title: Stress (biology)

text: Selye was in contact with the tobacco industry from 1958 and they were undeclared allies in litigation and the promotion of the concept of stress, clouding the link between smoking and cancer, and portraying smoking as a "diversion", or in Selye's concept a "deviation", from environmental stress.


title: Stress (biology)

text: From the late 1960s, academic psychologists started to adopt Selye's concept; they sought to quantify "life stress" by scoring "significant life events", and a large amount of research was undertaken to examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s, stress had become the medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to better address the issue. There was also renewed laboratory research into the neuroendocrine, molecular, and immunological bases of stress, conceived as a useful heuristic not necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. The US military became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat neurosis and psychiatric casualties.


title: Stress (biology)

text: The psychiatric diagnosis "post-traumatic stress disorder" ("PTSD") was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" as "posttraumatic stress disorder" in 1980. PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the actual death of someone else), serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity. In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.


title: Stress (biology)

text: By the 1990s, "stress" had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of Western life. Focus grew on stress in certain settings, such as workplace stress, and stress management techniques were developed. The term also became a euphemism, a way of referring to problems and eliciting sympathy without being explicitly confessional, just "stressed out". It came to cover a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of health. In popular usage, almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful. During this time society spent less attention to the actual danger and severeness to mental health, this society might not have cared about those consequences of what we say or do. We might not agree that those consequences of being harsh to another individual verbally is to be considered abuse but they nonetheless have costs that we all pay.


title: Stress (biology)

text: The American Psychological Association's 2015 Stress In America Study found that nationwide stress is on the rise and that the three leading sources of stress were "money", "family responsibility", and "work".


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, also known as Democratic Federative Yugoslavia (DF Yugoslavia or DFY), was a provisional state established during World War II on 29 November 1943 through the Second Session of the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). The National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia (NKOJ) was its original executive body. Throughout its existence it was governed by Marshal Josip Broz Tito as prime minister.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: It was recognized by the Allies at the Tehran Conference, along with the AVNOJ as its deliberative body. The Yugoslav government-in-exile of King Peter II in London, partly due to pressure from the United Kingdom, recognized the AVNOJ government with the Treaty of Vis, signed on 16 June 1944 between the prime minister of the government-in-exile, Ivan Šubašić, and Tito. With the Treaty of Vis, the government-in-exile and the NKOJ agreed to merge into a provisional government as soon as possible. The form of the new government was agreed upon in a second Tito–Šubašić agreement signed on 1 November 1944 in the recently liberated Yugoslav capital of Belgrade. DF Yugoslavia became one of the founding members of the United Nations upon the signing of the United Nations Charter in October 1945.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: The state was formed to unite the Yugoslav resistance movement to the occupation of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. The agreement left the issue of whether the state would be a monarchy or a republic intentionally undecided until after the war had ended so the position of head of state was vacant. After the merger of the governments, the state was reformed as a one-party Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia with Josip Broz Tito as Prime Minister and Ivan Šubašić as minister of foreign affairs.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: The Second Session of the AVNOJ, held in Jajce in November 1943, opened with a declaration that read in part:


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: The AVNOJ then issued six decrees and the Presidium of the AVNOJ, which continued its functions when it was not in session, followed with four decisions. Together these comprised the constitution of the new state taking shape in Yugoslavia. On 30 November the Presidium gave Tito the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia and appointed him president of the government (or acting prime minister) and Minister of National Defence. Three vice presidents and thirteen other ministers were appointed to the NKOJ.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: The name "Democratic Federative Yugoslavia" was officially adopted on 17 February 1944. On the same day they adopted the five-torch emblem of Yugoslavia.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: After the deposition of King Peter II, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed on 29 November 1945.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: Its legislature, after November 1944, was the Provisional Assembly. The Tito-Šubašić agreement of 1944 declared that the state was a pluralist democracy that guaranteed: democratic liberties; personal freedom; freedom of speech, assembly, and religion; and a free press. However, by January 1945 Tito had shifted the emphasis of his government away from emphasis on pluralist democracy, claiming that though he accepted democracy, he claimed there was no "need" for multiple parties, as he claimed that multiple parties were unnecessarily divisive in the midst of Yugoslavia's war effort and that the People's Front represented all the Yugoslav people. The People's Front coalition, headed by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia and its general secretary Marshal Josip Broz Tito, was a major movement within the government. Other political movements that joined the government included the "Napred" movement represented by Milivoje Marković.


title: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia

text: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was ruled by Temporary Government consisting mostly of Unitary National Liberation Front members and small number of other political parties from former Kingdom of Yugoslavia. President of the Government was Josip Broz Tito. Communists held 22 minister positions, including Finances, Internal Affairs, Justice, Transport and others. Ivan Šubašić, from Croatian Peasant Party and former ban of Croatian Banovina, was minister of Foreign Affairs, while Milan Grol, from Democratic Party, was Deputy Prime Minister. Many non-communist government members resigned due to disagreement with the new policy.


title: Blue-tongued skink

text: Blue-tongued skinks comprise the Australasian genus Tiliqua, which contains some of the largest members of the skink family (Scincidae). They are commonly called blue-tongued lizards or simply blue-tongues or blueys in Australia. As suggested by these common names, a prominent characteristic of the genus is a large blue tongue that can be bared as bluff-warning to potential enemies. The type of predator/threat that is near will determine the intensity of colour present in the tongue. In addition, their blue tongue will produce a response in the prey which will in turn diminish the attack. The tongue can also deform itself and produce a thick mucus in order to catch prey. They are relatively shy in comparison with other lizards, and also significantly slower due to their shorter legs.


title: Blue-tongued skink

text: Blue-tongued skinks are closely related to the genera "Cyclodomorphus" and "Hemisphaeriodon". All species are found on mainland Australia with the exception of "Tiliqua gigas", which occurs in New Guinea and various islands of Indonesia. the Tanimbar blue-tongued skink, a subspecies of "Tiliqua scincoides", is also found on several small Indonesian islands between Australia and New Guinea. "Tiliqua nigrolutea", the Blotched blue-tongued skink, is the only species present in Tasmania.


title: Blue-tongued skink

text: Most species are diurnal, ground-foraging omnivores, feeding on a wide variety of insects, gastropods, flowers, fruits and berries. The pygmy blue-tongue is again the exception, being primarily an ambush predator of terrestrial arthropods. All are viviparous, with litter sizes ranging from 1-4 in the pygmy blue-tongue and shingleback to 5-24 in the eastern and northern blue-tongues.


title: Blue-tongued skink

text: Blue-tongues skink species are generally docile, gentle, quiet and easily tamed, and can make a good reptile pet for beginners. Although they are not aggressive, they have strong jaws and teeth, meaning that a bite from a skink can be painful. It is advisable not to startle or provoke them, as they may bite if they feel threatened. Specimens can live up to 20 years or more.


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: The Spanish telephone numbering plan is the allocation of telephone numbers in Spain. It was previously regulated by the Comisión del Mercado de las Telecomunicaciones (CMT), but is now regulated by the Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (CNMC).


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: Before 1998, local telephone calls could be made using only the subscriber's number without the area code, while the trunk code '9' was omitted when calling from outside Spain, e.g.:


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: International calls were made by dialling the international access code 07, waiting for a tone, and then dialling the country code. However, calls to Gibraltar were made using the prefix '956' for the province of Cádiz, followed by the digit '7', instead of the country code +350, e.g:


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: Similarly, calls to Andorra were made using the prefix '973' for the province of Lleida followed by the digit '8', e.g:


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: It was also possible to call Andorra from other countries via Spain using the prefix +34 738 instead of via France using the prefix +33 628. However, on 17 December 1994, Andorra adopted its own country code +376, with '8' being added to the subscriber's five-digit number, meaning that international dialling was required from Spain, e.g:


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: On 1 December 1998, Spain changed to a new telephone numbering plan. Under the closed numbering plan with the trunk prefix '9' being incorporated into the subscriber's number, so that a nine-digit number was used for all calls, e.g.:


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: Spain's international access code also changed from 07 to 00, but this did not affect dialling arrangements for calls to Gibraltar, with the 9567 prefix being retained. In addition, it was possible to call Gibraltar from other countries via Spain using the prefix +34 9567. However, on 10 February 2007, Spain adopted the international prefix 00350 for all calls to Gibraltar, thereby bringing end to a dispute between Gibraltar and Spain. Consequently, numbers with the prefix 9567 were withdrawn from use, and made available for reassignment to subscribers in Spain.


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: Mobile phone numbers begin with 6 or 7, followed by 8 digits (6xx xxx xxx or 7yx xxx xxx), where y can be 1 to 9, not 0 (zero). Note, numbers starting with 70 are personal numbers which can be re-directed to any other number by the personal owner. Since the blocks of mobile phone numbers are allocated according to demand from the service providers, there is not necessarily a unique service provider indicated by the three digit numbering group (6xx or 7yx).


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: In October 2009, new legislation was approved to grant the allocation of up to 80,000,000 new numbers beginning with number 7 (followed by 8 digits) to supplement the existing group beginning with number 6 (followed by 8 digits); due to the lack of available numbers to satisfy the increasing demand for mobile phone and other mobile / wireless services.


title: Telephone numbers in Spain

text: Personal numbers are used as redirection IDs. The owner of a personal number may request, for example, any call to its personal number to be redirected to any other number it wants.


title: Gary Garland

text: Gary Joseph Houston (né Garland; born October 12, 1957) is an American former professional basketball player for the Denver Nuggets in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played one season with the Nuggets (1979–80). Gary is the half-brother of superstar singer Whitney Houston and also half-brother to Michael Houston. Gary, Michael, and Whitney are the children of singer Cissy Houston. Gary is the cousin of singers Dionne Warwick and Dee Dee Warwick and the uncle of Bobbi Kristina Brown, Whitney's daughter with singer Bobby Brown. Garland has toured several times as a background singer and an occasional duet partner with Whitney Houston. Garland has also studied at DePaul University.


title: Gary Garland

text: After being released by the NBA's Denver Nuggets in 1980 for failing a drug test, Garland participated with his then-newly famous superstar sister, R&B/pop singer Whitney Houston, on her "Greatest Love Tour" in 1986 as a background/duet vocalist. This led to a continuous work relationship with Whitney. He performed as a background singer in several of Whitney's tours throughout the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and her 2010's "Nothing But Love Tour".


title: Orwellian

text: "Orwellian" is an adjective describing a situation, idea, or societal condition that George Orwell identified as being destructive to the welfare of a free and open society. It denotes an attitude and a brutal policy of draconian control by propaganda, surveillance, disinformation, denial of truth (doublethink), and manipulation of the past, including the "unperson"—a person whose past atrocity is idealised from the public record and memory, practiced by modern repressive governments. Often, this includes the circumstances depicted in his novels, particularly "Nineteen Eighty-Four" but political doublespeak is criticized throughout his work, such as in "Politics and the English Language".


title: Orwellian

text: "The New York Times" has said the term is "the most widely used adjective derived from the name of a modern writer".


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Nitrile rubber, also known as nitrile butadiene rubber, NBR, Buna-N, and acrylonitrile butadiene rubber, is a synthetic rubber derived from acrylonitrile (ACN) and butadiene. Trade names include Perbunan, Nipol, Krynac and Europrene. This rubber is unusual in being resistant to oil, fuel, and other chemicals.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: NBR is used in the automotive and aeronautical industry to make fuel and oil handling hoses, seals, grommets, and self-sealing fuel tanks. It is used in the nuclear industry to make protective gloves. NBR's stability at high temperatures from makes it an ideal material for aeronautical applications. Nitrile butadiene is also used to produce moulded goods, footwear, adhesives, sealants, sponges, expanded foams, and floor mats.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Its resilience makes NBR a useful material for disposable lab, cleaning, and examination gloves. Nitrile rubber is more resistant than natural rubber to oils and acids, and has superior strength, but has inferior flexibility.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Nitrile rubber was developed in 1931 at BASF and Bayer, then part of chemical conglomerate IG Farben. The first commercial production began in Germany in 1935.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: The Buna-Werke was a slave labor factory located near Auschwitz and financed by IG Farben. The raw materials came from the formerly Polish coalfields. Buna Rubber was named by BASF A.G., and through 1988 Buna was a remaining trade name of nitrile rubber held by BASF.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Emulsifier (soap), acrylonitrile, butadiene, radical generating activators, and a catalyst are added to polymerization vessels in the production of hot NBR. Water serves as the reaction medium within the vessel. The tanks are heated to 30–40 °C to facilitate the polymerization reaction and to promote branch formation in the polymer. Because several monomers capable of propagating the reaction are involved in the production of nitrile rubber the composition of each polymer can vary (depending on the concentrations of each monomer added to the polymerization tank and the conditions within the tank). There may not be a single repeating unit throughout the entire polymer. For this reason there is also no IUPAC name for the general polymer.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Monomers are usually permitted to react for 5 to 12 hours. Polymerization is allowed to proceed to ~70% conversion before a “shortstop” agent (such as dimethyldithiocarbamate and diethylhydroxylamine) is added to react with (destroy) the remaining free radicals and initiators. Once the resultant latex has “shortstopped”, the unreacted monomers are removed through a steam in a slurry stripper. Recovery of unreacted monomers is close to 100%. After monomer recovery, latex is sent through a series of filters to remove unwanted solids and then sent to the blending tanks where it is stabilized with an antioxidant. The yielded polymer latex is coagulated using calcium nitrate, aluminium sulfate, and other coagulating agents in an aluminium tank. The coagulated substance is then washed and dried into crumb rubber.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: The process for the production of cold NBR is very similar to that of hot NBR. Polymerization tanks are heated to 5–15 °C instead of 30–40 °C. Under lower temperature conditions, less branching will form on polymers (the amount of branching distinguishes cold NBR from hot NBR).


title: Nitrile rubber

text: The raw material is typically yellow, although it can also be orange or red tinted, depending on the manufacturer. Its elongation at break is ≥ 300% and possesses a tensile strength of ≥ 10 N/mm (10 MPa). NBR has good resistance to mineral oils, vegetable oils, benzene/petrol, ordinary diluted acids and alkalines.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: An important factor in the properties of NBR is the ratio of acrylonitrile groups to butadiene groups, referred to as the ACN content. The lower the ACN content, the lower the glass transition temperature; however, the higher the ACN content, the better resistance the polymer will have to nonpolar solvents as mentioned above. Most applications requiring both solvent resistance and low temperature flexibility require an ACN content of 33%.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: The uses of nitrile rubber include disposable non-latex gloves, automotive transmission belts, hoses, O-rings, gaskets, oil seals, V belts, synthetic leather, printer's form rollers, and as cable jacketing; NBR latex can also be used in the preparation of adhesives and as a pigment binder.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Unlike polymers meant for ingestion, where small inconsistencies in chemical composition/structure can have a pronounced effect on the body, the general properties of NBR are insensitive to composition. The production process itself is not overly complex; the polymerization, monomer recovery, and coagulation processes require some additives and equipment, but they are typical of the production of most rubbers. The necessary apparatus is simple and easy to obtain.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: In January 2008, the European Commission imposed fines totaling €34,230,000 on the Bayer and Zeon groups for fixing prices for nitrile butadiene rubber, in violation of the EU ban on cartels and restrictive business practices (Article 81 of the EC Treaty and Article 53 of the EEA Agreement).


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber (HNBR) is produced by hydrogenation of NBR. Doing so removes the olefinic groups, which are vulnerable to degradation by various chemicals as well as ozone. Typically, Wilkinson's catalyst is used to promote the hydrogenation. The nitrile groups are unaffected. The degree of hydrogenation determines the kind of vulcanization that can be applied to the polymer.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Also known as highly saturated nitrile (HSN), HNBR is widely known for its physical strength and retention of properties after long-term exposure to heat, oil, and chemicals. Trade names include "Zhanber" (Lianda Corporation), "Therban" (Arlanxeo ), and "Zetpol" (Zeon Chemical). It is commonly used to manufacture O-rings for automotive air-conditioning systems. Other applications include timing belts, dampers, servo hoses, membranes, and seals.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: Depending on filler selection and loading, HNBR compounds typically have tensile strengths of 20–31 MPa at 23 °C. Compounding techniques allow for HNBR to be used over a broad temperature range, −40 °C to 165 °C, with minimal degradation over long periods of time. For low-temperature performance, low ACN grades should be used; high-temperature performance can be obtained by using highly saturated HNBR grades with white fillers. As a group, HNBR elastomers have excellent resistance to common automotive fluids (e.g., engine oil, coolant, fuel, etc.).


title: Nitrile rubber

text: The unique properties and higher temperature rating attributed to HNBR when compared to NBR has resulted in wide adoption of HNBR in automotive, industrial, and assorted, performance-demanding applications. On a volume basis, the automotive market is the largest consumer, using HNBR for a host of dynamic and static seals, hoses, and belts. HNBR has also been widely employed in industrial sealing for oil field exploration and processing, as well as rolls for steel and paper mills.


title: Nitrile rubber

text: An alternative version of NBR is carboxylated nitrile butadiene rubber (XNBR). XNBR is a terpolymer of butadiene, acrylonitrile, and acrylic acid. The presence of the acrylic acid introduces carboxylic acid groups (RCOH). These groups allow crosslinking through the addition of zinc (Zn) additives. The carboxyl groups are present at levels of 10% or less. In addition to these ionic crosslinks, traditional sulfur vulcanization is applied.


title: Mari El

text: The Mari El Republic (, "Respublika Mariy El"; Meadow Mari: ; Hill Mari: ) is a republic of Russia. It is in the European Russia region of the country, along the northern bank of the Volga River, and is administratively part of the Volga Federal District. The republic has a population of 696,459 (2010 Census). Yoshkar-Ola is the capital and the largest city.


title: Mari El

text: Mari El is one of Russia's ethnic republics, established for the indigenous Mari people, a Finnic nation who have traditionally lived along the Volga River and Kama River. The majority of the Republic's population are ethnic Russians (47.4%) and Mari (43.9%), with minority populations of Tatars and Chuvash. The official languages are Russian and Mari. Mari El is bordered by Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to the west, Kirov Oblast to the north, Tatarstan Republic to the east, and Chuvashia Republic to the south.


title: Mari El

text: The Republic is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain of Russia, along and mostly to the north of the Volga River. The swampy Mari Depression is in the west of the Republic, contrasted by more hilly landscapes in the east where the highest point of the Republic (at ) is located. The Republic borders with Kirov Oblast in the north and east, the Republic of Tatarstan in the southeast and south, the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west and north.


title: Mari El

text: There are 476 rivers in the Republic, with the Volga and its tributaries being the major water arteries. Most rivers are considered to be minor— wide and deep—and usually freeze between mid-November and mid-April. There are over 700 lakes and ponds; many located in the swampy areas and having areas of less than and depths between . Lake Yalchik, occupying , is the largest by area, while Lake Tabashinskoye is the deepest. Swamps cover large areas— and up to —and usually freeze in December. While swamps tend to be shallow, with an average depth of , they are impassable in fall and spring due to flooding.


title: Mari El

text: Climate is moderately continental, with moderately cold and snowy winters and warm and often rainy summers. The average temperatures range from in summer to in winter. November is the windiest month of the year. Annual precipitation varies from .


title: Mari El

text: There are virtually no natural resources of industrial significance in the Republic. Other resources include peat, mineral waters, and limestone. About 50% of the Republic's territory is forested, although the level of forestation varies significantly from one district to another.


title: Mari El

text: Ancient Mari tribes were known since the 5th century, though archaeologists suspect that the Mari culture is much older in its roots. Later their area was a tributary of Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In the 1440s it was incorporated into the Khanate of Kazan and was occupied by the Tsardom of Russia (governed by Ivan the Terrible) after the fall of Kazan in 1552.


title: Mari El

text: After the Russian Revolution, under the Bolshevik regime, the Mari Autonomous Oblast was established on 4 November 1920. It was re-organized into the Mari ASSR on 5 December 1936, at the same time as the enactment of the 1936 Soviet Constitution. In its present form, the Mari El Republic was formed on 22 December 1990. On 21 May 1998, Mari El alongside Amur, Ivanovo, Kostroma, and Voronezh Oblast signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. This agreement was abolished on 31 December 2001.


title: Mari El

text: The name of the republic is based on the ethnic self-designation of its indigenous population – , "Mari" (from , "man, husband"), and , "country, land".


title: Mari El

text: The head of government in the Mari El Republic is the Head (formerly President). As of 2017, the Head was Alexander Yevstifeyev, who was appointed in April 2017.


title: Mari El

text: The government of Mari El has been pursuing Russification in recent years, with the former head of the republic, Leonid Markelov, ordering many Mari language newspapers to close. Many ethnic Mari activists live in fear of violence. The Mari activist and chief editor Vladimir Kozlov was badly beaten after he criticized Markelov's government. Other Mari leaders have been subject to violence, legal persecution, and intimidation.


title: Mari El

text: The Mari people's native religion, based on the worship of the forces of nature, has encountered hostility as well. Vitaly Tanakov was charged with inciting religious, national, social, and linguistic hatred after publishing the book "The Priest Speaks".


title: Mari El

text: The International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHF) and the Moscow Helsinki Group (MHG), in an exhaustive 2006 report "Russian Federation: The Human Rights Situation of the Mari Minority of the Republic of Mari El", found widespread evidence of political and cultural persecution of Mari people, and of "a broader trend of repression of dissidents in the republic".


title: Mari El

text: Though the Mari people have lived in the area for millennia, they did not have a designated territory before the Russian Revolution of 1917. According to the 2002 Census, only 51.7% of the Mari within Russia live in the Mari El Republic, while 17.5% live in the Republic of Bashkortostan (consisting of the Eastern Mari, who fled to Bashkorostan to escape religious persecution). During the last Soviet Census (1989), 4% of the Mari of the Soviet Union lived outside of Russia.


title: Mari El

text: Since World War II, more ethnic Russians and Tatars have moved into the area. According to the 2010 Census, Russians make up 47.4% of the republic's population, while the ethnic Mari make up 43.9%. Other groups include Tatars (5.8%), Chuvash (0.9%), Ukrainians (0.6%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.


title: Mari El

text: The religions with the most adherents in the republic are Russian Orthodoxy, the Mari native religion, the Old Believers, and Islam. The traditional Mari religion ("Chimari yula") is still practised today by many Mari people and is the main religion of the Mari of Bashkortostan; also practised is a syncretism with Christianity. The Czars took drastic measures to force Christianity on the Mari, going so far as blowing up a holy mountain, and the persecution of the religion went on under the Soviet Union.


title: Mari El

text: During the 1990s the religion was officially recognized by the State and began to revive. The Mari gather at around 520 holy groves where they offer animal and vegetable sacrifices, there are about 20 festivals yearly. Although traditional religion is one of Mari El's three officially recognized religions (along with Orthodoxy and Islam) Mari religious practises have come under increasing pressure, according to human rights groups.


title: Mari El

text: According to a 2012 survey, 47.8% of the population of Mari El adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6–15% adheres to the Mari native religion, 6% adheres to Islam, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Old Believers and 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without church affiliation or members of other Orthodox churches. In addition, 25% of the population is "spiritual but not religious", 6% is atheist and 4.2% follows other religions or did not answer the question.


title: Mari El

text: The most important facilities of higher education are Mari State Technical University and Mari State University, both located in Yoshkar-Ola. There are also more than 900 primary and secondary schools located throughout the republic.


title: Mari El

text: For the past few years, the Mari El Republic has been participating in the national project "Education" ("Oбразование"), which is designed to improve education throughout Russia by bringing new technology into the classroom, improving material conditions in schools, and providing financial awards to extraordinary students and teachers. Although the Mari language is officially a state language, Mari educators and administrators have been forced from their positions in recent years and Mari-language education has been defunded, according to the U.S. State Department, the European Union, and others.


title: Mari El

text: The most developed industries are machine construction, metalworking, timber, woodworking, and food industries. Most of the industrial enterprises are located in the capital Yoshkar-Ola, as well as in the towns of Kozmodemyansk, Volzhsk, and Zvenigovo.


title: Mari El

text: The largest companies in the region include Mariysky Oil Refinery (revenues of $ million in 2017), Mari Pulp and Paper Mill ($ million), Shelanger Chemical Plant "Siver" ($ million), Marbiopharm ($ million).


title: Mari El

text: Traveling cheaply and quickly to various towns and villages within the Republic is made possible through a network of fifteen train stations, fifty-three bus stations, and numerous "marshrutkas". The republic is connected to different regions throughout Russia by daily trains to and from Moscow and Kazan, flights on one commercial airline from Yoshkar-Ola Airport, located near Yoshkar-Ola, and a port on the Volga River in Kozmodemyansk. There are also four other minor river ports in the republic. Regional automobile code is 12.


title: Mari El

text: There are many museums located throughout the territory of the republic. The largest ones include the National Museum, the Museum of History, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Yoshkar-Ola; the Museum of Arts and History, the Ethnographic Open-Air Museum, and the Merchant Life Museum in Kozmodemyansk; and the Sheremetyev Castle Museum-reserve in Yurino. There are also museums dedicated to the poet Nikolay Mukhin and the composer Ivan Klyuchnikov-Palantay in Yoshkar-Ola and the house-museum of writer Sergei Chavayn in Chavaynur.


title: James Galante

text: James Galante (born January 5, 1953) is an American convicted felon and associate of the Genovese crime family, owner of the defunct Danbury Trashers minor-league hockey team and a defunct racecar team fielding cars for Ted Christopher, and ex-CEO of Automated Waste Disposal (AWD), a company that holds waste disposal contracts for most of western Connecticut and Westchester and Putnam counties in New York.


title: James Galante

text: In 1999, Galante was sentenced to 12 months and a day in federal prison after pleading guilty to tax evasion. In June 2008, Galante admitted to charges of racketeering, conspiracy to commit wire fraud, and defrauding the Internal Revenue Service, and faced between five and seven years in prison under Federal Sentencing Guidelines, and was also forced to forfeit his controlling interest in 25 different garbage-related businesses, estimated to be worth over $100 million. He was released in 2014 after serving seven years.


title: James Galante

text: Galante was owner of twenty five different trash disposal businesses based out of Danbury, Connecticut and estimated to be worth over $100 million. The businesses handled 80% of garbage hauling in southern and western Connecticut, and Westchester and Putnam counties in New York. Since 1993, they have been accused of muscling out local competition through no-bid-contracts and payments of up to $120,000 per year to Genovese crime family boss Matthew "Matty the Horse," Ianniello. As a result, municipalities, businesses and residents paid artificially inflated carting prices for years.


title: James Galante

text: In 2006, Federal authorities infiltrated Automated Waste Disposal with an undercover agent and taped hours of phone conversations, precipitating a raid on AWD offices in Danbury and Galante's home in New Fairfield, Connecticut, acquiring trailers full of documents. In June 2006, Galante was issued a 98-count indictment describing Galante as a man who ran an illegal enterprise by carving up the garbage business in western Connecticut and Putnam County and using mob muscle to strong-arm any competitors who might get in his way. Among those also indicted as a result of the investigation were former Waterbury Mayor Joseph Santopietro, former Division Manager for Diversified Waste and Genovese Crime Family enforcer Robert Taggett, federal Drug Enforcement Agent Louis Angioletti, several of Galante's underlings and former Danbury Trashers hockey coach H. Todd Stirling.


title: James Galante

text: Galante was charged in 93 counts of the indictment, with various alleged violations of federal law, including racketeering, racketeering conspiracy, Hobbs Act extortion, mail and wire fraud, witness tampering, tax fraud and conspiracy charges. The indictment included allegations that Galante and others conspired to commit arson and kidnapping by damaging a truck owned by one of Galante's competitors and by kidnapping the driver of that truck at gunpoint.


title: James Galante

text: As the thirty three men involved in the case were summarily indicted and tried, authorities confirmed Ianniello was paid a quarterly "mob tax" of $30,000 for his services, and like almost every other defendant in the case, the bagman responsible for delivering the money and Ianniello pleaded guilty, Ianniello to racketeering and interfering with a federal grand jury probe with a sentence of between one and a half to two years in prison. Galante was indicted in 2006 on charges of paying a 'mob tax' to Ianniello.


title: James Galante

text: Although he initially entered a plea of not guilty, in June 2008, Galante agreed to a change-of-plea hearing. Galante acknowledged that he defrauded the IRS, including writing double paychecks for some employees and having them return one of them to him in cash, claiming items he purchased for his girlfriend's horse farm including hay and a wide-screen television as business expenses, and skimming cash from the register at the Danbury garbage transfer station.


title: James Galante

text: Galante also agreed to forfeit his stake in 25 trash hauling and recycling companies to the federal government, and promised to never work in the business again, stating to the Judge that he agreed to "withdraw" from involvement "with any segment of the trash industry in the United States." The 25 trash-disposal companies owned by Galante, all based in Danbury and estimated by him to be worth $100 million, were "condemned and forfeited to the United States of America." The businesses were sold, with the money going to the United States Department of the Treasury, under laws allowing the forfeiture of property obtained through criminal activities.


title: James Galante

text: The government sold the companies, estimated to be worth $100 million, on the condition that they would return $10.75 million to Galante as a portion of his share of more than $40 million in loans he and his wife, made to the businesses over the years, and Galante will keep EnviroServices Inc. a waste collection, transfer and disposal business in Virginia, with subsidiaries in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, West Virginia and Kentucky. Galante was only initially paid $7.6 million. After claims that the government violated their plea agreement, he was given the remaining $3.1 million.


title: James Galante

text: Galante also agreed to forfeit a horse farm he bought for a former girlfriend, six racing cars, a racing trailer and $448,000 in cash that federal agents seized in 2006, and must pay at least $1.6 million in back taxes to the IRS. He did not admit to other acts federal authorities first accused him of, including extortion, attempted arson and kidnapping.


title: James Galante

text: In June, 2006, twenty-nine people, including Galante, former Trashers' coach Todd Stirling, and Ianniello were indicted for defrauding the United Hockey League. Stirling and Galante allegedly violated the UHL's $275,000 per team salary cap by giving several players and their wives no-show jobs with AWD and hiding illegitimate payments as housing allowances. Stirling also faced six counts of wire fraud related to the filing of fraudulent weekly salary cap reports. According to the indictment, the Trashers' real payroll was nearly $750,000. Amidst these allegations, the Trashers suspended operations and released their players. In June 2008, Galante pleaded guilty to these charges. In a separate incident, in December 2004, Galante was charged with assaulting a UHL official during a game between the Trashers and the Kalamazoo Wings.


title: James Galante

text: Galante was accused of donating to a PAC (Political Action Committee) which laundered money to several politicians who may have used their influence to award contracts to Galante's trash hauling business. Former State Assemblyman Willis Stephens, who also served as the legal counsel to the town of Southeast, New York, accepted over $9,000 from Galante. On Stephens' recommendation, the town board then awarded a $1.5 million no-bid garbage contract to Galante's company. The investigation culminated with raids of Putnam County Executive Robert Bondi's office, although no charges were ever filed.


title: James Galante

text: In 2007, Former Connecticut State Senate Minority Leader Louis DeLuca pleaded guilty to misdemeanor charges in connection with Galante. DeLuca had asked Galante to threaten the husband of DeLuca's granddaughter, whom DeLuca believed was being abused. DeLuca also accepted large donations from Galante and his associates and allegedly promised to look out for Galante's interests. As of November 2007, a State Senate Committee was considering an appropriate sanction for DeLuca. Other Connecticut politicians, including Connecticut U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman, received campaign funds raised by Galante, but had not been linked to any actions on Galante's behalf. On November 13, 2007, DeLuca cut the investigation short by announcing his resignation from the State Senate.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Blur is the fifth studio album by the English rock band Blur, released on 10 February 1997 by Food Records. Blur had previously been broadly critical of American popular culture and their previous albums had become associated with the Britpop movement, particularly "Parklife", which had helped them become one of Britain's leading pop acts. After their previous album, "The Great Escape", the band faced media backlash and relationships between the members became strained.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Under the suggestion of the band's guitarist, Graham Coxon, the band underwent a stylistic change, becoming influenced by American indie rock bands such as Pavement. Recording took place in London as well as in Reykjavík, Iceland. Drummer Dave Rowntree described the music on the album as being more aggressive and emotional than their previous work. Producer Stephen Street claimed that lead singer-songwriter Damon Albarn had started writing about more personal experiences while Coxon revealed that listening to his lyrics it was clear to him that "he'd obviously gone off his head a bit more".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Despite worries from Blur's label, EMI, and the music press that the change in style would alienate the band's predominantly teenage fanbase and that the album would flop as a result, "Blur", as well as lead single, "Beetlebum", reached the top of the UK charts and the album was certified platinum. The album also reached the top 20 in six other countries. The success of "Song 2" led to "Blur" becoming the band's most successful album in the US where the Britpop scene had been largely unsuccessful. The album received positive reviews from most music critics, many praising the stylistic change as well as Albarn's songwriting. This is the last album to feature longtime producer Stephen Street, until his return for "The Magic Whip" (2015).


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Despite Blur's previous album, "The Great Escape" being released to positive reviews, and entering the UK charts at number one, the album's success was left in the shadows compared to "(What's the Story) Morning Glory?" by Britpop rivals Oasis which went quadruple platinum in the US. Blur became perceived as an "inauthentic middle class pop band" in comparison to the "working class heroes" Oasis, which made lead singer-songwriter, Damon Albarn feel "stupid and confused". Bassist Alex James later summarised, "After being the People's Hero, Damon was the People's Prick for a short period ... basically, he was a loser—very publicly."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: An early 1996 "Q" magazine interview revealed that relations between Blur members had become very strained; journalist Adrian Deevoy wrote that he found them "on the verge of a nervous breakup". Guitarist Graham Coxon, in particular, began to resent his bandmates; James for his playboy lifestyle and Albarn for his control over Blur's musical direction and public image. In February 1996, when Coxon and James were absent for a lip-synced Blur performance broadcast on Italian television, they were replaced by a cardboard cutout and a roadie, respectively. Blur biographer Stuart Maconie later wrote that, at the time, "Blur were sewn together very awkwardly."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Coxon struggled with drinking problems and, in a rejection of the group's former Britpop aesthetic, made a point of listening to noisy American alternative rock bands such as Pavement. In the 2010 documentary on the band, "No Distance Left to Run", Coxon stated that he was getting more influenced by American guitarists as "a lot of them were doing very interesting stuff with guitars and I needed to be nourished. I suppose as a guitar player and there was none of that happening in English music although English music was now more popular [so] I started listening to more stuff from the States from smaller labels."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Although he had previously dismissed it, Albarn grew to appreciate Coxon's tastes in lo-fi and underground music, and recognised the need to significantly change Blur's musical direction once again. "I can sit at my piano and write brilliant observational pop songs all day long but you've got to move on", he said. He subsequently approached Street, and argued for a more stripped-down sound on the band's next record. Coxon, recognising his own personal need to, as drummer Dave Rowntree put it, "work this band", wrote a letter to Albarn, describing his desire for their music "to scare people again".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Recording sessions for the album started in June 1996 at Mayfair studios in London. After the initial sessions, the band left to record the rest of the album in Reykjavík, Iceland, away from the Britpop scene. It was in Iceland that the vocals to "Strange News from Another Star", "Essex Dogs", "Beetlebum", and "On Your Own" were recorded. "We just recorded some vocals there," Albarn revealed in an "Addicted to Noise" interview. "I have a house there and it's the perfect place to write because of the light [The sun doesn't rise until midday]. Not good during the summer because it's sunshine all the time, 24 hours a day."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Apart from a change in musical style, the band changed the way they recorded. "It was the first time we sort of jammed," Coxon revealed. "We've never really jammed before. We've been quite white-coaty, overall about recording, like in a laboratory. Yeah, we did actually feel our way through just playing whatever came to our minds and editing, which was really exciting." "We just played together for two weeks in a way we hadn't done since 1991," Dave recalls. "We wanted to purify the sound, to not have anything there not played by us. We reasoned that if we made small changes at the input end, we could effect large changes in the output." According to producer Stephen Street, "Blur had decided that commercial pressures and writing hit singles wasn't going to be the main consideration any more. The mood in the studio was very different to when I'd first worked with them." "In the studio, once we got past those first few days, where I felt everyone was treading on eggshells, there was a great atmosphere. I think it was because they didn't want to be competing with anyone on this record, they wanted to make a record that would help keep the band together." Street had acquired a new piece of hardware, described as "muso-ish to talk about but really useful" that enabled him to sample loops and otherwise cut-and-paste entire sections of the band's jam sessions.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Rowntree stated that the band decided to give Coxon a much freer hand on "Blur". Street also observed a change of Albarn's writing style, as he "was much more prepared to write in the first person, rather than about interesting characters. I think [Albarn had] grown a bit and was prepared to start writing about his own experiences rather than transposing them on to a character like Tracy Jacks or Dan Abnormal." Coxon agreed, and felt "Damon's songs were revealing more to me than to him" and said that when he heard some of his home demos he realised "he'd obviously gone off his head a bit more". The album features the first song to appear on a studio album in which Coxon not only wrote the lyrics, but also sang lead vocal—"You're So Great".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: According to Mark Redfern of "Under the Radar", "Blur" eschewed Britpop in favour of American indie rock. "NME" magazine similarly argued that it favoured lo-fi and alternative rock over Britpop. By contrast, Margaret Moser of "The Austin Chronicle" characterised its music as "a punchy brand of muscular Brit-pop", while AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said it "may superficially appear to be a break from tradition" but is a "logical progression" from Britpop rather than an abandonment of it. Album opener "Beetlebum" has been described as a "Beatles tribute" by several publications; Erlewine wrote that the song "[runs] through the "White Album" in the space of five minutes." "Q" magazine's Andrew Collins compared the song to The Auteurs as well as a "slightly menacing Free as a Bird", due to "a slight drone undulating in the foreground" and a "sweet, elongated coda busied by what sounds like an invasion of turkeys." Albarn admitted that "Beetlebum" was about heroin and the drug experiences he had with his then-girlfriend, Justine Frischmann of Elastica. Albarn also stated that the song describes a complicated emotion, sort of "sleepy" and sort of "sexy". The song's title alludes to the phrase "chasing the beetle", a variation of the phrase, "chasing the dragon", which refers to inhaling the smoke from heated heroin, morphine, or opium that has been placed on a piece of tin-foil. "Song 2" is notable for its hook which features Albarn yelling "woo-hoo!" The song's intro has been called Coxon's "finest moment".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Erlewine described "Country Sad Ballad Man" as bizarrely affecting, strangled lo-fi psychedelia, whilst Collins claimed that "the seated intro is a rustic mess from which arises a simply beautiful, lazy riff." "M.O.R." was described by James Hunter of "Rolling Stone" as a homage to Mott the Hoople. The song borrows the chord progression from David Bowie's "Boys Keep Swinging" and "Fantastic Voyage", the latter of which was co-written by Brian Eno. "On Your Own" is notable for its usage of a Roland TR-606 Drumatix, a 1980s drum machine. Erlewine described the song as "an incredible slice of singalong pop spiked with winding, fluid guitar and synth eruptions." "There's a terrace singalong in here somewhere", Collins claimed, "undermined by its indistinct drum sound".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: "Theme from Retro" was described as "obligatory space-rock trip-hop" by "The Austin Chronicle", whilst Collins claimed that it "presents Blur in dub", referring to it as "an unyielding, lovely row. Like, say, a Blur B-side." "You're So Great", performed only by Coxon, was described by Collins as "the most American of all" as "[Coxon's] voice – faraway badly recorded, wavering but heartfelt – belongs to anyone but Old Blur." Tom Sinclair of "Entertainment Weekly" described the song as recalling the "whacked-out plangency of Midwestern lo-fi heroes Guided By Voices".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Lindsay Zoladz's review of the album (as part of "Blur 21") for "Pitchfork" claimed that "Death of a Party" is the album's highlight, speculating that it influenced Gorillaz – another musical project that features Albarn as the chief songwriter. Collins claimed that it sounded like Blur's "second homage" to The Specials' "Ghost Town", speculating that the lyrics, "Why did we bother?/ Should've stayed away" reflected Blur's recent withdrawal from the public eye despite the song being written years before, and summarised the track as "a genuinely creepy piece". Sinclair described "Chinese Bombs" as sounding like a "Lower East Side mosh-pit den", while Zoladz felt that "I'm Just a Killer for Your Love" was "exquisitely bleary-eyed". In "Look Inside America", Albarn recalls the band waking up from a previous night's show, swigging Pepsi to find the energy to do a local TV show. Hunter called the song a "classic '90s road ballad". The song contains the refrain "Look inside America, she's all right; she's all right," which was said by Erlewine to "cleverly subvert the traditional Blur song, complete with strings." Collins described "Strange News from Another Star" as "Blur's Space Oddity", stating that the "acoustic guitar, quiet intro, nutty mood-change into a darker passage [and] a melancholy report whose central thrust ("I don't believe in me") [express] further doubt from the troubled Albarn." Originally performed as a poem at the Albert Hall in July 1996, the studio version of "Essex Dogs" was described by Erlewine as a "six-minute slab of free verse and rattling guitar noise." Collins revealed that "here it's set to a starter-motor riff so berserk even its author, Coxon, confesses to find it hard to listen to." Collins also described it as "a fitting ending (all eight exploratory minutes of it) to a challenging, barbed masterwork." The song is followed by "Interlude", a hidden track which was described by Collins as "a distressed instrumental sign-oft that goes nowhere".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: In a November 1996 video interview, Rowntree claimed, "It's a much more aggressive record in many ways as well as a more emotional record. I think the music we're making now is the music that we've always wanted to make but got distracted from in a way."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: The artwork for "Blur", as well the album's associated singles, was designed by design company Yacht Associates, which consists of Chris Thomson and Richard Bull. The pair had also been involved in the design process for Blur's previous album covers as part of Stylorouge. The cover art depicts a patient being rushed into an emergency ward. Searching for an image that conveyed "both optimism and scariness", Yacht Associates chose the stock photo from Tony Stone Images, describing it as "an anaesthetic dream". In "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die", reviewer Mark Bennett speculates that the cover art represented the band's critical status prior to the album.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: The back cover and inside sleeve by Paul Postle depict sulphur fields in Iceland, where much of the album was recorded. Postle also took photos of the band rehearsing for the gatefold.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: "Blur" is also the group's first album not to have lyrics printed in the liner notes, instead having a composite photo of the band in the studio spread out over three panels. When questioned on this decision, Albarn revealed they "didn't wanna have to go through explaining what the lyrics are about because they're quite odd to explain," although he stated that "'Death of a Party' and 'Strange News From Another Star' are [both] pretty clear."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: The music press predicted that the lo-fi sonic experimentation would alienate Blur's fanbase. These fears were also shared by James who revealed that the front rows of the gigs that the band were performing at during the Britpop years were primarily attracting 15-year-old girls and that he thought the change in style was a "fucking big balls move". Andy Ross, who was running Food Records at the time, admitted that when he first heard it he was "taken aback. We'd won Brits, we'd won two consecutive Q magazine Albums of the Year and my initial reaction was it's awkward and difficult. My immediate reaction was will you sell as many records? Where's my royalties? Everyone's first reaction to it was that it was a departure: that's clear from the artwork onwards." Albarn dismissed EMI's concerns, calling them "The usual thing—'It's got no singles on it'. Meanwhile, they're giving Radiohead the full marketing works. That hurt for a while because we've done so well for them. We were trying to be really brave. But it was all made up pretty quickly." Parlophone MD Tony Wadsworth was enthusiastic however as Coxon recalls, "We played him "Song 2" as a bit of a test of whether he was on our wavelength. We told him this was the second single. Course, we had no idea that it would be. He sat there, grinning—'Definitely! Definitely a single!'"


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Worries of "commercial suicide" were eased when the lead single, "Beetlebum", debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart. "Blur" topped the UK Albums Chart when it was released in February, knocking "White on Blonde" by Texas off the top spot. "Blur" eventually went on to be certified Platinum. Although the album could not match the sales of their previous albums in the UK, "Blur" became the band's most successful internationally, reaching the top twenty in Switzerland, France, and Norway. In the US, the album peaked at number sixty-one on the "Billboard" 200, Blur's highest-charting album at the time, and was certified gold. The album's US success has been attributed partially to the popularity of "Song 2", which peaked at number six on the Modern Rock chart. After "Song 2" was licensed for use in soundtracks, advertisements and television shows—it became the most-recognisable Blur song in the US. After the success of "Blur", the band embarked on a nine-month world tour.


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: "Blur" received generally positive reviews from music critics in the United States, but reviews were mixed in the UK press. "The Guardian" praised it, whereas "The Times" was more ambivalent and "The Independent" was negative. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said the album highlights "the band's rich eclecticism and sense of songcraft. Certainly, they are trying for new sonic territory, bringing in shards of white noise, gurgling electronics, raw guitars, and druggy psychedelia, but these are just extensions of previously hidden elements of Blur's music." Margaret Moser of "The Austin Chronicle" praised the album for "unveiling a punchy brand of muscular Brit-pop that dances around raucous, Kinks-like garage-pop ("Movin' On," "M.O.R."), tender, Beatles-like harmonies ("Beetlebum," "Look Inside America"), punky quirk ("Chinese Bombs"), soulful balladry ("Country Sad Ballad Man"), obligatory space-rock trip-hop ("Theme from Retro," "I'm Just a Killer for Your Love"), and a raise-yer-mug singalong ("On Your Own")." Jonathan Bernstein of "Spin" also felt that, "despite their traitorous pronouncements, Blur's highlights are consistently British-bred." James Hunter, writing for "Rolling Stone", claimed that "what still makes [Blur] great is their deep grasp of style and genre. What they haven't done on "Blur" is roll out of bed, strum a few chords and loudly free-associate about the first thing that pops into their heads. This is a record that inhabits current American rock biases as cogently and intelligently as Parklife corralled the last few decades of British rock."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Many praised lyrics such as the ones in "Look inside America/She's alright", and noting Albarn's "obligatory nod to Beck, [and promotion of] the new Pavement album as if paid to do so", reviewers felt the band had come to accept American values during this time—an about-face of their attitude during the Britpop years. Erlewine wrote that "Blur might be self-consciously eclectic, but Blur are at their best when they are trying to live up to their own pretensions, because of Damon Albarn's exceptional sense of songcraft and the band's knack for detailed arrangements that flesh out the songs to their fullest." "Alternative Press" called it "a whirl of weird esotericism, precious, precocious and impressively". Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" was less enthusiastic and cited only "Song 2" as a "choice cut", indicating "a good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money". However, there was strong praise from the "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette", who awarded the album four out of four stars. Ed Masley wrote that "you can hear the new infatuation with indie rock stylings all over the latest release, with its clattering sonic collages and transistor radio vocals. At times, it's as though they've forgot that they're British. They are British though. It's what makes this eponymous record their greatest."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: At the 1998 NME Awards, "Blur" received a nomination for Best Album. However, it lost to Radiohead's "OK Computer". In 2013, "NME" ranked it at number 137 in its list of 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: Unlike some of Blur's previous albums, praise from the band members has remained. "I'm really fond of that record," Coxon said in 2009. "I think it's one of our best."


title: Blur (Blur album)

text: All music by Damon Albarn, Graham Coxon, Alex James and Dave Rowntree except "M.O.R.", written by Albarn, Coxon, James, Rowntree, David Bowie and Brian Eno.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The demographics of Estonia in the 21st century result from historical trends over more than a thousand years, as with most European countries, but have been disproportionately influenced by events in the second half of the 20th century. The Soviet occupation (1944–1991), extensive immigration from Russia and other parts of the former USSR, and the eventual restoration of independence of Estonia, have all had a major effect on Estonia's current ethnic makeup.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Languages spoken in Estonia largely reflect the composition of the indigenous and immigrant ethnic groups residing in Estonia, and thus have changed with historical trends affecting the ethnic makeup of the country. Similarly to other northern European peoples, religion plays a rather small part in the lives of most Estonians.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Overall, the quality-of-life indices for Estonia indicate a modern industrial state. The population declined annually from 1991 until 2016, except for a brief pause in 2010. Since 2016 immigration has exceeded emigration, making the overall population grow.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The population increased from 1,351,640 in January 1970 to 1,570,599 in January 1990. After 1990, Estonia lost about 15% of its population (230,000 people). The population decreased to 1,294,455 by December 2011, a figure lower than that recorded in 1970.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Decreasing population pressures are explained by a higher death than birth rate and periods of an excess of emigrants over immigrants.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Since 2015 the country has experienced population growth. The population mainly increased as a result of net immigration of European Union citizens. Citizens of Russia and Ukraine made up the bulk of non-EU immigration. The increase was detected through methodological changes in data collection. Initially a population decrease had been reported.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Between 1970 and 1990 the age structure of Estonia was rather stable with around 22% of the population in the age group 0–14 years, 66% between 15 and 65, while 12% were 65 years or older. Due to the low birth rates after 1990, the proportion of the population 0–14 years of age dropped to 15% in 2009, while the proportion of 65 years or older gradually increased to 17% in 2009. The proportion of the age group 15–64 also slightly increased to 68% in 2009.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: From 1947 to 1989 the number of births was higher than the number of deaths, but from 1990 onwards the number of deaths outnumbered the number of births. The crude birth rate of 2011 was 10.96 (14,679 births) and the crude death rate of 2011 was 11.38 (15,244 deaths), making the rate of natural increase −0.42 (−565). For more detailed historic data, see the table of birth and death rates below.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Between 1970 and 1990, the total fertility rate (TFR) was little over 2 children born per woman. A fast decrease of the TFR occurred after independence. In 1998 the lowest rate was recorded: 1.28 children born per woman. The TFR slightly recovered in the subsequent years. The TFR was 1.66 in 2008 and 1.52 in 2011.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The infant mortality rate in Estonia has decreased considerably during the past decades. In 1970 the rate was 17.7 per 1,000 live births. The rate decreased to 17.1 in 1980, 12.3 in 1990 and 8.4 in 2000. The lowest infant mortality rate was recorded in 2011: 2.6.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Life expectancy in Estonia is lower than in most Western European countries. During the Soviet era life expectancy in males was between 64 and 66 years and in females between 73 and 75 years. After the independence, life expectancy decreased for a number of years. In 1994, the lowest life expectancy was recorded: 60.5 years in males and 72.8 in females. After 1994, life expectancy gradually increased to reach 68.3 years in males and 79.2 in females in 2012.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: By data from Statistics Estonia life expectancy at birth in both 2019 and 2020 was 74.4 years for males and 82.8 years for females, on average for all 78,8 years.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Life expectancy has increased during last years for both sexes, men are expected to live disability-free for 54.1 years and women for 57.6 years. Males live 72.7 percent of their life in good health and females 70 percent.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: For comparison, in 2018 the average life expectancy for men in Europe was 78.3 years and for women 83.6 years.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: As the cumulative negative natural growth was about 82,000 during 1991–2010, the remainder of the population decline of Estonia since 1990 (230,000 people in total) was caused by emigration (150,000 people or about 10% of the population of Estonia in 1990). Mainly ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians emigrated. Consequently, the proportion of these ethnic groups decreased as can be seen in the results of the 2000 census (see below). Data from 2000 to 2009 also shows that the number of emigrants is larger than the number of immigrants, but on a much lower lever than in the 1990s.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: There were a total of 201,265 foreign-born people in Estonia at 31 December 2021, representing 15% of the population. 55% of them were born in Russia, and a total of 82% in a Post-Soviet countries.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Today, Estonia is an ethnically fairly diverse country, ranking 97th out of 239 countries and territories in 2001 study by Kok Kheng Yeoh. In 2008, thirteen of Estonia's fifteen counties were over 80% ethnic Estonian. The counties with the highest percentage Estonians are Hiiu County (98.4%) and Saare County (98.3%). However, in Harju County (which includes the national capital, Tallinn) and Ida-Viru County, ethnic Estonians make up only 59.6% (55.0% in Tallinn) and 19.7% of the population, respectively. In those two counties, Russians account for 32.4% (36.4% in Tallinn) and 71.2% of the population, respectively. In the nation as a whole, Russians make up 23% of the total population.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: After gaining independence following World War I a population census was held in 1922 and 1934. At that time Estonians were still the predominant ethnic group, while all others constituted 12% of the population of Estonia.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Major Jewish communities were present in Estonia between 1918 and 1940 in Tallinn, Pärnu, Kilingi-Nõmme, Narva, Tartu, Valga, and Võru.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: As a result of the Soviet occupation from 1944 to 1991 and Soviet policies, the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped to 61.5% in 1989, compared to 88% in 1934. But in the decade following the restoration of independence, large scale emigration by ethnic Russians, as well as ethnic groups of other former Soviet countries, and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61.5% in 1989 to 68.7% in 2008. In the same period the proportion of ethnic Russians decreased from 30.0% to 25.6%, the proportion of ethnic Ukrainians decreased from 3.1% to 2.1%, and the proportion of ethnic Belarusians decreased from 1.8% to 1.2%.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: In 2008, the largest ethnic groups in Estonia were Estonians 68.7%, Russians 25.6%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Belarusians 1.2%, and Finns 0.8%. These five groups made up 98.4% of Estonia's population.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The numbers had changed a little by the time of the 2021 census, when they were reported as Estonians 69.1%, Russians 23.6%, Ukrainians 2.1%, Belarusians 0.9%, and Finns 0.6%.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Many languages are spoken in Estonia, including Estonian (official), Võro, Russian, Ukrainian, English, Finnish, German and others. According to the census of 2000, 109 languages were spoken natively in Estonia. By 2011, the number of languages spoken natively had increased to 157, mainly due to new immigrants. However, most of these languages were used only between relatives or compatriots, while only 30 languages were spoken on a daily basis in families.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Estonian and Finnish are closely related, belonging to the same Finnic branch of the Uralic language family. The two languages are only partially mutually intelligible, although learning to comprehend and speak each other's languages is fairly easy for native speakers. Estonian and Finnish are only distantly related to the Hungarian language.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Written with the Latin script, Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words. The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles. During the Soviet era, the Russian language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: Census data show that in 2021 an estimated 76% of Estonia’s population speak a foreign language. While 10 years ago the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia was Russian, today it is English. Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% speak it as a mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 18% of Estonian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 50% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 29% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". This, according to the survey, would have made Estonians the most non-religious people in the then 27-member European Union. A survey conducted in 2006–2008 by Gallup showed that 14% of Estonians answered positively to the question: "Is religion an important part of your daily life?", which was the lowest among 143 countries polled.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: In 2000, according to the census, 29.2% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion, thereof:


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: In 2011, according to the census, 29.31% of the population considered themselves to be related to any religion:


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: There are also a number of smaller Jewish, and Buddhist groups. The organisation Maavalla Koda (Taaraism) unites adherents of animist traditional religions. The Russian neopagan organisation "Vene Rahvausu Kogudus Eestis" is registered in Tartu.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The irrereligiousity of Estonians is a relic of Soviet occupation time, but culturally Estonia still belongs to the Lutheran culture sphere, like most of Northern Europe.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: The Governorate of Estonia comprised the northern part of present-day Estonia. The southern part was part of the Governorate of Livonia.


title: Demographics of Estonia

text: According to the data of Statistics Estonia, 1,331,796 persons lived in Estonia on 1 January 2022 (1,330,068 at 1 January 2021, increase in 2021 1,728 persons). In 2021, the population decreased by 5,315 persons due to negative natural increase and increased by 7,043 persons as a result of positive net migration – 19,524 persons immigrated to Estonia and 12,481 persons emigrated from Estonia (In 2020: 16,209 persons immigrated and 12,427 persons emigrated). The destination countries for migration were Finland, Ukraine and Russia in both directions.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt (or Hinmatóowyalahtq̓it in Americanist orthography), popularly known as Chief Joseph, Young Joseph, or Joseph the Younger (March 3, 1840 – September 21, 1904), was a leader of the Wal-lam-wat-kain (Wallowa) band of Nez Perce, a Native American tribe of the interior Pacific Northwest region of the United States, in the latter half of the 19th century. He succeeded his father Tuekakas (Chief Joseph the Elder) in the early 1870s.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Chief Joseph led his band of Nez Perce during the most tumultuous period in their history, when they were forcibly removed by the United States federal government from their ancestral lands in the Wallowa Valley of northeastern Oregon onto a significantly reduced reservation in the Idaho Territory. A series of violent encounters with white settlers in the spring of 1877 culminated in those Nez Perce who resisted removal, including Joseph's band and an allied band of the Palouse tribe, to flee the United States in an attempt to reach political asylum alongside the Lakota people, who had sought refuge in Canada under the leadership of Sitting Bull.


title: Chief Joseph

text: At least 700 men, women, and children led by Joseph and other Nez Perce chiefs were pursued by the U.S. Army under General Oliver O. Howard in a fighting retreat known as the Nez Perce War. The skill with which the Nez Perce fought and the manner in which they conducted themselves in the face of incredible adversity earned them widespread admiration from their military opponents and the American public, and coverage of the war in U.S. newspapers led to popular recognition of Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In October 1877, after months of fugitive resistance, most of the surviving remnants of Joseph's band were cornered in northern Montana Territory, just from the Canadian border. Unable to fight any longer, Chief Joseph surrendered to the Army with the understanding that he and his people would be allowed to return to the reservation in western Idaho. He was instead transported between various forts and reservations on the southern Great Plains before being moved to the Colville Indian Reservation in the state of Washington, where he died in 1904.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Chief Joseph's life remains an iconic event in the history of the American Indian Wars. For his passionate, principled resistance to his tribe's forced removal, Joseph became renowned as both a humanitarian and a peacemaker.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Chief Joseph was born "Hinmuuttu-yalatlat" (alternatively "Hinmaton-Yalaktit" or "Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt" Nez Perce: "Thunder Rolling Down the Mountain"], or "Hinmatóoyalahtq'it" ["Thunder traveling to higher areas"]) in the Wallowa Valley of northeastern Oregon. He was known as Young Joseph during his youth because his father, Tuekakas, was baptized with the same Christian name and later become known as "Old Joseph" or "Joseph the Elder".


title: Chief Joseph

text: While initially hospitable to the region's white settlers, Joseph the Elder grew wary when they demanded more Indian lands. Tensions grew as the settlers appropriated traditional Indian lands for farming and livestock. Isaac Stevens, governor of the Washington Territory, organized a council to designate separate areas for natives and settlers in 1855. Joseph the Elder and the other Nez Perce chiefs signed the Treaty of Walla Walla, with the United States establishing a Nez Perce reservation encompassing in present-day Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. The 1855 reservation maintained much of the traditional Nez Perce lands, including Joseph's Wallowa Valley. It is recorded that the elder Joseph requested that Young Joseph protect their 7.7-million-acre homeland, and guard his father's burial place.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 1863, however, an influx of new settlers, attracted by a gold rush, led the government to call a second council. Government commissioners asked the Nez Perce to accept a new, much smaller reservation of situated around the village of Lapwai in western Idaho Territory, and excluding the Wallowa Valley. In exchange, they were promised financial rewards, schools, and a hospital for the reservation. Chief Lawyer and one of his allied chiefs signed the treaty on behalf of the Nez Perce Nation, but Joseph the Elder and several other chiefs were opposed to selling their lands and did not sign.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Their refusal to sign caused a rift between the "non-treaty" and "treaty" bands of Nez Perce. The "treaty" Nez Perce moved within the new reservation's boundaries, while the "non-treaty" Nez Perce remained on their ancestral lands. Joseph the Elder demarcated Wallowa land with a series of poles, proclaiming, "Inside this boundary all our people were born. It circles the graves of our fathers, and we will never give up these graves to any man."


title: Chief Joseph

text: Joseph the Younger succeeded his father as leader of the Wallowa band in 1871. Before his death, the latter counseled his son:


title: Chief Joseph

text: Joseph commented: "I clasped my father's hand and promised to do as he asked. A man who would not defend his father's grave is worse than a wild beast."


title: Chief Joseph

text: The non-treaty Nez Perce suffered many injustices at the hands of settlers and prospectors, but out of fear of reprisal from the militarily superior Americans, Joseph never allowed any violence against them, instead making many concessions to them in the hope of securing peace. A handwritten document mentioned in the Oral History of the Grande Ronde recounts an 1872 experience by Oregon pioneer Henry Young and two friends in search of acreage at Prairie Creek, east of Wallowa Lake. Young's party was surrounded by 40–50 Nez Perce led by Chief Joseph. The Chief told Young that white men were not welcome near Prairie Creek, and Young's party was forced to leave without violence.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 1873, Joseph negotiated with the federal government to ensure his people could stay on their land in the Wallowa Valley. But in 1877, the government reversed its policy, and Army General Oliver O. Howard threatened to attack if the Wallowa band did not relocate to the Idaho reservation with the other Nez Perce. Joseph reluctantly agreed. Before the outbreak of hostilities, General Howard held a council at Fort Lapwai to try to convince Joseph and his people to relocate. Joseph finished his address to the general, which focused on human equality, by expressing his "[disbelief that] the Great Spirit Chief gave one kind of men the right to tell another kind of men what they must do." Howard reacted angrily, interpreting the statement as a challenge to his authority. When Toohoolhoolzote protested, he was jailed for five days.


title: Chief Joseph

text: The day following the council, Joseph, White Bird, and Looking Glass all accompanied Howard to examine different areas within the reservation. Howard offered them a plot of land that was inhabited by whites and Native Americans, promising to clear out the current residents. Joseph and his chieftains refused, adhering to their tribal tradition of not taking what did not belong to them. Unable to find any suitable uninhabited land on the reservation, Howard informed Joseph that his people had 30 days to collect their livestock and move to the reservation. Joseph pleaded for more time, but Howard told him he would consider their presence in the Wallowa Valley beyond the 30-day mark an act of war.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Returning home, Joseph called a council among his people. At the council, he spoke on behalf of peace, preferring to abandon his father's grave over war. Toohoolhoolzote, insulted by his incarceration, advocated war. In June 1877, the Wallowa band began making preparations for the long journey to the reservation, meeting first with other bands at Rocky Canyon. At this council, too, many leaders urged war, while Joseph continued to argue in favor of peace. While the council was underway, a young man whose father had been killed rode up and announced that he and several other young men had retaliated by killing four white settlers. Still hoping to avoid further bloodshed, Joseph and other non-treaty Nez Perce leaders began moving people away from Idaho.


title: Chief Joseph

text: The U.S. Army's pursuit of about 750 Nez Perce and a small allied band of the Palouse tribe, led by Chief Joseph and others, as they attempted to escape from Idaho became known as the Nez Perce War. Initially they had hoped to take refuge with the Crow Nation in the Montana Territory, but when the Crow refused to grant them aid, the Nez Perce went north in an attempt to obtain asylum with the Lakota band led by Sitting Bull, who had fled to Canada following the Great Sioux War in 1876. In "Hear Me, My Chiefs!: Nez Perce Legend and History", Lucullus V. McWhorter argues that the Nez Perce were a peaceful people that were forced into war by the United States when their land was stolen from them. McWhorter interviewed and befriended Nez Perce warriors such as Yellow Wolf, who stated, "Our hearts have always been in the valley of the Wallowa".


title: Chief Joseph

text: Robert Forczyk states in his book "Nez Perce 1877: The Last Fight" that the tipping point of the war was that "Joseph responded that his clan's traditions would not allow him to cede the Wallowa Valley". The band led by Chief Joseph never signed the treaty moving them to the Idaho reservation. General Howard, who was dispatched to deal with Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce, tended to believe the Nez Perce were right about the treaty: "the new treaty finally agreed upon excluded the Wallowa, and vast regions besides".


title: Chief Joseph

text: For over three months, the Nez Perce deftly outmaneuvered and battled their pursuers, traveling more than across present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana. One of those battles was led by Captain Perry and two cavalry companies of the U.S. Army led by Captain Trimble and Lieutenant Theller, who engaged Chief Joseph and his people at White Bird Canyon on June 17, 1877. The Nez Perce repelled the attack, killing 34 soldiers, while suffering only three Nez Perce wounded. The Nez Perce continued to repel the Army's advances, eventually reaching the Clearwater River, where they united with another Nez Perce chief, Looking Glass, and his group, bringing the size of their party to 740, though only 200 of these were warriors. The final battle of the Nez Perce War occurred approximately south of the Canadian border where the Nez Perce were camped on Snake Creek near the Bears Paw Mountains, close to present-day Chinook in Blaine County, Montana. A U.S. Army detachment commanded by General Nelson A. Miles and accompanied by Cheyenne scouts intercepted the Nez Perce on September 30 at the Battle of Bear Paw. After his initial attacks were repelled, Miles violated a truce and captured Chief Joseph; however, he would later be forced to exchange Chief Joseph for one of his captured officers.


title: Chief Joseph

text: General Howard arrived on October 3, leading the opposing cavalry, and was impressed with the skill with which the Nez Perce fought, using advance and rear guards, skirmish lines, and field fortifications. Following a devastating five-day siege during freezing weather, with no food or blankets and the major war leaders dead, Chief Joseph formally surrendered to General Miles on the afternoon of October 5, 1877. The battle is remembered in popular history by the words attributed to Joseph at the formal surrender:


title: Chief Joseph

text: The popular legend deflated, however, when the original pencil draft of the report was revealed to show the handwriting of the later poet and lawyer Lieutenant Charles Erskine Scott Wood, who claimed to have taken down the great chief's words on the spot. In the margin it read, "Here insert Joseph's reply to the demand for surrender".


title: Chief Joseph

text: Although Joseph was not technically a war chief and probably did not command the retreat, many of the chiefs who did had died. His speech brought attention, and therefore credit, his way. He earned the praise of General William Tecumseh Sherman and became known in the press as "The Red Napoleon". However, as Francis Haines argues in "Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce Warrior", the battlefield successes of the Nez Perce during the war were due to the individual successes of the Nez Perce men and not that of the fabled military genius of Chief Joseph. Haines supports his argument by citing L. V. McWhorter, who concluded "that Chief Joseph was not a military man at all, that on the battlefield he was without either skill or experience". Furthermore, Merle Wells argues in "The Nez Perce and Their War" that the interpretation of the Nez Perce War of 1877 in military terms as used in the United States Army's account distorts the actions of the Nez Perce. Wells supports his argument: "The use of military concepts and terms is appropriate when explaining what the whites were doing, but these same military terms should be avoided when referring to Indian actions; the United States use of military terms such as 'retreat' and 'surrender' has created a distorted perception of the Nez Perce War, to understand this may lend clarity to the political and military victories of the Nez Perce."


title: Chief Joseph

text: By the time Joseph had surrendered, 150 of his followers had been killed or wounded. Their plight, however, did not end. Although Joseph had negotiated with Miles and Howard for a safe return home for his people, General Sherman overruled this decision and forced Joseph and 400 followers to be taken on unheated rail cars to Fort Leavenworth, in eastern Kansas, where they were held in a prisoner of war campsite for eight months. Toward the end of the following summer, the surviving Nez Perce were taken by rail to a reservation in the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma); they lived there for seven years. Many of them died of epidemic diseases while there.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 1879, Chief Joseph went to Washington, D.C. to meet with President Rutherford B. Hayes and plead his people's case. Although Joseph was respected as a spokesman, opposition in Idaho prevented the U.S. government from granting his petition to return to the Pacific Northwest. Finally, in 1885, Chief Joseph and his followers were granted permission to return to the Pacific Northwest to settle on the reservation around Kooskia, Idaho. Instead, Joseph and others were taken to the Colville Indian Reservation in Nespelem, Washington, far from both their homeland in the Wallowa Valley and the rest of their people in Idaho.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Joseph continued to lead his Wallowa band on the Colville Reservation, at times coming into conflict with the leaders of the 11 other unrelated tribes also living on the reservation. Chief Moses of the Sinkiuse-Columbia, in particular, resented having to cede a portion of his people's lands to Joseph's people, who had "made war on the Great Father".


title: Chief Joseph

text: In his last years, Joseph spoke eloquently against the injustice of United States policy toward his people and held out the hope that America's promise of freedom and equality might one day be fulfilled for Native Americans as well. In 1897, he visited Washington, D.C. again to plead his case. He rode with Buffalo Bill in a parade honoring former President Ulysses Grant in New York City, but he was a topic of conversation for his traditional headdress more than his mission.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 1903, Chief Joseph visited Seattle, a booming young town, where he stayed in the Lincoln Hotel as guest to Edmond Meany, a history professor at the University of Washington. It was there that he also befriended Edward Curtis, the photographer, who took one of his most memorable and well-known photographs. Joseph also visited President Theodore Roosevelt in Washington, D.C. the same year. Everywhere he went, it was to make a plea for what remained of his people to be returned to their home in the Wallowa Valley, but it never happened.


title: Chief Joseph

text: An indomitable voice of conscience for the West, still in exile from his homeland, Chief Joseph died on September 21, 1904, according to his doctor, "of a broken heart". Meany and Curtis helped Joseph's family bury their chief near the village of Nespelem, Washington, where many of his tribe's members still live.


title: Chief Joseph

text: The Chief Joseph band of Nez Perce who still live on the Colville Reservation bear his name in tribute.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 2014, Micky and the Motorcars released the album "Hearts from Above", which included the song "From Where the Sun Now Stands". The song contains several references to his famous speech.


title: Chief Joseph

text: Swedish country pop group Rednex sampled a part of his famous speech in their 2000 single "The Spirit of the Hawk," which became a worldwide hit.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In his 2000 release "Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed...And Some Blues," Dan Fogelberg mentioned Chief Joseph in the song "Don't Let That Sun Go Down," which was recorded live in 1994 in Knoxville, TN.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In June 2012, Chief Joseph's 1870s war shirt was sold to a private collection for the sum of $877,500.


title: Chief Joseph

text: In 1973, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.


title: Lying in state

text: Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a deceased official, such as a head of state, is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in a major government building of a country, state, or city. While the practice differs among countries, in the United States, a viewing in a location other than a government building, such as a church, may be referred to as lying in repose. It is a more formal and public kind of wake or viewing. Lying in state often precedes a state funeral.


title: Lying in state

text: In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral, an honor generally reserved for former governors general and former prime ministers. It is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour. During the period of lying in state, the caskets are flanked at each corner by a Guard of honour, composed of four members drawn from the Canadian Forces and Royal Canadian Mounted Police, as well as members of the Governor General's Foot Guards for former governors general, and guards from the parliamentary security forces for former prime ministers. Guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted (resting on Arms reversed) with their backs turned towards the casket.


title: Lying in state

text: Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a distinguished former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known hockey player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000; his coffin lay in state at the Molson Centre. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens players, Jean Béliveau in December 2014 and Guy Lafleur in May 2022.


title: Lying in state

text: Upon his death in October 2012, 24th Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and former member of parliament Lincoln Alexander received only the second provincial state funeral in the province. Ontario staged its first state funeral in October 1982 for former Premier John Robarts.


title: Lying in state

text: Alexander lay in state in the Ontario Legislative Building in Toronto then in repose in Hamilton City Hall, his hometown. The service was held in Hamilton Place. During the procession from city hall, the casket was escorted by mounted police officers, marching police, firefighters and military and a massed pipe band representing several police and fire services.


title: Lying in state

text: On 2 July 2019, Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan W. Thomas Molloy died. He was installed as the 22nd Lieutenant Governor on 21 March 2018, and approximately a year later, diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. His state funeral service was held at Merlis Belsher Place on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan. Malloy had earlier served as Chancellor of the university. Members of the public were able to sign books of condolence at the Saskatchewan Legislative Building and Government House in Regina and city hall in Saskatoon.


title: Lying in state

text: Premier Scott Moe stated that flags in the province would fly at half-mast until sunset on the day of Malloy's funeral, which was later scheduled for 13 July. During the service, a detail of Royal Canadian Mounted Police guarded the casket and following, members of 15 Wing Moose Jaw from the Royal Canadian Air Force flew over Merlis Belsher Place.


title: Lying in state

text: Jocelyne Roy-Vienneau, Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick, died 2 August 2019, after holding office since 23 October 2014. She received a state funeral 8 August 2019 and the flag on the Peace Tower of the Parliament Buildings flew at half-mast from 6 August through 8 August.


title: Lying in state

text: In North Korea, the body of the late leader Kim Jong-il was displayed in a glass coffin surrounded with red flowers at the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in Pyongyang prior to his funeral, which began and ended at the palace. An honor guard armed with AK-47s was present. Jong-il's father Kim Il-sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace.


title: Lying in state

text: During the time of the Soviet Union (1917–1991), the state funerals of the most senior political and military leaders, such as , , Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Andropov, and Konstantin Chernenko all followed the same basic outline. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a public lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions, and ending with an interment at Red Square.


title: Lying in state

text: For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, which would be decorated by flowers, numerous red flags and other communist symbols. The mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the left side of the Column Hall, a full orchestra in black tailcoats played classical music. The deceased's embalmed body, dressed in a black suit, white shirt and a tie, was displayed in an open coffin on a catafalque banked with carnations, red roses and tulips, facing the queue of mourners. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background. At the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leader's family.


title: Lying in state

text: On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, and Chernenko were interred in individual graves in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis.


title: Lying in state

text: At state funerals in Singapore, the state flag is draped over the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the public lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the vigil guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased.


title: Lying in state

text: Similar to British traditions, the vigil guard is composed of groups of five commissioned officers from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF) who stand guard around the clock in shifts of 30 minutes. Four of the five officers stand facing outward at each of the four corners of the coffin, while the fifth and most senior stands in front and faces inward. Their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted.


title: Lying in state

text: Vigil guards were stationed at the public lying in state of Goh Keng Swee in May 2010, Lee Kuan Yew in March 2015, and S. R. Nathan in August 2016.


title: Lying in state

text: Nelson Mandela was the first democratically elected president to lie in state in South Africa. The event took place at the Union Buildings in Pretoria, the same site where he was inaugurated as the President of South Africa on 10 May 1994. Mandela lay in state from 11 December through 13 December 2013 with thousands of South Africans filing past the coffin before it was flown to Mthatha where Mandela was buried on 15 December 2013 in nearby Qunu in the Eastern Cape.


title: Lying in state

text: From 30 December to 31 December 2021, revered anti-apartheid fighter Archbishop Desmond Tutu lay in state at St. George's Cathedral in Cape Town prior to his funeral being held at the same location on 1 January 2022.


title: Lying in state

text: In state and ceremonial funerals in the United Kingdom, lying in state traditionally takes place in Westminster Hall. The coffin is placed on a catafalque and is guarded, around the clock, by detachments from the following units: