title: Falsettos

text: While "Falsettos" never explicitly mentions the words HIV or AIDS, the disease plays a major role in the second half of the musical. Whizzer first hand suffers from the disease and ultimately loses his life to it. Examples of implicit references to the virus include "Something that kills/Something infectious/Something that spreads from one man to another" and "something so bad that words have lost their meaning". The first half of the musical takes place in 1979, before the start of the epidemic, and the second half takes place in 1981, the year the epidemic began. This historical development results in the first act being primarily a comedy, but the second being mostly a tragedy, so that an audience member is likely to "enter laughing and exit crying". In 1981, the disease was not understood by the medical community and was eventually called GRID (Gay-related immune deficiency) by "The New York Times" in May 1982. Lapine has described the AIDS epidemic as "a time frame in our past that has somewhat been forgotten ... we had lost a lot of people to HIV. ... We really need to keep that history alive.'"


title: Falsettos

text: Finn wanted to convey the tragedy of AIDS accurately in "Falsettoland" and thought, "I can't have AIDS be peripheral in the show, and I don't know that I could write about AIDS head-on because the horror is too real and I don't want to trivialize it." Finn later described "Falsettos" as a "catharsis for people who've been going through the AIDS epidemic as well as for people not going through it", hoping that the show would allow people who had only read about the epidemic to empathize with people who had lived through it first-hand. The inclusion of lesbian characters Charlotte and Cordelia is a tribute to the lesbians who assisted gay men during the epidemic. Finn expressed that the inclusion of women in the story was paramount to the message of the show, explaining, "Gay men's lives have a lot of women in them. This is important to come into the conversation. They should not be ignored." The show also explores heterosexual Trina's perspective on Whizzer's illness in "Holding to the Ground", where she shows solidarity with him despite previously struggling to accept his relationship with Marvin.


title: Falsettos

text: The revival of the show in 2016 was partly intended to educate young LGBT youth about gay life in the 1980s and to instill a sense of gratitude at how both societal views of gay people and HIV/AIDS treatments have vastly improved since that period. Lapine was inspired to revisit the show when attending a performance of "The Normal Heart" with a recent college graduate. He recalled: "At intermission, she just looked at me and she said, 'Well, I kind of know about AIDS, but was it really like this?'" AIDS activist and playwright of "The Normal Heart" Larry Kramer attended a performance of the 2016 "Falsettos" revival. Andrew Rannells, who portrayed Whizzer, noted that seeing Kramer in the audience while singing "You Gotta Die Sometime" left him "completely wrecked" due to his admiration for Kramer's activism in support of the LGBT community and HIV-positive people.


title: Falsettos

text: Charles Isherwood of "The New York Times" asserts that definitions of masculinity form "a sharp undercurrent in the show". In the first act, Marvin attempts to force Whizzer into the role of "pretty boy homemaker", which causes Whizzer to step away from the relationship. Though Marvin is now in a same-sex relationship, he still tries to assume the more traditionally masculine role of the provider. "Daily Herald" writer Jennifer Farrar characterized the arguments between Marvin and Whizzer as "testosterone-laden". The song "March of the Falsettos" is an ode to the immaturity of the male characters, and features the three adult male characters singing in falsetto to match Jason's pre-pubescent voice. In "Trina's Song", Trina complains that "I'm tired of all the happy men who rule the world", and "her fondness for the man-babies in her life battling with exasperation and needy resentment at every turn."


title: Falsettos

text: Trina's struggles with the men in her life are also symbolized in "I'm Breaking Down", where she manically chops bananas and carrots for her "banana-carrot surprise", "an unusual combination but an appropriately phallic one". By including Jason's bar mitzvah as a key component of the second act, Finn represents the evolution of the male characters in the show. Finn explains, "There's so much about what it means to be a man in the show. It's not only the kid becoming a man – it's kind of all the men becoming men. It's a metaphor that resonates." Critics interpreted the set design of the 2016 revival to reflect immaturity by representing the New York City skyline in the form of children's building blocks. The musical additionally explores the link between masculinity and sexuality. Marvin's preteen son Jason questions his sexuality and worries that his father's homosexuality could be genetically passed down to him "My Father's a Homo".


title: Falsettos

text: Frank Rich of "The New York Times" praised the 1992 opening night performance as "exhilarating and heartbreaking", speaking favorably of the musical's cast, humor, and emotional depth. He called Jason's bar mitzvah scene "one of the most moving you've ever seen" and explained that in addressing the AIDS epidemic, "It is the heaven-sent gift of Mr. Finn and company that they make you believe that the love, no less fortissimo, somehow lingers on." Joe Brown of "The Washington Post" praised the chemistry between Marvin and Whizzer, calling their relationship "sexily combative". Brown also highlighted the emotional ending, stating that the audience, "which began the play roaring with laughter, is left in tear-soaked shreds". Jeremy Gerard of "Variety" commented that "to call "Falsettos" a musical about gay life in modern times is also to shortchange its tremendous appeal as a masterly feat of comic storytelling and as a visionary musical theater work". Gerard thought "Four Jews in a Room Bitching" "hilarious" and praised the musical's pacing, opining that "Lapine and Finn tell their complex story with astonishing economy".


title: Falsettos

text: In her report about Finn's Tony Award acceptance speech in June 1992, Kim Hubbard of "People" characterized "Falsettos" as both "a laugh-a-minute musical" and "a tragedy filled with hope". Sylvie Drake of the "Los Angeles Times" called a 1993 San Diego performance a "stunning ode to modern living" noting that the musical's "virtuosity is in its mastery of the bittersweet – and eventually the tragic – wailing over life's nasty habit of giving and taking away, but without wasting time on self-pity. Instead, the show makes intricate songs from the sour lemons. And the result is glorious lemonade." In 2016, "Daily Herald" writer Jennifer Farrar wrote that the play was considered "groundbreaking for its time" upon its 1992 debut.


title: Falsettos

text: John Simon of "New York" magazine, however, lamented the musical's "big lie" of portraying the illness of AIDS to look "gentle, elegant–something like a nineteenth-century heroine's wistful expiring of consumption–where we all know that it is grueling and gruesome". Clive Barnes of the "New York Post" wrote that the musical "clatters like a set of false teeth in a politically correct ventriloquist's dummy". Douglas Watt of the "New York Daily News" described the musical as "too sweet and sugary by far" and its plot as "sticky with sentiment", comparing the tone of "Falsettos" to that of a soap opera. In his book "The Complete Book of 1990s Broadway Musicals", Dan Dietz called the musical "commendable … but weak and disappointing in execution" and described the characters as "too bright, too self-aware, too articulate, and too 'on". He further commented that "one never had time to get to gradually know and discover [the characters] because they were forever explaining themselves."


title: Falsettos

text: Reviewing the 2016 revival, Alexis Soloski of "The Guardian" called the show "radically intimate" and praised the musical's emotional depth and character development, remarking that, "anyone who leaves without shedding a tear may want to see his or her ophthalmologist". She viewed the first half as more complex than the second, which she described as "more conventional, its narrative arc familiar, its characterizations less intense, particularly those of the lesbians". Jesse Green of Vulture.com described the ending as "almost unbearably moving". Chris Jones of the "Chicago Tribune" wrote that "Falsettos" "throbs with passion and compassion, a masterwork strong enough to bare formative comparison to the work of Stephen Sondheim, but a whole lot more cuddly of a show". He praised the performances of Block, Thoms, and Wolfe, writing, "The show centers on men in its structure, but the women in this cast all are so strong that you sense a realignment from 25 years ago." Emily Bruno of "Broadway World" wrote, "Groundbreaking...achingly poignant."


title: Falsettos

text: Linda Winer of "Newsweek" appreciated Finn's "enormously quotable, conversational lyrics that catch in the throat as often as they stick in the mind", describing "Unlikely Lovers" as an "emotional killer of an anthem". Winer also commented on the show's set design, noting, "though David Rockwell's modular foam set pieces and silhouetted Manhattan skyline can get a bit monotonous, they support the passion by getting out of the play's powerful way". Marilyn Stasio of "Variety" called the cast "terrific". She characterized the music as "a fusion of tuneful melodies with insightful lyrics". Christopher Kelly of NJ.com praised Rannells and Block, stating that the latter's performance of "I'm Breaking Down" "sends the show to such dizzying heights that it takes the audience a few minutes to recover". However, he felt that Borle "comes across as too staid – it impossible to see what Whizzer sees in the guy." Melissa Rose Bernardo of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the show a "B+" and noted the musical's emotional impact, exclaiming, "Curse you, William Finn, for writing these heart-wrenching songs. And curse me for forgetting the Kleenex." She described "The Baseball Game" as "a work of lyrical comic genius".


title: Falsettos

text: The original cast recordings of the Off-Broadway "The March of the Falsettos" and "Falsettoland" were both released by DRG Records on January 1, 1991.


title: Falsettos

text: The Broadway revival cast album was released on January 27, 2017. This album peaked at number two on the "Billboard" Cast Albums chart and number 98 on the "Billboard" Album Sales chart. PBS aired a filmed performance of the revival as part of "Live from Lincoln Center" on October 27, 2017. For this recording, lines in "I'm Breaking Down," "The Chess Game," "The Baseball Game," "You Gotta Die Sometime," and "A Day in Falsettoland" were edited for profanity.


title: Falsettos

text: "Falsettos" won Best Original Score and Best Book of a Musical at the 1992 Tony Awards. The 2016 revival was nominated for five Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical. The 2016 revival cast performed "A Day in Falsettoland" at the 71st Tony Awards.


title: Penny stock

text: Penny stocks are common shares of small public companies that trade for less than one dollar per share.


title: Penny stock

text: The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) uses the term "Penny stock" to refer to a security, a financial instrument which represents a given financial value, issued by small public companies that trade at less than $5 per share. Penny stocks are priced over-the-counter, rather than on the trading floor.  The term "penny stock" refers to shares that, prior to the SEC's reclassification, traded for "pennies on the dollar".


title: Penny stock

text: In 1934, when the United States government passed the Securities Exchange Act to regulate any and all transactions of securities between parties which are "not the original issuer", the SEC at the time disclosed that equity securities which trade for less than $5 per share could not be listed on any national stock exchange or index.


title: Penny stock

text: Over-the-counter exchanges that list penny stocks include the OTC Bulletin Board (which is a facility of FINRA) or OTC Link LLC (which is owned by OTC Markets Group, Inc., formerly known as Pink OTC Markets Inc.). Penny stocks can also trade on securities exchanges, including foreign securities exchanges. Penny stocks can include the securities of certain private companies with no active trading market.


title: Penny stock

text: When considering penny stocks, investors and experts in the field recognize the low market price of shares and its correlation to low market capitalization. Market capitalization or "market cap" is the total dollar market value of all of a company’s outstanding securities.


title: Penny stock

text: Since penny stocks are inexpensive, investors often buy large quantities of shares without spending much money. This tendency makes the penny stock market volatile. Volatility is “a statistical measure of the dispersion of returns for a given security or market index. Typically, the higher the volatility, the greater the risk in investing in said securities. Conversely, the lower the volatility, the "safer" the investment is. Volatility can be also understood as the frequency of large changes in the value of a given security in either direction. This is directly correlated to the price action of a security which, when talking about penny stocks, can change more rapidly than that of a large-cap stock.


title: Penny stock

text: Prosecutors and the Federal Bureau of Investigation say that fraud is widespread in the penny stock market. Potential fraud that involves even what are considered very small or micro market cap companies can still involve losses of tens of millions of dollars.


title: Penny stock

text: The penny stock market has little liquidity, so holders of shares in penny stock companies often find it difficult to cash out of positions. However, academic research shows that the risk created by small market cap size and lower liquidity results in higher expected returns due to the Size and Liquidity Premium.


title: Penny stock

text: In the United States, the SEC and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) have specific rules to define and regulate the sale of penny stocks.


title: Penny stock

text: There are inherent concerns that individuals should be aware of when investing in penny stocks, namely the lack of information that often exists surrounding the companies offering said stocks. The lack of public reporting mixed with a thin market is often the perfect recipe for stock manipulation via stock promoters. A common practice is for these individuals to purchase large quantities of stock and then utilize promoters to artificially inflate the sub-penny stock’s share price, through false and misleading information. When the liquidity and price increase the manipulator will sell their stock, this is called a "pump and dump" scheme which is a form of microcap stock fraud.


title: Penny stock

text: On April 3, 2017, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reported on a story in which penny stock fraud was the focal point of the piece. According to the article, California resident Zirk de Maison was found guilty of conducting a "pump and dump" scheme, during the course of which de Maison and his associates convinced large groups of investors to purchase shares of companies that he had set up as shell organizations.


title: Penny stock

text: From 2008 to 2013, de Maison created five small public companies which, unbeknownst to the investing public, did no actual business and had no legitimate assets. Once he set these companies up, he offered public shares of the company’s penny stocks for investors to purchase.


title: Penny stock

text: According to the FBI investigation, de Maison would use fictitious names to convince investors to purchase shares of his shell companies, thus driving up the price of his shares and giving the illusion that investors were realizing profit. Once these prices went up, de Maison and his original conspirators would then liquidate their shares at the stock's highest level, and this mass selling caused the shares to drop dramatically, leaving investors with near-worthless shares.


title: Penny stock

text: In more sophisticated versions of the fraud, individuals or organizations buy millions of shares, then use newsletter websites, chat rooms, stock message boards, fake press releases, or e-mail blasts to drive up interest in the stock. Very often, the perpetrator will claim to have "inside" information about impending news to persuade the unwitting investor to quickly buy the shares. When buying pressure pushes the share price up, the rise in price entices more people to believe the hype and to buy shares as well. Eventually the manipulators doing the "pumping" end up "dumping," when they sell their holdings.


title: Penny stock

text: The expanding use of the Internet and personal communication devices has made penny stock scams easier to perpetrate. Since the Securities & Exchange Commission allowed for the use of social media outlets like Twitter to disclose public information in lieu of press services, many fraudsters have set up accounts to take advantage of this higher level of traffic on social media, giving investors another thing to consider when searching for viable sources of information.


title: Penny stock

text: The Mafia had infiltrated Wall Street by the 1970s. In the 1980s Lorenzo Formato conducted penny-stock manipulations. Formato testified in Congressional hearings that during the years he promoted and sold penny stocks, he was involved in organized crime, and testified to rampant penny stock manipulation by organized crime. The Congressional hearings led to passage of the Penny Stock Reform Act of 1990.


title: Penny stock

text: By 1989, American investors were being cheated out of at least $2 billion a year by schemes involving penny stocks.


title: Penny stock

text: Mob activity on Wall Street reportedly increased in the 1990s. On February 10, 1997, "The New York Times" reported that "Mafia crime families are switching increasingly to white collar crimes" with a focus on "small Wall Street brokerage houses."


title: Penny stock

text: In May 1997, an FBI sting operation led to charges against Louis Malpeso Jr., a reported Colombo crime family associate, for conspiring to commit securities fraud with stock broker Joseph DiBella and Robert Cattogio to inflate the price of a penny stock, First Colonial Ventures. All three defendants pled guilty.


title: Penny stock

text: Another example of an activity that skirts the borderline between legitimate promotion and hype is the case of LEXG. Lithium Exploration Group's market capitalization soared to over $350 million after an extensive direct mail campaign. The promotion drew upon the legitimate growth in production and use of lithium, while touting Lithium Exploration Group's position within that sector. According to the company's December 31, 2010 form 10-Q (filed within months of the direct mail promotion), LEXG was a lithium company without assets. Its revenues and assets at that time were zero. Subsequently, the company did acquire lithium production/exploration properties, and addressed concerns raised in the press.


title: Penny stock

text: The "pump and dump" tactic is also known as a supernova and, unlike regular stocks, penny stocks usually move on momentum of the price action.


title: Penny stock

text: One of the biggest penny stock operators in the 1950s was Tellier & Co. In the 1980s, major penny stock brokerages included Blinder Robinson (nicknamed "Blind'em and Rob'em"), First Jersey Securities, Rooney Pace, and Stuart-James. Major penny stock brokerages operating in the 1990s included Stratton Oakmont, Sterling Foster, A.S. Goldmen, and Hanover Sterling.


title: Penny stock

text: In the United States, regulators have defined a penny stock as a security that meets a number of specific standards. The criteria include price, market capitalization, and minimum shareholder equity. Securities traded on a national stock exchange, regardless of price, are exempt from regulatory designation as a penny stock, since it is thought that exchange-traded securities are less vulnerable to manipulation. Therefore, Citigroup (NYSE:C) and other NYSE-listed securities which traded below $1.00 during the market downturn of 2008–09, while properly regarded as "low-priced" securities, were not technically "penny stocks".


title: Penny stock

text: Although penny stock trading in the United States is now primarily controlled through rules and regulations enforced by the SEC and FINRA, the genesis of this control is found in State securities law. The State of Georgia was the first state to codify a comprehensive penny stock securities law. Secretary of State Max Cleland, whose office enforced State securities laws, was a principal proponent of the legislation. Representative Chesley V. Morton, the only stockbroker in the Georgia General Assembly at the time, was principal sponsor of the bill in the House of Representatives. Georgia's penny stock law was subsequently challenged in court. However, the law was eventually upheld in U.S. District Court, and the statute became the template for laws enacted in other states. Shortly thereafter, both FINRA and the SEC enacted comprehensive revisions of their penny stock regulations.


title: Penny stock

text: These regulations proved effective in closing or greatly restricting broker/dealers, such as Blinder, Robinson & Company, which specialized in the penny stocks sector. Meyer Blinder was jailed for securities fraud in 1992, after the collapse of his firm.


title: Aegean Islands

text: The Aegean Islands (; ) are the group of islands in the Aegean Sea, with mainland Greece to the west and north and Turkey to the east; the island of Crete delimits the sea to the south, those of Rhodes, Karpathos and Kasos to the southeast. The ancient Greek name of the Aegean Sea, "Archipelago" (, "archipelagos") was later applied to the islands it contains and is now used more generally, to refer to any island group.


title: Aegean Islands

text: The vast majority of the Aegean Islands belong to Greece, being split among nine administrative regions. The only sizable possessions of Turkey in the Aegean Sea are Imbros (Gökçeada) and Tenedos (Bozcaada), in the northeastern part of the Sea. Various smaller islets off Turkey's western coast are also under Turkish sovereignty.


title: Aegean Islands

text: The islands have hot summers and mild winters, a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa" in the Köppen climate classification).


title: Aegean Islands

text: The term Italian Islands of the Aegean () is sometimes used to refer to the Aegean islands conquered by Italy during the Italo-Turkish War in 1912 and annexed (through the Treaty of Lausanne) from 1923 until 1947: the Dodecanese, including Rhodes and Kastellorizo. In the Treaty of Peace in 1947, these Italian-controlled islands were ceded to Greece.


title: Aegean Islands

text: Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Insulae (the Aegean Islands) listed in the "Annuario Pontificio" as titular sees :


title: Aegean Islands

text: Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Lesbos (the Aegean Islands) listed in the "Annuario Pontificio" as titular sees:


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Leonardo Nascimento de Araújo (born 5 September 1969), known as Leonardo Araújo or simply Leonardo, is a Brazilian football executive and former player and manager. He last served as the sporting director of Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain until May 2022.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: A versatile player, Leonardo was employed in several positions throughout his career, including as an attacking midfielder, left winger, and left-back; his best-known and most successful period was at AC Milan, in the role of attacking midfielder (or "trequartista") behind the forwards. He played for teams in Brazil, Spain, Japan, France and Italy, winning titles with Flamengo, São Paulo, Kashima Antlers and Milan.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: A former Brazil international, Leonardo played in the 1994 World Cup winning side, as well as the team that finished runners-up in the 1998 edition of the tournament. He also represented his nation in two Copa América tournaments, reaching the final in 1995, and winning the title in 1997, also claiming the FIFA Confederations Cup in the same year.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Following his retirement, Leonardo also served as a coach for Italian side Milan, and successively as coach of crosstown rivals Inter Milan, where he won a Coppa Italia title in 2011. From 2011 to 2013, he was sporting director of his former club Paris Saint-Germain (PSG). He coached Antalyaspor in 2017 before returning to Milan as sporting director in 2018. In 2019, Leonardo returned to PSG as sporting director, until he was sacked in 2022.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Divorced from his first wife with whom he had three children (one boy, two girls), he is married to Sky Italia presenter Anna Billó, with whom he has two sons.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Leonardo began his career with the Brazilian club Flamengo in 1987; at just 17, he was given the opportunity to play with his hero Zico plus Leandro, Bebeto and Renato Gaúcho, and to take part in winning his first Brazilian championship. In 1990, Leonardo signed with São Paulo, and in 1991, Leonardo, Raí, and other young talents were assembled as part of the so-called 'esquadrão tricolor' ("three-coloured squad") under the command of Brazilian legend Telê Santana, giving Leonardo his second Brazilian championship.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Later that year, he made the switch to European football, signing with the Spanish club Valencia. After two seasons with Valencia, he returned to Brazil for a brief stint with São Paulo in 1993, during which time the team won several titles, including the prestigious Copa Libertadores and Intercontinental Cup.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In 1994, after the World Cup, Leonardo signed with the Kashima Antlers of the newly formed Japanese J1 League. Leonardo continued his success in Kashima, again playing with his idol and friend Zico. In 1996, he returned to Europe, this time signing with French club Paris Saint-Germain (PSG), where he again proved to be successful, one of his goals helping them to oust Liverpool out of the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: At this point in his career, Leonardo had mostly stopped playing as a left-back and moved into the midfield, sometimes on the left flank, as a winger and sometimes in the centre, as an advanced playmaker, or as a supporting striker, due to his technical skills, vision and tactical intelligence. Already in Japan, this had resulted in some spectacular goals for Leonardo, a trend which continued in Europe.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In the summer of 1997, he signed with Italian team AC Milan for €8.5 million from PSG. With Milan, he became a prominent part of a star-studded lineup on the left wing. He played four full seasons with the club, winning the 1998–99 Serie A title, in which he played a key role with his prolific performances, scoring 12 goals. In total, he scored 22 goals in 177 games for Milan, before returning to Brazil with São Paulo and Flamengo. He later returned to Milan and finished his career with the team in 2003, winning the 2002–03 Coppa Italia title.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Leonardo was part of the Brazil under-20 team that placed third in the 1989 FIFA World Youth Championship. He made his full international debut for Brazil in 1990. He was selected as a left-back for the 1994 FIFA World Cup, keeping the young Roberto Carlos out of the team, much to the latter's chagrin. Leonardo played well in the first games but was then given a four-match suspension for elbowing the American midfielder Tab Ramos in the head, causing a skull fracture that hospitalized him for three and a half months. Leonardo's suspension prevented him from participating in the remainder of the competition. It was the second longest ban imposed in World Cup history, after Mauro Tassotti's eight-game suspension for breaking the nose of Luis Enrique at the same tournament. In 1995, he took part in the Copa América with Brazil, where the team reached the final.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In 1997, Leonardo was given the number 10 shirt for the national team. He was an important member of the team that won the Copa América in 1997, and also won the FIFA Confederations Cup later that year.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Leonardo played all seven games in his second World Cup, helping Brazil to a second-place finish. In the second opening round match against Morocco, he netted one shot and began celebrating, but was later called off-side. He was last selected to play for Brazil in the 2002 World Cup qualifying campaign and ended his international career in 2002 with 60 caps and 8 goals for Brazil.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: A versatile left-footed midfielder, Leonardo was capable of playing in several positions along the pitch; his favoured role was as a playmaker in midfield, either as a left winger, or in a more central role, as an attacking midfielder or as a supporting striker, due to his ability to create chances for teammates, although he was also capable of functioning as a central midfielder, in a deep-lying playmaking role, as a forward, and was even deployed as left-back or wing-back throughout his career, in particular in his youth. An elegant and creative player, Leonardo was mainly regarded for his outstanding technical skills, as well as his vision, and tactical intelligence as a footballer, which made him an excellent assist provider, although he was capable of scoring goals, as well as creating them, due to his accuracy from set-pieces and powerful striking ability from distance, and was known to be a specialist from dead ball situations. Despite his talent and reputation as one of the best Brazilian footballers of his generation, he was also often injury prone throughout his career.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Since 2002, Leonardo has dedicated himself to social works with the "Fundação Gol de Letra", along with his friend, former player Raí.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: Leonardo worked for BBC Television in the United Kingdom during the 2006 World Cup as one of their "Match of the Day" analysts, alongside another former World Cup winner, Marcel Desailly. He appeared again as a "Match of the Day" analyst on 1 June 2007 alongside Alan Hansen and Alan Shearer. This was the first England game at the new Wembley Stadium finishing 1–1 with Brazil.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In December 2007, Leonardo was interviewed for the vacant position of director of football at Premier League side West Ham United.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In early 2008, Leonardo was appointed technical director of his former club AC Milan. Later that same year, he obtained Italian citizenship after 12 years in Italy as a resident.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: After Carlo Ancelotti left Milan to become the manager of Chelsea at the end of May 2009, Leonardo was named head coach of Milan despite still lacking the required coaching badges (he was set to attend a UEFA A coaching course in June 2009). He was, however, exempted from requiring a UEFA Pro license, which is mandatory for Serie A managers, due to being a former World Cup winner as a player. Leonardo wasted no time in declaring that he wanted his team to play attractive attacking football, even invoking the name of his old mentor, Telê Santana.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: After a poor start of season, featuring a shock 0–4 loss to crosstown rivals Inter Milan, that started speculation about his possible dismissal from the head coaching post at Milan, results started improving for the "rossoneri" under Leonardo, also thanks to the application of a 4–2–1–3 tactic (nicknamed also "4–2–fantasy" by Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani). This tactic, quite unusual in Italian football and greatly focusing on creative players such as Ronaldinho, Andrea Pirlo and Clarence Seedorf, led Milan to improved results at both Serie A and UEFA Champions League level, including a remarkable 3–2 win at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium against Real Madrid and a 3–0 away win to Juventus which enabled Leonardo's side to finish in second place at the half-way point of the season, six points shy of leaders Inter with a game in hand. However, the path to the Champions League final was halted prematurely as Milan were eliminated in the first knockout round by Manchester United in a 2–7 aggregate loss (2–3, 0–4).


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In the final weeks of the season, it was speculated that Leonardo could leave Milan at the end of the season. In April 2010, Leonardo confirmed divergences with club owner and Prime Minister of Italy Silvio Berlusconi, defining their relationship as "difficult". It was confirmed that Leonardo would leave Milan by mutual agreement after their season ending game against Juventus. Leonardo waved an emotional goodbye to a packed San Siro, as he managed his side's last game with a 3–0 win against Juventus.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: On 24 December 2010, after days of speculation, it was confirmed Leonardo would take over as head coach of fresh FIFA Club World Cup champions Inter Milan, replacing Rafael Benítez in a somewhat controversial move, due to the Brazilian's long career with rivals Milan as both player and manager; he agreed an 18-month contract due to expire on 30 June 2012. Leonardo started extremely well, collecting 30 points from 12 games with an average of 2.5 points per game, better than his predecessors Benítez and José Mourinho. On 6 March 2011, Leonardo set a new Italian Serie A record by collecting 33 points in 13 games; the previous record was 32 points in 13 games, achieved by Fabio Capello in 2004–05.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: On 15 March 2011, Leonardo led Inter to a memorable 3–2 Champions League away victory over Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena in the round of 16 after losing the first leg at home. On 2 April 2011, Internazionale lost 3–0 against their fierce rivals Milan, and when Inter, two weeks later, lost 2–0 against relegation battlers Parma, the club's title ambitions had effectively ended. On 6 April, Inter lost 5–2 to Schalke 04 in the quarter-finals of the Champions League. On 29 May 2011, Inter defeated Palermo 3–1 to give Leonardo his first and only trophy as a manager of Inter, the Coppa Italia. He resigned on 18 June.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In June 2011, speculation arose about the future of Leonardo at Inter Milan after some media cited about talks between him and the new Qatari owners of Paris Saint-Germain, where Leonardo already spent one season as a player in the 1996–97 season. Following that, Inter Milan president Massimo Moratti began searching a replacement for Leonardo, then hiring former Genoa boss Gian Piero Gasperini as new head coach and releasing Leonardo from his contract thereafter. In July 2011, Leonardo was then introduced as new director of football of PSG, being responsible for the club's major transfer market decisions. His first signings included several high-profile players from Serie A, such as Jérémy Ménez, Mohamed Sissoko, Salvatore Sirigu, Javier Pastore and Thiago Motta, and was the mastermind behind the appointment of his friend Carlo Ancelotti as head coach of PSG.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In May 2013, Leonardo was banned for nine months, after he was accused of pushing a referee at the end of a game against Valenciennes in which Thiago Silva was sent off. The ban was extended to 13 months in July 2013. On 10 July, he tendered his resignation as sporting director and left the French champions at the end of August. His ban was overturned in June 2014 by the Paris Administrative Tribunal, at which point he announced that he would sue the French Football Federation for "professional" and "moral" damages.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In July 2018, following a change of ownership at Milan and the removal of Marco Fassone and Massimiliano Mirabelli from their respective roles as managing director and director of football, the club's new owners Elliott Management Corporation announced the appointment of Leonardo as their new sporting director. In his capacity, he also serves as director of football and supervised the captures of Gonzalo Higuaín and Mattia Caldara from Juventus as his first two signings.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: On 1 July 2019, it was announced that Leonardo would be the new sporting director of Paris Saint-Germain following his departure from Milan on mutual consent.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In the 2019–20 season, Leonardo made several signings for PSG, including Abdou Diallo, Ander Herrera, Idrissa Gueye, Mauro Icardi, Pablo Sarabia, and Keylor Navas. The club went on to complete a domestic treble and finish runner-up in the UEFA Champions League, a first final for Paris.


title: Leonardo Araújo

text: In May 2022, Leonardo was sacked by Paris Saint-Germain. Despite his successful attempts at convincing Neymar to stay in Paris, Leonardo is generally viewed by observers as having had a net negative impact on PSG's development during his second spell as sporting director.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: The Hole in the Ground is a 2019 supernatural horror film, directed by Lee Cronin in his feature debut film, from a screenplay by Cronin and Stephen Shields. It stars Seána Kerslake, James Cosmo, Kati Outinen, Simone Kirby, Steve Wall, and James Quinn Markey. It follows a young woman who begins to suspect that her son's disturbing behavior is linked to a mysterious sinkhole.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 25 January 2019. It was released on 1 March 2019 by Wildcard Distribution in Ireland and by Vertigo Releasing in the United Kingdom.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah O’Neill and her son Christopher ("Chris") move to the Irish countryside to start a new life in a rented house next to an old forest, after leaving Chris's father. Sarah worries about Chris's lack of interest in making new friends, but doesn't push the matter. While driving, Sarah almost hits an old woman named Noreen Brady standing in the middle of the road, causing the car's sideview mirror to break and fall off. When she exits the car to retrieve the mirror, Sarah notices Noreen whispering to herself before she turns to stare at Chris in silence.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: After returning home, Chris becomes frightened by a spider and Sarah catches it in a jar. Outside, Chris asks her why they came here without his father, and says that his father would have killed the spider instead of releasing it. An upset Sarah releases the spider from the jar and Chris stomps on it before running away from her and into the forest. Sarah follows Chris, but is unable to catch him. She starts to get worried and eventually comes upon a large sinkhole in the middle of the forest. Believing that her son might be hurt, she turns around in a panic and discovers Chris standing behind her. Chris hasn’t seen the sinkhole yet and asks what’s behind her.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: At a dinner party with friends that evening, Sarah discovers that one of her friends was in the same class with Noreen's son James when the pair were children. Her friend says that Noreen once burst into the classroom screaming before being restrained and taken to the principal's office before the police arrived. Her friend claims, James was consequently taken out of school and murdered by Noreen after she ran him over with her car.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Later that night, Sarah awakens to sounds downstairs. She finds Chris missing from his bedroom. She discovers that the door is open, and flees into the forest, believing Chris has run away. She searches in the dark for some time but cannot find Chris. After returning home, she calls the police, only to discover Chris standing in the doorway of his bedroom. Sarah visits a doctor the next day and is prescribed sedatives.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: While driving Chris home from school, Sarah comes across Noreen, who is standing in the middle of the road again. Sarah exits the car and asks her to move, before meeting Noreen's kind husband Des. The two talk, while Noreen approaches the car. She notices Chris and becomes enraged, screaming that he is not Sarah's son while hitting the window with her head. Des pulls her away, and Sarah drives home in shock.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah visits the Bradys’ house the day after, and discovers Noreen has been mysteriously murdered in a gruesome way, having her head buried in the dirt. Sarah attends Noreen's funeral, and notices that all the mirrors in Noreen’s house are covered with black cloths. Des explains to Sarah that Noreen believed their son James was an imposter; she could apparently tell by looking at James’s reflection in a mirror, and the habit soon became an obsession. Sarah asks what happened to James, and Des reveals that it was him, not his wife, who didn't see James dart into the road and hit him with his car.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah and Chris's relationship begins to fracture; Chris suddenly develops a fondness for spaghetti bolognese and parmesan cheese, a dish he previously hated, and when Sarah confronts him about finding his toy soldier in the forest during a run, he grows enraged and pushes the dinner table towards her in an uncharacteristic display of strength. Chris suddenly becomes friends with his schoolmates, and plans to join the talent show. Sarah hears strange noises whilst bathing one night and later observes Chris catching and eating spiders in his bedroom. The next day, she visits the doctor who tells her that everything is normal. Despite this, she is convinced Chris isn't himself.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah and Chris sit down for breakfast after she finishes the task of wallpapering the house. While Chris is eating, Sarah tells him that she loves him, and Chris begins to touch her face. When his fingers touch the scar on her forehead, he suddenly digs them into her skin. Sarah wakes up, and realises it was a nightmare. She watches Chris perform in the school talent show. During his verse, Chris zones in on Sarah and begins to speak his lines in an emotionless voice. Sarah then flees from the hall, and later from Chris when he is walked back to her by a teacher.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah hides a camera in her son's room in an effort to monitor Chris' nighttime behavior, and after watching the footage she becomes more convinced than ever that he is not her real son. She takes the camera over to Des’s house to show him the evidence. However, after Des watches the video, he becomes enraged and throws the camera at the floor. Confronting him, Sarah asks Des to tell her if he truly doesn't believe her, to which Des replies that he can't.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Eventually, Sarah ascertains that Chris is a shapeshifter. While the creature watches television, she says they're going to play one of their favourite games - in which Sarah counts to three, and then they both pull faces. But after she counts, the creature just stares at her blankly. Sarah then tells him that he is not her son while being backed into the kitchen by the creature. The creature snaps, and begins to throw her across the kitchen repeatedly.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: An injured Sarah later wakes in the garden, where the creature is shown digging a hole, before he drags her over and begins to bury her headfirst, in the same manner as Noreen. He then falls asleep (having been drugged by Sarah, with the medication she got from the doctor) and Sarah frees herself. She drags the creature to the house's basement and finds the broken car mirror. Placing it to the side of the creature’s face, he is revealed to be a shapeshifter. He begins to revive and after a minor scuffle, Sarah locks him in the basement and flees to the forest's sinkhole.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: Sarah goes to the bottom of the sinkhole, crawls in underground tunnels in the earth, and eventually finds a child that looks like Chris still alive, buried deep in the ground among dozens of formless and faceless creatures. As the two escape, she is followed by a grotesque formless shapeshifter. As they reach the end of the tunnel, Sarah sees the creature’s hand on her wrist and frantically hits it with her torch. The hand suddenly turns to human flesh, and Sarah shines the light down the tunnel to see that the monster has taken her form. Sarah and Chris return to the house, and Sarah enters to retrieve the car keys before setting the house on fire with the changeling that was Chris still inside. She and the real Chris drive away to start a new life back in the city; Sarah begins to attend university, and Chris happily settles into their new house.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: One day, while Chris is playing on his bike outside, Sarah takes some pictures of him through the window. Viewing the pictures, she sees that Chris's face is very blurry compared to the rest of the image. The final shot shows that Sarah has covered the walls of the living room in mirrors.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: In December 2018, A24 and DirecTV Cinema acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film. The same month, Vertigo Releasing acquired U.K. and Irish distribution rights. The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on 25 January 2019, and was theatrically released in Ireland and the United States on 1 March 2019.


title: The Hole in the Ground (film)

text: , the film holds approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Hole in the Ground" artfully exploits parental fears with a well-made horror outing that makes up in sheer effectiveness what it lacks in originality." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 63 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally positive reviews."


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The Buick V8 is a family of V8 engines produced by the Buick division of General Motors between 1953 and 1981. The first version replaced the Buick straight-eight. Displacements vary from (for the division's unique all-aluminum early 1960s engine) to for its last big block in 1976. All are naturally aspirated OHV pushrod engines, except for an optional turbocharged version of the short-lived 215 used in the 1962-63 Oldsmobile Jetfire.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Six displacements of the engine were used in two generations between 1953 and 1966, varying from to ; three displacements of standard cast-iron small blocks between 1964 and 1981, and and ; one of the aluminum blocks (1961-1963); and three big blocks between 1967 and 1976 and and .


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Some of these Buick V8s, such as the 350, 400, and 455, had the same displacements as those from other GM divisions, but were otherwise entirely different engines.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Buick's first generation of V8 was offered from 1953 through 1956. It was an OHV pushrod engine like the then-new Oldsmobile "Rocket" V8. While it was officially called by Buick the "Fireball V8" it became known as the "Nailhead" by enthusiasts for the unusual vertical alignment of its small-sized valves, features that were the result of putting both intake and exhaust valves on the intake manifold side of the "pent-roof combustion chamber" used in this engine series. (Originally, it was known to hot rodders as the “nail valve” because the valves had long stems and small heads which made them look like nails.) To offset the smaller-sized valves ( for the intake and for the exhaust) and restrictive port diameters, the Nailhead V8 family used a camshaft with greater lift and duration. The small-diameter intake runners allowed these engines to develop high torque, with many exceeding 1 ft-lb/cu in, exceptional for the time. All of the nailhead designs have a bore spacing. The high torque nature of the engine was developed to provide adequate acceleration when mated to the Dynaflow transmission which favored smoothness above most other design and marketing objectives. Dynaflow's non-shifting design was demonstrably smoother than the rough shifting automatics then available, to include GM's Hydramatic, and the Powerglide unit used by Chevrolet. After the war, manual transmissions fell out of fashion over and automatic transmissions were more popular.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The produced in 1954 and 1955 was a direct replacement for the 263 straight-eight and the only engine available for the economy "Special" series during its run. The smallest displacement Nailhead, it is a small-bore version of the 322, sharing stroke and deck height, but having its own bore.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The larger was the original Nailhead, used by Buick from 1953 through 1956 in the Roadmaster, Super, and Century models, and the Special in 1956. It has a bore and stroke of .


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 322 was also used in the 1956 through 1957 10,000-Series conventional-cab Chevrolet heavy duty trucks labeled as the "Loadmaster".


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Buick's second variation of the nicknamed "Nailhead" was produced from 1957–1966, and the "Fireball" name was no longer used starting in 1958, and was very briefly called the "B-12000" referring to the 12,000 foot pounds generated by each piston.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 364 was introduced in 1957 and produced through 1961. The Special came standard with two-barrel carburetor and , where all others had the four-barrel, engine. Buick, like most of its competitors, continued to expand their durable V8 engine to larger displacements, such as the (bore by stroke) .


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 364 was enlarged to and produced from 1959 to 1966. Originally a 401, it was later redesignated a 400 to meet 1960s GM directives for maximum displacement engines in mid-size cars.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 401/400 became Buick's full-sized and later intermediate muscle car powerplant of choice, used in the company's Skylark Gran Sport, Buick Sport Wagon and Buick Wildcat models, among others. The engine was variously designated the Wildcat 375, Wildcat 410, and Wildcat 445 depending on the torque each version produced. The Wildcat 410 was the two-barrel carbureted engine, standard on the 1962-63 LeSabre. The Wildcat 375 was a no-cost option for the 1962-63 LeSabre that used a lower compression ratio to run on lower-octane fuel. The various Wildcat engines had decals on their air cleaners indicating their version; however, the four-barrel edition of the 1966-67 small-block Buick 340 V8 was also labeled Wildcat 375 on its air cleaner, but was not a Nailhead.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The Wildcat 445, with a single four-barrel carburetor, was the standard engine in the Invicta, 1959-1966 Electra, 1962–1966 Buick Wildcat, 1963 Riviera, and 1965 Riviera (the 1964 and 1966 Riviera models used the 425 with a single four-barrel carburetor, labeled Wildcat 465, as standard equipment).


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In an effort to overcome the restrictive exhaust-port design of the Nailhead, Buick drag racing enthusiasts in the 1960s adapted superchargers with a custom camshaft to feed intake air in through the exhaust ports; the larger intake ports became the exhaust outlets.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The was produced from 1963 to 1966. The largest-displacement version of the Nailhead, it began as an option on the 1963 Riviera, and was later available on the Wildcat and Electra models. The 1964 and 1966 Rivieras used the 425 engine as standard equipment. Mounted on a trolley, Buick 425s were also used as starter motors for the SR-71 Blackbird supersonic jet.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Four-barrel carburetion was standard on the basic 425, called the Wildcat 465 for the torque (as measured in lb-ft) it developed. The Super Wildcat (Regular Production Option {RPO}-coded Y48) was available on the 1965 Riviera Gran Sport and 1966 Wildcat GS, which included two four-barrel carburetors and matching intake manifold. Coded "MW", these parts were delivered in the car's trunk for dealer installation. Toward the end of the 1966 model year, around May 1966, Buick offered the Super Wildcat 465 with factory-installed dual four-barrel Carter AFB carburetors as an "MZ" option. Only 179 of the 1966 Riviera GS cars were built with the MZ package.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In 1961, Buick unveiled an entirely new small V8 engine with aluminum cylinder heads and cylinder block. Lightweight and powerful, the aluminum V8 also spawned a turbocharged version, (only in the 1962–63 Oldsmobile Jetfire), which together with the turbocharged Corvair Spyder, also introduced in 1962, were the first ever offered in passenger cars. It became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine, the Fireball. The all-aluminum V8 engine was dropped after the 1963 model year, but was replaced with a very similar cast-iron block, aluminum head version for one year, and then in all-iron versions. Bore spacings for all variants of the SBB are .


title: Buick V8 engine

text: GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s. Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA) was pushing all automakers to use more aluminum. An early-development supercharged version of the V8 was used in the 1951 Le Sabre concept car, and the 1953 Buick Roadmaster concept car, and work on a production unit commenced in 1956. Originally intended for displacement, Buick was designated by GM as the engine design leader and decided to begin with a larger, size, which was deemed ideal for the new senior compact cars introduced for the 1961 model year. This group of cars was commonly referred to as the B-O-P group — for Buick-Olds-Pontiac — or the Y-bodies.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Known variously as the Fireball and Skylark by Buick (and as Rockette, Cutlass, and Turbo-Rocket by Oldsmobile), the 215 had a bore spacing, a bore and a stroke of , for an actual displacement of . At the time, the engine was the lightest mass-production V8 in the world, with a dry weight of only . Measuring long, wide, and high (same as the small-block Chevy), it became standard equipment in the 1961 Buick Special.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Oldsmobile and Pontiac each used an all-aluminum 215 on its senior compact cars, the Oldsmobile F-85, Cutlass, and Jetfire, and Pontiac Tempest and LeMans. Pontiac used the Buick version of the 215. At that time the engine was closely associated with the Buick brand, and Pontiac sold few cars with it, using it only in 1961 and 1962. The Oldsmobile version of this engine, although sharing the same basic architecture, had cylinder heads and angled valve covers designed by Oldsmobile engineers to look like a traditional Olds V8 and was produced on a separate assembly line. Among the differences between the Oldsmobile and Buick versions was weight, being somewhat heavier, at . The major design differences were in the cylinder heads. Buick used a five-bolt pattern around each cylinder, while Oldsmobile used a six-bolt pattern and a wedge combustion chamber, which allowed larger valves. The sixth bolt was added to the intake manifold side of the head, one extra bolt for each cylinder, intended to alleviate a head-warping problem on high-compression versions. This meant that Buick heads would fit on Oldsmobile blocks, but not vice versa. Changing the compression ratio on an Oldsmobile 215 required changing the heads, but on a Buick 215, only the pistons were changed, which was less expensive and simpler. For that reason, the more common Buick version (which looks like a traditional Nailhead V8) has emerged as more desirable to some. The Oldsmobile wedge-shaped/quench combustion chambers/pistons are more compatible with modern low-octane/low-lead motor fuels than the Buick 'hemispherical'-shaped combustion chambers and domed pistons. The previous statement is incorrect, the 215 Buick only used "dished head" pistons even in the highest compression models, all Buick 215's have a 37-cc wedge combustion chamber. Later Rover versions of the aluminum block and subsequent Buick iron small-block 300s with aluminum, then iron heads, 34 (0 and 350 with iron heads) went to a four-bolt-per-cylinder pattern.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: At introduction, Buick's 215 was rated at 4400 rpm. This was raised soon after introduction to at 4,600 rpm. of torque was produced at 2,400 rpm with a Rochester 2GC (DualJet) two-barrel carburetor and 8.8:1 compression ratio. A mid-year introduction was the Buick Special Skylark version, which had 10.0:1 compression and a four-barrel carburetor, raising output to at 4,800 rpm and at 2,800 rpm.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: For 1962, the four-barrel-equipped engine's compression ratio was increased to 10.25:1 and horsepower to at 4,800 rpm and at 3,000 rpm. The two-barrel engine was unchanged. For 1963, the four-barrel was bumped to 11.0:1 compression and an even at 5,000 rpm and at 3,200 rpm, /cu in.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The great expense of the aluminum engine led to its cancellation after the 1963 model year. The engine had an abnormally high scrap ratio due to hidden block-casting porosity problems, which caused serious oil leaks. Another problem was clogged radiators from antifreeze mixtures incompatible with aluminum. It was said that one of the major problems was because the factory had to make extensive use of air gauging to check for casting leaks during the manufacturing process and was unable to detect leaks on blocks that were as much as 95% complete. This raised the cost of complete engines to more than that of a comparable all cast-iron engine. Casting-sealing technology was not advanced enough at that time to prevent the high scrap rates.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 215's very high power-to-weight ratio made it immediately interesting for automobile and boat racing. Mickey Thompson entered a stock-block 215-powered car in the 1962 Indianapolis 500. From 1946-1962, there had not been a single stock-block car in this race. In 1962, the 215 was the only non-Offenhauser-powered entry in the field. Rookie driver Dan Gurney qualified eighth and raced well for 92 laps before retiring with transmission problems.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Surplus engine blocks of the Oldsmobile F85 version formed the basis of the Australian Formula One Repco V8 used by Brabham to win the 1966 Formula One world championship, although only the earliest engines had any Oldsmobile components. The majority of Repco RB620 engines were cast and built in-house at Repco.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Rights to these engines were purchased by the British Rover Company and used in the 1967 Rover P5B that replaced the 3 L straight six Rover engined P5. Throughout the years, the Rover Company (which became part of British Leyland in 1968), and its successor companies constantly improved the engine making it much stronger and more reliable. Capacities ranged from . This engine was used for V8 versions of the MGB GT known as the GTV8. Rover also used the engine in the 1970 Range Rover. Morgan used the Rover version in its Plus 8. American 215s have also been engine swapped into countless other platforms, especially Chevrolet Vegas and later British cars including the MG RV8 in the 1990s, Triumph TR8, and various sports sedans and sports cars by the MG Rover Group and specialist manufacturers such as TVR. The engine remains well-supported by enthusiast clubs, specialist parts suppliers, and by shops that specialize in conversions and tuning.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In the mid-1980s, hot rodders realized the 215 could be stretched to as much as , using the Buick 300 crankshaft, new cylinder sleeves, and an assortment of non-Buick parts. It could also be fitted with high-compression cylinder heads from the Morgan Plus 8. Using the 5 liter Rover block and crankshaft, a maximum displacement of is theoretically possible.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In 1964, Buick replaced the 215 with an iron-block engine of very similar architecture. The new "small block" engine had a bore of and a stroke of for a displacement of . It retained the aluminum cylinder heads, intake manifold, and accessories of the 215 for a dry weight of . The 300 was offered in two-barrel form, with 9.0:1 compression, making at 4600 rpm and at 2400 rpm, and four-barrel form, with 11.0:1 compression, making at 4800 rpm and at 3000 rpm.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: For 1965, the 300 switched to cast-iron heads, raising dry weight to , still quite light for a V8 engine of its era. The four-barrel option was cancelled for 1966, and the 300 was replaced entirely by the 350 in 1968.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In 1964, while nearly all Buick engines were painted "Buick Late Green", the 300ci V8s were painted Silver instead. In 1966 Buick engines switched to "Buick Late Red", but until 1967 at least, the 300 V8 (and the 225) were still painted Buick Late Green. The Apollo 5000 GT sports car, (also sold as the Vetta Ventura) used this engine.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In 1966, the 300's stroke was increased to to create the "340" () as a replacement for the four-barrel-carbureted 300. It was offered with two- or four-barrel carburetion, the two-barrel with a 9.0:1 compression rated at at 4,000 rpm and at 2,400 rpm, and the four barrel with 10.25:1 compression, rated at at 4,000 rpm and at 2,800 rpm. It was only produced through 1967, being replaced by the new small block in 1968.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Buick adopted the popular size in 1968 for their final family of V8 engines, the "350", which was produced through 1980. Although it shared the displacement of the other GM small blocks, including the Chevrolet 350, Oldsmobile 350, and Pontiac 350 (although the Pontiac was technically a 354), the Buick blocks were of a substantially different proprietary company design. The Buick 350 featured the same bore as the version of the Buick 90° V6 and retained the stroke of the previous V8. The exact displacement is .


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The major differences of the 350 in comparison to other GM V8s are Buick's "deep-skirt" engine block construction, the use of cast iron with increased nickel content, an external oil pump, a forward-mounted distributor, under-square cylinder bore sizing, crankshaft main journals, and connecting rods. The Buick 350 also shares an integrated aluminum timing cover, which incorporates the oil pump mechanisms, leaving the oil filter exposed to oncoming air for added cooling. The engine garnered a reputation as rugged and durable, and some of its design characteristics are found in other Buick-designed GM engines, such as the V6 and its 3800 descendants. Of all the GM "350s", the Buick has the longest piston stroke. This design characteristic made the engine significantly wider than the others — essentially the same as the Buick big-blocks, which have the shortest stroke of the GM big-blocks.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 350 was used by Kaiser-Jeep and AMC Jeep in the Jeep Gladiator and Wagoneer models from 1968–71; in these applications, the engine was billed as the Dauntless V8.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: Buick introduced a "big block" V8 in 1967 to replace the largest displacement nailheads. It retained a cylinder bore spacing, and was produced in three displacements, 400, 430, and 455, through 1976.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The was produced from 1967-1969. This engine has a bore and a stroke of . It was the only large V8 engine available for the intermediate-sized A-body Buicks due to the GM cubic inch limit restriction in effect through 1970. Most parts except the pistons interchange with the 430 and 455. This 400 engine had the distributor towards the front of the engine, as opposed to the 401/400 nailhead, which had its near the firewall.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The was only produced from 1967 until 1969. This engine had a bore and a stroke of . The 430 four-barrel engine was rated at and of torque. This engine was used in large B-, C- and E-body Buicks. Most parts except the pistons interchange with the 400 and 455.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 400-based was produced from 1970–1976, with a bore x stroke of . Most parts (except pistons and heads) interchange between the 400 and the 430. The base model was rated at , while the 455 Stage 1 equipped with a single 4-barrel Rochester Quadrajet carburetor was rated at at 4600 rpm. The regular 455 produced a rated of torque at 2,800 rpm, more than any other muscle car engine. The horsepower was somewhat reduced in 1971 mainly due to the reduction in cylinder compression ratio, a change which was mandated by GM in order to cope with the introduction of new federal laws which would require new cars to use low octane gasoline in an effort to reduce exhaust emissions. Then, starting in 1972, the horsepower rating on paper would be reduced again due to a shift from SAE gross to SAE net, down to approximately . Unleaded gasoline and catalytic converters came into play in 1975 for all US manufactured cars. Tightening emissions controls would cause the engine to drop in power still further, a little at a time, through 1976.


title: Buick V8 engine

text: The 455 was one of the first "thin-wall casting" engine blocks at GM, and because of this advance in production technology, it weighs significantly less than other engines of comparable size (for example, less than a Chevrolet 454 and only more than a Chevrolet 350).


title: Buick V8 engine

text: In the mid-1970s Buick's 400/430/455 big blocks became unable to meet fuel economy/emission requirements and were phased out, with the Buick 350 remaining as a factory option until 1980. In their place were a variety of GM V8s were offered, both as standard equipment and factory options. These included:


title: Buick V8 engine

text: From the 1950s-1970s, each GM division had its own V8 engine family. Many were shared among other divisions, but each design is most-closely associated with its own division:


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The is a full-size luxury sedan from Toyota. It is an upmarket variant of the Crown and serves as Toyota's flagship model in various countries.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The Crown Majesta appeared after the international introduction of the Celsior/Lexus LS in late 1989; the Celsior was exclusive to "Toyopet Store" locations on a newer platform. The Crown Majesta, positioned as a modern limousine alternative to the already existing Century and shares the flagship role, was exclusive to Toyota Japanese dealerships called "Toyota Store". The Crown Majesta appeared before the Aristo/Lexus GS, which was assigned to "Toyota Vista Store" locations and shared the Crown and Crown Majesta platform.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The Crown Majesta shares a stretched variant of the smaller Crown platform series which is also used in the Aristo/GS, however, it is not just an upper trim level of the Crown sedan, the Majesta is a separate car with unique styling and interior treatment. The Crown Majesta was later released in other countries in Asia such as China.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The first-generation Crown Majesta was introduced in Japan as a 4-door hardtop sedan in October 1991. It had much of its resemblance to its smaller sibling, the Crown. It also bore a resemblance to the larger Celsior, which was a sedan that appeared earlier in 1989. At first, the Crown Majesta was a trim level variant of the Crown series, called the Crown Royal Saloon G. The Majesta was a more luxurious variant of the Crown and was slightly wider and heavier, necessitating two engine choices: the 3.0-litre "2JZ-GE" six-cylinder, which produced and the 4.0-litre "1UZ-FE" V8, which produced . The two engine choices gave Japanese buyers the option as to which annual road tax obligation they were willing to pay. Unlike the body-on-frame S140 hardtop, the Majesta was built using unibody construction, becoming the first model in the Crown family to adopt such a design.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: In 1992, four-wheel steering was offered in compliance with the four-wheel drive system, called 4WDi-Four. This boosted handling capabilities and gave increased traction. Advanced for this time, the Crown Majesta had an optional GPS navigation system, electronic instrument cluster, electric power steering, heated front and rear electric seats, a head-up display that projected key information on the inside windshield surface above the instrument cluster, and an i-Four comprehensive vehicle control system.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The Crown Majesta underwent its first redesign in 1995. Notable enhancements were made to the taillights to distinguish the model from the lower-spec Crown. The redesign made the vehicle similar to the XF20 series Celsior/LS 400, which debuted in 1994. Changes were also made to the engine lineup. The 3.0-litre engine stayed the same, but the 4.0-litre-powered unit received a power increase to . Due to cost-cutting efforts within Toyota, the list of optional equipment offered was simplified.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The second-generation Majesta is the first Toyota model to be equipped with vehicle stability control in 1995.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: At its introduction in 1996, it won the Automotive Researchers' and Journalists' Conference Car of the Year award in Japan which it shared with the 1996 Crown.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: In August 1997, the front grille was restyled and HID headlights were introduced. VVT-i technology was offered on the V8 engine, improving the power to . A 5-speed automatic transmission was also introduced. Four-wheel steering was no longer offered. In addition, a two-tone paint scheme offered an upmarket image for the Crown Majesta.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: This version was released in September 1999 and received a complete redesign, further incorporating styling elements of the Celsior/LS. Wider vertical taillights were incorporated as well as redesigned headlights, grille and minor aesthetic updates. Four-wheel steering was again offered. The previous two-tone paint scheme options remained as well as Toyota's other top-of-the-line features for this model.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: DVD-based GPS navigation was also introduced, as well as an "Ottoman" footrest for the rear passenger seats. This was achieved by enabling part of the seat cushion of the front passenger seat back to tilt rearward towards the rear seat passengers.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The model came in a C-type or an A-type option, the A-type having less standard options with conventional spring and shock suspension as standard, while the C-type had more options as standard such as height adjustable air suspension, TEMS, dual zone climate control, rear wheel steering and power rear seat as standard with leather as optional. All engine variants also had the option for 4WDi-Four four-wheel drive system.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The S170 series Crown Majesta received an updated version of the 4.0-litre engine with VVT-i, rated at , while the 3.0-litre option was changed to the "2JZ-FSE" type. The trend among automakers towards large-diameter wheels with low-profile tires was ignored in favour of a more comfortable ride and better handling with smaller wheels. This model also made available with a 5-speed "Super ECT" automatic transmission.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: It was made the official company car for senior-level Toyota management. This model also had a 10th Anniversary special edition run which was a fully optioned C-type specification model with leather and a sunroof as standard.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: The fourth-generation Crown Majesta was introduced on 6 July 2004. In August 2006, the Celsior was no longer offered in Japan, due to the introduction of the Lexus brand there. The Crown Majesta replaced the Celsior, despite objections from Japanese customers. It introduced the first Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) integrated vehicle handling and software control system and radar adaptive cruise control with low-speed tracking function. The engine was upgraded to the 4.3 L "3UZ-FE" V8 unit, shared with the US-spec LS 430. The transmission was upgraded to a 6-speed automatic unit, the four-wheel drive system was improved, and air suspension was introduced. Intelligent adaptive front lighting and rear curtain airbags were added to improve safety. Enhancements were made to the interior of the vehicle, including a rear-view camera and parking assistance technology. A supercharger option was also offered, allowing the engine to produce .


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: In July 2004, the Crown Majesta introduced both a lane keeping assist and a radar pre-collision system with a single camera to improve the accuracy of collision forecast and warning and control levels.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: For 2006, G-Book was added to the list of standard features, along with a rear-view camera. A departure from previous models, the two-tone paint scheme was removed to target a younger audience.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: In China, this generation of the Crown Majesta was rebadged and had been sold as the Hongqi HQ300/HQ430 from 2006 to 2010, using the same engines as the Crown.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: On 26 March 2009, the fifth-generation Crown Majesta was introduced. Although it was initially reported that the name "Crown" would be removed, establishing the Majesta as an independent car, this did not happen and the car remained called the Crown Majesta. The body size expanded from the previous generation, comparable to the LS.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: As with the GS and LS, the 4.6-litre "1UR-FSE" V8 engine is standard, however, four-wheel drive option employed the 4.3 L "3UZ-FE" one. The larger engine incurs a higher road tax liability than the smaller 4.3-litre unit.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: In China, FAW Toyota assembled a limited number of left-hand-drive S200 series Crown Majesta, which is called Crown Royal Saloon VIP. Another car based on the Crown was called the Hongqi H7 and has been in production since 2013.


title: Toyota Crown Majesta

text: Launched in Japan on 9 September 2013, the sixth-generation model replaced the outgoing model's V8 engine in favour of Toyota's "2GR-FXE" 3.5-litre V6 hybrid powertrain shared with the L10 Lexus GS 450h sedan, plus an additional 2.5-litre "2AR-FSE" four-cylinder hybrid unit for the four-wheel drive version. The elimination of the V8 engines reduced the annual road tax liability for large engine displacement. The Crown Majesta was given a redesigned appearance after the reintroduction of the Y51 series Nissan Cima in April 2012. Fuel economy is improved to under the JC08 test cycle. The wheelbase is longer than the corresponding Crown Royal and Athlete, but shorter than the Century, and incorporates advanced safety and convenience equipment such as blind spot monitoring and a collision avoidance system.


title: Yubitsume

text: The ritual is thought to have originated with the bakuto, itinerant gamblers who were predecessors of the modern yakuza. If a person was unable to pay off a gambling debt, yubitsume was sometimes considered an alternative form of repayment. Yubitsume was a form of credit and reputation score.


title: Yubitsume

text: In Japanese swordsmanship (kendo and iaido), the little finger's grip is the tightest on the hilt. A little finger-amputee was therefore unable to grip his sword properly, weakening him in battle and making him more dependent on the protection of his boss.


title: Yubitsume

text: To perform "yubitsume", one lays down a small clean cloth and lays the hand onto the cloth facing down. Using an extremely sharp knife, or tantō, the person cuts off the portion of his left little finger above the top knuckle on the finger or the tip of the finger. He then wraps the severed portion in the cloth and submits the "package" very graciously to his oyabun ("godfather" or boss), who is also referred to as a "kumicho" (patriarch/head of the family).


title: Yubitsume

text: If more offenses are committed, then the person moves on to the next joint of the finger to perform "yubitsume". More infractions could mean removing portions of the right little finger when no more joints of the left finger remain. In some cases, a person expelled from a "yakuza" gang might be required to perform the "yubitsume" ritual.


title: Yubitsume

text: The finger of the yakuza directly responsible for an offense is called an "iki yubi", "living finger", while the finger of the yakuza that is directly in charge of him is called a "shinu yubi", "dead finger".


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: Mohd. Ahmad Khan v. Shah Bano Begum [1985 (1) SCALE 767 = 1985 (3) SCR 844 = 1985 (2) SCC 556 = AIR 1985 SC 945], commonly referred to as the Shah Bano case, was a controversial maintenance lawsuit in India, in which the Supreme Court delivered a judgment favouring maintenance given to an aggrieved divorced Muslim woman. Then the Congress government enacted a law with its most controversial aspect being the right to maintenance for the period of "iddat" after the divorce, and shifting the onus of maintaining her to her relatives or the Waqf Board. It was seen as discriminatory as it denied right to basic maintenance available to Muslim women under secular law.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: Shah Bano Begum who belonged to Indore, Madhya Pradesh, was divorced by her husband in 1978. She filed a criminal suit in the Supreme Court of India, in which she won the right to alimony from her husband. However, some Muslim politicians mounted a campaign for the verdict's nullification. The judgement in favour of the woman in this case evoked criticisms among Muslims, some of whom cited the Qur'an to show that the judgement was in conflict with Islamic law. It triggered controversy about the extent of having different civil codes for different religions in India.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The case caused the Congress government, with its absolute majority, to pass the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, which diluted the judgment of the Supreme Court and restricted the right of Muslim divorcées to alimony from their former husbands for only 90 days after the divorce (the period of "iddah" in Islamic law). However, in later judgements including the "Danial Latifi v. Union of India" case and "Shamima Farooqui v. Shahid Khan", the Supreme Court of India interpreted the act in a manner reassuring the validity of the case and consequently upheld the Shah Bano judgement, and The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 was nullified. Some Muslims, including the All India Shia Personal Law Board, supported the Supreme Court's order to make the right to maintenance of a divorced Muslim wife absolute.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: In 1932, Shah Bano, a Muslim woman, was married to Mohammed Ahmad Khan, an affluent and well-known advocate in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, and had five children from the marriage. After 14 years, Khan took a younger woman as his second wife. Then after years of living with both wives, he divorced Shah Bano when she was 62 years old. In April 1978, when Khan stopped giving her the 200 per month he had apparently promised, claiming that she had no means to support herself and her children, she filed a criminal suit at a local court in Indore, against her husband under section 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, asking him for a maintenance amount of 500 for herself and her children. In November 1978 her husband gave an irrevocable talaq (divorce) to her which was his prerogative under Islamic law and took up the defence that hence Bano had ceased to be his wife and therefore he was under no obligation to provide maintenance for her as except prescribed under the Islamic law which was in total 5,400. In August 1979, the local court directed Khan to pay a sum of 25 per month to Bano by way of maintenance. On 1 July 1980, on a revisional application of Bano, the High Court of Madhya Pradesh enhanced the amount of maintenance to 179.20 per month. Khan then filed a petition to appeal before the Supreme Court claiming that Shah Bano is not his responsibility anymore because Mr. Khan had a second marriage which is also permitted under Islamic Law.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: On 3 February 1981, the two judge bench composed of Justice Murtaza Fazal Ali and A. Varadarajan who first heard the matter, in light of the earlier decisions of the court which had held that section 125 of the Code applies to Muslims also, referred Khan's appeal to a larger Bench. Muslim bodies All India Muslim Personal Law Board and Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind joined the case as intervenor. The matter was then heard by a five-judge bench composed of Chief Justice Chandrachud, Rangnath Misra, D. A. Desai, O. Chinnappa Reddy, and E. S. Venkataramiah. On 23 April 1985, Supreme Court in a unanimous decision, dismissed the appeal and confirmed the judgment of the High Court.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: Supreme Court concluded that "there is no conflict between the provisions of section 125 and those of the Muslim Personal Law on the question of the Muslim husband's obligation to provide maintenance for a divorced wife who is unable to maintain herself." After referring to the Quran, holding it to the greatest authority on the subject, it held that there was no doubt that the Quran imposes an obligation on the Muslim husband to make provision for or to provide maintenance to the divorced wife. Shah Bano approached the courts for securing maintenance from her husband. When the case reached the Supreme Court of India, seven years had elapsed. The Supreme Court invoked Section 125 of Code of Criminal Procedure, which applies to everyone regardless of caste, creed, or religion. It ruled that Shah Bano be given maintenance money, similar to alimony.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The Court also regretted that article 44 of the Constitution of India in relation to bringing of Uniform Civil Code in India remained a dead letter and held that a common civil code will help the cause of national integration by removing disparate loyalties to laws which have conflicting ideologies.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The "Shah Bano" judgment, as claimed, became the centre of raging controversy, with the press turning it into a major national issue. The Shah Bano judgment elicited a protest from many sections of Muslims who also took to the streets against what they saw, and what they were led to believe, was an attack on their religion and their right to their own religious personal laws.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: Some Muslims felt threatened by what they perceived as an encroachment on the Muslim Personal Law, and protested loudly at the judgment. The spokesmen for some were the Barelvi leader Obaidullah Khan Azmi and Syed Kazi. At the forefront was All India Muslim Personal Law Board, an organization formed in 1973 devoted to upholding what they saw as Sharia (Muslim Personal Law).


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: In the 1984 Indian general election, Indian National Congress had won absolute majority in the parliament. After the "Shah Bano" judgment, many leaders in the Indian National Congress suggested to the Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi that if the government did not enact a law in Parliament overturning the Supreme Court judgement, the Congress would face decimation in the polls ahead.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: In 1986, the Parliament of India passed an act titled The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, that nullified the Supreme Court's judgment in the "Shah Bano" judgment. Diluting the Supreme Court judgment, the act allowed maintenance to a divorced woman only during the period of iddat, or till 90 days after the divorce, according to the provisions of Islamic law. This was in stark contrast to Section 125 of the Code. The 'liability' of husband to pay the maintenance was thus restricted to the period of the iddat only."


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The "Statement of Objects and Reasons" of the act stated that "the Shah Bano decision had led to some controversy as to the obligation of the Muslim husband to pay maintenance to the divorced wife and hence opportunity was therefore taken to specify the rights which a Muslim divorced woman is entitled to at the time of divorce and to protect her interests."


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The law received severe criticism from several sections of the society. The Opposition called it another act of "appeasement" towards the minority community by the Indian National Congress. The All India Democratic Women's Association (AIDWA) organised demonstrations of Muslim women against the move to deprive them of rights that they had hitherto shared with the Hindus.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The Bharatiya Janata Party regarded it as an 'appeasement' of the Muslim community and discriminatory to non-Muslim men and saw it as a "violation of the sanctity of the country's highest court". The 'Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act' was seen as discriminatory as it denied divorced Muslim women the right to basic maintenance which women of other faiths had access to under secular law. Makarand Paranjape sees the overruling of Supreme Court verdict in "Shah Bano case" which happened when the Congress party was in power, as one of the examples of the party's pseudo-secular tactics which allowed "cynical manipulation of religion for political ends". Lawyer and former law minister of India, Ram Jethmalani has termed the act as "retrogressive obscurantism for short-term minority populism". Rajiv Gandhi's colleague Arif Mohammad Khan who was INC member and a minister in Gandhi's cabinet resigned from the post and party in protest.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: Critics of the Act point out that while divorce is within the purview of personal laws, maintenance is not, and thus it is discriminatory to exclude Muslim women from a civil law. Exclusion of non-Muslim men from a law that appears inherently beneficial to men is also pointed out by them. Hindu nationalists have repeatedly contended that a separate Muslim code is tantamount to preferential treatment and demanded a uniform civil code.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The Act has led to Muslim women receiving a large, one-time payment from their husbands during the period of "iddat", instead of a maximum monthly payment of 500 – an upper limit which has since been removed. Cases of women getting lump sum payments for lifetime maintenance are becoming common. However it is seen that despite its unique feature of no ceiling on quantum of maintenance, the Act is sparingly used because of the lack of its knowledge even among lawyers. The legal fraternity generally uses the CrPC provision while moving maintenance petitions, considering it handy.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The Shah Bano case had once again spurred the debate on the Uniform Civil Code in India. The Hindu Right led by parties like the Jan Sangh in its metamorphosis as the Bharatiya Janata Party, became an advocate for secular laws across the board. However, their opposition to the reforms was based on the argument that no similar provisions would be applied for the Muslims on the claim that they weren't sufficiently advanced. The pressure exerted by orthodox Muslims caused women's organizations and secularists to cave in.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: This case had long term implications. The case became a milestone in Muslim women's fight for equal rights in matters of marriage and divorce in regular courts.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The constitutional validity of The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 was challenged before the Supreme Court in "Danial Latifi & Anr v. Union Of India" by Daniel Latifi in 2001, who was the lawyer of Shah Bano in the Shah Bano case. The Supreme Court tried to maintain a balancing act, attempting to uphold Muslim women's rights without addressing the constitutionality of gender and religious discrimination in personal law. Court reiterated the validity of the Shah Bano judgment. The Muslim Personal Law Board, an intervenor, questioned the authority of the court to interpret religious texts.


title: Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum

text: The Court concluded that the Act does not, in fact, preclude maintenance for divorced Muslim women, and that Muslim men must pay spousal support until such time as the divorced wife remarries. However the Court held that if the Act accorded Muslim divorcees unequal rights to spousal support compared with the provisions of the secular law under section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, then the law would in fact, be unconstitutional. Further the Supreme Court construed the statutory provision in such a manner that it does not fall foul of articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India. The provision in question is Section 3(1)(a) of the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 which states that "a reasonable and fair provision and maintenance to be made and paid to her within the iddat period by her former husband". The Court held this provision means that reasonable and fair provision and maintenance is not limited for the iddat period (as evidenced by the use of word "within" and not "for"). It extends for the entire life of the divorced wife until she remarries.


title: Glossary of anime and manga

text: The following is a glossary of terms that are specific to anime and manga. Anime includes animated series, films and videos, while manga includes graphic novels, drawings and related artwork.


title: Glossary of anime and manga

text: "Note: Japanese words that are used in general (e.g. "oniisan", "kawaii" and "senpai") are not included on this list, unless a description with a reference for notability can be provided that shows how they relate."


title: Luthier

text: A luthier ( ; AmE also ) is a craftsperson who builds or repairs string instruments that have a neck and a sound box. The word "luthier" is originally French and comes from the French word for lute. The term was originally used for makers of lutes, but it came to be used already in French for makers of most bowed and plucked stringed instruments such as members of the violin family (including violas, cellos, and double basses) and guitars. Luthiers, however, do not make harps or pianos; these require different skills and construction methods because their strings are secured to a frame.


title: Luthier

text: The craft of luthiers, lutherie (rarely called "luthiery", but this often refers to stringed instruments other than those in the violin family), is commonly divided into the two main categories of makers of stringed instruments that are plucked or strummed and makers of stringed instruments that are bowed. Since bowed instruments require a bow, the second category includes a subtype known as a bow maker or archetier. Luthiers may also teach string-instrument making, either through apprenticeship or formal classroom instruction.


title: Luthier

text: Early producers of lutes, archlutes, theorbos and vihuelas include the Tieffenbrucker family, Martin Hoffmann and Matteo Sellas.


title: Luthier

text: Two luthiers of the early 19th century connected with the development of the modern classical guitar are Louis Panormo and Georg Staufer. Antonio Torres Jurado is credited with developing the form of classical guitar still in use. C.F. Martin of Germany developed a form that evolved into the modern steel-string acoustic guitar.


title: Luthier

text: The American luthier Orville Gibson specialized in mandolins, and is credited with creating the archtop guitar. The 20th-century American luthiers John D'Angelico and Jimmy D'Aquisto made archtop guitars. Lloyd Loar worked briefly for the Gibson Guitar Corporation making mandolins and guitars. His designs for a family of arch top instruments (mandolin, mandola, guitar, et cetera) are held in high esteem by today's luthiers, who seek to reproduce their sound. C. F. Martin apprenticed to Johann Georg Stauffer, a guitar maker in Vienna, Austria and Martin & Co. was born, with the X bracing being developed in the 1850s. Martin & Co still produce acoustic guitars. Paul Bigsby's innovation of the tremolo arm for archtop and electric guitars is still in use and may have influenced Leo Fender's design for the Stratocaster solid-body electric guitar, as well as the Jaguar and Jazzmaster. Concurrent with Fender's work, guitarist Les Paul independently developed a solid-body electric guitar. These were the first fretted, solid-body electric guitars—though they were preceded by the cast aluminum "frying pan", a solid-body electric lap steel guitar developed and eventually patented by George Beauchamp, and built by Adolph Rickenbacher.


title: Luthier

text: A company founded by luthier Friedrich Gretsch and continued by his son and grandson, Fred and Fred, Jr., originally made banjos, but now mainly produce electric guitars.


title: Luthier

text: Bowed instruments include: cello, crwth, double bass, erhu, fiddle, hudok, morin khuur, nyckelharpa, hurdy-gurdy, rabab, rebec, sarangi, viol (viola da gamba), viola, viola da braccio, viola d'amore, and violin.


title: Luthier

text: The purported inventor of the violin is Andrea Amati. Amati was originally a lute maker, but turned to the new instrument form of violin in the mid-16th century. He was the progenitor of the Amati family of luthiers active in Cremona, Italy until the 18th century. Andrea Amati had two sons. His eldest was Antonio Amati ("circa" 1537–1607), and the younger, Girolamo Amati ("circa" 1561–1630). Girolamo is better known as Hieronymus, and together with his brother, produced many violins with labels inside the instrument reading "A&H". Antonio died having no known offspring, but Hieronymus became a father. His son Nicolò (1596–1684) was himself a master luthier who had several apprentices of note, including Antonio Stradivari (probably), Andrea Guarneri, Bartolomeo Pasta, Jacob Railich, Giovanni Battista Rogeri, Matthias Klotz, and possibly Jacob Stainer and Francesco Rugeri. It is even possible Bartolomeo Cristofori, later inventor of the piano, apprenticed under him (although census data does not support this, which paints this as a possible myth).


title: Luthier

text: Gasparo Duiffopruggar of Füssen, Germany, was once incorrectly credited as the inventor of the violin. He was likely a maker, but no documentation survives, and no instruments survive that experts unequivocally know are his.


title: Luthier

text: Gasparo da Salò of Brescia (Italy) was another early luthier of the violin family. About 80 of his instruments survive, and around 100 documents that relate to his work. He was also a double bass player and son and nephew of two violin players: Francesco and Agosti, respectively.


title: Luthier

text: Da Salò made many instruments and exported to France and Spain, and probably to England. He had at least five apprentices: his son Francesco, a helper named Battista, Alexander of Marsiglia, Giacomo Lafranchini and Giovanni Paolo Maggini. Maggini inherited da Salò's business in Brescia. Valentino Siani worked with Maggini. In 1620, Maggini moved to Florence.


title: Luthier

text: Luthiers born in the mid-17th century include Giovanni Grancino, Vincenzo Rugeri, Carlo Giuseppe Testore, and his sons Carlo Antonio Testore and Paolo Antonio Testore, all from Milan. From Venice the luthiers Matteo Goffriller, Domenico Montagnana, Sanctus Seraphin, and Carlo Annibale Tononi were principals in the Venetian school of violin making (although the latter began his career in Bologna). Carlo Bergonzi (luthier) purchased Antonio Stradivari's shop a few years after the master's death. David Tecchler, who was born in Austria, later worked in both Venice and Rome.


title: Luthier

text: Luthiers from the early 18th century include Nicolò Gagliano of Naples, Italy, Carlo Ferdinando Landolfi of Milan, and Giovanni Battista Guadagnini, who roamed throughout Italy during his lifetime. From Austria originally, Leopold Widhalm later established himself in Nürnberg, Germany.


title: Luthier

text: The early 19th-century luthiers of the Mirecourt school of violin making in France were the Vuillaume family, Charles Jean Baptiste Collin-Mezin, and Collin-Mezin's son, Charles Collin-Mezin, Jr., Honore Derazey, Nicolas Lupot, Charles Macoutel, Charles Mennégand, and Pierre Silvestre.


title: Luthier

text: Nicola Utili (also known as Nicola da Castel Bolognese) (Ravenna, Italy, 1888–1962), beside traditional lute works, experimented the making of "pear-shaped" violins.


title: Luthier

text: The Jérôme-Thibouville-Lamy firm started making wind instruments around 1730 at La Couture-Boussey, then moved to Mirecourt around 1760 and started making violins, guitars, mandolins, and musical accessories.


title: Peterborough, Ontario

text: Peterborough ( ) is a city on the Otonabee River in Ontario, Canada, about 125 kilometres (78 miles) northeast of Toronto. According to the 2021 Census, the population of the City of Peterborough was 83,651. The population of the Peterborough Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), which includes the surrounding Townships of Selwyn, Cavan Monaghan, Otonabee-South Monaghan, and Douro-Dummer, was 128,624 in 2021. In 2021, Peterborough ranked 32 among the country's 41 census metropolitan areas according to the CMA in Canada. The current mayor of Peterborough is Jeff Leal.


title: Peterborough, Ontario

text: Peterborough is known as the gateway to the Kawarthas, "cottage country", a large recreational region of the province. It is named in honour of Peter Robinson, an early Canadian politician who oversaw the first major immigration to the area. The city is the seat of Peterborough County.