title: Homage to Catalonia

text: In January 1937, Orwell's centuria arrives in Alcubierre, just behind the line fronting Zaragoza. He sketches the squalor of the region's villages and the "Fascist deserters" indistinguishable from themselves. On the third day rifles are handed out. Orwell's "was a German Mauser dated 1896 ... it was corroded and past praying for." The chapter ends on his centuria's arrival at trenches near Zaragoza and the first time a bullet nearly hit him. To his dismay, instinct made him duck.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: In the hills around Zaragoza, Orwell experiences "mingled boredom and discomfort of stationary warfare," the mundaneness of a situation in which "each army had dug itself in and settled down on the hill-tops it had won." He praises the Spanish militias for their relative social equality, for their holding of the front while the army was trained in the rear, and for the "democratic 'revolutionary' type of discipline ... more reliable than might be expected." "'Revolutionary' discipline depends on political consciousness—on an understanding of "why" orders must be obeyed; it takes time to diffuse this, but it also takes time to drill a man into an automaton on the barrack-square."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Throughout the chapter Orwell describes the various shortages and problems at the front—firewood ("We were between two and three thousand feet above sea-level, it was mid winter and the cold was unspeakable"), food, candles, tobacco, and adequate munitions—as well as the danger of accidents inherent in a badly trained and poorly armed group of soldiers.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: After some three weeks at the front, Orwell and the other English militiaman in his unit, Williams, join a contingent of fellow Englishmen sent out by the Independent Labour Party to a position at Monte Oscuro, within sight of Zaragoza. "Perhaps the best of the bunch was Bob Smillie—the grandson of the famous miners' leader—who afterwards died such an evil and meaningless death in Valencia." In this new position he witnesses the sometimes propagandistic shouting between the Rebel and Loyalist trenches and hears of the fall of Málaga. "... every man in the militia believed that the loss of Malaga was due to treachery. It was the first talk I had heard of treachery or divided aims. It set up in my mind the first vague doubts about this war in which, hitherto, the rights and wrongs had seemed so beautifully simple." In February, he is sent with the other POUM militiamen 50 miles to make a part of the army besieging Huesca; he mentions the running joke phrase, "Tomorrow we'll have coffee in Huesca," attributed to a general commanding the Government troops who, months earlier, made one of many failed assaults on the town.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell complains that on the eastern side of Huesca, where he was stationed, nothing ever seemed to happen—except the onslaught of spring, and, with it, lice. He was in a ("so-called") hospital at Monflorite for ten days at the end of March 1937 with a poisoned hand that had to be lanced and put in a sling. He describes rats that "really were as big as cats, or nearly" (in Orwell's novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", the protagonist Winston Smith has a phobia of rats that Orwell himself shared to a lesser degree). He makes reference to the lack of "religious feeling, in the orthodox sense," and that the Catholic Church was, "to the Spanish people, at any rate in Catalonia and Aragon, a racket, pure and simple." He muses that Christianity may have, to some extent, been replaced by Anarchism. The latter portion of the chapter briefly details various operations in which Orwell took part: silently advancing the Loyalist frontline by night, for example.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell takes part in a "holding attack" on Huesca, designed to draw the Nationalist troops away from an Anarchist attack on "the Jaca road." He suspects two of the bombs he threw may have killed their targets, but he cannot be sure. They capture the position and pull back with captured rifles and ammunition, but Orwell laments that they fled too hurriedly to bring back a telescope they had discovered, which Orwell sees as more useful than any weapons.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell shares memories of the 115 days he spent on the war front, and its influence on his political ideas, "... the prevailing mental atmosphere was that of Socialism ... the ordinary class-division of society had disappeared to an extent that is almost unthinkable in the money-tainted air of England ... the effect was to make my desire to see Socialism established much more actual than it had been before." By the time he left Spain, he had become a "convinced democratic Socialist." The chapter ends with Orwell's arrival in Barcelona on the afternoon of 26 April 1937. "And after that the trouble began."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell details noteworthy changes in the social and political atmosphere of Barcelona when he returns after three months at the front. He describes a lack of revolutionary atmosphere and the class division that he had thought would not reappear, i.e., with visible division between rich and poor and the return of servile language. Orwell had been determined to leave the POUM, and confesses here that he "would have liked to join the Anarchists," but instead sought a recommendation to join the International Column, so that he could go to the Madrid front. The latter half of this chapter is devoted to describing the conflict between the anarchist CNT and the socialist Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) and the resulting cancellation of the May Day demonstration and the build-up to the street fighting of the Barcelona May Days. "It was the antagonism between those who wished the revolution to go forward and those who wished to check or prevent it—ultimately, between Anarchists and Communists."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell relates his involvement in the Barcelona street fighting that began on 3 May when the Government Assault Guards tried to take the Telephone Exchange from the CNT workers who controlled it. For his part, Orwell acted as part of the POUM, guarding a POUM-controlled building. Although he realises that he is fighting on the side of the working class, Orwell describes his dismay at coming back to Barcelona on leave from the front only to get mixed up in street fighting. Assault Guards from Valencia arrive—"All of them were armed with brand-new rifles ... vastly better than the dreadful old blunderbusses we had at the front." The Communist-controlled Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia newspapers declare POUM to be a disguised Fascist organisation—"No one who was in Barcelona then ... will forget the horrible atmosphere produced by fear, suspicion, hatred, censored newspapers, crammed jails, enormous food queues, and prowling gangs ..." In his second appendix to the book, Orwell discusses the political issues at stake in the May 1937 Barcelona fighting, as he saw them at the time and later on, looking back.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell speculates on how the Spanish Civil War might turn out. Orwell predicts that the "tendency of the post-war Government ... is bound to be Fascistic."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: He returns to the front, where he is shot through the throat by a sniper, an injury that takes him out of the war. After spending some time in a hospital in Lleida, he was moved to Tarragona where his wound was finally examined more than a week after he'd left the front.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell tells us of his various movements between hospitals in Siétamo, Barbastro, and Monzón while getting his discharge papers stamped, after being declared medically unfit. He returns to Barcelona only to find that the POUM had been "suppressed": it had been declared illegal the very day he had left to obtain discharge papers and POUM members were being arrested without charge. "The attack on Huesca was beginning ... there must have been numbers of men who were killed without ever learning that the newspapers in the rear were calling them Fascists. This kind of thing is a little difficult to forgive." He sleeps that night in the ruins of a church; he cannot go back to his hotel because of the danger of arrest.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: This chapter describes his visits accompanied by his wife to Georges Kopp, unit commander of the ILP Contingent while Kopp was held in a Spanish makeshift jail—"really the ground floor of a shop." Having done all he could to free Kopp, ineffectively and at great personal risk, Orwell decides to leave Spain. Crossing the Pyrenees frontier, he and his wife arrived in France "without incident".


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell explains the divisions within the Republican side: "On the one side the C.N.T.-F.A.I., the P.O.U.M., and a section of the Socialists, standing for workers’ control: on the other side the Right-wing Socialists, Liberals, and Communists, standing for centralized government and a militarized army." He also writes, "One of the dreariest effects of this war has been to teach me that the Left-wing press is every bit as spurious and dishonest as that of the Right."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: An attempt to dispel some of the myths in the foreign press at the time (mostly the pro-Communist press) about the May Days, the street fighting that took place in Catalonia in early May 1937. This was between anarchists and POUM members, against Communist/government forces which sparked off when local police forces occupied the Telephone Exchange, which had until then been under the control of CNT workers. He relates the suppression of the POUM on 15–16 June 1937, gives examples of the Communist Press of the world—("Daily Worker", 21 June, "Spanish Trotskyists Plot With Franco"), indicates that Indalecio Prieto hinted, "fairly broadly ... that the government could not afford to offend the Communist Party while the Russians were supplying arms." He quotes Julián Zugazagoitia, the Minister of the Interior; "We have received aid from Russia and have had to permit certain actions which we did not like."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: "Homage to Catalonia" was initially commercially unsuccessful, selling only 683 copies in its first 6 months. By the time of Orwell's death in 1950, its initial print run of 1,500 copies had still not all sold. "Homage to Catalonia" re-emerged in the 1950s, following on the success of Orwell's later books.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Contemporary reviews of the book were mixed. John Langdon-Davies wrote in the Communist Party's "Daily Worker" that "the value of the book is that it gives an honest picture of the sort of mentality that toys with revolutionary romanticism but shies violently at revolutionary discipline. It should be read as a warning". Some Conservative and Catholic opponents of the Spanish Republic felt vindicated by Orwell's attack on the role of the Communists in Spain; "The Spectator"s review concluded that this "dismal record of intrigue, injustice, incompetence, quarrelling, lying communist propaganda, police spying, illegal imprisonment, filth and disorder" was evidence that the Republic deserved to fall. A mixed review was supplied by V. S. Pritchett who called Orwell naïve about Spain but added that "no one excels him in bringing to the eyes, ears and nostrils the nasty ingredients of fevered situations; and I would recommend him warmly to all who are concerned about the realities of personal experience in a muddled cause".


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Notably positive reviews came from Geoffrey Gorer in "Time and Tide", and from Philip Mairet in the "New English Weekly". Gorer concluded, "Politically and as literature it is a work of first-class importance". Mairet observed, "It shows us the heart of innocence that lies in revolution; also the miasma of lying that, far more than the cruelty, takes the heart out of it." Franz Borkenau, in a letter to Orwell of June 1938, called the book, together with his own "The Spanish Cockpit", a complete "picture of the revolutionary phase of the Spanish War".


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Hostile notices came from "The Tablet", where a critic wondered why Orwell had not troubled to get to know Fascist fighters and enquire about their motivations, and from "The Times Literary Supplement" and "The Listener", "the first misrepresenting what Orwell had said and the latter attacking the POUM, but never mentioning the book".


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: The book was praised by Noam Chomsky in 1969. Raymond Carr praised Orwell in 1971 for being "determined to set down the truth as he saw it."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: In his 1971 memoir, Herbert Matthews of "The New York Times" declared, "The book did more to blacken the Loyalist cause than any work written by enemies of the Second Republic." In 1984 Lawrence and Wishart published "Inside the Myth", a collection of essays "bringing together a variety of standpoints hostile to Orwell in an obvious attempt to do as much damage to his reputation as possible," per John Newsinger.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Within weeks of leaving Spain, a deposition (discovered in 1989) was presented to the Tribunal for Espionage & High Treason, Valencia, charging the Orwells with 'rabid Trotskyism' and being agents of the POUM. The trial of the leaders of the POUM and of Orwell (in his absence) took place in Barcelona, in October and November 1938. Observing events from French Morocco, Orwell wrote that they were "only a by-product of the Russian Trotskyist trials and from the start every kind of lie, including flagrant absurdities, has been circulated in the Communist press."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Barcelona fell to Franco's forces on 26 January 1939, and on 1 April 1939, the last of the Republican forces surrendered.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell never knew the source of his tuberculosis, from complications of which he died in 1950. However, in 2018, researchers studying bacteria on his letters announced that there was a "very high probability" that Orwell contracted the disease in a Spanish hospital.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell reflected that he "had "felt" what socialism could be like" and, according to biographer Gordon Bowker, "Orwell never did abandon his socialism: if anything, his Spanish experience strengthened it." In a letter to Cyril Connolly, written on 8 June 1937, Orwell said, "At last [I] really believe in Socialism, which I never did before". A decade later he wrote: "Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, "against" totalitarianism and "for" democratic Socialism, as I understand it."


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell's experiences, culminating in his and his wife Eileen O'Shaughnessy's narrow escape from the communist purges in Barcelona in June 1937, greatly increased his sympathy for the POUM and, while not affecting his moral and political commitment to socialism, made him a lifelong anti-Stalinist.


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: After reviewing Koestler's bestselling "Darkness at Noon", Orwell decided that fiction was the best way to describe totalitarianism. He soon wrote "Animal Farm", "his scintillating 1944 satire on Stalinism".


title: Homage to Catalonia

text: Orwell himself went on to write a poem about the Italian militiaman he described in the book's opening pages. The poem was included in Orwell's 1942 essay "Looking Back on the Spanish War", published in "New Road" in 1943. The closing phrase of the poem, "No bomb that ever burst shatters the crystal spirit", was later taken by George Woodcock for the title of his Governor General's Award-winning critical study of Orwell and his work, "The Crystal Spirit" (1966).


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Cryptosporidium, sometimes informally called crypto, is a genus of apicomplexan parasitic alveolates that can cause a respiratory and gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis) that primarily involves watery diarrhea (intestinal cryptosporidiosis), sometimes with a persistent cough (respiratory cryptosporidiosis).


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Treatment of gastrointestinal infection in humans involves fluid rehydration, electrolyte replacement, and management of any pain. , nitazoxanide is the only drug approved for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent hosts. Supplemental zinc may improve symptoms, particularly in recurrent or persistent infections or in others at risk for zinc deficiency. "Cryptosporidium" oocysts are 4–6 μm in diameter and exhibit partial acid-fast staining. They must be differentiated from other partially acid-fast organisms including "Cyclospora cayetanensis".


title: Cryptosporidium

text: "Cryptosporidium" causes cryptosporidiosis, an infection that may present as a diarrhoea, sometimes with a persistent cough in immunocompetent hosts. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the malaria parasite "Plasmodium" and the toxoplasmosis parasite "Toxoplasma". Unlike "Plasmodium", which transmits via a mosquito vector, "Cryptosporidium" does not use an insect vector, and is capable of completing its lifecycle within a single host, resulting in cyst stages that are excreted in feces or through inhalation of coughed on fomites and are capable of transmission to a new host.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: A number of "Cryptosporidium" species infect mammals. In humans, the main causes of disease are "C. parvum" and "C. hominis" (previously "C. parvum" genotype 1). "C. canis", "C. felis", "C. meleagridis", and "C. muris" can also cause disease in humans.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute, short-term infection, can be recurrent through reinfection in immunocompetent hosts, and become severe or life-threatening in immunocompromised individuals. In humans, it remains in the lower intestine and may remain for up to five weeks. The parasite is transmitted by environmentally hardy cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, exist in the small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue. Transmission by ingestion or inhalation of coughed on fomites is a second, less likely route of infection.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: The genome of "Cryptosporidium parvum", sequenced in 2004, was found to be unusual amongst eukaryotes in that the mitochondria seem not to contain DNA. A closely related species, "C. hominis", also has its genome sequence available.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Cryptosporidium has three developmental stages: meronts, gamonts and oocysts. They reproduce within the intestinal epithelial cells.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: The "Cryptosporidium" spore phase (oocyst) can survive for lengthy periods outside a host. It can also resist many common disinfectants, including chlorine-based disinfectants.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Many treatment plants that take raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs for public drinking water production use conventional filtration technologies. Direct filtration, which is typically used to treat water with low particulate levels, includes coagulation and filtration but not sedimentation. Other common filtration processes including slow sand filters, diatomaceous earth filters, and membranes will remove 99% of "Cryptosporidium". Membranes and bag- and cartridge-filter products remove "Cryptosporidium" specifically.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: "Cryptosporidium" is highly resistant to chlorine disinfection; but with high enough concentrations and contact time, "Cryptosporidium" inactivation will occur with chlorine dioxide and ozone treatment. In general, the required levels of chlorine preclude the use of chlorine disinfection as a reliable method to control "Cryptosporidium" in drinking water. Ultraviolet light treatment at relatively low doses will inactivate "Cryptosporidium". Calgon Carbon-funded research originally discovered UV's efficacy in inactivating "Cryptosporidium".


title: Cryptosporidium

text: One of the largest challenges in identifying outbreaks is the ability to verify the results in a laboratory. The oocytes may be seen by microscopic examination of a stool sample, but they may be confused with other objects or artifacts similar in appearance. Most cryptosporidia are 3–6 μm in size, although some reports have described larger cells.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Dealing with stabilized compost - i.e. composting material that has gone through the phases where micro-organisms are digesting the organic matter and the temperature inside the composting pile has reached temperature up to 50-70ºC - poses very little risk as these temperatures kill pathogens and even make oocysts unviable.


title: Cryptosporidium

text: Like many fecal-oral pathogens, the disease can also be transmitted by contaminated food, poor hygiene or turning compost in a local compost site. Testing of water, as well as epidemiological study, are necessary to determine the sources of specific infections. "Cryptosporidium" typically does not cause serious illness in healthy people. It may chronically sicken some children, as well as adults exposed and immunocompromised. A subset of the immunocompromised population is people with AIDS. Amongst men who have sex with men who have AIDS, insertive anal sex is an increased risk factor. Analingus and oral-genital sex after anal-genital sex are known transmission routes.


title: Diners Club International

text: Diners Club International (DCI), founded as Diners Club, is a charge card company owned by Discover Financial Services. Formed in 1950 by Frank X. McNamara, Ralph Schneider, Matty Simmons, and Alfred S. Bloomingdale, it was the first independent payment card company in the world, successfully establishing the financial service of issuing travel and entertainment (T&E) credit cards as a viable business. Diners Club International and its franchises serve individuals from around the world with operations in 59 countries.


title: Diners Club International

text: The idea for Diners Club was conceived at the Majors Cabin Grill restaurant in New York City in 1949. Diners Club cofounder Frank McNamara was dining with clients and realized he had left his wallet in another suit. His wife paid the bill, and McNamara thought of a multipurpose charge card as a way to avoid similar embarrassments in the future. He discussed the idea with the restaurant owner at the table, and the following day with his lawyer Ralph Schneider and friend Alfred Bloomingdale.


title: Diners Club International

text: McNamara returned to the same restaurant the following February, in 1950, and paid for his meal using a cardboard charge card and a signature. The story became well-known. Diners Club official history refers to this meal as "The First Supper", and is credited by historians as the beginnings of contemporary credit. Various versions of the story differ about whether it was a lunch or dinner at which McNamara forgot his wallet, and whether the bill was paid on loan or McNamara waited for his wife to drive his wallet to him. Some journalists later credited Alfred Bloomingdale with the idea for Diners Club.


title: Diners Club International

text: McNamara and his attorney, Ralph Schneider, founded Diners Club International on February 8, 1950, with $1.5 million in initial capital. Alfred Bloomingdale joined briefly, then started a competing venture in California before merging his California-based Dine and Sign with Diners Club. McNamara's original conception was to make a card that could be used as a means of payment in restaurants around New York City; however, he later expanded its usage to other establishments as well including hotels, car rentals, and flower shops. The company started building its customer base by offering their cards to prominent businessmen. Shortly afterward, Matty Simmons, the company's first press agent, started advertising the card in newspapers, magazines, and by sending personal mail to potential customers. Diners Club International was named for being a "club of diners" that would allow patrons to settle their bill at the end of each month through their credit account. When the card was first introduced, Diners Club listed 27 participating restaurants, and 200 of the founders' friends and acquaintances used it.


title: Diners Club International

text: Diners Club had 20,000 members by the end of 1950 and 42,000 by the end of 1951. At the time, the company was charging participating establishments seven percent and billed cardholders $5 a year. In 1952, McNamara sold his interest in Diners Club to his partners for $200,000. The first plastic Diners Club card was introduced in 1961; by the mid-1960s, Diners Club had 1.3 million cardholders.


title: Diners Club International

text: Towards the end of the 1960s, Diners Club faced competition from banks that issued revolving credit cards through Bank of America's BankAmericard (later changed its name to Visa), and Interbank Master Charge (renamed to MasterCard). Starting in 1968, the American Oil Company, or Amoco, also launched its own co-branded Diners Club cards called American Torch Club (later renamed Amoco Torch Club), and Sun Oil Company issued its version called Sun Diners Club Card starting in 1977.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 1981, Citibank, a unit of Citigroup, bought Diners Club International, including the franchisor that holds rights to the Diners Club trademark. Despite this, a majority of the franchises abroad remain independently owned.


title: Diners Club International

text: In April 2008, Discover Financial and Citigroup announced that Discover was purchasing the Diners Club International network from Citigroup for $165 million. In May 2008, the Federal Trade Commission approved the transaction and it was finalized on July 1, 2008.


title: Diners Club International

text: In a transaction completed July 1, 2008, Discover Financial Services purchased Diners Club International from Citibank for $165 million. The deal was announced in April 2008 and approved by the U.S. government in May 2008. By merging the North American Discover Network with the international Diners Club Network, Discover created a global payment processing system. Discover Bank has no plans to issue Diners Club-branded cards, which continue to be issued by Diners Club International licensees.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 2011, Discover started incorporating its logo on Diners Club International cards. Several payment processors, like PayPal, can process only new Diners Club International cards, which include the Discover logo, as well as BMO's Diners Club-branded Mastercards issued in North America.


title: Diners Club International

text: In Argentina, Citibank entered into an agreement to transfer its rights and obligations with Banco Comafi. Since December 16, 2013, Banco Comafi S.A. manage the Diners Club credit card business in Argentina; Thus, Comafi will be the new exclusive representative and, therefore, the only issuer of the card.


title: Diners Club International

text: In July 1974 Ansett Transport Industries purchased a 50% shareholding in the Australian franchise. In January 1999 Ansett sold its shareholding to Citigroup.


title: Diners Club International

text: On June 1st 2022, National Australia Bank bought Citigroup's Consumer Banking business in Australia, including the Australian branch of Diners Club.


title: Diners Club International

text: On November 21, 2018, it was announced that Diners Club International and Brazilian card association Elo were extending their partnership: they launched Elo Diners Club International Cards in Brazil. The cards run via the Discover Global Network, and are accepted at 42 million merchant locations and 2 million ATMs in over 190 countries and territories.


title: Diners Club International

text: In September 2017, Diners Club International signed a deal with Allinpay, a Chinese payment provider, to be the exclusive carrier of all the cards that are part of the Discover Global Network. Apart from that, Allinpay set to increase the card acceptance in Hong Kong, especially by "travel oriented merchants".


title: Diners Club International

text: Diners Club was the first to introduce credit cards in India. Kali Mody is credited with opening the first Diners franchise in 1961, which started an invitation-only credit card issuance. Its cards have been offered by Citi Bank, followed by HDFC Bank which took over in 2011.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 2021, the Reserve Bank of India barred the company (along with American Express) from issuing new cards for failing to follow norms about storing data within the country. The ban was lifted later in the year after it complied with the RBI guidelines.


title: Diners Club International

text: In September 2016, Kazkommertsbank became the official Diners Club card issuer in Kazakhstan. In a statement, Managing Director of Kazkommertsbank, Nurlan Zhagiparov said, "Our collaboration with Diners Club is another step toward the integration of Kazakhstan into the global economy, which increases the tourism potential in our country."


title: Diners Club International

text: In the Nordic countries, the franchisee was SEB Kort AB, a subsidiary of the Swedish bank Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken. The franchisee closed the service May 31, 2019, citing increased competition and regulatory pressure in the payment card market, and the card is no longer issued in the Nordic countries.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 2004, Diners Club announced an agreement with Mastercard. Since 2004, all Diners Club cards issued in the United States and Canada (by Citibank until 2009, by BMO since) feature a Mastercard logo and 16-digit account number on the front and can be used wherever Mastercards are accepted. These cards are processed through the Mastercard network. Today's Diners Club in North America, including its sub-brands such as Carte Blanche, is essentially a branded Mastercard.


title: Diners Club International

text: Initially, cards from other countries continued to bear a 14-digit account number on the front, with the Mastercard logo on the back. However, since the takeover of Diners Club International by Discover Financial Services, international cards have had the Discover logo on the back and the Diners Club International network is part of the Discover network. Since then, the only connection between Diners Club in North America and Diners Club International is BMO's continuing licensed use of the Diners Club brands, including Carte Blanche, on Mastercards.


title: Diners Club International

text: Carte Blanche began in 1958 when the Hilton Hotels travel & entertainment card was renamed. Hilton sold Carte Blanche to First National City Bank in 1966. Regulatory challenges forced First National City Bank to sell Carte Blanche to Avco in 1968. In 1978, Citicorp (parent company of First National City Bank which was renamed Citibank) reacquired Carte Blanche without regulatory opposition. The 1960s- and 1970s-era Carte Blanche cards were considered more prestigious worldwide than their competition, the American Express and Diners Club cards, though its small cardmember base hindered its success. In 1981, Citicorp acquired the Diners Club card, and by the mid-1990s the Carte Blanche card was being phased out in favor of Diners Club. Parent company Citigroup was formed in 1998 with the merger of Citicorp and the Travelers Group. Citigroup issued a premium Diners Club card in 2000, naming it the Diners Club Carte Blanche card. It was an upper-level charge card on par with the American Express Platinum Card.


title: Diners Club International

text: The Carte Blanche card in North America, now a branded Mastercard issued by BMO under its Diners Club International brand license, carried a US$300 annual fee as of April 2015 and offers an extensive menu of perks.


title: Diners Club International

text: Diners Club expanded its customer base in Canada by acquiring the enRoute credit card from Air Canada in 1992. It marketed the card under the combined name for a period of time as the "Diners Club/enRoute Card". The enRoute business was valued at over $300 million at the time of acquisition.


title: Diners Club International

text: In November 2009, Citibank announced that Diners Club International's North American franchise has been sold to Bank of Montreal (BMO). The deal gives BMO exclusive rights to issue Diners cards in the U.S. and Canada. At the time, BMO said the Diners Club fits well with its existing commercial card business, adding that commercial cards are one of the fastest-growing segments in the credit card business.


title: Diners Club International

text: In June 2016, Security Bank through its credit card division SB Cards Corporation (formerly Security Diners International Corporation) sold Diners Club's exclusive rights in the Philippines to its rival, BDO Unibank and in October of the same year, Diners Club International announced that they signed a deal with BDO Unibank to become the exclusive provider of the Diners Club in the Philippines.


title: Diners Club International

text: In December 2010, Russian Standard Bank and Diners Club International entered into an agreement for settlement of transactions in Russia. Under the agreement, Russian Standard Bank will process settlement transactions of other banks acting as acquirers of Diners Club in Russia.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 2013, Tomaž Lovše, who owned Diners Club Slovenia, was one of three people investigated in Slovenia regarding unpaid debts that his franchise owed to merchants. In May, the Central Bank of Slovenia revoked Diners Club Slovenia's license for payment services, which meant 80,000 local members could not use their card. Diners Club International transferred the franchise to a subsidiary of Austria's Erste Bank group, Erste Card Club, and agreed to repay the franchise's debt to merchants. An Erste press release in August 2013 stated that Diners Club services were once again available in Slovenia.


title: Diners Club International

text: In December 2016, Diners Club International and 2C2P, announced in a statement that the latter is a global provider of cards running on Discover Global Network and that it will increase the number of merchants who use the card in the region of South East Asia.


title: Diners Club International

text: In a transaction that closed on August 6, 2010, Citibank sold the Swiss and German franchises to a private investment group headed by Anthony J. Helbling. The German Diners Club cards are issued by the Austrian DC Bank AG, which now issues the cards for Austria and Germany.


title: Diners Club International

text: Diners Club UAE, Egypt, Lebanon and Jordan is owned and operated by Network International subsidiary of Emirates Bank.


title: Diners Club International

text: On August 7, 2012, Citigroup announced the sale of its Diners Club franchise in the United Kingdom and Ireland to Affiniture Cards, a private investor group.


title: Diners Club International

text: On January 23, 2018, it was announced that Vietinbank had entered into a partnership with Diners Club International to be the exclusive issuer of Diners Club cards (both standard and contactless) in Vietnam.


title: Diners Club International

text: In 1963, the film "The Man from the Diners' Club" was released, and the Ideal Toy Company created the board game titled "The Diners' Club Credit Card Game".


title: Diners Club International

text: In 1967, the film "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying" was released, incorporating the song "Brotherhood of Man" including the lyrics, "And other men may carry cards, as members of the Diners".


title: Diners Club International

text: The Australian band Client Liaison feature Diners Club cards and logos in several of their retro-themed music videos.


title: Erica Shaffer

text: Some of the films include "A Family Affair", "The Truth is Always Complicated", "The Fall", "Catalina Trust", "The Socratic Method", "Three on a Match" and "West Coast".


title: Erica Shaffer

text: A few of Shaffer's television credits include guest star and recurring roles on "Days of Our Lives", "Valentine", "Eleventh Hour", "The Secret Life of the American Teenager", "CSI Miami", "Las Vegas", "The King of Queens", "Windfall", "The Young and the Restless", "Charmed", "Mind of Mencia", "Clubhouse", "Fight for Fame", "Silk Stalkings", "Veronica's Closet", "Nightman" and "[Pensacola'. She has been host of shows such as "Vacation Challenge" on the Travel Channel and "Cafe Sound" on Access Entertainment Network.


title: Erica Shaffer

text: Shaffer has been in more than 200 commercials and has also been the host of the web series "Personal Injury Network".


title: Erica Shaffer

text: Shaffer is a voice over artist for animation and has an array of "characters" to her credit including the lead heroines and villains in Pioneer LDC's "Nazca", "I My Me! Strawberry Eggs", "Paranoia Agent" and "Amazing Nurse Nanako". She has also done voiceovers for radio commercials as well as documentaries for The Learning Channel and The History Channel.


title: Erica Shaffer

text: Roles from Shaffer's theater career at the Laguna Playhouse include, "Ruth" from "Harvey", starring Charles Durning. Other favorite roles in theater include "Portia" from "The Merchant of Venice", "Myrhhine", from "Lysistrata", "Joanne" from "Come Back to the 5 & Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean" and "Rose of Sharon" from "The Grapes of Wrath". In San Diego Shaffer played "Hyacinth" in "Scapan" directed by William Ball.


title: Erica Shaffer

text: She is a member of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) and Actors' Equity Association. (AEA)


title: Killian Scott

text: Cillian Damien Murphy (born 6 July 1985) is an Irish actor, better known professionally as Killian Scott. He first came to prominence for his role as Tommy in the RTÉ One series "Love/Hate".


title: Killian Scott

text: The youngest of six children, Scott grew up in Sandymount, Dublin, and attended St Michael's College on Ailesbury Road in Dublin 4. His siblings include former politician Eoghan Murphy and playwright Colin Murphy. His interest in acting was inspired by his brother Eoghan's performance in a school production of "Hamlet". He studied English and Philosophy at University College Dublin before moving to London to study at the Drama Centre.


title: Killian Scott

text: Initially starting out in theatre, he changed his name to Killian Scott to avoid confusion with Cillian Murphy, another Irish actor. He earned fame in Ireland for the role of Tommy in "Love/Hate", which first started airing in 2010. During the next few years, Scott appeared in small roles in films including "'71" and "Calvary", as well as starring in 2013's "Black Ice".


title: Killian Scott

text: After "Love/Hate" finished, Scott appeared in his first lead role in Irish thriller film "Traders" in 2015. Scott joined "Ripper Street" for series four and five in 2016, portraying Assistant Commissioner Augustus Dove. The same year, he appeared in "Trespass Against Us". In 2017, he appeared in "Strike" as D.I. Eric Wardle. The same year, he was cast as the lead in "Damnation", replacing Aden Young, who departed the show due to creative differences. Due to Young's departure, Scott filmed the pilot episode within a week of being cast in late 2016. The series was picked up by USA Network in June 2017, with filming beginning the following month. "Damnation" was cancelled after its first season ended in January 2018. He starred in "The Commuter" with Liam Neeson in 2018, and described the film as a "genuine career highlight".


title: Killian Scott

text: In 2019, Scott starred alongside Sarah Greene in "Dublin Murders", based on the "Dublin Murder Squad" book series by Tana French. He portrays lead character Detective Rob Reilly and adopted an English accent for the role. The series was filmed in Belfast and Dublin over seven months.


title: Killian Scott

text: In April 2021, Scott was cast in the upcoming Disney+ superhero streaming series "Secret Invasion", set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: Sümeyye Erdoğan Bayraktar (born 22 August 1985) is a Turkish businesswoman and activist. She is also the daughter of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In 2013, she was one of the chief advisors of her father who was prime minister at the time.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: Her father is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and her mother is Emine Erdoğan. She has three siblings: Ahmet Burak, Necmettin Bilal and Esra. In March 2016, she became engaged to Selçuk Bayraktar, and married him on 14 May 2016.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: She graduated from Araklı İmam Hatip High School in Trabzon. After not getting her desired grade in the university entrance exams in 2002, she continued her education in the United States. With a scholarship from a businessman, she received a bachelor's degree in sociology and politics from Indiana University Bloomington. After completing her education in 2005, she completed her master's degree in economics at the London School of Economics.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: In 2010, she became a partner at Doruk Izgara Food Trade Limited Company. Her brother Bilal Erdoğan was reported to be among the company's partners.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: In 2010, she started to work as a consultant in the Justice and Development Party (AKP), responsible for monitoring foreign relations and their reflections on the world press. Due to this position, she has been a part of many international trips. She was a counselor to her father during four years, a role she decided not to carry on in October 2014. During the Gezi Park protests in 2013, she was involved in meetings between the government and various artists. Her participation in the meetings was questioned and moved to the agenda of the TBMM for further discussion.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: It was claimed that a website which published her photographs while she was staying in the USA was closed down. An unnamed official from the Hugehost company said that after a phone call from Ankara they were left disturbed and could not provide service anymore.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: Sümeyye Bayraktar, who was among the audience of "Genç Osman" at the Ankara State Theater, left the hall during the play saying that the movements carried out in accordance with the scenario were intended to insult her. As a result of the investigation, it was concluded that the actors did not have any negative behavior and the usual scenario was played out on stage.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: In the period following the 2013 December 17 corruption scandal, voice recordings of Sümeyye Bayraktar, who was setting the agenda for instructing AKP trolls on Twitter to tweet in favor of them on social media, were published. Again, based on the sound recordings released during this period, it was revealed that together with her brother Bilal Erdoğan, she transferred money from their homes to different places on their father's instructions and met with Mustafa Latif Topbaş about the villas built in the archaeological site in Urla and pursued business.


title: Sümeyye Erdoğan

text: It was claimed that Sümeyye Bayraktar had reached an agreement with a company to remove news published on the Internet about her private life in the past. OdaTV later reported that they had been contacted by a company, who claimed to be in charge of taking care of "Sümeyye Erdoğan's reputation on online services" and asked them to delete an article that they had published about her two years ago.


title: The International Jew

text: The International Jew is a four-volume set of antisemitic booklets or pamphlets originally published and distributed in the early 1920s by the Dearborn Publishing Company, an outlet owned by Henry Ford, the American industrialist and automobile manufacturer.


title: The International Jew

text: The booklets were a collection of articles originally serialized in Ford's "Dearborn Independent" newspaper, beginning with "The International Jew: The World's Problem," published on May 22, 1920.


title: The International Jew

text: At the beginning of 1920, Ford's personal newspaper, "The Dearborn Independent", was languishing in subscriptions and losing money. Ford and his personal secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, began to discuss a series of articles on the Jewish question. While it was Liebold who claimed to have come up with the title "The International Jew", he turned to "the walking dictionary" William J. Cameron for most of the writing. For 91 issues, the weekly paper announced a variety of Jewish-evil-influenced major stories in its headlines.


title: The International Jew

text: Editor E. G. Pipp left the "Independent" in April 1920 in disgust with the planned antisemitic articles, which began in May. Ford did not write the articles. He expressed his opinions verbally to Liebold, and to Cameron, who replaced Pipp as editor. Cameron had the main responsibility for expanding these opinions into article form. Liebold was responsible for collecting more material to support the articles.


title: The International Jew

text: The most popular and aggressive stories were then chosen to be reprinted into four volumes called "The International Jew". The first volume was published in November 1920 as an anthology of articles that had been published in the "Independent" from May 22 to October 2, 1920. The original print run of the first edition was estimated to be between 200,000 and 500,000 copies. Three additional volumes were published over the next 18 months.


title: The International Jew

text: Liebold never copyrighted "The International Jew" and therefore had no control over anyone else publishing it themselves. The book was ultimately translated into 16 languages, including six editions in Germany between 1920 and 1922, and has remained in the public domain.


title: The International Jew

text: A libel lawsuit, brought by San Francisco lawyer and Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to antisemitic remarks, led Ford to close the "Independent" in December 1927. News reports at the time quoted him as being shocked by the content and having been unaware of its nature.


title: The International Jew

text: During the trial, William J. Cameron, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", testified that Ford had nothing to do with the editorials even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified at the libel trial that he never discussed the content of the pages nor sent them to Ford for his approval. Investigative journalist Max Wallace doubted the veracity of this claim and wrote that James M. Miller, a former "Dearborn Independent" employee, swore under oath that Ford had told him he intended to expose Sapiro.


title: The International Jew

text: According to a book written by political scientist Michael Barkun, "That Cameron would have continued to publish such controversial material without Ford's explicit instructions seemed unthinkable to those who knew both men. Mrs. Stanley Ruddiman, a Ford family intimate, remarked that 'I don't think Mr. Cameron ever wrote anything for publication without Mr. Ford's approval.


title: The International Jew

text: Ford's was translated into German in 1922 and cited as an influence by Baldur von Schirach, one of the Nazi leaders, who stated "I read it and became anti-Semitic. In those days this book made such a deep impression on my friends and myself because we saw in Henry Ford the representative of success, also the exponent of a progressive social policy. In the poverty-stricken and wretched Germany of the time, youth looked toward America, and apart from the great benefactor, Herbert Hoover, it was Henry Ford who to us represented America."


title: The International Jew

text: Praising American leadership in eugenics in his book , Adolf Hitler considered Ford an inspiration, and noted this admiration in his book, calling him "a single great man". Hitler was also known to keep copies of "The International Jew" as well as a large portrait of Ford in his Munich office.


title: The International Jew

text: After publication in the "Independent", the articles were compiled as chapters into a four volume set as follows:


title: The International Jew

text: In June 1949, a 174-page, one-volume abridgement of the text appeared, titled "The International Jew", subtitled "The World's Foremost Problem", edited by George F. Green, who was editor of the "Independent Nationalist", a British fascist publication. The book was sold in the United States by the Christian Nationalist Crusade.


title: Signal transduction

text: Signal transduction is the process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a series of molecular events, most commonly protein phosphorylation catalyzed by protein kinases, which ultimately results in a cellular response. Proteins responsible for detecting stimuli are generally termed receptors, although in some cases the term sensor is used. The changes elicited by ligand binding (or signal sensing) in a receptor give rise to a biochemical cascade, which is a chain of biochemical events known as a signaling pathway.


title: Signal transduction

text: When signaling pathways interact with one another they form networks, which allow cellular responses to be coordinated, often by combinatorial signaling events. At the molecular level, such responses include changes in the transcription or translation of genes, and post-translational and conformational changes in proteins, as well as changes in their location. These molecular events are the basic mechanisms controlling cell growth, proliferation, metabolism and many other processes. In multicellular organisms, signal transduction pathways regulate cell communication in a wide variety of ways.


title: Signal transduction

text: Each component (or node) of a signaling pathway is classified according to the role it plays with respect to the initial stimulus. Ligands are termed "first messengers", while receptors are the "signal transducers", which then activate "primary effectors". Such effectors are typically proteins and are often linked to second messengers, which can activate "secondary effectors", and so on. Depending on the efficiency of the nodes, a signal can be amplified (a concept known as signal gain), so that one signaling molecule can generate a response involving hundreds to millions of molecules. As with other signals, the transduction of biological signals is characterised by delay, noise, signal feedback and feedforward and interference, which can range from negligible to pathological. With the advent of computational biology, the analysis of signaling pathways and networks has become an essential tool to understand cellular functions and disease, including signaling rewiring mechanisms underlying responses to acquired drug resistance.


title: Signal transduction

text: The basis for signal transduction is the transformation of a certain stimulus into a biochemical signal. The nature of such stimuli can vary widely, ranging from extracellular cues, such as the presence of EGF, to intracellular events, such as the DNA damage resulting from replicative telomere attrition. Traditionally, signals that reach the central nervous system are classified as senses. These are transmitted from neuron to neuron in a process called synaptic transmission. Many other intercellular signal relay mechanisms exist in multicellular organisms, such as those that govern embryonic development.


title: Signal transduction

text: The majority of signal transduction pathways involve the binding of signaling molecules, known as ligands, to receptors that trigger events inside the cell. The binding of a signaling molecule with a receptor causes a change in the conformation of the receptor, known as "receptor activation". Most ligands are soluble molecules from the extracellular medium which bind to cell surface receptors. These include growth factors, cytokines and neurotransmitters. Components of the extracellular matrix such as fibronectin and hyaluronan can also bind to such receptors (integrins and CD44, respectively). In addition, some molecules such as steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and thus cross the plasma membrane to reach cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors. In the case of steroid hormone receptors, their stimulation leads to binding to the promoter region of steroid-responsive genes.


title: Signal transduction

text: Not all classifications of signaling molecules take into account the molecular nature of each class member. For example, odorants belong to a wide range of molecular classes, as do neurotransmitters, which range in size from small molecules such as dopamine to neuropeptides such as endorphins. Moreover, some molecules may fit into more than one class, e.g. epinephrine is a neurotransmitter when secreted by the central nervous system and a hormone when secreted by the adrenal medulla.


title: Signal transduction

text: Some receptors such as HER2 are capable of ligand-independent activation when overexpressed or mutated. This leads to constituitive activation of the pathway, which may or may not be overturned by compensation mechanisms. In the case of HER2, which acts as a dimerization partner of other EGFRs, constituitive activation leads to hyperproliferation and cancer.


title: Signal transduction

text: The prevalence of basement membranes in the tissues of Eumetazoans means that most cell types require attachment to survive. This requirement has led to the development of complex mechanotransduction pathways, allowing cells to sense the stiffness of the substratum. Such signaling is mainly orchestrated in focal adhesions, regions where the integrin-bound actin cytoskeleton detects changes and transmits them downstream through YAP1. Calcium-dependent cell adhesion molecules such as cadherins and selectins can also mediate mechanotransduction. Specialised forms of mechanotransduction within the nervous system are responsible for mechanosensation: hearing, touch, proprioception and balance.


title: Signal transduction

text: Cellular and systemic control of osmotic pressure (the difference in osmolarity between the cytosol and the extracellular medium) is critical for homeostasis. There are three ways in which cells can detect osmotic stimuli: as changes in macromolecular crowding, ionic strength, and changes in the properties of the plasma membrane or cytoskeleton (the latter being a form of mechanotransduction). These changes are detected by proteins known as osmosensors or osmoreceptors. In humans, the best characterised osmosensors are transient receptor potential channels present in the primary cilium of human cells. In yeast, the HOG pathway has been extensively characterised.


title: Signal transduction

text: The sensing of temperature in cells is known as thermoception and is primarily mediated by transient receptor potential channels. Additionally, animal cells contain a conserved mechanism to prevent high temperatures from causing cellular damage, the heat-shock response. Such response is triggered when high temperatures cause the dissociation of inactive HSF1 from complexes with heat shock proteins Hsp40/Hsp70 and Hsp90. With help from the ncRNA "hsr1", HSF1 then trimerizes, becoming active and upregulating the expression of its target genes. Many other thermosensory mechanisms exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.


title: Signal transduction

text: In mammals, light controls the sense of sight and the circadian clock by activating light-sensitive proteins in photoreceptor cells in the eye's retina. In the case of vision, light is detected by rhodopsin in rod and cone cells. In the case of the circadian clock, a different photopigment, melanopsin, is responsible for detecting light in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells.


title: Signal transduction

text: Extracellular receptors are integral transmembrane proteins and make up most receptors. They span the plasma membrane of the cell, with one part of the receptor on the outside of the cell and the other on the inside. Signal transduction occurs as a result of a ligand binding to the outside region of the receptor (the ligand does not pass through the membrane). Ligand-receptor binding induces a change in the conformation of the inside part of the receptor, a process sometimes called "receptor activation". This results in either the activation of an enzyme domain of the receptor or the exposure of a binding site for other intracellular signaling proteins within the cell, eventually propagating the signal through the cytoplasm.


title: Signal transduction

text: In eukaryotic cells, most intracellular proteins activated by a ligand/receptor interaction possess an enzymatic activity; examples include tyrosine kinase and phosphatases. Often such enzymes are covalently linked to the receptor. Some of them create second messengers such as cyclic AMP and IP, the latter controlling the release of intracellular calcium stores into the cytoplasm. Other activated proteins interact with adaptor proteins that facilitate signaling protein interactions and coordination of signaling complexes necessary to respond to a particular stimulus. Enzymes and adaptor proteins are both responsive to various second messenger molecules.


title: Signal transduction

text: Many adaptor proteins and enzymes activated as part of signal transduction possess specialized protein domains that bind to specific secondary messenger molecules. For example, calcium ions bind to the EF hand domains of calmodulin, allowing it to bind and activate calmodulin-dependent kinase. PIP and other phosphoinositides do the same thing to the Pleckstrin homology domains of proteins such as the kinase protein AKT.


title: Signal transduction

text: G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a family of integral transmembrane proteins that possess seven transmembrane domains and are linked to a heterotrimeric G protein. With nearly 800 members, this is the largest family of membrane proteins and receptors in mammals. Counting all animal species, they add up to over 5000. Mammalian GPCRs are classified into 5 major families: rhodopsin-like, secretin-like, metabotropic glutamate, adhesion and frizzled/smoothened, with a few GPCR groups being difficult to classify due to low sequence similarity, e.g. vomeronasal receptors. Other classes exist in eukaryotes, such as the "Dictyostelium" cyclic AMP receptors and fungal mating pheromone receptors.


title: Signal transduction

text: Signal transduction by a GPCR begins with an inactive G protein coupled to the receptor; the G protein exists as a heterotrimer consisting of Gα, Gβ, and Gγ subunits. Once the GPCR recognizes a ligand, the conformation of the receptor changes to activate the G protein, causing Gα to bind a molecule of GTP and dissociate from the other two G-protein subunits. The dissociation exposes sites on the subunits that can interact with other molecules. The activated G protein subunits detach from the receptor and initiate signaling from many downstream effector proteins such as phospholipases and ion channels, the latter permitting the release of second messenger molecules. The total strength of signal amplification by a GPCR is determined by the lifetimes of the ligand-receptor complex and receptor-effector protein complex and the deactivation time of the activated receptor and effectors through intrinsic enzymatic activity; e.g. via protein kinase phosphorylation or b-arrestin-dependent internalization.


title: Signal transduction

text: A study was conducted where a point mutation was inserted into the gene encoding the chemokine receptor CXCR2; mutated cells underwent a malignant transformation due to the expression of CXCR2 in an active conformation despite the absence of chemokine-binding. This meant that chemokine receptors can contribute to cancer development.


title: Signal transduction

text: Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane proteins with an intracellular kinase domain and an extracellular domain that binds ligands; examples include growth factor receptors such as the insulin receptor. To perform signal transduction, RTKs need to form dimers in the plasma membrane; the dimer is stabilized by ligands binding to the receptor. The interaction between the cytoplasmic domains stimulates the autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues within the intracellular kinase domains of the RTKs, causing conformational changes. Subsequent to this, the receptors' kinase domains are activated, initiating phosphorylation signaling cascades of downstream cytoplasmic molecules that facilitate various cellular processes such as cell differentiation and metabolism. Many Ser/Thr and dual-specificity protein kinases are important for signal transduction, either acting downstream of [receptor tyrosine kinases], or as membrane-embedded or cell-soluble versions in their own right. The process of signal transduction involves around 560 known protein kinases and pseudokinases, encoded by the human kinome


title: Signal transduction

text: As is the case with GPCRs, proteins that bind GTP play a major role in signal transduction from the activated RTK into the cell. In this case, the G proteins are members of the Ras, Rho, and Raf families, referred to collectively as small G proteins. They act as molecular switches usually tethered to membranes by isoprenyl groups linked to their carboxyl ends. Upon activation, they assign proteins to specific membrane subdomains where they participate in signaling. Activated RTKs in turn activate small G proteins that activate guanine nucleotide exchange factors such as SOS1. Once activated, these exchange factors can activate more small G proteins, thus amplifying the receptor's initial signal. The mutation of certain RTK genes, as with that of GPCRs, can result in the expression of receptors that exist in a constitutively activated state; such mutated genes may act as oncogenes.


title: Signal transduction

text: Histidine-specific protein kinases are structurally distinct from other protein kinases and are found in prokaryotes, fungi, and plants as part of a two-component signal transduction mechanism: a phosphate group from ATP is first added to a histidine residue within the kinase, then transferred to an aspartate residue on a receiver domain on a different protein or the kinase itself, thus activating the aspartate residue.


title: Signal transduction

text: Integrins are produced by a wide variety of cells; they play a role in cell attachment to other cells and the extracellular matrix and in the transduction of signals from extracellular matrix components such as fibronectin and collagen. Ligand binding to the extracellular domain of integrins changes the protein's conformation, clustering it at the cell membrane to initiate signal transduction. Integrins lack kinase activity; hence, integrin-mediated signal transduction is achieved through a variety of intracellular protein kinases and adaptor molecules, the main coordinator being integrin-linked kinase. As shown in the adjacent picture, cooperative integrin-RTK signaling determines the timing of cellular survival, apoptosis, proliferation, and differentiation.


title: Signal transduction

text: Important differences exist between integrin-signaling in circulating blood cells and non-circulating cells such as epithelial cells; integrins of circulating cells are normally inactive. For example, cell membrane integrins on circulating leukocytes are maintained in an inactive state to avoid epithelial cell attachment; they are activated only in response to stimuli such as those received at the site of an inflammatory response. In a similar manner, integrins at the cell membrane of circulating platelets are normally kept inactive to avoid thrombosis. Epithelial cells (which are non-circulating) normally have active integrins at their cell membrane, helping maintain their stable adhesion to underlying stromal cells that provide signals to maintain normal functioning.


title: Signal transduction

text: In plants, there are no bona fide integrin receptors identified to date; nevertheless, several integrin-like proteins were proposed based on structural homology with the metazoan receptors. Plants contain integrin-linked kinases that are very similar in their primary structure with the animal ILKs. In the experimental model plant "Arabidopsis thaliana", one of the integrin-linked kinase genes, "ILK1", has been shown to be a critical element in the plant immune response to signal molecules from bacterial pathogens and plant sensitivity to salt and osmotic stress. ILK1 protein interacts with the high-affinity potassium transporter HAK5 and with the calcium sensor CML9.


title: Signal transduction

text: When activated, toll-like receptors (TLRs) take adapter molecules within the cytoplasm of cells in order to propagate a signal. Four adaptor molecules are known to be involved in signaling, which are Myd88, TIRAP, TRIF, and TRAM. These adapters activate other intracellular molecules such as IRAK1, IRAK4, TBK1, and IKKi that amplify the signal, eventually leading to the induction or suppression of genes that cause certain responses. Thousands of genes are activated by TLR signaling, implying that this method constitutes an important gateway for gene modulation.


title: Signal transduction

text: A ligand-gated ion channel, upon binding with a ligand, changes conformation to open a channel in the cell membrane through which ions relaying signals can pass. An example of this mechanism is found in the receiving cell of a neural synapse. The influx of ions that occurs in response to the opening of these channels induces action potentials, such as those that travel along nerves, by depolarizing the membrane of post-synaptic cells, resulting in the opening of voltage-gated ion channels.


title: Signal transduction

text: An example of an ion allowed into the cell during a ligand-gated ion channel opening is Ca; it acts as a second messenger initiating signal transduction cascades and altering the physiology of the responding cell. This results in amplification of the synapse response between synaptic cells by remodelling the dendritic spines involved in the synapse.


title: Signal transduction

text: Intracellular receptors, such as nuclear receptors and cytoplasmic receptors, are soluble proteins localized within their respective areas. The typical ligands for nuclear receptors are non-polar hormones like the steroid hormones testosterone and progesterone and derivatives of vitamins A and D. To initiate signal transduction, the ligand must pass through the plasma membrane by passive diffusion. On binding with the receptor, the ligands pass through the nuclear membrane into the nucleus, altering gene expression.


title: Signal transduction

text: Activated nuclear receptors attach to the DNA at receptor-specific hormone-responsive element (HRE) sequences, located in the promoter region of the genes activated by the hormone-receptor complex. Due to their enabling gene transcription, they are alternatively called inductors of gene expression. All hormones that act by regulation of gene expression have two consequences in their mechanism of action; their effects are produced after a characteristically long period of time and their effects persist for another long period of time, even after their concentration has been reduced to zero, due to a relatively slow turnover of most enzymes and proteins that would either deactivate or terminate ligand binding onto the receptor.


title: Signal transduction

text: Nucleic receptors have DNA-binding domains containing zinc fingers and a ligand-binding domain; the zinc fingers stabilize DNA binding by holding its phosphate backbone. DNA sequences that match the receptor are usually hexameric repeats of any kind; the sequences are similar but their orientation and distance differentiate them. The ligand-binding domain is additionally responsible for dimerization of nucleic receptors prior to binding and providing structures for transactivation used for communication with the translational apparatus.


title: Signal transduction

text: Steroid receptors are a subclass of nuclear receptors located primarily within the cytosol. In the absence of steroids, they associate in an aporeceptor complex containing chaperone or heatshock proteins (HSPs). The HSPs are necessary to activate the receptor by assisting the protein to fold in a way such that the signal sequence enabling its passage into the nucleus is accessible. Steroid receptors, on the other hand, may be repressive on gene expression when their transactivation domain is hidden. Receptor activity can be enhanced by phosphorylation of serine residues at their N-terminal as a result of another signal transduction pathway, a process called crosstalk.


title: Signal transduction

text: Retinoic acid receptors are another subset of nuclear receptors. They can be activated by an endocrine-synthesized ligand that entered the cell by diffusion, a ligand synthesised from a precursor like retinol brought to the cell through the bloodstream or a completely intracellularly synthesised ligand like prostaglandin. These receptors are located in the nucleus and are not accompanied by HSPs. They repress their gene by binding to their specific DNA sequence when no ligand binds to them, and vice versa.


title: Signal transduction

text: Certain intracellular receptors of the immune system are cytoplasmic receptors; recently identified NOD-like receptors (NLRs) reside in the cytoplasm of some eukaryotic cells and interact with ligands using a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) motif similar to TLRs. Some of these molecules like NOD2 interact with RIP2 kinase that activates NF-κB signaling, whereas others like NALP3 interact with inflammatory caspases and initiate processing of particular cytokines like interleukin-1β.


title: Signal transduction

text: First messengers are the signaling molecules (hormones, neurotransmitters, and paracrine/autocrine agents) that reach the cell from the extracellular fluid and bind to their specific receptors. Second messengers are the substances that enter the cytoplasm and act within the cell to trigger a response. In essence, second messengers serve as chemical relays from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm, thus carrying out intracellular signal transduction.


title: Signal transduction

text: The release of calcium ions from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol results in its binding to signaling proteins that are then activated; it is then sequestered in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria. Two combined receptor/ion channel proteins control the transport of calcium: the InsP-receptor that transports calcium upon interaction with inositol triphosphate on its cytosolic side; and the ryanodine receptor named after the alkaloid ryanodine, similar to the InsP receptor but having a feedback mechanism that releases more calcium upon binding with it. The nature of calcium in the cytosol means that it is active for only a very short time, meaning its free state concentration is very low and is mostly bound to organelle molecules like calreticulin when inactive.


title: Signal transduction

text: Calcium is used in many processes including muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release from nerve endings, and cell migration. The three main pathways that lead to its activation are GPCR pathways, RTK pathways, and gated ion channels; it regulates proteins either directly or by binding to an enzyme.


title: Signal transduction

text: Lipophilic second messenger molecules are derived from lipids residing in cellular membranes; enzymes stimulated by activated receptors activate the lipids by modifying them. Examples include diacylglycerol and ceramide, the former required for the activation of protein kinase C.


title: Signal transduction

text: Nitric oxide (NO) acts as a second messenger because it is a free radical that can diffuse through the plasma membrane and affect nearby cells. It is synthesised from arginine and oxygen by the NO synthase and works through activation of soluble guanylyl cyclase, which when activated produces another second messenger, cGMP. NO can also act through covalent modification of proteins or their metal co-factors; some have a redox mechanism and are reversible. It is toxic in high concentrations and causes damage during stroke, but is the cause of many other functions like the relaxation of blood vessels, apoptosis, and penile erections.


title: Signal transduction

text: In addition to nitric oxide, other electronically activated species are also signal-transducing agents in a process called redox signaling. Examples include superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Redox signaling also includes active modulation of electronic flows in semiconductive biological macromolecules.


title: Signal transduction

text: Gene activations and metabolism alterations are examples of cellular responses to extracellular stimulation that require signal transduction. Gene activation leads to further cellular effects, since the products of responding genes include instigators of activation; transcription factors produced as a result of a signal transduction cascade can activate even more genes. Hence, an initial stimulus can trigger the expression of a large number of genes, leading to physiological events like the increased uptake of glucose from the blood stream and the migration of neutrophils to sites of infection. The set of genes and their activation order to certain stimuli is referred to as a genetic program.


title: Signal transduction

text: Mammalian cells require stimulation for cell division and survival; in the absence of growth factor, apoptosis ensues. Such requirements for extracellular stimulation are necessary for controlling cell behavior in unicellular and multicellular organisms; signal transduction pathways are perceived to be so central to biological processes that a large number of diseases are attributed to their dysregulation.


title: Signal transduction

text: The combination of these signals is integrated into altered cytoplasmic machinery which leads to altered cell behaviour.


title: Signal transduction

text: Following are some major signaling pathways, demonstrating how ligands binding to their receptors can affect second messengers and eventually result in altered cellular responses.


title: Signal transduction

text: The earliest notion of signal transduction can be traced back to 1855, when Claude Bernard proposed that ductless glands such as the spleen, the thyroid and adrenal glands, were responsible for the release of "internal secretions" with physiological effects. Bernard's "secretions" were later named "hormones" by Ernest Starling in 1905. Together with William Bayliss, Starling had discovered secretin in 1902. Although many other hormones, most notably insulin, were discovered in the following years, the mechanisms remained largely unknown.


title: Signal transduction

text: The discovery of nerve growth factor by Rita Levi-Montalcini in 1954, and epidermal growth factor by Stanley Cohen in 1962, led to more detailed insights into the molecular basis of cell signaling, in particular growth factors. Their work, together with Earl Wilbur Sutherland's discovery of cyclic AMP in 1956, prompted the redefinition of endocrine signaling to include only signaling from glands, while the terms autocrine and paracrine began to be used. Sutherland was awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, while Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared it in 1986.


title: Signal transduction

text: In 1970, Martin Rodbell examined the effects of glucagon on a rat's liver cell membrane receptor. He noted that guanosine triphosphate disassociated glucagon from this receptor and stimulated the G-protein, which strongly influenced the cell's metabolism. Thus, he deduced that the G-protein is a transducer that accepts glucagon molecules and affects the cell. For this, he shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Alfred G. Gilman. Thus, the characterization of RTKs and GPCRs led to the formulation of the concept of "signal transduction", a word first used in 1972. Some early articles used the terms "signal transmission" and "sensory transduction". In 2007, a total of 48,377 scientific papers—including 11,211 review papers—were published on the subject. The term first appeared in a paper's title in 1979. Widespread use of the term has been traced to a 1980 review article by Rodbell: Research papers focusing on signal transduction first appeared in large numbers in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Signal transduction

text: The purpose of this section is to briefly describe some developments in immunology in the 1960s and 1970s, relevant to the initial stages of transmembrane signal transduction, and how they impacted our understanding of immunology, and ultimately of other areas of cell biology.


title: Signal transduction

text: The relevant events begin with the sequencing of myeloma protein light chains, which are found in abundance in the urine of individuals with multiple myeloma. Biochemical experiments revealed that these so-called Bence Jones proteins consisted of 2 discrete domains –one that varied from one molecule to the next (the V domain) and one that did not (the Fc domain or the Fragment crystallizable region). An analysis of multiple V region sequences by Wu and Kabat identified locations within the V region that were hypervariable and which, they hypothesized, combined in the folded protein to form the antigen recognition site. Thus, within a relatively short time a plausible model was developed for the molecular basis of immunological specificity, and for mediation of biological function through the Fc domain. Crystallization of an IgG molecule soon followed ) confirming the inferences based on sequencing, and providing an understanding of immunological specificity at the highest level of resolution.


title: Signal transduction

text: The biological significance of these developments was encapsulated in the theory of clonal selection which holds that a B cell has on its surface immunoglobulin receptors whose antigen-binding site is identical to that of antibodies that are secreted by the cell when it encounters an antigen, and more specifically a particular B cell clone secretes antibodies with identical sequences. The final piece of the story, the Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane provided all the ingredients for a new model for the initiation of signal transduction; viz, receptor dimerization.


title: Signal transduction

text: The first hints of this were obtained by Becker et al who demonstrated that the extent to which human basophils—for which bivalent Immunoglobulin E (IgE) functions as a surface receptor – degranulate, depends on the concentration of anti IgE antibodies to which they are exposed, and results in a redistribution of surface molecules, which is absent when monovalent ligand is used. The latter observation was consistent with earlier findings by Fanger et al. These observations tied a biological response to events and structural details of molecules on the cell surface. A preponderance of evidence soon developed that receptor dimerization initiates responses (reviewed in ) in a variety of cell types, including B cells.


title: Signal transduction

text: Such observations led to a number of theoretical (mathematical) developments. The first of these was a simple model proposed by Bell which resolved an apparent paradox: clustering forms stable networks; i.e. binding is essentially irreversible, whereas the affinities of antibodies secreted by B cells increase as the immune response progresses. A theory of the dynamics of cell surface clustering on lymphocyte membranes was developed by DeLisi and Perelson who found the size distribution of clusters as a function of time, and its dependence on the affinity and valence of the ligand. Subsequent theories for basophils and mast cells were developed by Goldstein and Sobotka and their collaborators, all aimed at the analysis of dose-response patterns of immune cells and their biological correlates. For a recent review of clustering in immunological systems see.


title: Signal transduction

text: Ligand binding to cell surface receptors is also critical to motility, a phenomenon that is best understood in single-celled organisms. An example is a detection and response to concentration gradients by bacteria -–the classic mathematical theory appearing in. A recent account can be found in


title: Tommy Cash

text: Tommy Cash (born April 5, 1940) is an American musician, singer, and songwriter. His elder brother was Johnny Cash.


title: Tommy Cash

text: Cash was born in Dyess, Arkansas, United States, the youngest of four sons and three daughters of Ray and Carrie (Rivers) Cash (one of whom was Johnny Cash, born eight years earlier). He formed his first band in high school. After high-school graduation, he enlisted in the U.S. Army, and worked as a DJ for the Armed Forces Radio network.


title: Tommy Cash

text: After the Army, Cash played with Hank Williams Jr., and eventually gained a record deal from Musicor Records in 1965. A year later, he joined United Artists Records and just missed the Country Top 40 in 1968 with "The Sounds of Goodbye."


title: Tommy Cash

text: In late 1969, while on Epic Records, he delivered his biggest hit, a tune dedicated to John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr., entitled "Six White Horses". In 1970, he had a pair of top-10 singles, "One Song Away" and "Rise and Shine", written by Carl Perkins. Cash's final top-20 hit, "I Recall a Gypsy Woman", was released in 1973.


title: Tommy Cash

text: Cash continues to perform concerts around the world. He also acted in the 2016 film "The River Thief".


title: Tommy Cash

text: Cash is a licensed realtor in Tennessee, and an agent with Crye-Leike Real Estate Services in Nashville. He was listing agent for the sale of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash's home in Hendersonville, Tennessee, after they both died in 2003.


title: Payment

text: A payment is the voluntary tender of money or its equivalent or of things of value by one party (such as a person or company) to another in exchange for goods, or services provided by them, or to fulfill a legal obligation. The party making the payment is commonly called the payer, while the payee is the party receiving the payment.


title: Payment

text: In general, payees are at liberty to determine what method of payment they will accept; though normally laws require the payer to accept the country's legal tender up to a prescribed limit. Payment is most commonly effected in the local currency of the payee unless the parties agree otherwise. Payment in another currency involves an additional foreign exchange transaction. The payee may compromise on a debt, i.e., accept part payment in full settlement of a debtor's obligation, or may offer a discount, E.G: For payment in cash, or for prompt payment, etc. On the other hand, the payee may impose a surcharge, for example, as a late payment fee, or for use of a certain credit card, etc.


title: Payment

text: Payments are frequently preceded by an invoice or bill, which follows the supply of goods or services, but in some industries (such as travel and hotels) it is not uncommon for pre-payments to be required before the service is performed or provided. In some industries, a deposit may be required before services are performed, which acts as a part pre-payment or as security to the service provider. In some cases, progress payments are made in advance, and in some cases part payments are accepted, which do not extinguish the payer’s legal obligations. The acceptance of a payment by the payee extinguishes a debt or other obligation. A creditor cannot unreasonably refuse to accept a payment, but payment can be refused in some circumstances, for example, on a Sunday or outside banking hours. A payee is usually obligated to acknowledge payment by producing a receipt to the payer. A receipt may be an endorsement on an account as "paid in full". The giving of a guarantee or other security for a debt does not constitute a payment.


title: Payment

text: The root word "pay" in "payment" comes from the Latin "pacare" (to pacify), from "pax", meaning "peace". In the Middle Ages, the term began to be used more broadly, to mean "to pacify one's creditors". As the Latin word was made part of Old French "paier", it retained the meaning "appease" but gained the meaning "to pay" (as in paying a debt). The Middle English word "payen", which came from French, was also used in both ways.


title: Payment

text: There are two types of payment methods; exchanging and provisioning. Exchanging involves the use of money, comprising banknotes and coins. Provisioning involves the transfer of money from one account to another, and involves a third party. Credit card, debit card, cheque, money transfers, and recurring cash or ACH (Automated Clearing House) disbursements are all electronic payments methods. Electronic payment technologies include magnetic stripe cards, smartcards, contactless cards, and mobile payments.


title: Payment

text: A payment may involve more than two parties. For example, a pre-paid card transaction usually involves four parties: the purchaser, the seller, the issuing bank and the acquiring bank. A cash payment requires at least three parties: the seller, the purchaser and the issuer of the currency. A barter payment requires a minimum of two parties: the purchaser and the seller.


title: Payment

text: The infrastructure and electronic clearing methods are formed by the payment provider. Global credit card payment providers are Diners Club, Visa, American Express and MasterCard. Maestro and Cirrus are international debit card payment providers.


title: Payment

text: Blockchain also provides an infrastructure for payments using digital currency and potentially better security, fewer intermediaries, and lower transaction costs.


title: Payment

text: In 2005, an estimated $40 trillion globally passed through some type of payment system. Roughly $12 trillion of that was transacted through various credit cards, mostly the 21,000 member banks of Visa and MasterCard. Processing payments, including the extending of credit, produced close to $500 billion in revenue. In 2012, roughly $377 trillion passed through noncash payment systems. This led to total account and transaction revenues of nearly $524 billion.


title: Payment

text: In the U.S., debit cards are the fastest growing payment technology. In 2001, debit cards accounted for 9 percent of all purchase transactions, and this is expected to double to 18.82 per cent in 2011.


title: Payment

text: There is a fast growth of mobile payments around the world. Google Pay, Apple Pay and Samsung Pay are the three main choices for mobile payments, while some banks also allow NFC Payments. In some countries, mobile wallets have become a dominant way of mobile payments.


title: Payment

text: Historically, cheques have been one of the primary means of payment for purchasing goods and services, though its share in the payment mix is falling worldwide. In 2001, in the United States, cheques accounted for 25% of the U.S.-based payment mix; and in 2006, this was projected to fall to 17%.


title: Payment

text: The timing of payment has legal implications in some situations. For tax purposes, for example, the timing of payment may determine whether it qualifies as a deduction in a taxpayer's calculation of taxable income in one year or the next.


title: Payment

text: For U.S. tax purposes, cash payments generally are taken to occur at the time of payment. Payment may also occur when a person transfers property or performs a service to the payee in satisfaction of an obligation. A payment by cheque is normally deemed to occur when the cheque is delivered, as long as the cheque is honoured on the presentation by the payee. This rule also generally applies where the cheque is not presented to the bank until the next taxable year, even though the payer could stop payment on the cheque, in the meantime. Postdated cheques, however, are not considered payment when delivered. Generally, payments by credit card take effect at the point of the sale and not when a payer is billed by the credit card company or when the payer pays the credit card company's bill. A business that reports on an accrual basis, would report income in the year of sale though payment may be received in a subsequent year.


title: Payment

text: Payment of most fees to government agencies by cheque, if permitted, usually takes effect after a set number of days for clearance or until the cheque is actually cleared. Payments by credit card, if permitted, and cash payments take immediate effect. Normally, no other forms of payment are permitted or accepted.


title: S-Video

text: S-Video (also known as separate video, Y/C, and erroneously Super-Video ) is an analog video signal format that carries standard-definition video, typically at 525 lines or 625 lines. It encodes video luma and chrominance on two separate channels, achieving higher image quality than composite video which encodes all video information on one channel. It also eliminates several types of visual defects such as dot crawl which commonly occur with composite video. Although it improved over composite video, S-Video has lower color resolution than component video, which is encoded over three channels.


title: S-Video

text: The Atari 800 was the first to introduce separate Chroma/Luma output in late 1979. However, S-Video did not get widely adopted until JVC's introduction of the S-VHS (Super-VHS) format in 1987, which is why it is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "Super-Video." Before the shift towards digital video the S-video format was widely used by consumers, but it was rarely used in professional studios where YPbPr or composite was generally preferred.


title: S-Video

text: Standard analog television signals go through several processing steps on their way to being broadcast, each of which discards information and lowers the quality of the resulting images.


title: S-Video

text: The image is originally captured in RGB form and then processed into three signals known as YPbPr. The first of these signals is called Y, which is created from all three original signals based on a formula that produces an overall brightness of the image, or "luma". This signal closely matches a traditional black and white television signal and the Y/C method of encoding was key to offering backward compatibility. Once the Y signal is produced, it is subtracted from the blue signal to produce Pb and from the red signal to produce Pr. To recover the original RGB information for display, the signals are mixed with the Y to produce the original blue and red, and then the sum of those is mixed with the Y to recover the green.


title: S-Video

text: A signal with three components is no easier to broadcast than the original three-signal RGB, so additional processing is required. The first step is to combine the Pb and Pr to form the C signal, for chrominance. The phase and amplitude of the signal represent the two original signals. This signal is then bandwidth-limited to comply with requirements for broadcasting. The resulting Y and C signals are mixed together to produce composite video. To play back composite video, the Y and C signals must be separated, and this is difficult to do without adding artifacts.


title: S-Video

text: Each of these steps is subject to deliberate or unavoidable loss of quality. To retain that quality in the final image, it is desirable to eliminate as many of the encoding/decoding steps as possible. S-Video is an approach to this problem. It eliminates the final mixing of C with Y and subsequent separation at playback time.


title: S-Video

text: Y is the "luma" signal, which carries the "luminance" – or black-and-white – of the picture, including synchronization pulses.


title: S-Video

text: C is the "chroma" signal, which carries the "chrominance" – or coloring-in – of the picture. This signal contains two color-difference components.


title: S-Video

text: The luminance signal carries horizontal and vertical sync pulses in the same way as a composite video signal.


title: S-Video

text: In composite video, the signals co-exist on different frequencies. To achieve this, the luminance signal must be low-pass filtered, dulling the image. As S-Video maintains the two as separate signals, such detrimental low-pass filtering for luminance is unnecessary, although the chrominance signal still has limited bandwidth relative to component video.


title: S-Video

text: Compared with component video, which carries the identical luminance signal but separates the color-difference signals into Cb/Pb and Cr/Pr, the color resolution of S-Video is limited by the modulation on a subcarrier frequency of either 3.58 megahertz (NTSC) or 4.43 megahertz (PAL). This difference is meaningless on home videotape systems, as the chrominance is already severely constrained by both VHS and Betamax.


title: S-Video

text: Carrying the color information as one signal means that the color has to be encoded in some way, typically in accord with NTSC, PAL, or SECAM, depending on the applicable local standard.


title: S-Video

text: The Atari 800 introduced separate Chroma/Luma output in late 1979. The signals were put on pin 1 and 5 of a 5-pin 180 degree DIN connector socket. Atari did not sell a monitor for its 8-bit computer line, however.


title: S-Video

text: The Commodore 64 released in 1982 (with the exception of the earliest revisions using a 5-pin video port) also offers separate chroma and luma signals using a different connector. Although Commodore Business Machines did not use the term "S-Video" as the standard did not formally exist until 1987, a simple adapter connects the computer's "LCA" (luma-chroma-audio) 8-pin DIN socket to a S-Video display, or an S-Video device to the Commodore 1702 monitor's LCA jacks.


title: S-Video

text: The four-pin mini-DIN connector is the most common of several S-Video connector types. The same mini-DIN connector is used in the Apple Desktop Bus for Macintosh computers (initially first introduced on the Apple IIGS computer in 1986) and the two cable types can be interchanged. Other connector variants include seven-pin locking "dub" connectors used on many professional S-VHS machines, and dual "Y" and "C" BNC connectors, often used for S-Video patch panels. Early Y/C video monitors often used phono (RCA connector) that were switchable between Y/C and composite video input. Though the connectors are different, the Y/C signals for all types are compatible.


title: S-Video

text: The mini-DIN pins, being weak, sometimes bend. This can result in the loss of colour or other corruption (or loss) in the signal. A bent pin can be forced back into shape, but this carries the risk of the pin breaking off.


title: S-Video

text: These plugs are usually made to be plug-compatible with S-video, and include optional features, such as component video using an adapter. They are not necessarily S-video, although they can be operated in that mode.


title: S-Video

text: Non-standard 7-pin mini-DIN connectors (termed "7P") are used in some computer equipment (PCs and Macs). A 7P socket accepts, and is pin compatible with, a standard 4-pin S-Video plug. The three extra sockets may be used to supply composite (CVBS), an RGB or YPbPr video signal, or an I²C interface. The pinout usage varies among manufacturers. In some implementations, the remaining pin must be grounded to enable the composite output or disable the S-Video output.


title: S-Video

text: 9-pin connectors are used in graphics systems that feature the ability to input video as well as output it. Again, there is no standardization between manufacturers as to which pin does what, and there are two known variants of the connector in use. As can be seen from the diagram above, although the S-Video signals are available on the corresponding pins, neither variant of the connector will accept an unmodified 4-pin S-Video plug, though they can be made to fit by removing the key from the plug. In the latter case, it becomes all too easy to misalign the plug when inserting it with consequent damage to the small pins.


title: S-Video

text: In many European countries, S-Video was less common because of the dominance of SCART connectors, which were present on televisions until the advent of HDMI. It is possible for a player to output S-Video over SCART, but televisions' SCART connectors are not always wired to accept it, and if not the display would show only a monochrome image. In this case it is sometimes possible to modify the SCART adapter cable to allow full S-Video compatibility.


title: Agony in the Garden

text: The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane is an episode in the life of Jesus. After the Last Supper, Jesus enters a garden where he experiences great anguish and prays to be delivered from his impending death on the cross ("Take this cup from me") while also submitting to his Father's will. The incident is described in the Synoptic Gospels (


title: Agony in the Garden

text: According to the Synoptic Gospels, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus retreated to a garden to pray. Each gospel offers a slightly different account regarding narrative details. The gospels of Matthew and Mark identify this place of prayer as Gethsemane. Jesus was accompanied by three Apostles: Peter, John and James, whom he asked to stay awake and pray. He moved "a stone's throw away" from them, where he felt overwhelming sadness and anguish, and said "My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as You, not I, would have it." Then, a little while later, he said, "If this cup cannot pass by, but I must drink it, Your will be done!" (; in Latin Vulgate: ). He said this prayer thrice, checking on the three apostles after each prayer and finding them asleep. He commented: "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak". An angel came from heaven to strengthen him. During his agony as he prayed, "His sweat was, as it were, great drops of blood falling down upon the ground" ().