title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The Falkirk Wheel is a rotating boat lift in Tamfourhill, Falkirk, in central Scotland, connecting the Forth and Clyde Canal with the Union Canal. It reconnects the two canals for the first time since the 1930s. It opened in 2002 as part of the Millennium Link project.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The plan to regenerate central Scotland's canals and reconnect Glasgow with Edinburgh was led by British Waterways with support and funding from seven local authorities, the Scottish Enterprise Network, the European Regional Development Fund, and the Millennium Commission. Planners decided early on to create a dramatic 21st-century landmark structure to reconnect the canals, instead of simply recreating the historic lock flight.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The wheel raises boats by , but the Union Canal is still higher than the aqueduct which meets the wheel. Boats must also pass through a pair of locks between the top of the wheel and the Union Canal. The Falkirk Wheel is the only rotating boat lift of its kind in the world, and one of two working boat lifts in the United Kingdom, the other being the Anderton Boat Lift.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The two canals served by the wheel were previously connected by a series of 11 locks. With a difference in height, it required of water per run and took most of a day to pass through the flight.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: By the 1930s these had fallen into disuse, and the locks were dismantled in 1933. The Forth and Clyde Canal closed at the end of 1962, and by the mid-1970s the Union Canal was filled in at both ends, rendered impassable by culverts in two places and run in pipes under a housing estate. The British Waterways Board (BWB) came into existence on 1 January 1963, the day the Forth and Clyde Canal was closed, with the objective of finding a broad strategy for the future of canals in the United Kingdom.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: In 1976, the BWB decided after a meeting with local councils that the Forth and Clyde Canal, fragmented by various developments, was to have its remaining navigability preserved by building new bridges with sufficient headroom for boats and continuing to maintain the existing locks. Restoration of sea-to-sea navigation was deemed too expensive at the time, but there were to be no further restrictions on its use. A 1979 survey report documented 69 obstructions to navigation, and sought the opinions of twenty interested parties to present the Forth and Clyde Local (Subject) Plan in 1980.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The Lotteries Act 1993 resulted in the creation of the Millennium Commission to disseminate funds raised by the sale of lottery tickets for selected "good causes." In 1996, when sufficient funds had been accumulated, the Commission invited applications to "do anything they thought desirable ... to support worthwhile causes which would mark the year 2000 and the start of the new millennium." The conditions were that the Commission would fund no more than half of the project, with the remaining balance being covered by project backers.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The BWB had made an earlier plan for the reopening of the canal link, which comprehensively covered the necessary work. In 1994, the BWB announced its plan to bid for funding, which was submitted in 1995 on behalf of the Millennium Link Partnership. The plans called for the canals to be opened to their original operating dimensions, with of headroom above the water. The whole project had a budget of £78 million.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: On 14 February 1997, the Commission announced it would support the Link with £32 million of funding, 42% of the project cost. The Wheel and its associated basin was priced at £17 million, more than a fifth of the total budget. Another £46 million had to be raised in the next two years before construction could commence, with contributions from BWB, seven local councils, Scottish Enterprise, and private donations being augmented by £8.6 million from the European Regional Development Fund.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The Morrison-Bachy Soletanche Joint Venture Team submitted their original design, which resembled a Ferris wheel with four gondolas, in 1999. It was agreed by all parties that the design was functional, but not the showpiece the BWB were looking for. After being asked to reconsider, a 20-strong team of architects and engineers was assembled by British Waterways. Under the leadership of Tony Kettle from architects RMJM, the initial concepts and images were created with the mechanical concepts proposed by the design team from Butterley and M G Bennetts. This was an intense period of work with the final design concept completed in a three-week period during the summer of 1999. The final design was a co-operative effort between the British Waterways Board, engineering consultants Arup, Butterley Engineering and RMJM.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Diagrams of gear systems that had been proposed in the very first concepts were modelled by Kettle using his 8-year-old daughter's Lego. Drawings and artist impressions were shown to clients and funders. The visitor centre was designed by another RMJM architect, Paul Stallan.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Inspirations for the design include a double-headed Celtic axe (a bearded axe), the propeller of a ship and the ribcage of a whale. Kettle described the Wheel as "a beautiful, organic flowing thing, like the spine of a fish," and the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland described it as "a form of contemporary sculpture."


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Models and renderings of the Falkirk Wheel were displayed in a 2012 exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Since 2007, the Falkirk Wheel has been featured on the obverse of the new series of £50 notes issued by the Bank of Scotland. The series of notes commemorates Scottish engineering achievements with illustrations of bridges in Scotland such as the Glenfinnan Viaduct and the Forth Bridge.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: In March 1999 Donald Dewar, the Secretary of State for Scotland, cut the first sod of turf to begin work at lock 31 on the Forth and Clyde Canal. Over 1000 people were employed in the construction of the wheel, which has been designed to last for at least 120 years.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The wheel was fully constructed and assembled at the Butterley Engineering plant in Ripley, Derbyshire. The structure was then dismantled in the summer of 2001, and transported on 35 lorry loads to Falkirk, before being reassembled into five sections on the ground and lifted into place. Construction of the canal required of excavation, a canal tunnel of diameter, aqueducts of and , three sets of locks and a number of bridges, as well as of access roads. The Rough Castle Tunnel was driven in three stages, with the two upper quarters being drilled with a standard excavator before the lower half was dug using a modified road planer in layers. This technique was 15% cheaper and reduced the build time of the tunnel by two weeks.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The ground on which the wheel is built was previously used as an open cast fire clay mine, a coal mine, and a tar works, resulting in contamination of the canal with tar and mercury. of loosely packed backfill from the mining operations containing large sandstone boulders was not considered adequately solid foundation for the size of the structure, so deep foundations with thirty concrete piles socketed onto the bedrock were used.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Due to the changing load as the wheel rotates in alternating directions, some sections experience total stress reversals. In order to avoid fatigue that could lead to cracks, sections were bolted rather than welded, using over 14,000 bolts and 45,000 bolt holes.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The aqueduct, engineered by Arup, was originally described as "unbuildable", but was eventually realised using rebar. The original plans also showed the canal being built straight through the Antonine Wall, but this was changed after a petition in favour of two locks and a tunnel under the wall.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: On 24 May 2002, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Falkirk Wheel as part of her Golden Jubilee celebrations. The opening was delayed a month due to flooding caused by vandals who forced open the wheel's gates. The damage, which cost £350,000 to repair, resulted in the dry well being flooded, damaging electrical and hydraulic equipment.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The wheel has an overall diameter of and consists of two opposing arms extending beyond the central axle and taking the shape of a Celtic-inspired, double-headed axe. Two sets of these axe-shaped arms are connected to a diameter central axle of length . Two diametrically opposed water-filled caissons, each with a capacity of , are fitted between the ends of the arms.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The caissons or gondolas always carry a combined weight of of water and boats, with the gondolas themselves each weighing . Care is taken to maintain the water levels on each side, thus balancing the weight on each arm. According to Archimedes' principle, floating objects displace their own weight in water, so when the boat enters, the amount of water leaving the caisson weighs exactly the same as the boat. This is achieved by maintaining the water levels on each side to within a difference of using a site-wide computer control system comprising water level sensors, automated sluices and pumps. It takes to power ten hydraulic motors, which consume per half-turn, roughly the same as boiling eight kettles of water.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Each of the two caissons is wide, and can hold up to four canal boats. The wheel raises or lowers boats a total of , and two subsequent locks raise or lower boats another .


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Watertight doors at each end match doors located on the upper structure and lower dock pit. Due to space concerns, where a normal hinged door would dramatically reduce the useful length of the caisson, vertically rising hinged doors were chosen. The doors are raised from a recess in the base of the caisson and powered by a hydraulic lance when docked.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: After the wheel arms are moved into the vertical position, the locking mechanisms are activated. These include securing pins that are protruded into the caisson bases, and hydraulic clamps that are raised to hold the caissons in place. Additionally, a set of larger securing pins at the lower structure is used to hold the wheel. Although the door of the upper caisson and the door that holds the water at the upper aqueduct are aligned, there is a gap between them. The upper aqueduct door has a U-shape watertight frame which can be extended to push against the caisson door to seal the gap. The water is pumped into the gap to fill to the water level. Once the water in the gap is equalized, the door on the aqueduct side is lowered, followed by the door on the caisson side, allowing the boat to pass. On the reverse direction, when the boat is in the caisson, the caisson door is raised, followed by the upper aqueduct door. The water is pumped out of the gap. Then the U-shape watertight seal is recessed back closer to the upper aqueduct door. Finally, the locking mechanisms are removed before the wheel is turned. This process is similar for the door at the lower canal basin as well.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The area housing the machinery to drive the wheel is located in the final pillar of the aqueduct, and contains seven chambers connected by ladders. Access is by a door located at ground level or an entrance halfway up the tower with a gantry crane to facilitate the installation of equipment.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The ground floor houses the transformers for powering the wheel. When the wheel was flooded by vandals in April 2002, this room was filled to within of the 11 kV busbars. On the first floor is a standby generator and switchgear should the mains supply to the wheel fail. The second floor houses a pair of hydraulic pumps that drive the hydraulic motors in the chamber above. Power is supplied directly to the axle with 10 hydraulic motors, which also double as brakes. Connected to each motor is a 100:1 gear system to reduce the rotation speed.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The caissons are required to turn with the wheel in order to remain level. Whilst the weight of the caissons on the bearings is generally sufficient to rotate them, a gearing mechanism using three large identically sized gears connected by two smaller ones ensures that they turn at precisely the correct speed and remain correctly balanced.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Each end of each caisson is supported on small wheels, which run on rails on the inside face of the diameter holes at the ends of the arms. The rotation is controlled by a train of gears: an alternating pattern of three diameter ring gears and two smaller idler gears, all with external teeth, as shown in the picture. The large central gear is fitted loosely over the axle at its machine-room end and fixed in place to prevent it from rotating. The two smaller gears are fixed to each of the arms of the wheel at its machine-room end. When the motors rotate the central axle, the arms swing and the small gears engage the central gear, which results in the smaller gears rotating at a higher speed than the wheel but in the same direction. The smaller gears engage the large ring gears at the end of the caissons, driving them at the same speed as the wheel but in the opposite direction. This cancels the rotation due to the arms and keeps the caissons stable and perfectly level.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The docking-pit is a drydock-like port isolated from the lower canal basin by means of watertight gates and kept dry by means of water pumps. When the wheel stops with its arms in the vertical position it is possible for boats to enter and exit the lower caisson when the gates are open without flooding the docking-pit. The space below the caisson is empty.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: Without the docking-pit, the caissons and extremities of the arms of the wheel would be immersed in water at the lower canal basin each time the wheel rotated. The buoyancy of the lower caisson would make it more difficult to turn the wheel.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: A visitor centre is located on the east side of the lower basin. Boat trips on the wheel depart approximately once an hour. Since the wheel opened, around 5.5 million people have visited and 1.3 million have taken a boat trip, with around 400,000 people visiting the wheel annually.


title: Falkirk Wheel

text: The wheel has been mentioned on Smithsonian Channel in the United States twice since 2017. The first was "Aerial Britain" when the episode covered Scotland in 2017. The second was "How Did They Build That?" as part of the "Arctic Structure and Auditoria" episode which aired in 2021.


title: K. Michelle

text: Kimberly Michelle Pate (born March 4, 1982) is an American singer, actress, and television personality. She is most known from VH1's "" and after appearing as a regular cast member for two seasons on the reality television series, she became a regular on the show, though she is an already accomplished singer. Michelle subsequently signed with Atlantic Records. Her debut studio album, "Rebellious Soul", debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, and number one on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts. Her second studio album "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?" was released on December 9, 2014. The album debuted at eight six in the US and spawned three singles "Love 'Em All", "Maybe I Should Call" and "Hard to Do". The album sold 87,000 copies in its first week in sales.


title: K. Michelle

text: In March 2016, Michelle's third studio album, "More Issues Than Vogue", was released to positive reviews. Singles from the album included "Not a Little Bit" and "Ain't You". Her fourth album, "" was released on December 8, 2017 and debuted at the top ten of the "Billboard"s Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. Her fifth studio album, "All Monsters Are Human" was released on January 31, 2020. The album was preceded by two singles "Supahood" and "The Rain".


title: K. Michelle

text: She has also starred in reality series "", "" and "" (under the name Kimberly), as well as in her own special, "The Rebellious Soul Musical", directed by Golden Globe winner Idris Elba. Throughout her career, Michelle has received four BET Awards nominations. She won a Soul Train Music Awards and a NAACP Image Awards in 2013 and 2014. She was also honored with an ASCAP Women Behind the Music award in 2015.


title: K. Michelle

text: Kimberly Michelle Pate was born on March 4, 1982, in Memphis, Tennessee. As a child, Michelle learned to play piano and guitar, and took voice lessons from Bob Westbrook, who also trained pop singers Justin Timberlake and Britney Spears. She graduated from Overton High School in Memphis in 2000. She earned a music scholarship to Florida A&M University (FAMU) by yodeling at her audition. She was crowned the Freshman Attendant of the Homecoming Court at the age of 18. She is a member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority having pledged FAMU's Beta Alpha chapter in fall 2001. She reports that she stopped attending classes for a short time to have a son born in September 2004, then returned to finish college. She graduated from FAMU with honors and was accepted into several law schools but did not attend, opting to pursue music full-time.


title: K. Michelle

text: Michelle's age was reported in her college yearbook as 18 in late 2000, which would put her birth year at 1982. Her age was reported as 31 in 2015 by "The Source" magazine, which would put her birth year at 1984. AllMusic's biography of her initially gave a birth year of 1986, but as of at least January 2022 says only “1980s.” Michelle gave 1986 in a 2013 interview. The editor of "GossipWeLove.com" commented on the discrepancies in reported birth year, registering disbelief that Michelle could have entered college, and won her class's prom beauty contest, at age 14. Michelle formed a college friendship with "Basketball Wives" actress Royce Reed who was born in 1981.


title: K. Michelle

text: In 2009, Michelle signed a deal with Jive Records and released her first R&B-charting single, "Fakin' It", featuring Missy Elliot. The song peaked at number 100 on the U.S. Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. During 2010, Michelle released three follow-up singles, "Fallin'", "I Just Can't Do This" and "How Many Times", which charted at numbers 56, 53, and 53 respectively on the U.S. Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. At the time, Michelle was in the process of recording her debut album, originally titled "Pain Medicine", which was slated to have features from artists such as Trina, Gucci Mane, Akon, Usher, and R. Kelly, who she would credit as her mentor during this period. However, her album was scrapped when Jive Records folded in 2011.


title: K. Michelle

text: In 2012, Michelle joined the cast of VH1's docu-soap "". The chronicles her return to the music industry after several personal struggles, including an abusive relationship with a music executive. K was dubbed the show's breakout star, signing a multi-album record deal with Atlantic Records shortly after filming. She returned to the show for a season, which chronicled the recording of her debut studio album, "Rebellious Soul". On May 20, 2013, she released the album's lead single, titled "V.S.O.P". The track was produced by Pop & Oak, and samples "Very Special", performed by Debra Laws, as well as "That's How Long" performed by The Chi-Lites. "V.S.O.P." reached at number 89 on the US Hot 100 Singles and number 27 on the US "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts. Its music video, directed by Benny Boom, was released on June 29, 2013. "Rebellious Soul" was released on August 13, 2013, debuting at number 2 on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 and number one on the U.S. Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums charts, with first-week sales of 72,000 copies in the United States. As of December 2014, "Rebellious Soul" has sold over 260,000 copies.


title: K. Michelle

text: On November 4, 2013, K. Michelle headlined her first tour, "The Rebellious Soul Tour", presented by BET Music Matters. The 19 city tour kicked off in San Francisco and ended December 3, 2013 in Boston. It included stops in Los Angeles, Houston, Chicago, and Atlanta. Opening acts featured Chris Brown protégé Sevyn Streeter and Tiara Thomas. On January 14, 2014, the album's second single "Can't Raise a Man" was released, which peaked at number 94 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 23 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs charts.


title: K. Michelle

text: During "Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta"s reunion special, K. Michelle announced that she was leaving the show to join the cast of "" in season four. During this time, Michelle joined Robin Thicke on the North American leg of his Blurred Lines Tour, which began on February 21, 2014, in Atlanta, Georgia. On February 14, 2014, she released a mixtape project titled "Still No Fucks Given". K's purpose on "Love & Hop: New York" was mainly served to set up her own spin-off series, "", which premiered November 3, 2014.


title: K. Michelle

text: On September 16, 2014, Michelle released "Love 'Em All" on iTunes as the first single from her second album "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?". Kevin, editor-in-chief of Spin Media website "Direct Lyrics", described "Love 'Em All" as a "powerful and gritty" song and a "heartbreaker anthem". On November 17, 2014, Michelle released "How Do You Know?" as her third single from "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?", which shot to number one on the iTunes R&B chart. Michelle announced that she would go on a joint tour with Keyshia Cole beginning in January 2015. "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?" was released through Atlantic Records on December 9, 2014. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart, number one on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop chart and number one on the R&B chart, selling 87,000 copies in the first week of its release. Although "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?" charted lower than "Rebellious Soul", it topped "Rebellious Soul"'s first-week sales. In its second week, the album sold 30,000 copies, bringing its sales to around 120,000 copies. As of June 2015, "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?" has sold over 230,000 copies. "Rebellious Soul" and "Anybody Wanna Buy a Heart?" have sold 500,000 copies worldwide.


title: K. Michelle

text: On January 21, 2016, K. Michelle released the single "Not a Little Bit" from her third studio album "More Issues Than Vogue". From February 11, 2016, Michelle released several promo singles from the album, including "Ain't You", "Mindful" and "Time". On February 12, 2016, "More Issues Than Vogue" was made available for pre-order before its official release on March 25, 2016. After making guest appearances in seasons and of "Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta", K. Michelle would rejoin the main cast in season , which chronicled her return to Atlanta and the release of her third album, "More Issues Than Vogue".


title: K. Michelle

text: Michelle toured for a month from July 14, 2016, to August 14, 2016 for her "Hello Kimberly Tour". On September 30, 2016, Michelle released "Forward", from the soundtrack to the film "The Birth of a Nation".


title: K. Michelle

text: On February 3, 2017, Michelle released the single "Got Me Crazy", alongside DJ Feezy, Rick Ross and Fabolous. On February 6, 2017, "" ended after three seasons. On September 8, 2017, Michelle released two singles from her fourth album "", "Birthday" and "Either Way", featuring Chris Brown.


title: K. Michelle

text: In 2018, K. Michelle joined the cast of "" in season five, making her the only person in the franchise's history to appear in three incarnations of "Love & Hip Hop" as a main cast member. Michelle announced that her next project will be titled "FAB", an acronym for ""Fuck All U Bitches"". On November 19, 2018, Michelle released the song "Save Me". It was later announced that she had signed a new record deal with Entertainment One Music.


title: K. Michelle

text: In 2019, K. Michelle also appeared in the "Love & Hip Hop" clip show specials "Love & Hip Hop Awards: Most Certified" (where she won the "Clapback Queens" category) and "40 Greatest Love & Hip Hop Moments: The Reboot". In November 2019, during one of her O.S.D. Tour stops, Michelle announced the title of her fifth album, "All Monsters Are Human", set to be released in January 2020. On January 1, 2020, Michelle released her sixth mixtape "Not 1 Fuck Given" (which also marks her third body of work from her "0 Fucks Given" series). On the same day, she shared a lengthy message to her supporters on Instagram where she called her fifth album a "masterpiece." She wrote, "Where do I begin? Well first I just want to say thank you for loving on me. The last two years have been a real journey and growing experience for me. I literally was fighting for my life. I know I've had you guys waiting for my album so I wanted to give you something to vibe to until then. You know for years now we've had fun together remixing my favorite songs." On January 10, she revealed cover art and tracklist for "All Monsters Are Human" and made the album available for pre-order on digital retailers Apple Music and Amazon.


title: K. Michelle

text: "All Monsters Are Human" was released to positive critical reviews on January 31, 2020, along with a music video for one of the songs from the album, "Just Like Jay". The album debuted and peaked at number 51 on the US "Billboard" 200 with first week sales of 8,200 copies.


title: K. Michelle

text: K. Michelle has confirmed that her sixth studio album, "I'm The Problem", will be released in 2022. It will mark her final R&B album. The first single is expected to release in February 2022. She has also been teasing her long-awaited country album, which expected to drop after her final R&B album.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris is a city and county seat of Lamar County, Texas, United States. Located in Northeast Texas at the western edge of the Piney Woods, the population of the city was 24,171 in 2020.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Present-day Lamar County was part of Red River County during the Republic of Texas. By 1840, population growth necessitated the organization of a new county. George Washington Wright, who had served in the Third Congress of the Republic of Texas as a representative from Red River County, was a major proponent of the new county. The Fifth Congress established the new county on December 17, 1840, and named it after Mirabeau B. Lamar, who was the first Vice President and the second President of the Republic of Texas.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 1877, 1896, and 1916, major fires in the city forced considerable rebuilding. The 1916 fire destroyed almost half the town and caused an estimated $11 million in property damage. The fire ruined most of the central business district and swept through a residential area. The burned structures included the Federal Building and Post Office, the Lamar County Courthouse and Jail, City Hall, most commercial buildings, and several churches.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 1893, black teenager Henry Smith was accused of murder, tortured, and then burned to death on a scaffold in front of thousands of spectators in Paris. In 1920, two black brothers from the Arthur family were tied to a flagpole and burned to death at the Paris fairgrounds. The city has prominent memorials to the Confederacy, but has no acknowledgement of these killings.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 1943, the U.S. Supreme Court in "Largent v. Texas" struck down a Paris ordinance that prohibited a person from selling or distributing religious publications without first obtaining a city-issued permit. The Court ruled that the ordinance abridged freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Following a tradition of American cities named "Paris" (named after France's capital), the city commissioned a replica of the Eiffel Tower in 1993 and installed it on site of the Love Civic Center, southeast of the town square. In 1998, presumably as a response to the 1993 construction of a tower in Paris, Tennessee, the city placed a giant red cowboy hat atop its tower. The current Eiffel Tower replica is at least the second one; an earlier replica constructed of wood was destroyed by a tornado.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris is located at (33.662508, −95.547692). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and (3.74%) are covered by water.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Köppen climate classification). It is located in "Tornado Alley", an area largely centered in the middle of the United States in which tornadoes occur frequently because of weather patterns and geography. Paris is in USDA plant hardiness zone 8a for winter temperatures. This is cooler than its southern neighbor Dallas, and while similar to Atlanta, Georgia, it has warmer summertime temperatures. Summertime average highs reach and in July and August, with associated lows of and . Winter temperatures drop to an average high of and low of in January. The highest temperature on record was , set in August 1936, and the record low was , set in 1930. Average precipitation is . Snow is not unusual, but is by no means predictable, and years can pass with no snowfall at all.


title: Paris, Texas

text: On April 2, 1982, Paris was hit by an F4 tornado that destroyed more than 1,500 homes, and left 10 people dead, 170 injured, and 3,000 homeless. The damage toll from this tornado was estimated at US$50 million in 1982.


title: Paris, Texas

text: From a 1880 United States census population of 3,980, the population of the city of Paris increased to 25,898 at the 2000 census; in 2020, however, its population declined to 24,171.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Among the city population in 2010, there were 10,306 households, and 6,426 families. The population density was 588.1 people per square mile (227.4/km); the 11,883 housing units averaged 277.6 per square mile (107.3/km). of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 3.01. In the city, the population was distributed as 25.0% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 24.1% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.9 males.


title: Paris, Texas

text: By 2020, there were 10,522 households according to the American Community Survey, and 3,549 were married-couple households. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.99. Of its 2020 population there were 933 foreign-born nationals, 18.9% of whom were naturalized U.S. citizens. As of the census estimates, there were 49.6% of owner-occupied units and 50.4% renter-occupied units.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 2010, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, the racial makeup of the city was 70.3% White, 24.8% Black and African American, 3.1% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.1% Asian, and 4.1% from other races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 8.2% of the population. In 2020, its racial and ethnic makeup was 56.6% non-Hispanic white, 23.06% Black and African American, 1.35% Native American, 1.42% Asian alone, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.23% some other race, 5.38% multiracial, and 11.88% Hispanic or Latino of any race, reflecting demographic trends of greater diversification.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris has had a white majority with a significant Black minority for most of its history. The city is deeply segregated and race relations in Paris have a bloody history and are deeply polarized, turbulent, and sometimes explosive.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, several lynchings were staged at the Paris Fairgrounds as public spectacles, with crowds of white spectators cheering as the African-American victims were tortured and murdered. A Black teenager named Henry Smith was lynched in 1893. His murder was the first lynching in US history that was captured in photographs sold as postcards and other trinkets commemorating the killing. Journalist Ida B. Wells said of the incident "Never in the history of civilization has any Christian people stooped to such shocking brutality and indescribable barbarism as that which characterized the people of Paris, Texas."


title: Paris, Texas

text: On July 7, 1920 Irving and Herman Arthur were burned alive at the fairgrounds before a crowd of 3,000, their charred corpses then being dragged by a convoy of shouting white terrorists through Paris's African-American neighborhood as a warning to the Black community.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 2008, an African-American man, Brandon McClelland, was run over and dragged to death under a vehicle. Two white men were arrested, but the prosecutor cited lack of evidence and declined to press charges, and no serious subsequent attempt to find other perpetrators was made. This caused unrest in the Paris African-American community. Following this incident, an attempt by the United States Department of Justice Justice Community Relations Service to initiate a dialogue between the races in the town ended in failure when African-American complaints were mostly met by silent glares from white community members.


title: Paris, Texas

text: A 2009 protest rally over the case led to Texas State Police intervention to prevent groups shouting "white power!" and "black power!" from coming to blows. In response to the incident, civil rights activist Brenda Cherry said "I think we are probably stuck in 1930 right about now".


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 2007, a 14-year-old African-American girl was sentenced by a local judge to up to 7 years in a youth prison for shoving a hall monitor at Paris High School. Three months earlier, the same judge had sentenced a 14-year-old white girl to probation for arson. This sentencing disparity occasioned nationwide controversy and the African-American girl was released after serving one year on orders of a special conservator appointed by the State of Texas to investigate problems with the state's juvenile-justice practices.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 2009, some African-American workers at the Turner Industries plant in the city claimed that hangman's nooses, Confederate flags, and racist graffiti were regular features of plant culture. At the same time, the United States Department of Education was conducting an investigation into allegations that African-American students in Paris's schools are disciplined more harshly than white students for similar offenses.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In 2015, the United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ruled after an investigation that African-American workers at the Sara Lee Corporation plant in Paris (closed in 2011) were deliberately exposed disproportionately to asbestos, black mold, and other toxins, and also were targets of racial slurs and racist graffiti.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Some Paris residents downplay the extent to which the town has a race-relations problem. Judge M. C. Superville commented "I do not believe there is systematic racial discrimination in Lamar County. I do believe there is a misperception that that is going on".


title: Paris, Texas

text: In the past, Paris was a major cotton exchange, and the county was developed as cotton plantations. While cotton is still farmed on the lands around Paris, it is no longer a major part of the economy.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris' one major hospital has two campuses: Paris Regional Medical Center South (formerly St. Joseph's Hospital) and Paris Regional Medical Center North (formerly McCuistion Regional Medical Center). It serves as the center of healthcare for much of Northeast Texas and Southeast Oklahoma. Both campuses are now operated jointly under the name of the Paris Regional Medical Center, a division of Essent Healthcare. Paris Regional Medical Center South Campus has recently closed and only the North Campus remains open. The health network is one of the largest employers in the Paris area.


title: Paris, Texas

text: In addition, Paris Junior College provides postsecondary education. It hosts the Texas Institute of Jewelry Technology, a well-respected school of gemology, horology, and jewelry. The Industrial Technology Division offers programs in air conditioning technology, refrigeration technology, agricultural technology, drafting and computer-aided design, electronics, electromechanical technology, and welding technology.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Texas A&M University-Commerce, a major university of over 12,000 students, is located in the neighboring city of Commerce, 40 minutes southwest of Paris.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris is represented in the Texas Senate by Republican Bryan Hughes, District 1, and in the Texas House of Representatives by Republican Gary VanDeaver, District 1.


title: Paris, Texas

text: At the federal level, the two U.S. senators from Texas are Republicans John Cornyn and Ted Cruz. Paris is part of Texas's 4th congressional district, represented by Republican Pat Fallon.


title: Paris, Texas

text: The city is home to several late-19th to mid-20th century stately homes. Among these is the Rufus Fenner Scott Mansion, designed by German architect J.L. Wees and constructed in 1910. The structure is solid concrete and steel with four floors. Rufus Scott was a prominent businessman known for shipping, imports, and banking. He was well known by local farmers, who bought aging transport mules from him. The Scott Mansion narrowly survived the fire of 1916. After the fire, Scott brought the architect Wees back to Paris to redesign the historic downtown area.


title: Paris, Texas

text: Paris has long been a railroad center. The Texas and Pacific reached town in 1876; the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway (later merged into the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway) and the Frisco in 1887; the Texas Midland Railroad (later Southern Pacific) in 1894; and the Paris and Mount Pleasant (Pa-Ma Line) in 1910. Paris Union Station, built 1912, served Frisco, Santa Fe, and Texas Midland passenger trains until 1956. Today, the station is used by the Lamar County Chamber of Commerce and serves as the research library for the Lamar County Genealogical Society.


title: Paris, Texas

text: According to the Texas Transportation Commission, Paris is the second-largest city in Texas without a four-lane divided highway connecting to an interstate highway within the state. However, those traveling north of the city can go into the Midwest on a four-lane thoroughfare via US 271 across the Red River into Oklahoma, and then the Indian Nation Turnpike from Hugo to Interstate 40 at Henryetta, which in turn continues as a free four-lane highway via US 75 to Tulsa.


title: Globus cruciger

text: The globus cruciger (), also known as "the orb and cross", is an orb surmounted by a cross. It has been a Christian symbol of authority since the Middle Ages, used on coins, in iconography, and with a sceptre as royal regalia.


title: Globus cruciger

text: The cross represents Christ's dominion over the orb of the world, literally held in the hand of an earthly ruler. In the iconography of Western art, when Christ himself holds the globe, he is called "Salvator Mundi" (Latin for 'Saviour of the World'). For instance, the 16th-century Infant Jesus of Prague statue holds a "globus cruciger" in this manner.


title: Globus cruciger

text: Holding the world in one's hand, or, more ominously, under one's foot, has been a symbol since antiquity. To citizens of the Roman Empire, the plain spherical globe held by the god Jupiter represented the world or the universe, as the dominion held by the Emperor. A 2nd-century coin from the reign of Emperor Hadrian shows the Roman goddess Salus with her foot upon a "globus", and a 4th-century coin from the reign of Emperor Constantine I shows him with a "globus" in hand. The "orbis terrarum" was central to the iconography of the Tetrarchy, in which it represented the Tetrarchs' restoration of security to the Roman world. Constantine I claimed to have had a vision of symbol of Christ above the sun, with the words "In this sign, you shall conquer" (Latin: ""In hoc signo vinces""), before the Battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312. This symbol is usually assumed to be the "Chi-Rho (X-P)" symbol, but some think it was a cross. Consequently, his soldiers painted this symbol on their shields and then defeated their foe, Maxentius.With the growth of Christianity in the 5th century, the orb (in Latin works "orbis terrarum", the 'world of the lands', whence "orb" derives) was surmounted with a cross, hence "globus cruciger", symbolizing the Christian God's dominion of the world. The Emperor held the world in his hand to show that he ruled it on behalf of God. To non-Christians already familiar with the pagan globe, the surmounting of a cross indicating the victory of Christianity over the world. In medieval iconography, the size of an object relative to those of nearby objects indicated its relative importance; therefore the orb was small and the one who held it was large to emphasize the nature of their relationship. Although the globe symbolized the whole Earth, many Christian rulers, some of them not even sovereign, who reigned over small territories of the Earth, used it symbolically.


title: Globus cruciger

text: The first known depiction in art of the symbol was probably in the early 5th century AD, possibly as early as AD 395, namely on the reverse side of the coinage of Emperor Arcadius, yet most certainly by AD 423 on the reverse side of the coinage of Emperor Theodosius II.


title: Globus cruciger

text: The "globus cruciger" was associated with powerful rulers and angels; it adorned portrayals of both emperors and kings, and also archangels. It remained popular throughout the Middle Ages in coinage, iconography, and royal regalia. The papacy, which in the Middle Ages rivaled the Holy Roman Emperor in temporal power, also used the symbol on top of the Papal tiara, which consisted of a triple crown; the Pope did not use a separate orb as a symbol. The "globus cruciger" (made up of a monde and cross) was generally featured as the finial of European royal crowns, whether on physical crowns or merely in royal heraldry, for example, in Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, and Yugoslavia. It is still depicted not only in the arms of European polities for which a monarchy survives, yet also, since the end of communism in 1991, in the arms of some eastern European polities, despite the termination of their historical monarchies. Even in the modern era in the United Kingdom, the Sovereign's Orb symbolizes both the state and Church of England under the protection and domain of the monarchy.


title: Globus cruciger

text: The "globus cruciger" was used as the alchemical symbol (♁) for antimony. It was also used as an alchemical symbol for "Lupus metallorum" “the grey wolf” supposedly used to purify alloyed metals into pure gold. "Lupus metallorum" or stibnite, used to purify gold, as the sulphur in the antimony sulphide bonds to the metals alloyed with the gold, and these form a slag which can be removed. The gold remains dissolved in the metallic antimony which can be boiled off to leave the purified gold.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Samuel William Alvey (born May 6, 1986) is an American professional mixed martial artist, who competed in the Middleweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). A professional MMA competitor since 2008, Alvey has also formerly competed for Bellator, King of the Cage, the MFC, and was a contestant on .


title: Sam Alvey

text: Originally from Waterford, Wisconsin, Alvey competed in football and wrestling at Waterford Union High School and was also a talented musician. Alvey played trumpet in the school's marching band and went on to Lakeland College to play the trumpet semi-professionally. In college, Alvey began competing in pankration before eventually transitioning into a career in mixed martial arts.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey began his amateur career in 2007, and was defeated via TKO in the second round of his first amateur bout. He rebounded to win his next two, before turning professional in July 2008. Alvey's early career took place entirely in the state of Wisconsin, where he posted an early 11–1 record, which included multiple wins in the King of the Cage promotion.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Following a win at Light Heavyweight against Bellator MMA fighter and veteran Jason Guida, Alvey was on a three-fight winning streak and was signed by Bellator. His debut match was at Middleweight against future Bellator Welterweight Tournament Champion Karl Amoussou at Bellator 45. Early on, Amoussou bloodied Alvey with varied strikes and worked towards an armbar, though as the fight progressed, Amoussou started to tire and Alvey soon gained control of the fight in the second round and managed to secure a takedown late in the third round. After three rounds, Alvey was victorious via split decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Following his win over Amoussou, Alvey was named as a participant in , where he faced Vitor Vianna. The fight saw Alvey utilize his reach advantage early in the fight, but by round two, Vianna started to control the bout, having taken Alvey down to the ground. At the end of the second round, Vianna had locked in a rear-naked choke, but time expired, allowing Alvey to make it into the third round. The third round was regarded as much closer and the fight went a decision. Alvey lost via split decision and was eliminated from the tournament.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was then selected to be a part of , where he dropped down to welterweight for the first time. In the opening episode, he fought Leo Kuntz to get into the house. Alvey won via quick first-round knockout after a single, clean right hook. During the fighter picks, Shane Carwin selected Alvey first overall. In the third episode, Alvey was selected by Carwin to fight Joey Rivera of Team Nelson. Rivera started the fight by landing two quick head kicks and then landed a takedown. Alvey then had to defend against a guillotine choke and a triangle choke in the first round. In the second round, Alvey started to land more strikes, but was rocked by another head kick from Rivera. Though Alvey survived to go to a decision, Rivera was victorious via majority decision (19-19, 20–18, 20–18).


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey's MFC debut was against Elvis Mutapčić for the MFC Middleweight Championship at MFC 36. He lost via unanimous decision. Alvey defeated UFC & Bellator veteran Jay Silva at MFC 37 via TKO in round three. He then won the MFC Middleweight Championship by defeating Jason South and successfully defended it once against Wes Swofford before moving to the UFC.


title: Sam Alvey

text: In June 2014, it was announced that Alvey had signed with the UFC. He made his debut on August 16, 2014 against Tom Watson at UFC Fight Night 47. He lost the back-and-forth fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: For his second fight with the promotion, Alvey faced Dylan Andrews on November 8, 2014 at UFC Fight Night 55. He won the fight via knockout due to punches in the first round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Cezar Ferreira on February 22, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 61. Alvey won the fight via knockout in the first round. Subsequently, Alvey won a "Performance of the Night" bonus.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Dan Kelly on May 10, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 65. Alvey won the fight via TKO in the first round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Derek Brunson on August 8, 2015 at UFC Fight Night 73. He lost the fight by TKO in the first round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was expected to face Daniel Sarafian on February 21, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 83. However, Alvey pulled out of the bout in late December after sustaining a broken jaw and was replaced by Oluwale Bamgbose.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey next faced Elias Theodorou on June 18, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 89. The bout remained on the feet for nearly all of its duration in a largely uneventful fight where neither fighter was able to deliver any significant offense. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: After sustaining virtually no damage during his previous fight, Alvey was quickly rescheduled and faced promotional newcomer Eric Spicely on July 13, 2016 at UFC Fight Night 91. He won the fight via submission in first round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey competed in his third bout in three months as he faced Kevin Casey on August 27, 2016 at UFC on Fox 21. He won the fight via TKO in the second round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey again made a quick return to the cage and faced Alex Nicholson on November 5, 2016 at . He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Nate Marquardt on January 28, 2017 at UFC on Fox 23. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Thales Leites on April 22, 2017 at UFC Fight Night 108. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Rashad Evans on August 5, 2017 at UFC Fight Night 114. He won the fight by split decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was tabbed as a short notice replacement for Trevor Smith and faced Ramazan Emeev on 21 October 2017 at . At the weigh ins, Alvey missed the middleweight limit of 185 pounds, coming in at 189 pounds. As a result, his bout with Emeev was changed to a catchweight and Alvey was fined 20% of his purse. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced promotional newcomer Marcin Prachnio in a light heavyweight bout on February 24, 2018 at UFC on Fox 28. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Gian Villante on June 1, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 131. He won the fight by split decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Antônio Rogério Nogueira on September 22, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 137. He lost the fight via knockout in the second round.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Jimmy Crute on February 10, 2019 at UFC 234. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round one.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Klidson Abreu on July 20, 2019 at UFC on ESPN 4. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was expected to face Maurício Rua on November 16, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 164. However, Alvey was removed from the fight on October 25 due to a broken hand and was replaced by Paul Craig.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was expected to return to action against Khalil Rountree Jr. on March 28, 2020 at . Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event was postponed.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Jung Da Un on October 24, 2020 at UFC 254. After a back and forth battle, the fight was declared a split draw.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was expected to move down to middleweight division to face Zak Cummings on April 10, 2021 at UFC on ABC 2. However, Cummings pulled out of the bout in mid-March and was replaced by Julian Marquez. After getting knocked down, he lost the bout via second round rear-naked choke. This bout earned him a Fight of the Night award.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was scheduled to face Roman Kopylov on July 31, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 28. However, Kopylov wasn't able to obtain his US visa in time and the bout was scrapped.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Wellington Turman on August 28, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 30. Alvey was poked in the eye multiple times throughout the fight, with Turman being deducted two points, however Alvey lost the fight via split decision.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey was scheduled to face Ian Heinisch on February 5, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 200. Heinisch pulled out due to undisclosed reasons in late December and was replaced by Phil Hawes. In turn Hawes withdrew from the bout due to an undisclosed injury and he was replaced by Brendan Allen, with the fight taking place at light heavyweight. Alvey lost the fight via rear-naked choke submission in round two.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey faced Michał Oleksiejczuk on August 6, 2022, at UFC on ESPN 40. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round one. With this loss, Alvey extended his winless streak to nine fights in a row, breaking the previous record set by B.J. Penn.


title: Sam Alvey

text: Alvey has four biological children with his wife McKey Sullivan, winner of the eleventh cycle of "America's Next Top Model". In early 2021, they also legally adopted their foster daughter.


title: Ranks and insignia of NATO armies enlisted

text: This page lists the enlisted ranks and insignia of NATO member armies. For the comparison chart of the commissioned officers, see Ranks and insignia of NATO armies officers.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous stresses arising from its flow are at every point linearly correlated to the local strain rate — the rate of change of its deformation over time. Stresses are proportional to the rate of change of the fluid's velocity vector.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: A fluid is Newtonian only if the tensors that describe the viscous stress and the strain rate are related by a constant viscosity tensor that does not depend on the stress state and velocity of the flow. If the fluid is also isotropic (mechanical properties are the same along any direction), the viscosity tensor reduces to two real coefficients, describing the fluid's resistance to continuous shear deformation and continuous compression or expansion, respectively.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of fluids that account for viscosity. While no real fluid fits the definition perfectly, many common liquids and gases, such as water and air, can be assumed to be Newtonian for practical calculations under ordinary conditions. However, non-Newtonian fluids are relatively common and include oobleck (which becomes stiffer when vigorously sheared) and non-drip paint (which becomes thinner when sheared). Other examples include many polymer solutions (which exhibit the Weissenberg effect), molten polymers, many solid suspensions, blood, and most highly viscous fluids.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: Newtonian fluids are named after Isaac Newton, who first used the differential equation to postulate the relation between the shear strain rate and shear stress for such fluids.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: An element of a flowing liquid or gas will suffer forces from the surrounding fluid, including viscous stress forces that cause it to gradually deform over time. These forces can be mathematically first order approximated by a viscous stress tensor, usually denoted by formula_1.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: The deformation of a fluid element, relative to some previous state, can be first order approximated by a strain tensor that changes with time. The time derivative of that tensor is the strain rate tensor, that expresses how the element's deformation is changing with time; and is also the gradient of the velocity vector field formula_2 at that point, often denoted formula_3.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: The tensors formula_1 and formula_3 can be expressed by 3×3 matrices, relative to any chosen coordinate system. The fluid is said to be Newtonian if these matrices are related by the equation


title: Newtonian fluid

text: where formula_7 is a fixed 3×3×3×3 fourth order tensor that does not depend on the velocity or stress state of the fluid.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: For an incompressible and isotropic Newtonian fluid the viscous stress is related to the strain rate by the simple equation


title: Newtonian fluid

text: If the fluid is incompressible and viscosity is constant across the fluid, this equation can be written in terms of an arbitrary coordinate system as


title: Newtonian fluid

text: One also defines a total stress tensor formula_20, that combines the shear stress with conventional (thermodynamic) pressure formula_21. The stress-shear equation then becomes


title: Newtonian fluid

text: More generally, in a non-isotropic Newtonian fluid, the coefficient formula_7 that relates internal friction stresses to the spatial derivatives of the velocity field is replaced by a nine-element viscous stress tensor formula_26.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: There is general formula for friction force in a liquid: The vector differential of friction force is equal the viscosity tensor increased on vector product differential of the area vector of adjoining a liquid layers and rotor of velocity:


title: Newtonian fluid

text: where formula_28 – viscosity tensor. The diagonal components of viscosity tensor is molecular viscosity of a liquid, and not diagonal components – turbulence eddy viscosity.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: The power law model is used to display the behavior of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids and measures shear stress as a function of strain rate.


title: Newtonian fluid

text: The relationship between shear stress, strain rate and the velocity gradient for the power law model are:


title: Newtonian fluid

text: The relationship between the shear stress and shear rate in a casson fluid model is defined as follows:


title: Newtonian fluid

text: Water, air, alcohol, glycerol, and thin motor oil are all examples of Newtonian fluids over the range of shear stresses and shear rates encountered in everyday life. Single-phase fluids made up of small molecules are generally (although not exclusively) Newtonian.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Jarrett Culver (born February 20, 1999) is an American professional basketball player for the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association (NBA), on a two-way contract with the College Park Skyhawks of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for the Texas Tech Red Raiders.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Culver was born to Regina and Hiawatha Culver Jr. in Dallas, Texas. At the age of three he moved to Lubbock, Texas where he grew up. His father is a pastor at Rising Star Baptist Church, his mother a director of a local Head Start. Culver grew up playing football and soccer before focusing on basketball while at Irons Middle School. He often played NBA 2K and pickup basketball in his driveway with his older brothers, Trey and J.J.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Culver attended Coronado High School in Lubbock, where he played basketball under head coach Randy Dean. He averaged 20 points per game as a junior, leading his team to the 6A regional semifinals. Culver was named Lone Star Varsity Player of the Year by "Lubbock Avalanche-Journal". In his senior campaign, he averaged about 30 points per game and led his team in rebounds and assists. At the start of the season, Culver re-aggravated a shoulder injury he originally suffered as a junior, but he still led Coronado to the playoffs and repeated as Lone Star Varsity Player of the Year. Culver was a consensus three-star recruit and committed to Texas Tech on September 22, 2016. He had offers from several other NCAA Division I programs, including Baylor, Texas, and Illinois.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: On November 10, 2017, Culver debuted for Texas Tech in a 75–50 win over South Alabama, scoring 2 points in 16 minutes. He recorded a season-high in non-conference play against Wofford on November 22, scoring 21 points. In his next game, Culver recorded 18 points and a season-best 7 assists in a 103–69 win over Savannah State. Two days later, he was named Big 12 Conference Newcomer of the Week. On December 16, Culver chipped in 8 points and a season-high 6 steals against Rice. He recorded his first double-double on February 26, 2018 versus West Virginia, with season-bests of 26 points and 12 rebounds. As a freshman, Culver averaged 11.2 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 1.1 steals per game. He scored 229 points in conference play, breaking the Texas Tech freshman record set by Martin Zeno in 2005.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Entering his sophomore season, Culver was named preseason All-Big 12 honorable mention. He was also one of 20 players to make the 2019 Jerry West Award watch list. Culver assumed a leading role in his second year, with the departures of key players Zhaire Smith and Keenan Evans. He made his debut on November 6, 2018, recording 16 points and 4 assists in an 87–37 win over Incarnate Word. On November 20, Culver scored 26 points against Nebraska to win most valuable player (MVP) honors at the Hall of Fame Classic. The next day, he became one of 20 players to be named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason watch list. Culver erupted for 30 points, shooting 12-of-13 from the field, in a December 15 victory over Abilene Christian. Shortly after, he earned Big 12 Player of the Week honors. On March 9, 2019, Culver scored 31 points against Iowa State, which was not only a season-high, but also a career-high.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: After leading the Red Raiders to a share of the Big 12 regular season title, he was named Big 12 Player of the Year at the end of conference play. In the quarterfinals of the 2019 Big 12 men's basketball tournament, despite him scoring 26 points and hauling in 10 rebounds, Culver and the Red Raiders were upset by #10 seed West Virginia. In the first round of the 2019 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament, Culver nearly recorded a triple-double with 29 points, 8 rebounds, and 7 assists against #14 seed Northern Kentucky. In the second round, Culver helped lead to another win against #6 seed Buffalo, recording a double-double of 16 points and 10 rebounds. He also recorded 5 assists, 3 steals, and 2 blocks against #6 seed Buffalo. In the regional semifinals (the Sweet 16), he helped lead the Red Raiders to a historic upset over the #2 seed Michigan Wolverines, scoring 22 points. In the Regional Finals (the Elite Eight), he again led Texas Tech with 19 points and another upset against #1 seed Gonzaga, resulting in the program's first-ever appearance in the national semifinals (the Final Four). Culver struggled in the Final Four game against Michigan State, scoring 10 points on 3/12 shooting, in a 61–51 Texas Tech win. In the championship game, Culver again struggled, scoring 15 points on 5/22 shooting in an 85–77 overtime loss to Virginia. After the season, Culver declared for the 2019 NBA draft.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Culver was selected as the sixth pick of the 2019 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns. His draft rights were immediately traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves in exchange for Dario Šarić and the eleventh pick of the draft. The trade was officially completed on July 6. Two days later on July 8, 2019, the Minnesota Timberwolves announced that they had signed Culver. On October 23, 2019, Culver made his debut in NBA, coming off from bench in a 127–126 overtime win over the Brooklyn Nets with four points, two assists, and one steal.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: On August 25, 2021, Culver and Juancho Hernangómez were traded to the Memphis Grizzlies in exchange for Patrick Beverley.


title: Jarrett Culver

text: Culver is a Christian. His father, Hiawatha Culver Jr. is the Texas Tech team chaplain and delivered the pre-game prayer for Texas Tech before each home basketball game. In high school, Jarrett played basketball with older brother J. J., who later joined the team at Wayland Baptist University. J.J. reportedly scored a hundred points in a game. Trey Culver, his oldest brother, was a decorated athlete for the Texas Tech track and field team in the high jump, tying the fourth-best mark in collegiate indoor history in 2018.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Absalom, Absalom! is a novel by the American author William Faulkner, first published in 1936. Taking place before, during, and after the American Civil War, it is a story about three families of the American South, with a focus on the life of Thomas Sutpen.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: "Absalom, Absalom!" details the rise and fall of Thomas Sutpen, a white man born into poverty in western Virginia who moves to Mississippi with the dual aims of gaining wealth and becoming a powerful family patriarch. The story is told entirely in flashbacks narrated mostly by Quentin Compson to his roommate at Harvard College, Shreve, who frequently contributes his own suggestions and surmises. The narration of Rosa Coldfield, and Quentin's father and grandfather, are also included and re-interpreted by Shreve and Quentin, with the total events of the story unfolding in nonchronological order and often with differing details. This results in a peeling-back-the-onion revelation of the true story of the Sutpens. Rosa initially narrates the story, with long digressions and a biased memory, to Quentin Compson, whose grandfather was a friend of Sutpen's. Quentin's father then fills in some of the details to Quentin. Finally, Quentin relates the story to his roommate Shreve, and in each retelling, the reader receives more details as the parties flesh out the story by adding layers. The final effect leaves the reader more certain about the attitudes and biases of the characters than about the facts of Sutpen's story.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Thomas Sutpen arrives in Jefferson, Mississippi, with some slaves and a French architect who has been somehow forced into working for him. Sutpen obtains one hundred square miles of land from a local Native American tribe and immediately begins building a large plantation called Sutpen's Hundred, including an ostentatious mansion. All he needs to complete his plan is a wife to bear him a few children (particularly a son to be his heir), so he ingratiates himself with a local merchant and marries the man's daughter, Ellen Coldfield. Ellen bears Sutpen two children, a son named Henry and a daughter named Judith, both of whom are destined for tragedy.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Henry goes to the University of Mississippi and meets fellow student Charles Bon, who is ten years his senior. Henry brings Charles home for Christmas, and Charles and Judith begin a quiet romance that leads to a presumed engagement. However, Thomas Sutpen realizes that Charles Bon is his son from an earlier marriage and moves to stop the proposed union.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Sutpen had worked on a plantation in the French West Indies as overseer and, after subduing a slave uprising, was offered the hand of the plantation owner's daughter, Eulalia Bon. She bore him a son, Charles. Sutpen did not know that Eulalia was of mixed race until after the marriage and birth of Charles, but when he discovered that he had been deceived, he renounced the marriage as void and left his wife and child (though leaving them his fortune as part of his own moral recompense). The reader also later learns of Sutpen's childhood, when young Thomas learned that society could base human worth on material worth. It is this episode that sets into motion Thomas' plan to start a dynasty.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: When Sutpen tells Henry that Charles is his half-brother and that Judith must not be allowed to marry him, Henry refuses to believe it, repudiates his birthright, and accompanies Charles to his home in New Orleans. They then return to Mississippi to enlist in their University company, joining the Confederate Army to fight in the Civil War. During the war, Henry wrestles with his conscience until he presumably resolves to allow the marriage of half-brother and sister; this resolution changes, however, when Sutpen reveals to Henry that Charles is part black. At the conclusion of the war, Henry enforces his father's interdiction of marriage between Charles and Judith, killing Charles at the gates to the mansion and then fleeing into self-exile.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Thomas Sutpen returns from the war and begins to repair his dynasty and his home, whose hundred square miles have been reduced by carpetbaggers and punitive northern action to one square mile. He proposes to Rosa Coldfield, his dead wife's younger sister, and she accepts. However, Sutpen insults Rosa by demanding that she bear him a son before the wedding takes place, prompting her to leave Sutpen's Hundred. Sutpen then begins an affair with Milly, the 15-year-old granddaughter of Wash Jones, a squatter who lives on the Sutpen property. The affair continues until Milly becomes pregnant and gives birth to a daughter. Sutpen is terribly disappointed, because the last hope of repairing his Sutpen dynasty rested on Milly giving birth to a son. Sutpen casts Milly and the child aside, telling them that they are not worthy of sleeping in the stables with his horse, who had just sired a male. An enraged Wash Jones kills Thomas, Milly, Milly's newborn daughter, and finally himself by resisting arrest.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The story of Thomas Sutpen's legacy ends with Quentin taking Rosa back to the seemingly abandoned Sutpen's Hundred plantation, where they find Henry Sutpen and Clytemnestra (Clytie), the daughter of Thomas Sutpen by a slave woman. Henry has returned to the estate to die. Three months later, when Rosa returns with medical help for Henry, Clytie mistakes them for law enforcement and starts a fire that consumes the plantation and kills Henry and herself. The only remaining Sutpen is Jim Bon, Charles Bon's black grandson, a young man with severe mental handicaps, who remains on Sutpen's Hundred.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Like other Faulkner novels, "Absalom, Absalom!" allegorizes Southern history; the title itself is an allusion to the Biblical story of King David and Absalom, a wayward son fighting the empire his father built.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The history of Thomas Sutpen mirrors the rise and fall of Southern plantation culture. Sutpen's failures necessarily reflect the weaknesses of an idealistic South. Rigidly committed to his "design", Sutpen proves unwilling to honor his marriage to a part-black woman, setting in motion his own destruction.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Discussing "Absalom, Absalom!", Faulkner stated that the curse under which the South labors is slavery, and that Thomas Sutpen's personal curse, or flaw, was his belief that he was too strong to need to be a part of the human family.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: "Absalom, Absalom!" juxtaposes ostensible fact, informed guesswork, and outright speculation—with the implication that reconstructions of the past remain irretrievable and therefore imaginative. Faulkner stated that, although none of the narrators got the facts right since "no one individual can look at truth", a truth exists and that the reader can ultimately know it.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: Most critics have tried to reconstruct this truth behind the shifting narratives, or to show that such a reconstruction cannot be done with certainty or even to prove that there are factual and logical inconsistencies that cannot be overcome. But some critics have stated that, fictional truth being an oxymoron, it is best to take the story as a given, and regard it on the level of myth and archetype, a fable that allows us to glimpse the deepest levels of the unconscious and thus better understand the people who accept (and are ruled by) that myth—Southerners in general and Quentin Compson in particular.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: By using various narrators expressing their interpretations, the novel alludes to the historical cultural zeitgeist of Faulkner's South, where the past is always present and constantly in states of revision by the people who tell and retell the story over time; it thus also explores the process of myth-making and the questioning of truth.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The use of Quentin Compson as the primary perspective (if not exactly the focus) of the novel makes it something of a companion piece to Faulkner's earlier work "The Sound and the Fury", which tells the story of the Compson Family, with Quentin as a main character. Although the action of that novel is never explicitly referenced, the Sutpen family's struggle with dynasty, downfall, and potential incest parallel the familial events and obsessions that drive Quentin and Miss Rosa Coldfield to witness the burning of Sutpen's Hundred.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: "Absalom, Absalom!", along with "The Sound and the Fury", helped Faulkner win the Nobel Prize in Literature for the year 1949. In 2009, a panel of judges called "Absalom, Absalom!" the best Southern novel of all time.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The title refers to the Biblical story of Absalom, a son of David who rebelled against his father (then King of the Kingdom of Israel) and was killed by David's general Joab in violation of David's order to deal gently with his son, thus causing heartbreak to David.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The 1983 "Guinness Book of World Records" says the "Longest Sentence in Literature" is a sentence from "Absalom, Absalom!" containing 1,288 words. The sentence can be found in Chapter 6; it begins with the words "Just exactly like father", and ends with "the eye could not see from any point". The passage is entirely italicized and incomplete.


title: Absalom, Absalom!

text: The final lyric of "Distant Early Warning", a single released by the Canadian rock band Rush, is the word 'Absalom' repeated three times. Drummer Neil Peart, the band's lyricist, said he "loved the sound of" the title of Faulkner's novel and was inspired to look up the Biblical story of Absalom after reading the novel. "Since one of the main themes of the song was compassion, it occurred to me that the Biblical story was applicable."


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Mark Feuerstein (; born June 8, 1971) is an American actor, writer, producer and director. He had an early, recurring role in several episodes of "Caroline in the City", playing the title character's new boyfriend, and later gained notice in a guest appearance in an episode of Season 2 of "Sex and the City." He went on to appear in TV series "The West Wing" (2001–2005), "Royal Pains" (2009–2016), "Prison Break" (2017), and co-wrote, co-produced as well as starred in the short-lived CBS sitcom "9JKL". In 2022, he received a Children's and Family Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Performance nomination for his work in "The Baby-Sitters Club".


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Feuerstein was born in New York City, the son of Audrey, a school teacher, and Harvey Feuerstein, a lawyer. He was raised in a Jewish family, and celebrated his Bar Mitzvah in an Orthodox synagogue. He was a wrestler in high school and won the state championship. Feuerstein attended the Dalton School, and graduated from Princeton University in 1993. He won a Fulbright scholarship and studied at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art and at L'École Phillipe Gaulier in France.


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Feuerstein got his break-through on television as a cop on the daytime soap opera "Loving". When director Nancy Meyers was casting "What Women Want", her daughter recognized Feuerstein from "Practical Magic" (1998), and insisted that her mother cast him.


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: He came to public attention in a guest appearance in an episode of Season 2 of "Sex and the City" entitled "They Shoot Single People, Don't They?", playing an ophthalmologist named Josh who has sex with Miranda (played by Cynthia Nixon) but fails to give her an orgasm, despite repeated attempts and Miranda's coaching tips. The episode concludes with Miranda realizing that Josh will never satisfy her sexually and decides to fake her orgasm one last time. Josh punches the air with pride and yells "I'm the man!", while Miranda privately resolves to avoid him in the future. Feuerstein has publicly expressed regret for taking the role and has referred to it as his most-hated performance.


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Feuerstein had a recurring role in Season 3 of "The West Wing" as a lawyer, and returned in the same role in Season 6. Feuerstein reunited with "Practical Magic" co-star, Sandra Bullock as her love interest in the film "Two Weeks Notice" (2002), but his scenes were deleted from the film. He was named one of "People" magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People" in 2003. In January 2009, Feuerstein began appearing in the web series "The Hustler" on Crackle.


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Feuerstein starred in the lead role on the USA Network television show "Royal Pains", from 2009 to 2016. He appeared as the super guest host of the June 14, 2010 edition of WWE "Raw" to promote the "Royal Pains" episode "Keeping the Faith".


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: In spring 2017, Feuerstein appeared as rogue CIA operative Jacob Ness in the Fox revival of its original hit series "Prison Break".


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: Feuerstein co-created, with his wife, Dana Klein, and stars in the CBS sitcom "9JKL," which debuted in October 2017. Upon release, it received negative reviews from critics, with a 13% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. On May 12, 2018, the series was canceled after one season.


title: Mark Feuerstein

text: He married television writer Dana Klein in 2005. They live in Los Angeles and have three children: Lila, Frisco, and Addie.


title: WiMAX

text: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a family of wireless broadband communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of standards, which provide physical layer (PHY) and media access control (MAC) options.


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX Forum was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability, including the definition of system profiles for commercial vendors. The forum describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced was a candidate for 4G, in competition with the LTE Advanced standard.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX was initially designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates, with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX release 2.1, popularly branded as WiMAX 2+, is a backwards-compatible transition from previous WiMAX generations. It is compatible and interoperable with TD-LTE.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX refers to interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-networks standards ratified by the WiMAX Forum. (Similarly, Wi-Fi refers to interoperable implementations of the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN standards certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance.) WiMAX Forum certification allows vendors to sell fixed or mobile products as WiMAX certified, thus ensuring a level of interoperability with other certified products, as long as they fit the same profile.


title: WiMAX

text: Mobile WiMAX (originally based on 802.16e-2005) is the revision that was deployed in many countries and is the basis for future revisions such as 802.16m-2011.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX was sometimes referred to as "Wi-Fi on steroids" and can be used for a number of applications including broadband connections, cellular backhaul, hotspots, etc. It is similar to Long-range Wi-Fi, but it can enable usage at much greater distances.


title: WiMAX

text: The scalable physical layer architecture that allows for data rate to scale easily with available channel bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX can provide at-home or mobile Internet access across whole cities or countries. In many cases, this has resulted in competition in markets which typically only had access through an existing incumbent DSL (or similar) operator.


title: WiMAX

text: Additionally, given the relatively low costs associated with the deployment of a WiMAX network (in comparison with 3G, HSDPA, xDSL, HFC or FTTx), it is now economically viable to provide last-mile broadband Internet access in remote locations.


title: WiMAX

text: Mobile WiMAX was a replacement candidate for cellular phone technologies such as GSM and CDMA, or can be used as an overlay to increase capacity. Fixed WiMAX is also considered as a wireless backhaul technology for 2G, 3G, and 4G networks in both developed and developing nations.


title: WiMAX

text: In North America, backhaul for urban operations is typically provided via one or more copper wire line connections, whereas remote cellular operations are sometimes backhauled via satellite. In other regions, urban and rural backhaul is usually provided by microwave links. (The exception to this is where the network is operated by an incumbent with ready access to the copper network.) WiMAX has more substantial backhaul bandwidth requirements than legacy cellular applications. Consequently, the use of wireless microwave backhaul is on the rise in North America and existing microwave backhaul links in all regions are being upgraded. Capacities of between 34 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s are routinely being deployed with latencies in the order of 1 ms.


title: WiMAX

text: In many cases, operators are aggregating sites using wireless technology and then presenting traffic on to fiber networks where convenient. WiMAX in this application competes with microwave radio, E-line and simple extension of the fiber network itself.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX directly supports the technologies that make triple-play service offerings possible (such as quality of service and multicast). These are inherent to the WiMAX standard rather than being added on as carrier Ethernet is to Ethernet.


title: WiMAX

text: On May 7, 2008, in the United States, Sprint Nextel, Google, Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of spectrum and merged with Clearwire to market the service. The new company hoped to benefit from combined services offerings and network resources as a springboard past its competitors. The cable companies were expected to provide media services to other partners while gaining access to the wireless network as a Mobile virtual network operator to provide triple-play services.


title: WiMAX

text: Some wireless industry analysts, such as Ken Dulaney and Todd Kort at Gartner, were skeptical how the deal would work out: Although fixed-mobile convergence had been a recognized factor in the industry, prior attempts to form partnerships among wireless and cable companies had generally failed to lead to significant benefits for the participants. Other analysts at IDC favored the deal, pointing out that as wireless progresses to higher bandwidth, it inevitably competes more directly with cable, DSL and fiber, inspiring competitors into collaboration. Also, as wireless broadband networks grow denser and usage habits shift, the need for increased backhaul and media services accelerate, therefore the opportunity to leverage high bandwidth assets was expected to increase.


title: WiMAX

text: The Aeronautical Mobile Airport Communication System (AeroMACS) is a wireless broadband network for the airport surface intended to link the control tower, aircraft, and fixed assets. In 2007, AeroMACS obtained a worldwide frequency allocation in the 5 GHz aviation band. As of 2018, there were 25 AeroMACS deployments in 8 countries, with at least another 25 deployments planned.


title: WiMAX

text: IEEE 802.16REVd and IEEE 802.16e standards support both time-division duplexing and frequency-division duplexing as well as a half duplex FDD, that allows for a low cost implementation.


title: WiMAX

text: Portable units include handsets (similar to cellular smartphones); PC peripherals (PC Cards or USB dongles); and embedded devices in laptops, which are now available for Wi-Fi services. In addition, there is much emphasis by operators on consumer electronics devices such as Gaming consoles, MP3 players and similar devices. WiMAX is more similar to Wi-Fi than to other 3G cellular technologies.


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX Forum website provides a list of certified devices. However, this is not a complete list of devices available as certified modules are embedded into laptops, MIDs (Mobile Internet devices), and other private labeled devices.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX gateway devices are available as both indoor and outdoor versions from manufacturers including Vecima Networks, Alvarion, Airspan, ZyXEL, Huawei, and Motorola. The list of WiMAX networks and WiMAX Forum provide more links to specific vendors, products and installations.


title: WiMAX

text: Many of the WiMAX gateways that are offered by manufactures such as these are stand-alone self-install indoor units. Such devices typically sit near the customer's window with the best signal, and provide:


title: WiMAX

text: Indoor gateways are convenient, but radio losses mean that the subscriber may need to be significantly closer to the WiMAX base station than with professionally installed external units.


title: WiMAX

text: Outdoor units are roughly the size of a laptop PC, and their installation is comparable to the installation of a residential satellite dish. A higher-gain directional outdoor unit will generally result in greatly increased range and throughput but with the obvious loss of practical mobility of the unit.


title: WiMAX

text: USB can provide connectivity to a WiMAX network through a dongle. Generally these devices are connected to a notebook or net book computer. Dongles typically have omnidirectional antennas which are of lower gain compared to other devices. As such these devices are best used in areas of good coverage.


title: WiMAX

text: HTC announced the first WiMAX enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G, on November 12, 2008. The device was only available to certain markets in Russia on the Yota network until 2010.


title: WiMAX

text: HTC and Sprint Nextel released the second WiMAX enabled mobile phone, the HTC Evo 4G, March 23, 2010 at the CTIA conference in Las Vegas. The device, made available on June 4, 2010, is capable of both EV-DO(3G) and WiMAX(pre-4G) as well as simultaneous data & voice sessions. Sprint Nextel announced at CES 2012 that it will no longer be offering devices using the WiMAX technology due to financial circumstances, instead, along with its network partner Clearwire, Sprint Nextel rolled out a 4G network having decided to shift and utilize LTE 4G technology instead.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX is based upon IEEE 802.16e-2005, approved in December 2005. It is a supplement to the IEEE Std 802.16-2004, and so the actual standard is 802.16-2004 as amended by 802.16e-2005. Thus, these specifications need to be considered together.


title: WiMAX

text: SOFDMA (used in 802.16e-2005) and OFDM256 (802.16d) are not compatible thus equipment will have to be replaced if an operator is to move to the later standard (e.g., Fixed WiMAX to Mobile WiMAX).


title: WiMAX

text: The original version of the standard on which WiMAX is based (IEEE 802.16) specified a physical layer operating in the 10 to 66 GHz range. 802.16a, updated in 2004 to 802.16-2004, added specifications for the 2 to 11 GHz range. 802.16-2004 was updated by 802.16e-2005 in 2005 and uses scalable orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (SOFDMA), as opposed to the fixed orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) version with 256 sub-carriers (of which 200 are used) in 802.16d. More advanced versions, including 802.16e, also bring multiple antenna support through MIMO. (See WiMAX MIMO) This brings potential benefits in terms of coverage, self installation, power consumption, frequency re-use and bandwidth efficiency. WiMax is the most energy-efficient pre-4G technique among LTE and HSPA+.


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX MAC uses a scheduling algorithm for which the subscriber station needs to compete only once for initial entry into the network. After network entry is allowed, the subscriber station is allocated an access slot by the base station. The time slot can enlarge and contract, but remains assigned to the subscriber station, which means that other subscribers cannot use it. In addition to being stable under overload and over-subscription, the scheduling algorithm can also be more bandwidth efficient. The scheduling algorithm also allows the base station to control QoS parameters by balancing the time-slot assignments among the application needs of the subscriber station.


title: WiMAX

text: As a standard intended to satisfy needs of next-generation data networks (4G), WiMAX is distinguished by its dynamic burst algorithm modulation adaptive to the physical environment the RF signal travels through. Modulation is chosen to be more spectrally efficient (more bits per OFDM/SOFDMA symbol). That is, when the bursts have a high signal strength and a high carrier to noise plus interference ratio (CINR), they can be more easily decoded using digital signal processing (DSP). In contrast, operating in less favorable environments for RF communication, the system automatically steps down to a more robust mode (burst profile) which means fewer bits per OFDM/SOFDMA symbol; with the advantage that power per bit is higher and therefore simpler accurate signal processing can be performed.


title: WiMAX

text: Burst profiles are used inverse (algorithmically dynamic) to low signal attenuation; meaning throughput between clients and the base station is determined largely by distance. Maximum distance is achieved by the use of the most robust burst setting; that is, the profile with the largest MAC frame allocation trade-off requiring more symbols (a larger portion of the MAC frame) to be allocated in transmitting a given amount of data than if the client were closer to the base station.


title: WiMAX

text: The client's MAC frame and their individual burst profiles are defined as well as the specific time allocation. However, even if this is done automatically then the practical deployment should avoid high interference and multipath environments. The reason for which is obviously that too much interference causes the network to function poorly and can also misrepresent the capability of the network.


title: WiMAX

text: The system is complex to deploy as it is necessary to track not only the signal strength and CINR (as in systems like GSM) but also how the available frequencies will be dynamically assigned (resulting in dynamic changes to the available bandwidth.) This could lead to cluttered frequencies with slow response times or lost frames.


title: WiMAX

text: As a result, the system has to be initially designed in consensus with the base station product team to accurately project frequency use, interference, and general product functionality.


title: WiMAX

text: The Asia-Pacific region has surpassed the North American region in terms of 4G broadband wireless subscribers. There were around 1.7 million pre-WiMAX and WiMAX customers in Asia – 29% of the overall market – compared to 1.4 million in the US and Canada.


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX Forum has proposed an architecture that defines how a WiMAX network can be connected with an IP based core network, which is typically chosen by operators that serve as Internet Service Providers (ISP); Nevertheless, the WiMAX BS provide seamless integration capabilities with other types of architectures as with packet switched Mobile Networks.


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX forum proposal defines a number of components, plus some of the interconnections (or reference points) between these, labeled R1 to R5 and R8:


title: WiMAX

text: It is important to note that the functional architecture can be designed into various hardware configurations rather than fixed configurations. For example, the architecture is flexible enough to allow remote/mobile stations of varying scale and functionality and Base Stations of varying size – e.g. femto, pico, and mini BS as well as macros.


title: WiMAX

text: There is no uniform global licensed spectrum for WiMAX, however the WiMAX Forum published three licensed spectrum profiles: 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz, in an effort to drive standardisation and decrease cost.


title: WiMAX

text: In the US, the biggest segment available was around 2.5 GHz, and is already assigned, primarily to Sprint Nextel and Clearwire. Elsewhere in the world, the most-likely bands used will be the Forum approved ones, with 2.3 GHz probably being most important in Asia. Some countries in Asia like India and Indonesia will use a mix of 2.5 GHz, 3.3 GHz and other frequencies. Pakistan's Wateen Telecom uses 3.5 GHz.


title: WiMAX

text: Analog TV bands (700 MHz) may become available, but await the complete digital television transition, and other uses have been suggested for that spectrum. In the USA the FCC auction for this spectrum began in January 2008 and, as a result, the biggest share of the spectrum went to Verizon Wireless and the next biggest to AT&T. Both of these companies stated their intention of supporting LTE, a technology which competes directly with WiMAX. EU commissioner Viviane Reding has suggested re-allocation of 500–800 MHz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX profiles define channel size, TDD/FDD and other necessary attributes in order to have interoperating products. The current fixed profiles are defined for both TDD and FDD profiles. At this point, all of the mobile profiles are TDD only. The fixed profiles have channel sizes of 3.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 7 MHz and 10 MHz. The mobile profiles are 5 MHz, 8.75 MHz and 10 MHz. (Note: the 802.16 standard allows a far wider variety of channels, but only the above subsets are supported as WiMAX profiles.)


title: WiMAX

text: Since October 2007, the Radio communication Sector of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) has decided to include WiMAX technology in the IMT-2000 set of standards. This enables spectrum owners (specifically in the 2.5–2.69 GHz band at this stage) to use WiMAX equipment in any country that recognizes the IMT-2000.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX cannot deliver 70 Mbit/s over . Like all wireless technologies, WiMAX can operate at higher bitrates or over longer distances but not both. Operating at the maximum range of increases bit error rate and thus results in a much lower bitrate. Conversely, reducing the range (to under 1 km) allows a device to operate at higher bitrates.


title: WiMAX

text: A citywide deployment of WiMAX in Perth, Australia demonstrated that customers at the cell-edge with an indoor Customer-premises equipment (CPE) typically obtain speeds of around 1–4 Mbit/s, with users closer to the cell site obtaining speeds of up to 30 Mbit/s.


title: WiMAX

text: Like all wireless systems, available bandwidth is shared between users in a given radio sector, so performance could deteriorate in the case of many active users in a single sector. However, with adequate capacity planning and the use of WiMAX's QoS, a minimum guaranteed throughput for each subscriber can be put in place. In practice, most users will have a range of 4–8 Mbit/s services and additional radio cards will be added to the base station to increase the number of users that may be served as required.


title: WiMAX

text: A number of specialized companies produced baseband ICs and integrated RFICs for WiMAX Subscriber Stations in the 2.3, 2.5 and 3.5 GHz bands (refer to 'Spectrum allocation' above). These companies include, but are not limited to, Beceem, Sequans, and PicoChip.


title: WiMAX

text: Comparisons and confusion between WiMAX and Wi-Fi are frequent, because both are related to wireless connectivity and Internet access.


title: WiMAX

text: Although Wi-Fi and WiMAX are designed for different situations, they are complementary. WiMAX network operators typically provide a WiMAX Subscriber Unit that connects to the metropolitan WiMAX network and provides Wi-Fi connectivity within the home or business for computers and smartphones. This enables the user to place the WiMAX Subscriber Unit in the best reception area, such as a window, and have date access throughout their property.


title: WiMAX

text: TTCN-3 test specification language is used for the purposes of specifying conformance tests for WiMAX implementations. The WiMAX test suite is being developed by a Specialist Task Force at ETSI (STF 252).


title: WiMAX

text: The WiMAX Forum is a non profit organization formed to promote the adoption of WiMAX compatible products and services.


title: WiMAX

text: A major role for the organization is to certify the interoperability of WiMAX products. Those that pass conformance and interoperability testing achieve the "WiMAX Forum Certified" designation, and can display this mark on their products and marketing materials. Some vendors claim that their equipment is "WiMAX-ready", "WiMAX-compliant", or "pre-WiMAX", if they are not officially WiMAX Forum Certified.


title: WiMAX

text: Another role of the WiMAX Forum is to promote the spread of knowledge about WiMAX. In order to do so, it has a certified training program that is currently offered in English and French. It also offers a series of member events and endorses some industry events.


title: WiMAX

text: WiSOA was the first global organization composed exclusively of owners of WiMAX spectrum with plans to deploy WiMAX technology in those bands. WiSOA focused on the regulation, commercialisation, and deployment of WiMAX spectrum in the 2.3–2.5 GHz and the 3.4–3.5 GHz ranges. WiSOA merged with the Wireless Broadband Alliance in April 2008.


title: WiMAX

text: In 2011, the Telecommunications Industry Association released three technical standards (TIA-1164, TIA-1143, and TIA-1140) that cover the air interface and core networking aspects of Wi-Max High-Rate Packet Data (HRPD) systems using a Mobile Station/Access Terminal (MS/AT) with a single transmitter.


title: WiMAX

text: Within the marketplace, WiMAX's main competition came from existing, widely deployed wireless systems such as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), CDMA2000, existing Wi-Fi, mesh networking and eventually 4G (LTE).


title: WiMAX

text: In the future, competition will be from the evolution of the major cellular standards to 4G, high-bandwidth, low-latency, all-IP networks with voice services built on top. The worldwide move to 4G for GSM/UMTS and AMPS/TIA (including CDMA2000) is the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) effort.


title: WiMAX

text: The LTE Standard was finalized in December 2008, with the first commercial deployment of LTE carried out by TeliaSonera in Oslo and Stockholm in December, 2009. Henceforth, LTE saw rapidly increasing adoption by mobile carriers around the world.