saisy de Kerampuil, and others.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: When French King Louis XVI dissolved the Breton Parlement he did so to strengthen his claims as an absolute monarch (where a representative parliament was not necessary). He also did this to advance a centralized federal form of government, but in so doing preserved the nature of the Brittany's autonomy by acknowledging its nobles' traditional privileges, and acted as the Duke of Brittany.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The Breton Parlement has not met since this event. During the French Revolution, the legal state of Brittany was dissolved by the French National Assembly. The province of Brittany was divided and replaced by the 5 departements that have continued in the modern French Republic.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The north and western parts of the territory relied on a pastoral farming economy; the south-east enjoyed warmer weather and conducted mixed-arable and pastoral farming, based around small holdings. The region enjoyed a strong and diverse maritime economy including active ports of trade and fishing. Over the time of the Duchy, many currencies were present, and the Dukes of Brittany sometimes minted their own coins. Gold and silver were also used for trade.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: In the 12th century, legends of Conan Meriadoc became popular in North-West Europe. By the 18th century these accounts had been described as mythical.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: A reference is made by the chronicler Jordanes to a commander named Riothamus – the Celtic for "supreme leader" – fighting in the region on behalf of the Roman emperor around 470 but little other evidence exists for this period.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The chroniclers of Viking raids in Brittany and Normandy recounted that St Olaf raided the northern coast of Brittany in the area of the town of Dol.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The Duchy was influenced by the growth of the major monastic orders in the wake of the Gregorian reforms of the 11th century. Backed by the Breton aristocracy, new churches and priories were built and the Church administration became more active. In the 13th century, the new mendicant orders spread across the towns of the Duchy, again with support of the lords who controlled the urban centres. These mendicant orders were popular, and became more so in the 15th century. Relics of local saints remained popular, but relics associated with central Catholic figures such as the Virgin Mary and John the Apostle became increasingly popular in the 13th and 14th centuries.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The Duchy that formed in the 10th and the 11th centuries was a feudal society, with laws and customs run through a hierarchy of Breton lords, from the numerous holders of local castles through to the handful of counts and the Duke in the urban centres. This reliance on the mass of local lords was a break with the former Celtic and Carolingian polities in the region. The aristocracy in Breton were, as historians Galliou and Jones describe, "conservative and tenancious" in their outlook, but heavily influenced by French society and culture, which sometimes produced tensions with older, more local traditions and customs.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The Estates of Brittany were founded by Arthur II who was considered completely independent of the Kingdom of France. He convoked the first Estates of Brittany in 1309. In addition to creating a parliamentary body, Arthur II added the innovation of including the Third Estate.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: These parliamentary bodies figured prominently in the Breton War of Succession and helped to resolve the Ducal Claims of the House of Penthièvre in favor of the House of Montfort. The Estates of Brittany acted during the reign of Francis II, of the House of Montfort, to nullify provisions of the Treaty of Guerande and to confirm that Anne was Francis II's sole and legal Ducal heir. The action in favor of Anne, Duchess of Brittany effectively ended the Ducal claims of the House of Penthièvre.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: The Parlement of Brittany was founded in 1485 by Francis II and first met in Vannes. Later the Parlement was moved to Rennes where the Parlement building remains in use to today as a Court of Justice. Initially the Parlement of Brittany functioned as a sovereign court of justice and was designed, among other things, to protect the ancient rights of the Breton nobles. Many of its members were also members of the Estates of Brittany.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: After the Duchy of Brittany was merged into the Crown of France, the Parlement of Brittany took on greater responsibility to manage and preserve the rights of the Duchy as separate from the Kingdom of France. While Henry II of France held all rights as Duke of Brittany he was neither frequently present in the Duchy nor entirely inclined to preserve the independent actions of its parliament. As the Kings of France moved to greater centralized authority under Louis XIV of France, Louis XV of France, and Louis XVI of France, tensions between the Kingdom and the Duchy grew. In September 1771, the Parlement was closed by order of Louis XVI of France; the National Assembly subsequently issued a French law to close the Parlement in 1790. The Parlement of Brittany met and they established that these actions had no force of law based on the Breton laws and traditions on which the Parliament had been founded. Notwithstanding this claim, the Parlement of Brittany has not met since 1790.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Nobles from the Breton Ducal family who fought for William the Conqueror in 1066 were the first Lords of Richmond, and eventually the first in a series of Earls of Richmond in England. Alan Rufus was among William's Earls and built Richmond Castle. Conan III allied himself with Stephen of England in his war against the dispossessed Empress Matilda. For his support, Stephen created Conan's son-in-law Alan 1st Earl of Richmond.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Arthur III of Brittany (August 24, 1393 – December 26, 1458), was known as Arthur de Richemont, and was the titular Earl of Richmond. For eleven months at the very end of his life, Arthur was both Duke of Brittany and Count of Montfort, after inheriting those titles upon the death of his nephew. After the death of Arthur's father, John V of Brittany, the English refused to recognize his heirs as earls. Nevertheless, the Breton Dukes continued to style themselves "Count of Richmond", while the English title was given to John of Lancaster (1389–1435) in 1414.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: Francis II was host to the Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII of England when he fled England to seek safety from Richard III of England. Brittany's possessions in Richmond passed indisputably to England when Francis II, Duke of Brittany, surrendered his rights to Henry, thereby permitting him to take the title Earl of Richmond.


title: Duchy of Brittany

text: There is no modern-day Duchy of Brittany. The Duchy of Brittany and the sovereign title and role of the Duke of Brittany no longer exist in the modern 5th Republic of France. The Breton Parlement no longer exists. Its seat was in Rennes. It was disbanded by Louis XIV but the Parlement voted to ignore the King's order of dissolution upon the claim it alone had the authority to dissolve this legislative and judicial body. Since 1956, there does exist the administrative Region of Brittany – which, however, includes only 80 percent of the former Duchy of Brittany. The remaining 20 percent of the former Duchy is the Loire-Atlantique department which now lies inside the Pays de la Loire region, whose capital, Nantes, was the historical capital of the Duchy of Brittany.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Fruitarianism () is a diet related to veganism that consists primarily of consuming fruits and possibly nuts and seeds, but without any animal products. Fruitarian diets are subject to criticism and health concerns.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Fruitarianism may be adopted for different reasons, including ethical, religious, environmental, cultural, economic, and presumed health benefits. A fruitarian diet may increase the risk of nutritional deficiencies, such as reduced intake of vitamin B12, calcium, iron, zinc, omega-3 or protein.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant; that is, plant foods that can be harvested without killing or harming the plant. These foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds. Some do not eat grains, believing it is unnatural to do so, and some fruitarians feel that it is improper for humans to eat seeds as they contain future plants, or nuts and seeds, or any food besides juicy fruit. Others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten. Others eat seeds and some cooked foods. Some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as beans, peas, or other legumes. Other fruitarians' diets include raw fruits, dried fruits, nuts, honey and olive oil, nuts, beans or chocolate.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Some fruitarians wish, like Jains, to avoid killing anything, including plants, and refer to ahimsa fruitarianism. For some fruitarians, the motivation comes from a fixation on a utopian past, their hope being to return to a past that pre-dates an agrarian society to when humans were simply gatherers. Another common motivation is the desire to eliminate perceived toxicity from within the body. For others, the appeal of a fruitarian diet comes from the challenge that the restrictive nature of this diet provides.


title: Fruitarianism

text: According to nutritionists, adults must be careful not to follow a fruit-only diet for too long. A fruitarian diet is wholly unsuitable for children (including teens), nursing mothers and their babies. Death can result from malnutrition.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Fruitarianism is more restrictive than veganism or raw veganism, as a subset of both. Maintaining this diet over a long period can result in dangerous deficiencies, a risk that many fruitarians try to ward off through nutritional testing and vitamin injections. The Health Promotion Program at Columbia University reports that a fruitarian diet can cause deficiencies in calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, most B vitamins (especially B), and essential fatty acids.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Although fruit provides a source of carbohydrates, they have very little protein, and because protein cannot be stored in the body as fat and carbohydrates can, fruitarians need to be careful that they consume enough protein each day. When the body does not take in enough protein, it misses out on amino acids, which are essential to making body proteins which support the growth and maintenance of body tissues. Consuming high levels of fruit also poses a risk to those who are diabetic or pre-diabetic, due to the negative effect that the large amounts of sugar in fruits has on blood sugar levels. These high levels of sugar mean that fruitarians are at high risk for tooth decay. Another concern that fruitarianism presents is that because fruit is easily digested, the body burns through meals quickly, and is hungry again soon after eating. A side effect of the digestibility is that the body will defecate more frequently.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Additionally, the Health Promotion Program at Columbia reports that food restrictions in general may lead to hunger, cravings, food obsessions, social disruptions, and social isolation. The severe dietary restrictions inherent in a fruitarian regime also carries the serious risk of triggering orthorexia nervosa.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Harriet Hall has written that a fruitarian diet "leads to nutritional deficiencies, especially in children. Fruitarians can develop protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and low levels of iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals."


title: Fruitarianism

text: Vitamin B, a bacterial product, cannot be obtained from fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health "natural food sources of vitamin B are limited to foods that come from animals." Like raw vegans who do not consume B-fortified foods (for example, certain plant milks and some breakfast cereals), fruitarians may need to include a B supplement in their diet or risk vitamin B deficiency.


title: Fruitarianism

text: In children, growth and development may be at risk. Some nutritionists state that children should not follow a fruitarian diet. Nutritional problems include severe protein–energy malnutrition, anemia and deficiencies including protein, iron, calcium, essential fatty acids, raw fibre and a wide range of vitamins and minerals.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Some notable advocates of fruitarianism, or of diets which may be considered fruitarian, or of lifestyles including such a diet, are:


title: Fruitarianism

text: The minor character Keziah in the 1999 film "Notting Hill" (played by Emma Bernard) tells William "Will" Thacker (Hugh Grant) that she is a fruitarian. She says she believes that "fruits and vegetables have feeling," meaning she opposes cooking them, only eating things that have "actually fallen off a tree or bush" and that are dead already, leading to what some describe as a negative depiction.


title: Fruitarianism

text: Both fruitarians and nutarians are mentioned in "Ulysses" by James Joyce. Dick Gregory also promoted the former in his book, "Cooking with Mother Nature".


title: Ackley Bridge

text: Ackley Bridge is a British comedy-drama series set in a multicultural academy school of the same name. The series is filmed in Halifax, West Yorkshire and it began broadcasting on Channel 4 on 7 June 2017. In the fourth series, "Ackley Bridge" saw a major overhaul, including different time slots, a shortened runtime, several new characters to replace cast exits and moving the series onto streaming platform All 4.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: The first three series of "Ackley Bridge" received praise from critics and viewers, who liked that the programme represented minority groups and tackled real-world issues. Main cast members Poppy Lee Friar, Amy-Leigh Hickman and Sunetra Sarker have been received awards for their portrayals of their respective characters, as well as the series itself garnering awards and nominations at various ceremonies. However, the fourth series faced criticism from the public. They felt that Channel 4 moving "Ackley Bridge" to a 6pm time slot had led to the edgy storylines being softened and that the long-term characters did not receive enough screen-time. After a fifth series that received a late night slot, Channel 4 confirmed that they had decided not to renew "Ackley Bridge" further.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: In early 2017, Channel 4 announced "The ABC", a six-part school drama produced by The Forge. The series follows the merger of two schools in a segregated White and Pakistani community due to budget cuts, exploring "the turbulent school experience, covering the challenges of prejudice and cultural issues in the school environment, as well as the humour, relationships and conflict had by the pupils, teachers and parents." St Catherine's Catholic High School in Halifax is used as the filming location for Ackley Bridge College. The series was later renamed "Ackley Bridge".


title: Ackley Bridge

text: Following the Manchester Arena bombing, the first episode was re-edited prior to airing as there were scenes showing "a troubled student strap a fake bomb to himself in order to disrupt the merging of a predominantly white and a predominantly Asian school." A spokesperson commented: "In light of the tragic events in Manchester, the first episode of forthcoming drama series "Ackley Bridge" is being re-edited." Ahead of the first series premiere, additional content from the show was shared on Snapchat for "high school age characters to tell their stories in the way young people are" to introduce the characters. Further episodes will "be subsidised with additional videos that will help build the world outside of the allocated TV broadcast."


title: Ackley Bridge

text: The first series aired from 7 June to 12 July 2017, and "Ackley Bridge" was subsequently renewed by Channel 4 for a second series consisting of 12 episodes. Following the broadcast of an eight-part third series, "Ackley Bridge" was again renewed by Channel 4, with the fourth series initially set to premiere in September 2020. However, due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television, production was postponed. This meant that the premiere of the series was postponed to April 2021. It was later confirmed that the first episode would premiere on Channel 4 at 19 April 2021 with a revised timeslot of 6pm; the following nine episodes were released afterwards as a boxset on All 4. Another of the changes made to the series included the runtime, which was halved from 60 minutes to 30 minutes. Rebecca Holdsworth, Channel 4's commissioning executive, stated that the shortened runtime was to reflect the viewing habits of younger viewers and to give the series "a new look and feel".


title: Ackley Bridge

text: On 17 June 2021, it was announced in a report by "Production Weekly" that production on the fifth series of "Ackley Bridge" had commenced that week. The series premiered on All 4 on 11 July 2022. In November 2022, Channel 4 announced that they had decided not to renew "Ackley Bridge" further. In a statement, they said: "As a broadcaster, we’re immensely proud of "Ackley Bridge", which over the last five series has received praise for the way in which it has tackled real-life situations and issues in an irreverent and insightful way. However, Channel 4 has a responsibility to continuously look for new and innovative ideas and we have made the difficult decision to not greenlight another series."


title: Ackley Bridge

text: The cast, main and supporting, are a mix of experienced and trained actors, as well as street cast actors. Amy-Leigh Hickman plays Nasreen Paracha, daughter of Kaneez Paracha, who is described as a "quieter and tamer" student, as well as "intelligent", but "ballsy." She felt comfortable acting scenes with Poppy Lee Friar, who plays best friend Missy Booth, due to having a friendship in real life. Friar says she loves portraying Missy, who she describes as "sassy, saucy and a survivor." Television newcomers Nazmeen Kauser and Esa Ashraf play Razia and Saleem Paracha, Kaneez's two other children.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: Former "EastEnders" actors Jo Joyner and Paul Nicholls received the parts of married couple Mandy Carter, the headteacher of Ackley Bridge College, and Steve Bell, a PE teacher. Joyner described Mandy as "career driven", who has "worked so hard over the years to get to the level she's at." Joyner added that she likes the fact her character is not interested in having children. Adil Ray was cast as school sponsor Sadiq Nawaz, as well as Liz White also joining the series as English teacher Emma Keane. Maariah Hussain and Samuel Bottomley, both students at Yorkshire School of Acting in Bradford, were cast as Alya Nawaz and Jordan Wilson, respectively. Hussain described her character as "super intelligent, fiercely righteous, and a bit of a mean girl", but noted that Alya is as "insecure as any teenage girl". Jordan is billed as an artist that is "badly behaved and not fazed by getting into trouble". Matt Zina, principal of Hussain and Bottomley's acting school, said "Ackley Bridge" is Hussain's first role, noting her excitement, and he described Bottomley as an "exciting young actor". Cody Ryan got the part of Hayley Booth through an acting workshop at her school, Buttershaw Business and Enterprise College, which was run by Beverley Keogh casting agency. Students from Trinity Academy, North Halifax Grammar School, The Crossley Heath School, and Calderdale College feature in the series.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: In the second series, Tony Jayawardena was cast as Rashid Hyatt, a science teacher at Ackley Bridge College, and a love interest of Kaneez. Adam Fielding and Jay Saighal also appear. Megan Parkinson was then cast in the role of Sam Murgatroyd, a love interest for Nasreen. Vicky Entwistle guest-starred in the series as the secret wife of Iqbal, as well as Kimberley Walsh, who appeared as "home-wrecking netball teacher" Claire Butterworth. For the third series, several new cast members were cast, including Phoebe Tuffs-Berry, Zara Salim, Hareet Deol, Rob James-Collier, Charlie Hardwick, and Ty Glaser in regular roles. James Atherton and Natalie Gavin, amongst others, also joined the series in recurring roles.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: In December 2019, "Ackley Bridge" was renewed for a fourth series, and it was announced that the series would face an overhaul, including cast changes. Robyn Cara was cast as Kayla Azfal, a "funny, mixed-race pupil torn between her white mum's family and her traditional Pakistani dad's family", alongside sister Marina Perry, played by Carla Woodcock, who was described by Digital Spy as a "mean girl". Yasmin Al-Khudhairi was cast as Fizza Akhtar, the best friend of Kayla. Ryan Dean was cast in the role of Johnny Cooper, a love interest for both Kayla and Fizza, and it was also confirmed that Connor McIntyre would guest star as Johnny's grandfather. Tahir Randhawa, played by Shobhit Piasa, was also introduced as the nephew of Kaneez. The numerous castings came as a result of numerous cast members leaving following the ending of the third series. For the fifth series, the role of Marina was recast to Megan Morgan. New castings for the series included Adam Little as Kyle Dobson, the younger brother of Marina, and Laila Zaidi as Asma Farooqi, a new "hotshot teacher [who] ruffles some feathers".


title: Ackley Bridge

text: Since the series was announced, "Ackley Bridge" has been compared to the BBC school drama "Waterloo Road", with Duncan Lindsay from "Metro" opining that "Channel 4 have been crying out for a solid drama to fit into the early night slot" and that there has been a lack of a "solid school based drama". The series has also been compared to BBC's other long-running school drama series "Grange Hill", as Michael Hogan from "The Daily Telegraph" stated "it could be described as "Grange Hill" with a mobile phone and a northern accent." Sam Wollaston from "The Guardian" wrote that "Ackley Bridge" is similar to a mixture of "Waterloo Road" and "Shameless", and praised their use of social media in the series. He added that the series represents real-life issues and that cultural differences "aren't denied", while also avoiding the usage of stereotypes. Friar and Ryan received praise from viewers in the fourth episode of series one, where the episode revolved around the Booth sisters dealing with the death of their grandmother, played by Rita May, which leads to Hayley being placed in care. Viewers also praised scenes of Lila Sharif, played by Anneika Rose, coming out as lesbian to her students.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: Once again, Friar received praise during the teenage pregnancy storyline in series two, and the portrayal of "supportive female friendships" also received a positive reception. The child abuse storyline in series two involving Jordan (Bottomley) and Cory Wilson (Sam Retford) received praise from media and viewers, who thanked the producers for handling a difficult subject gracefully; Joe Anderton of Digital Spy added that "we can definitely put all the comparisons to "Waterloo Road" aside". Retford received praise again following Cory's troubled home life, mental illness and poverty being covered, with Digital Spy noting that the "Ackley Bridge" "has never been one to shy away from serious, real-world issues". In 2019, Nasreen was listed as one of "Autostraddle"s Favourite Lesbian, Bisexual and Trans TV Characters of 2019, and was described as "groundbreaking". It was noted that representation of Muslims on primetime television is rare, and that "to have a young queer Muslim woman as, essentially, the lead character in an ensemble show" was something to be praised.


title: Ackley Bridge

text: The second and third series of "Ackley Bridge" was acclaimed by critics. "The Guardian" listed the second series as one of the best series to watch in the week it premiered, describing it as a midpoint between fellow Channel 4 programmes "Hollyoaks" and "Shameless". They expressed their admiration for the series exploring serious issue such as race and religion without "lapsing into preachy worthiness". In a similar article a year later, Sarah Hughes of "The Guardian" praised the third series for continuing to explore dark moments while also balancing them with light-hearted comedy. Hughes appreciated "Ackley Bridge" "occasionally breaking out a musical interlude and tackling its teenage love stories with sensitivity and heart". Following the fourth series, Kyann-Sian Williams of "NME" wrote that "Ackley Bridge" "has a few lessons to learn" from "Waterloo Road". Williams accredited "Ackley Bridge" with having much more diversity than "Waterloo Road" and felt that it gave a more representative view of northern life, but felt that "Waterloo Road" had more engaging drama. Williams proposed that "Ackley Bridge"s earlier timeslot of 6pm for the fourth series had led to the edge being taken away and a level of naivety being added to the storylines. She also expressed a desire to see more adult-themed plotlines. Despite her criticism, she noted that the series is "worth a watch" and admired that younger viewers had formed a connection to the series. "Hello" magazine also wrote that viewers disliked the balance of new characters to old characters in the fourth series, noting that they wanted to see more of the original cast members.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The 2020 SummerSlam was the 33rd annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay-per-view and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on August 23, 2020, from the WWE ThunderDome, hosted at the Amway Center in Orlando, Florida. It was WWE's first PPV to be broadcast from the ThunderDome bio-secure bubble. It was also the first SummerSlam since 2011 to not feature Brock Lesnar, who competed in the main event match for the past six years and in 2012. Additionally, it was the first SummerSlam since 2009 to feature MVP.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The event was originally scheduled to take place at the TD Garden in Boston, Massachusetts, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Boston mayor Marty Walsh announced the suspension of all large-scale gatherings and that no permit would be issued for an event that could draw a large crowd before September 7. Since mid-March, WWE had presented the majority of their shows from the WWE Performance Center in Orlando with no fans in attendance due to the pandemic. With the move to the Amway Center, SummerSlam was the first major WWE event held outside of the Performance Center since March, although still without fans physically in attendance; fans were instead able to attend and be seen virtually on LED boards in the venue through the ThunderDome arena staging.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The card comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt defeated Braun Strowman in a Falls Count Anywhere match to win SmackDown's Universal Championship for a second time. Following the match, Roman Reigns returned following a five-month hiatus and attacked both men, turning heel for the first time since 2014. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Randy Orton to retain Raw's WWE Championship. In other prominent matches, Mandy Rose defeated Sonya Deville in a No Disqualification Loser Leaves WWE match, and Asuka defeated Sasha Banks to win the Raw Women's Championship for a second time after losing her match against Bayley for the SmackDown Women's Championship in the opening bout. The event was also notable for the in-ring debut of Rey Mysterio's son Dominik Mysterio, who lost to Seth Rollins in a street fight.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: SummerSlam is an annual pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event, produced every summer by WWE since 1988. Dubbed "The Biggest Party of the Summer," it is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the "Big Four". It has since become considered WWE's second biggest event of the year behind WrestleMania. The 2020 event was the 33rd event in the SummerSlam chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, WWE had to present the majority of its programming for Raw and SmackDown from a behind closed doors set at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida beginning mid-March, although in late May, the promotion began using Performance Center trainees to serve as the live audience, which was further expanded to friends and family members of the wrestlers in mid-June. SummerSlam, as well as the preceding night's NXT TakeOver event, were originally scheduled to take place in Boston, Massachusetts at the TD Garden. On May 8, the ongoing pandemic forced Boston mayor Marty Walsh to suspend all large-scale gatherings until September 7, effectively canceling WWE's planned events in the city.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer reported that the promotion was open to moving SummerSlam to September if it meant having fans in attendance. However, an advertisement that aired during The Horror Show at Extreme Rules confirmed that SummerSlam would still be taking place on August 23, but with no reference to a city or venue. Although "Pro Wrestling Insider" had reported that the event would be held at the WWE Performance Center, the promotion put out an official statement on July 23 that the announcement of a new location would be forthcoming. WWE also stated that refunds would be issued at original point of purchase. "PWInsider" then reported that WWE were looking into hosting SummerSlam on a cruise ship or on a beach.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: On August 17, it was made official that SummerSlam would emanate from the Amway Center, a larger venue also located in Orlando. This made SummerSlam the first major WWE event to be held outside of the Performance Center since March. WWE also entered into an agreement with the Amway Center in which all future broadcasts of "Raw", "SmackDown", and PPVs would be held at the venue "for the foreseeable future." Along with the move, WWE partnered with the full-service fan experience company The Famous Group to provide a "virtual fan experience," a bio-secure bubble dubbed the WWE ThunderDome, which was first utilized for the August 21 episode of "SmackDown". Drones, lasers, pyro, smoke, and projections were utilized to make the wrestlers' entrances "better than WrestleMania," according to WWE Executive Vice President of Television Production Kevin Dunn, who further noted that "We can now do things production-wise that we could never otherwise do." They also installed nearly 1,000 LED boards in the Amway Center to allow for rows and rows of virtual fans, who could register for a free virtual seat. Arena audio was also mixed with that of the virtual fans so that chants from the fans could be heard.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, "Monday Night Raw" and "Friday Night SmackDown".


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: On the July 27 episode of "Raw", Randy Orton cut a promo listing many of his accolades before declaring that he wanted the WWE Championship again. He then issued a challenge to champion Drew McIntyre for a title match at SummerSlam. Later that night, McIntyre accepted Orton's challenge and then defeated Dolph Ziggler in an Extreme Rules match in a rematch from The Horror Show at Extreme Rules, preventing Ziggler from earning the title opportunity. Following the match, Orton attacked McIntyre with an RKO.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: After United States Champion Apollo Crews repeatedly declined MVP's offer to join his faction, later dubbed The Hurt Business, the two faced each other in a non-title match on the June 29 episode of "Raw" that was won by MVP. After the match, Crews was brutally attacked by MVP's teammate Bobby Lashley. The following week, MVP unveiled a new United States Championship belt and stated that he would face Crews for the title at The Horror Show at Extreme Rules. At the event, however, Crews was unable to compete due to failing his pre-match physical thanks to Lashley's attack. MVP then declared himself winner by forfeit and unofficially claimed himself as the new United States Champion. Crews, sporting the older United States title belt, returned on the August 3 episode of "Raw" where he formally faced MVP in a title match where Crews retained. Celebrating his victory, Crews later stated in a backstage interview that he would give the old belt to his children while he kept the new belt MVP introduced. MVP then demanded a rematch for SummerSlam and Crews accepted. On the August 17 episode, Crews defeated Hurt Business' Shelton Benjamin, thus banning Benjamin and Lashley from ringside during the title match at SummerSlam, which was set to occur on the Kickoff pre-show.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Following several weeks of Seth Rollins tormenting and taunting Rey Mysterio, the two finally faced each other at The Horror Show at Extreme Rules in an Eye for an Eye match in which one opponent had to extract an eye of the other to win the match, which was won by Rollins. Mysterio's son Dominik appeared on the July 27 episode of "Raw" to confront Rollins and his disciple Murphy for Rollins' actions, as well as for Rollins gloating about it. Although Dominik attacked Rollins and Murphy, they eventually overpowered Dominik until Aleister Black came out to Dominik's aid. The brawl, however, resulted in Murphy injuring Black's eye using the corner of the steel steps. The following week, Dominik challenged Rollins to a match at SummerSlam. Later, after Rollins and Murphy taunted commentator Tom Phillips (which led to fellow commentator Samoa Joe defending Phillips), they were both attacked from behind by Dominik with a kendo stick. Rollins then accepted Dominik's challenge. During the contract signing the following week, in which Dominik also signed a contract to officially become a WWE wrestler, Rollins stated that Dominik could use any kind of weapon he wanted. After Rollins defeated Humberto Carrillo, Rollins and Murphy attacked Dominik with kendo sticks. Their SummerSlam match was later made a Street Fight.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: At The Horror Show at Extreme Rules, the Raw Women's Championship match between Sasha Banks and defending champion Asuka ended in controversy when Asuka inadvertently spat green mist in the referee's face, which led to Bayley removing the referee's shirt and counting the pin for Banks to unofficially win the title. The following night on "Raw", WWE Chief Brand Officer Stephanie McMahon stated that neither Banks or Asuka won at Extreme Rules and announced a rematch between the two for the following week in a match where the title could be won by pinfall, submission, disqualification, or count out. During the ensuing match, Bayley attacked Asuka's tag team partner Kairi Sane backstage. Asuka then left the match to check on Sane, resulting in her losing by count-out, thus Banks won the title for a record fifth time. On the August 3 episode, Asuka demanded a rematch for the title, however, Banks stated that she had to defeat Bayley to earn the match at SummerSlam, which Asuka did the following week. On that Friday's "SmackDown", as Bayley did not have a challenger for her SmackDown Women's Championship at SummerSlam, Stephanie announced a triple brand battle royal for the following week, featuring wrestlers from Raw, SmackDown, and NXT, with the winner facing Bayley at the event. Surprise entrant Asuka won the battle royal, thus double booking Asuka to face the WWE Women's Tag Team Champions in singles matches for their respective singles titles. On the August 21 episode of "SmackDown", both Banks and Bayley faced Naomi in a Beat the Clock challenge to determine the order of their respective title defenses against Asuka with the loser defending first; Banks subsequently won as she defeated Naomi, who in turn defeated Bayley.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: At Money in the Bank, Braun Strowman retained the Universal Championship against Bray Wyatt, who wrestled as his Firefly Fun House character. After being absent for a few weeks, Wyatt returned on the June 19 episode of "SmackDown", but was interrupted by Strowman. Wyatt stated their rivalry was just getting started before appearing as his old cult leader persona of The Wyatt Family, which formerly included Strowman and from where Strowman had originally made his WWE debut. This led to a non-title match between the two called the Wyatt Swamp Fight at The Horror Show at Extreme Rules, where Wyatt, fighting as his old Eater of Worlds self, defeated Strowman, who disappeared somewhere in the swamp. As Wyatt tried to leave himself, he was pulled back into the water, only for his alter ego The Fiend to appear. On the following "SmackDown", Wyatt stated that his old Eater of Worlds self was done for now and that The Fiend had been unleashed. The following week, Wyatt said that The Fiend wanted the Universal Championship and that no one was safe until he got it, which was made evident later that night when The Fiend attacked Alexa Bliss, Strowman's old tag team partner from Season 1 of "Mixed Match Challenge". On the August 7 episode, The Fiend tried attacking Bliss again, who seemingly showed affection for The Fiend, causing him to back off. Strowman then appeared on the TitanTron, stating he did not care about Bliss and that he emerged a monster from the swamp. Strowman then accepted The Fiend's challenge for the Universal Championship at SummerSlam. The following week saw Strowman attacking Bliss to lure out The Fiend, who appeared in the ring to confront Strowman. On the August 22 episode of "Talking Smack", the stipulation was changed to a Falls Count Anywhere match.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: At the onset of 2020, a romance began between Mandy Rose and Heavy Machinery's Otis. They were set to have a Valentine's Day date, however, Dolph Ziggler arrived first, stealing the date with Rose. Prior to WrestleMania 36, it was revealed that Rose's Fire and Desire tag team partner Sonya Deville had conspired with Ziggler to sabotage the date by sending a fake text to Otis that Rose was running late. Otis then defeated Ziggler at the event with the help of Rose, who also attacked Deville. Rose then entered into a months long feud with Deville, who claimed that Rose was all looks and no talent. This culminated on the July 31 episode of "SmackDown" where Deville attacked Rose backstage and cut some of her hair off. Rose, now sporting shorter hair, then challenged Deville to a Hair vs. Hair match at SummerSlam, which Deville accepted. The following week, Rose had a change of heart, thinking there was still some good in Deville, and asked to put their rivalry behind them. Deville instead raised the stakes and changed the stipulation of their match to a no disqualification match where the loser leaves WWE. This stipulation change was brought about due to a real life incident involving Deville; her home had been broken into by a stalker in Florida. Her lawyers cited it was not a good idea to have a shaved head while in court.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: During the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show, Apollo Crews defended the United States Championship against MVP with MVP's stablemates Bobby Lashley and Shelton Benjamin banned from ringside. In the end, Crews performed a "Toss Powerbomb" on MVP to retain the title. Following the match, Benjamin and Lashley came down to the ring to attack Crews, however, Crews escaped.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The actual pay-per-view opened with Bayley (accompanied by Sasha Banks) defending the SmackDown Women's Championship against Asuka. In the end, Asuka attempted to attack Bayley, who was teetering on the ring ropes, however, Bayley moved out of the way and Asuka inadvertently knocked off Banks, who had been standing on the ring apron to try and distract Asuka. Bayley then performed a roll-up on Asuka to retain the title. Following the match, Bayley and Banks attacked Asuka.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Next, The Street Profits (Angelo Dawkins and Montez Ford) defended WWE Raw Tag Team Championship against Andrade and Angel Garza (accompanied by Zelina Vega). The climax saw Vega stand on the ring apron to distract the referee. Garza performed a superkick on Dawkins, who bumped into Vega knocking her off the ring apron. Dawkins then performed a powerbomb on Garza and Ford performed a "From the Heavens" splash on Garza to retain the title.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: After that, Mandy Rose faced Sonya Deville in a no disqualification match where the loser would leave WWE. During the first half of the match, Rose and Deville fought at ringside where Rose performed a flying lariat on Deville off the announce table. Deville attacked Rose with a chair and slammed her head on the announce table. Rose performed four running knees on Deville to win the match. Following the match, Otis came out to celebrate with Rose where Rose performed her own rendition of "The Caterpillar," Otis's finisher.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: In the next match, Seth Rollins (accompanied by Murphy) fought Dominik Mysterio (accompanied by his father, Rey Mysterio) in a Street Fight. This was Dominik's first match as a WWE wrestler. Dominik applied a Russian Legsweep on Rollins from the top turnbuckle onto table below. Later on Rey Mysterio tried to interfere but Dominik told him not to do so. Later on Rollins handcuffed Rey to the second rope. In the end, Rollins performed a "Stomp" on Dominik to win the match.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Next, Sasha Banks (accompanied by Bayley) defended the Raw Women's Championship against Asuka. The end saw a similar situation occur as the SmackDown Women's Championship match from earlier, with the roles of Banks and Bayley switched, however, Bayley moved out of the way. Asuka then attacked Bayley, but as Banks tried a roll-up on Asuka for the pin, Asuka reversed into the "Asuka Lock" on Banks, forcing her to tap, thus winning the title for a second time.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defended the WWE Championship against Randy Orton. In the end, Orton attempted a "Punt" on McIntyre, however, McIntyre countered with a powerbomb, after a back-and-forth contest as McIntyre attempted a "Claymore" on Orton, Orton avoided it, however, McIntyre performed a backslide pin on Orton to retain the title.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: In the main event, Braun Strowman defended the Universal Championship against "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt in a Falls Count Anywhere match. During the match, the two fought up the entrance ramp and inside the gorilla position. In the end, Strowman used a box cutter to cut the top ring canvas to expose the wooden flooring. The Fiend countered an attack from Strowman and performed a uranage and two consecutive "Sister Abigails" on Strowman onto the exposed wood to regain the title for a second time. After the match, a returning Roman Reigns (in his first appearance in five months) appeared and performed a "Spear" on The Fiend. Reigns then performed a "Spear" on Strowman, who was staggering at ringside, and attacking him with multiple chair shots. Reigns then returned to the ring to execute another "Spear" on The Fiend before hoisting up the Universal Championship.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The following night on "Raw", WWE Champion Drew McIntyre gloated how he had defeated "the greatest wrestler ever" with a wrestling move, and stated that he knew that Randy Orton wanted a rematch. As McIntyre made his exit, Orton attacked McIntyre and delivered two Punts to him. Later, McIntyre attacked Orton during Orton's match against the debuting Keith Lee and the brawl ended with Orton delivering a third Punt to McIntyre, taking him out for the next couple of weeks. On the August 31 episode, Orton earned himself another title opportunity against McIntyre for the WWE Championship at Clash of Champions.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Sasha Banks challenged Asuka to a rematch for the Raw Women's Championship, but as a lumberjack match. However, Banks was unsuccessful in regaining the title, thus ending their feud.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Dominik Mysterio teamed with his father Rey Mysterio in a tag team match against Seth Rollins and Murphy, but the match ended in a disqualification after Retribution attacked the Mysterios. A rematch was scheduled for Payback.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: Also on the following "Raw", United States Champion Apollo Crews was scheduled to defend his title against The Hurt Business' Bobby Lashley at Payback. The two also had an arm wrestling match that Crews won when he took a cheap shot by stomping on Lashley's foot.


title: SummerSlam (2020)

text: The day after SummerSlam, it was announced that new Universal Champion "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt would defend the title against Braun Strowman and Roman Reigns in a No Holds Barred Triple Threat match at Payback. Subsequently on "SmackDown", it was revealed that Reigns aligned himself with Paul Heyman.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: Pilea peperomioides (), the Chinese money plant, UFO plant, pancake plant or missionary plant, is a species of flowering plant in the nettle family Urticaceae, native to Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in southern China.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: The Scottish botanist George Forrest was the first westerner to collect "Pilea peperomioides", in 1906 and again in 1910, in the Cang Mountain range in Yunnan Province.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: In 1945, the species was found by Norwegian missionary Agnar Espegren in Yunnan Province when he was fleeing from Hunan Province. He took cuttings of "P. peperomioides" back to Norway, by way of India in 1946, and from there it was spread throughout Scandinavia.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: "Pilea peperomioides" is an example of a plant that has been spread amongst amateur gardeners via cuttings, without being well-known to western botanists until the late 20th century. This led to the plant earning the nickname of “friendship plant”, or “pass-along plant”. Many horticulturists and hobbyists were not aware of its true classification, in the "nettle" family Urticaceae, until the 1980s. The first known published image of it appeared in the "Kew magazine" in 1984. Through the early 2010s and 2020s, "P. peperomioides" became widely available commercially, and is no longer a curiosity. The initial offerings for sale on the mainstream plant market saw great demand for the plant, with prices going as high as $75 USD for a single unrooted cutting, advertised on Instagram, as late as 2019. The average price for a 3- or 4-inch pot being around $5-10 USD, with the median price for slightly larger plants capping out around $20 USD, in September of 2022. The affordable price, coupled with its ease of propagation, has led to a gradual decrease in cost (yet certainly not popularity) of this species.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: "Pilea peperomioides" is an erect, evergreen perennial plant, with shiny, dark green, circular leaves up to in diameter on long petioles. The leaves are described as peltate—circular, with the petiole attached near the centre. The plant is completely hairless. It grows to around tall and wide in the wild, sometimes more indoors. The stem is greenish to dark brown, usually unbranched and upright, and lignified at the base when mature. In poor growing conditions, it loses its leaves in the lower part of the stem and assumes a distinctive habit. The flowers are inconspicuous.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: The plant has a superficial resemblance to some species of "Peperomia" (hence the specific epithet "peperomioides"), also popular as cultivated plants but in a different family, the Piperaceae. It is also sometimes confused with other peltate-leaved plants such as "Nasturtium", "Umbilicus" and "Hydrocotyle".


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: This species occurs only in China: in the southwest of Sichuan province and the west of Yunnan province. It grows on shady, damp rocks in forests at altitudes from 1500 to 3000m. It is endangered in its native habitat. However, it is kept in China and worldwide as an ornamental plant.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: With a minimum temperature of , in temperate regions, "P. peperomioides" is cultivated as a houseplant. "P. peperomioides" is propagated from plantlets that sprout on the trunk of the parent plant (these are called offshoots) or from underground shoots (called rhizomes). These offshoots are often passed on as a lucky plant ("lucky thaler") or friendship plant. Since constant temperatures and high humidity have a positive effect on plant growth, this plant species is suitable for planting terrariums.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: Although the plant is endangered in its native habitat, it is among the most popular houseplants today. It is in high demand because it is slim, easy to grow, and tolerates dry environments. However, it is not a new fad, and has been further popularized by social media trends on Instagram, TikTok, and other websites. The plant is readily available in retail greenhouses, which in turn are supplied by industrial-scale farming enterprises.


title: Pilea peperomioides

text: There are three different cultivars which have appeared in the last few years “Sugar”, “White Splash” and “Mojito.”


title: Knot theory

text: In the mathematical field of topology, knot theory is the study of mathematical knots. While inspired by knots which appear in daily life, such as those in shoelaces and rope, a mathematical knot differs in that the ends are joined so it cannot be undone, the simplest knot being a ring (or "unknot"). In mathematical language, a knot is an embedding of a circle in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, formula_1 (in topology, a circle is not bound to the classical geometric concept, but to all of its homeomorphisms). Two mathematical knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of formula_1 upon itself (known as an ambient isotopy); these transformations correspond to manipulations of a knotted string that do not involve cutting it or passing through itself.


title: Knot theory

text: Knots can be described in various ways. Using different description methods, there may be more than one description of the same knot. For example, a common method of describing a knot is a planar diagram called a knot diagram, in which any knot can be drawn in many different ways. Therefore, a fundamental problem in knot theory is determining when two descriptions represent the same knot.


title: Knot theory

text: A complete algorithmic solution to this problem exists, which has unknown complexity. In practice, knots are often distinguished using a "knot invariant", a "quantity" which is the same when computed from different descriptions of a knot. Important invariants include knot polynomials, knot groups, and hyperbolic invariants.


title: Knot theory

text: The original motivation for the founders of knot theory was to create a table of knots and links, which are knots of several components entangled with each other. More than six billion knots and links have been tabulated since the beginnings of knot theory in the 19th century.


title: Knot theory

text: To gain further insight, mathematicians have generalized the knot concept in several ways. Knots can be considered in other three-dimensional spaces and objects other than circles can be used; see "knot (mathematics)". A higher-dimensional knot is an "n"-dimensional sphere embedded in ("n"+2)-dimensional Euclidean space.


title: Knot theory

text: Archaeologists have discovered that knot tying dates back to prehistoric times. Besides their uses such as recording information and tying objects together, knots have interested humans for their aesthetics and spiritual symbolism. Knots appear in various forms of Chinese artwork dating from several centuries BC (see Chinese knotting). The endless knot appears in Tibetan Buddhism, while the Borromean rings have made repeated appearances in different cultures, often representing strength in unity. The Celtic monks who created the Book of Kells lavished entire pages with intricate Celtic knotwork.


title: Knot theory

text: A mathematical theory of knots was first developed in 1771 by Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde who explicitly noted the importance of topological features when discussing the properties of knots related to the geometry of position. Mathematical studies of knots began in the 19th century with Carl Friedrich Gauss, who defined the linking integral . In the 1860s, Lord Kelvin's theory that atoms were knots in the aether led to Peter Guthrie Tait's creation of the first knot tables for complete classification. Tait, in 1885, published a table of knots with up to ten crossings, and what came to be known as the Tait conjectures. This record motivated the early knot theorists, but knot theory eventually became part of the emerging subject of topology.


title: Knot theory

text: These topologists in the early part of the 20th century—Max Dehn, J. W. Alexander, and others—studied knots from the point of view of the knot group and invariants from homology theory such as the Alexander polynomial. This would be the main approach to knot theory until a series of breakthroughs transformed the subject.


title: Knot theory

text: In the late 1970s, William Thurston introduced hyperbolic geometry into the study of knots with the hyperbolization theorem. Many knots were shown to be hyperbolic knots, enabling the use of geometry in defining new, powerful knot invariants. The discovery of the Jones polynomial by Vaughan Jones in 1984 , and subsequent contributions from Edward Witten, Maxim Kontsevich, and others, revealed deep connections between knot theory and mathematical methods in statistical mechanics and quantum field theory. A plethora of knot invariants have been invented since then, utilizing sophisticated tools such as quantum groups and Floer homology.


title: Knot theory

text: In the last several decades of the 20th century, scientists became interested in studying physical knots in order to understand knotting phenomena in DNA and other polymers. Knot theory can be used to determine if a molecule is chiral (has a "handedness") or not . Tangles, strings with both ends fixed in place, have been effectively used in studying the action of topoisomerase on DNA . Knot theory may be crucial in the construction of quantum computers, through the model of topological quantum computation .


title: Knot theory

text: A knot is created by beginning with a one-dimensional line segment, wrapping it around itself arbitrarily, and then fusing its two free ends together to form a closed loop . Simply, we can say a knot formula_3 is a "simple closed curve" or "(closed) Jordan curve" (see Curve) — that is: a "nearly" injective and continuous function formula_4, with the only "non-injectivity" being formula_5. Topologists consider knots and other entanglements such as links and braids to be equivalent if the knot can be pushed about smoothly, without intersecting itself, to coincide with another knot.


title: Knot theory

text: The idea of knot equivalence is to give a precise definition of when two knots should be considered the same even when positioned quite differently in space. A formal mathematical definition is that two knots formula_6 are equivalent if there is an orientation-preserving homeomorphism formula_7 with formula_8.


title: Knot theory

text: What this definition of knot equivalence means is that two knots are equivalent when there is a continuous family of homeomorphisms formula_9 of space onto itself, such that the last one of them carries the first knot onto the second knot. (In detail: Two knots formula_10 and formula_11 are equivalent if there exists a continuous mapping formula_12 such that a) for each formula_13 the mapping taking formula_14 to formula_15 is a homeomorphism of formula_16 onto itself; b) formula_17 for all formula_14; and c) formula_19. Such a function formula_20 is known as an ambient isotopy.)


title: Knot theory

text: These two notions of knot equivalence agree exactly about which knots are equivalent: Two knots that are equivalent under the orientation-preserving homeomorphism definition are also equivalent under the ambient isotopy definition, because any orientation-preserving homeomorphisms of formula_16 to itself is the final stage of an ambient isotopy starting from the identity. Conversely, two knots equivalent under the ambient isotopy definition are also equivalent under the orientation-preserving homeomorphism definition, because the formula_22 (final) stage of the ambient isotopy must be an orientation-preserving homeomorphism carrying one knot to the other.


title: Knot theory

text: The basic problem of knot theory, the recognition problem, is determining the equivalence of two knots. Algorithms exist to solve this problem, with the first given by Wolfgang Haken in the late 1960s . Nonetheless, these algorithms can be extremely time-consuming, and a major issue in the theory is to understand how hard this problem really is . The special case of recognizing the unknot, called the unknotting problem, is of particular interest . In February 2021 Marc Lackenby announced a new unknot recognition algorithm that runs in quasi-polynomial time.


title: Knot theory

text: It might seem tempting to define two knots (embeddings f, g : S → R) as being equivalent precisely when there is any continuous family of embeddings {f : S → R : 0 ≤ t ≤ 1} such that f = f and f = g. But in this case, all knots would be equivalent. That is because a knot can be "pulled tight", that is, made to disappear by causing it to occupy less and less of the t parameter, approaching zero — as well as a smaller and smaller regions of 3-space, approaching a point — until the knot has become the standard unknot. (This occurs only for t = 1.) Since this works for any knot that can be localized, it follows that any two such knots are equivalent.


title: Knot theory

text: "Knots that can be localized" consist of the knots that can be represented as a closed polygon embedded in 3-space, otherwise known as tame knots.


title: Knot theory

text: A useful way to visualise and manipulate knots is to project the knot onto a plane—think of the knot casting a shadow on the wall. A small change in the direction of projection will ensure that it is one-to-one except at the double points, called "crossings", where the "shadow" of the knot crosses itself once transversely . At each crossing, to be able to recreate the original knot, the over-strand must be distinguished from the under-strand. This is often done by creating a break in the strand going underneath. The resulting diagram is an immersed plane curve with the additional data of which strand is over and which is under at each crossing. (These diagrams are called knot diagrams when they represent a knot and link diagrams when they represent a link.) Analogously, knotted surfaces in 4-space can be related to immersed surfaces in 3-space.


title: Knot theory

text: A reduced diagram is a knot diagram in which there are no reducible crossings (also nugatory or removable crossings), or in which all of the reducible crossings have been removed. A petal projection is a type of projection in which, instead of forming double points, all strands of the knot meet at a single crossing point, connected to it by loops forming non-nested "petals".


title: Knot theory

text: In 1927, working with this diagrammatic form of knots, J. W. Alexander and Garland Baird Briggs, and independently Kurt Reidemeister, demonstrated that two knot diagrams belonging to the same knot can be related by a sequence of three kinds of moves on the diagram, shown below. These operations, now called the "Reidemeister moves", are:


title: Knot theory

text: The proof that diagrams of equivalent knots are connected by Reidemeister moves relies on an analysis of what happens under the planar projection of the movement taking one knot to another. The movement can be arranged so that almost all of the time the projection will be a knot diagram, except at finitely many times when an "event" or "catastrophe" occurs, such as when more than two strands cross at a point or multiple strands become tangent at a point. A close inspection will show that complicated events can be eliminated, leaving only the simplest events: (1) a "kink" forming or being straightened out; (2) two strands becoming tangent at a point and passing through; and (3) three strands crossing at a point. These are precisely the Reidemeister moves .


title: Knot theory

text: A knot invariant is a "quantity" that is the same for equivalent knots . For example, if the invariant is computed from a knot diagram, it should give the same value for two knot diagrams representing equivalent knots. An invariant may take the same value on two different knots, so by itself may be incapable of distinguishing all knots. An elementary invariant is tricolorability.