title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radical Republicans (later also known as "Stalwarts") were a faction within the Republican Party, originating from the party's in 1854, some 6 years before the Civil War, until the Compromise of 1877, which effectively ended Reconstruction. They called themselves "Radicals" because of their goal of immediate, complete, and permanent eradication of slavery, without compromise. They were opposed during the War by the Moderate Republicans (led by President Abraham Lincoln), and by the pro-slavery and anti-Reconstruction Democratic Party. Radicals led efforts after the war to establish civil rights for former slaves and fully implement emancipation. After weaker measures in 1866 resulted in violence against former slaves in the rebel states, Radicals pushed the Fourteenth Amendment and statutory protections through Congress. They opposed allowing ex-Confederate officers to retake political power in the Southern United States, and emphasized equality, civil rights and voting rights for the "freedmen", i.e., former slaves who had been freed during or after the Civil War by the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment.


title: Radical Republicans

text: During the war, Radical Republicans opposed Lincoln's initial selection of General George B. McClellan for top command of the major eastern Army of the Potomac and Lincoln's efforts in 1864 to bring seceded Southern states back into the Union as quickly and easily as possible. Lincoln later recognized McClellan's weakness and relieved him of command. The Radicals passed their own Reconstruction plan through Congress in 1864, but Lincoln vetoed it and was putting his own policies in effect as military commander-in-chief when he was assassinated in April 1865. Radicals pushed for the uncompensated abolition of slavery, while Lincoln wanted to pay slave owners who were loyal to the Union. After the war, the Radicals demanded civil rights for freed slaves, including measures ensuring suffrage. They initiated the various Reconstruction Acts as well as the Fourteenth Amendment and limited political and voting rights for ex-Confederate civil officials and military officers. They keenly fought Lincoln's successor, Andrew Johnson, a slave owner from Tennessee who favored allowing Southern states to decide the rights and status of former slaves. After Johnson vetoed various congressional acts favoring civil rights for former slaves, they attempted to remove him from office through impeachment, which failed by one vote in 1868.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals were heavily influenced by religious ideals, and many were Christian reformers who saw slavery as evil and the Civil War as God's punishment for slavery.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The term "radical" was in common use in the anti-slavery movement before the Civil War, referring not necessarily to abolitionists, but particularly to Northern politicians strongly opposed to the Slave Power. Many and perhaps a majority had been Whigs, such as William H. Seward, a leading presidential contender in 1860 and Lincoln's Secretary of State, Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, as well as Horace Greeley, editor of the "New-York Tribune", the leading Radical newspaper. There was movement in both directions: some of the pre-war Radicals (such as Seward) became less radical during the war, while some prewar moderates became Radicals. Some wartime Radicals had been Democrats before the war, often taking pro-slavery positions. They included John A. Logan of Illinois, Edwin Stanton of Ohio, Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts, Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois and Vice President Andrew Johnson; Johnson would break with the Radicals after he became president.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals came to majority power in Congress in the elections of 1866 after several episodes of violence led many to conclude that President Johnson's weaker reconstruction policies were insufficient. These episodes included the New Orleans riot and the Memphis riots of 1866. In a pamphlet directed to black voters in 1867, the Union Republican Congressional Committee stated:


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals were never formally organized and there was movement in and out of the group. Their most successful and systematic leader was Pennsylvania Congressman Thaddeus Stevens in the House of Representatives. The Democrats were strongly opposed to the Radicals, but they were generally a weak minority in politics until they took control of the House in the 1874 congressional elections. The "Moderate" and "Conservative" Republican factions usually opposed the Radicals, but they were not well organized. Lincoln tried to build a multi-faction coalition, including Radicals, "Conservatives," "Moderates" and War Democrats as while he was often opposed by the Radicals, he never ostracized them. Andrew Johnson was thought to be a Radical when he became president in 1865, but he soon became their leading opponent. However, Johnson was so inept as a politician he was unable to form a cohesive support network. Finally in 1872, the Liberal Republicans, who wanted a return to classical republicanism, ran a presidential campaign and won the support of the Democratic Party for their ticket. They argued that Grant and the Radicals were corrupt and had imposed Reconstruction far too long on the South. They were overwhelmingly defeated and collapsed as a movement.


title: Radical Republicans

text: On issues not concerned with the destruction of the Confederacy, the eradication of slavery and the rights of Freedmen, Radicals took positions all over the political map. For example, Radicals who had once been Whigs generally supported high tariffs and ex-Democrats generally opposed them. Some men were for hard money and no inflation while others were for soft money and inflation. The argument, common in the 1930s, that the Radicals were primarily motivated by a desire to selfishly promote Northeastern business interests, has seldom been argued by historians for a half-century. On foreign policy issues, the Radicals and moderates generally did not take distinctive positions.


title: Radical Republicans

text: After the 1860 elections, moderate Republicans dominated the Congress. Radical Republicans were often critical of Lincoln, who they believed was too slow in freeing slaves and supporting their legal equality. Lincoln put all factions in his cabinet, including Radicals like Salmon P. Chase (Secretary of the Treasury), whom he later appointed Chief Justice, James Speed (Attorney General) and Edwin M. Stanton (Secretary of War). Lincoln appointed many Radical Republicans, such as journalist James Shepherd Pike, to key diplomatic positions. Angry with Lincoln, in 1864 some Radicals briefly formed a political party called the Radical Democracy Party, with John C. Frémont as their candidate for president, until Frémont withdrew. An important Republican opponent of the Radical Republicans was Henry Jarvis Raymond. Raymond was both editor of "The New York Times" and also a chairman of the Republican National Committee. In Congress, the most influential Radical Republicans were U.S. Senator Charles Sumner and U.S. Representative Thaddeus Stevens. They led the call for a war that would end slavery.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radical Republicans opposed Lincoln's terms for reuniting the United States during Reconstruction (1863), which they viewed as too lenient. They proposed an "ironclad oath" that would prevent anyone who supported the Confederacy from voting in Southern elections, but Lincoln blocked it and once Radicals passed the Wade–Davis Bill in 1864, Lincoln vetoed it. The Radicals demanded a more aggressive prosecution of the war, a faster end to slavery and total destruction of the Confederacy. After the war, the Radicals controlled the Joint Committee on Reconstruction.


title: Radical Republicans

text: After the assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln, War Democrat Vice President Andrew Johnson became President. Although he appeared at first to be a Radical, he broke with them and the Radicals and Johnson became embroiled in a bitter struggle. Johnson proved a poor politician and his allies lost heavily in the 1866 elections in the North. The Radicals now had full control of Congress and could override Johnson's vetoes.


title: Radical Republicans

text: After the 1866 elections, the Radicals generally controlled Congress. Johnson vetoed 21 bills passed by Congress during his term, but the Radicals overrode 15 of them, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and four Reconstruction Acts, which rewrote the election laws for the South and allowed blacks to vote while prohibiting former Confederate Army officers from holding office. As a result of the 1867–1868 elections, the newly empowered freedmen, in coalition with carpetbaggers (Northerners who had recently moved south) and Scalawags (white Southerners who supported Reconstruction), set up Republican governments in 10 Southern states (all but Virginia).


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radical plan was to remove Johnson from office, but the first effort at the impeachment trial of President Johnson went nowhere. After Johnson violated the Tenure of Office Act by dismissing Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, the House of Representatives voted 126-47 to impeach him, but the Senate acquitted him in 1868 in three 35-19 votes, failing to reach the 36 votes threshold required for a conviction; by that time, however, Johnson had lost most of his power.


title: Radical Republicans

text: General Ulysses S. Grant in 1865–1868 was in charge of the Army under President Johnson, but Grant generally enforced the Radical agenda. The leading Radicals in Congress were Thaddeus Stevens in the House and Charles Sumner in the Senate. Grant was elected as a Republican in 1868 and after the election he generally sided with the Radicals on Reconstruction policies and signed the Civil Rights Act of 1871 into law.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Republicans split in 1872 over Grant's reelection, with the Liberal Republicans, including Sumner, opposing Grant with a new third party. The Liberals lost badly, but the economy then went into a depression in 1873 and in 1874 the Democrats swept back into power and ended the reign of the Radicals.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals tried to protect the new coalition, but one by one the Southern states voted the Republicans out of power until in 1876 only three were left (Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina), where the Army still protected them. The 1876 presidential election was so close that it was decided in those three states despite massive fraud and illegalities on both sides. The Compromise of 1877 called for the election of a Republican as president and his withdrawal of the troops. Republican Rutherford B. Hayes withdrew the troops and the Republican state regimes immediately collapsed.


title: Radical Republicans

text: During Reconstruction, Radical Republicans increasingly took control, led by Sumner and Stevens. They demanded harsher measures in the South, more protection for the Freedmen and more guarantees that the Confederate nationalism was totally eliminated. Following Lincoln's assassination in 1865, Andrew Johnson, a former War Democrat, became President.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals at first admired Johnson's hard-line talk. When they discovered his ambivalence on key issues by his veto of Civil Rights Act of 1866, they overrode his veto. This was the first time that Congress had overridden a president on an important bill. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 made African Americans United States citizens, forbade discrimination against them and it was to be enforced in Federal courts. The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1868 (with its Equal Protection Clause) was the work of a coalition formed of both moderate and Radical Republicans.


title: Radical Republicans

text: By 1866, the Radical Republicans supported federal civil rights for freedmen, which Johnson opposed. By 1867, they defined terms for suffrage for freed slaves and limited early suffrage for many ex-Confederates. While Johnson opposed the Radical Republicans on some issues, the decisive Congressional elections of 1866 gave the Radicals enough votes to enact their legislation over Johnson's vetoes. Through elections in the South, ex-Confederate officeholders were gradually replaced with a coalition of freedmen, Southern whites (pejoratively called scalawags) and Northerners who had resettled in the South (pejoratively called carpetbaggers). The Radical Republicans were successful in their efforts to impeach United States President Andrew Johnson in the House, but failed by one vote in the Senate to remove him from office.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radicals were opposed by former slaveowners and white supremacists in the rebel states. Radicals were targeted by the Ku Klux Klan, who shot to death one Radical Congressman from Arkansas, James M. Hinds.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The Radical Republicans led the Reconstruction of the South. All Republican factions supported Ulysses Grant for president in 1868. Once in office, Grant forced Sumner out of the party and used Federal power to try to break up the Ku Klux Klan organization. However, insurgents and community riots continued harassment and violence against African Americans and their allies into the early 20th century. By the 1872 presidential election, the Liberal Republicans thought that Reconstruction had succeeded and should end. Many moderates joined their cause as well as Radical Republican leader Charles Sumner. They nominated "New-York Tribune" editor Horace Greeley, who was also nominated by the Democrats. Grant was easily reelected.


title: Radical Republicans

text: By 1872, the Radicals were increasingly splintered and in the Congressional elections of 1874, the Democrats took control of Congress. Many former Radicals joined the "Stalwart" faction of the Republican Party while many opponents joined the "Half-Breeds", who differed primarily on matters of patronage rather than policy.


title: Radical Republicans

text: In state after state in the South, the so-called Redeemers' movement seized control from the Republicans until in 1876 only three Republican states were left: South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. In the intensely disputed 1876 United States presidential election, Republican presidential candidate Rutherford B. Hayes was declared the winner following the Compromise of 1877 (a corrupt bargain): he obtained the electoral votes of those states, and with them the presidency, by committing himself to removing federal troops from those states. Deprived of military support, Reconstruction came to an end. "Redeemers" took over in these states as well. As white Democrats now dominated all Southern state legislatures, the period of Jim Crow laws began, and rights were progressively taken away from blacks.


title: Radical Republicans

text: In the aftermath of the Civil War and Reconstruction, new battles took place over the construction of memory and the meaning of historical events. The earliest historians to study Reconstruction and the Radical Republican participation in it were members of the Dunning School, led by William Archibald Dunning and John W. Burgess. The Dunning School, based at Columbia University in the early 20th century, saw the Radicals as motivated by an irrational hatred of the Confederacy and a lust for power at the expense of national reconciliation. According to Dunning School historians, the Radical Republicans reversed the gains Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson had made in reintegrating the South, established corrupt shadow governments made up of Northern carpetbaggers and Southern scalawags in the former Confederate states, and to increase their power, foisted political rights on the newly freed slaves that they were allegedly unprepared for or incapable of utilizing. For the Dunning School, the Radical Republicans made Reconstruction a dark age that only ended when Southern whites rose up and reestablished a "home rule" free of Northern, Republican, and black influence.


title: Radical Republicans

text: In the 1930s, the Dunning-oriented approaches were rejected by self-styled "revisionist" historians, led by Howard K. Beale along with W.E.B. DuBois, William B. Hesseltine, C. Vann Woodward and T. Harry Williams. They downplayed corruption and stressed that Northern Democrats were also corrupt. Beale and Woodward were leaders in promoting racial equality and re-evaluated the era in terms of regional economic conflict. They were also hostile towards the Radicals, casting them as economic opportunists. They argued that apart from a few idealists, most Radicals were scarcely interested in the fate of the blacks or the South as a whole. Rather, the main goal of the Radicals was to protect and promote Northern capitalism, which was threatened in Congress by the West; if the Democrats took control of the South and joined the West, they thought, the Northeastern business interests would suffer. They did not trust anyone from the South except men beholden to them by bribes and railroad deals. For example, Beale argued that the Radicals in Congress put Southern states under Republican control to get their votes in Congress for high protective tariffs.


title: Radical Republicans

text: The role of Radical Republicans in creating public school systems, charitable institutions, and other social infrastructure in the South was downplayed by the Dunning School of historians. Since the 1950s, the impact of the moral crusade of the Civil Rights Movement led historians to reevaluate the role of Radical Republicans during Reconstruction, and their reputation improved. These historians, sometimes referred to as neoabolitionist because they reflected and admired the values of the abolitionists of the 19th century, argued that the Radical Republicans' advancement of civil rights and suffrage for African Americans following emancipation was more significant than the financial corruption which took place. They also pointed to the African Americans' central, active roles in reaching toward education (both individually and by creating public school systems) and their desire to acquire land as a means of self-support.


title: Radical Republicans

text: Democrats retook power across the South and held it for decades, restricting African American voters and largely extinguishing their voting rights over the years and decades following Reconstruction. In 2004, Richardson argued that Northern Republicans came to see most blacks as potentially dangerous to the economy because they might prove to be labor radicals in the tradition of the 1871 Paris Commune or Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and other violent American strikes of the 1870s. Meanwhile, it became clear to Northerners that the white South was not bent on revenge or the restoration of the Confederacy. Most of the Republicans who felt this way became opponents of Grant and entered the Liberal Republican camp in 1872.


title: Gudetama

text: Gudetama () is a cartoon character from 2013 produced by the Japanese company Sanrio. The character is an anthropomorphized egg yolk whose main traits are laziness and sadness. The name "Gudetama" is derived from the Japanese words for and . Gudetama was created by the Sanrio designer Amy, whose real name is .


title: Gudetama

text: Originally targeted at the preadolescent market, Gudetama gained popularity among teens and adults for being relatable, embodying the difficulties of surviving in modern-day society. As a result, the target group of Gudetama expanded to millennials. As of 2019 Gudetama was Sanrio's third most profitable character. Gudetama featured in an animated morning show in Japan on TBS from 2014 to 2020 and appears in a Netflix show released December 2022. Video games and comics based on the character have also been created. Airplanes and trains have been branded with Gudetama themed decor, and restaurants have served Gudetama themed egg dishes. The character has featured on a variety of merchandise including apparel, stationery and toys.


title: Gudetama

text: Gudetama was created in 2013 by then-26-year-old Sanrio designer Amy, or . The creation of Gudetama was inspired by an egg she was preparing for dinner after a long day at work. To her, the yolk seemed cute because of its droopy demeanor. She felt that the yolk looked like today's young people – feeling tired about life. Therefore, she designed an egg character and built its personality to attract millennials.


title: Gudetama

text: In 2013, Gudetama took part in a food-based competition held by Sanrio to inspire its designers and test out new characters. Gudetama came in second, with the winner of the competition being a cheerful salmon fillet named Kirimichan. Even though Gudetama was initially less popular than Kirimichan, it gained more fans and a higher market value than the salmon character.


title: Gudetama

text: The name "Gudetama" is derived from two parts: the first is the ideophone "gudegude" (), which is used to evoke the impression of something lazy and lacking energy. The second part is from the Japanese word "tamago" () which means egg. Therefore, Gudetama can be translated to English as "lazy egg".


title: Gudetama

text: As for its art style, Gudetama is marked by its simple line drawing, in keeping with the intention of using the character in anime for children, but which also allows easy mass production.


title: Gudetama

text: The first "Gudetama" animated series made its debut appearance in 2014 in a Japanese TBS TV program called , a morning family news section. Each episode of the "Gudetama" series only lasts for approximately one minute, and as of 2017 "Gudetama" had nearly 1000 episodes.


title: Gudetama

text: In Dec 2022, the official Sanrio Gudetama Twitter account had over one million followers, the most followed out of all Sanrio characters. In 2019, Gudetama was Sanrio's third most profitable character, behind Hello Kitty and My Melody.


title: Gudetama

text: Gudetama is normally a yolk of a raw egg with a darker yellow color. It has a head with no neck and a body with limbs, but no fingers or toes. Its eyes are drawn like two ovals, appearing lazy. It has a mouth with a tongue but no obvious teeth. Soy sauce is its favorite food and is one of the few things that can make it motivated. Often depicted laying on an egg white as a bed, while also using bacon as a blanket. Additionally, there are many other depictions of Gudetama corresponding to the various ways of cooking eggs. The character appears as an unpeeled egg, scrambled eggs, a fried egg, a boiled egg, a sliced egg, an egg salad sandwich, eggs benedict, custard, mayonnaise, a century egg, and pastries made with egg.


title: Gudetama

text: Shakipiyo (Japanese: しゃきぴよ) is a chick covered with yellow feathers and wearing an egg shell as pants. An energetic character whose hyperactivity makes Gudetama feel pestered and harangued.


title: Gudetama

text: Two factors can help explain Gudetama's popularity: Japan's kawaii (cute) culture, and the country's particular food culture.


title: Gudetama

text: Gudetama differs from other positive and adorable characters in Japan's kawaii culture, since Gudetama has gross aspects that places it in the kimo-kawaii category (which means "gross-cute" or "creepy-cute"). Gudetama's kimo-kawaii shows through its depression, which causes it to constantly complain about its hard life.


title: Gudetama

text: Gudetama's vocal protestations against its lot in life make it an uncharacteristic hit with the supposedly stoic and hardworking Japanese people. It has been suggested that Gudetama's popularity can be interpreted as signs of millennial disenchantment with work, as well as symptoms of depression. Translator Matt Alt commented that "mascots such as Gudetama is a more nuanced way of expressing oneself than simply verbalizing an emotion or typing it out".


title: Gudetama

text: Japan's popular culture has had earlier characters based on food, including Anpanman, a red bean superhero with an animated series that features various egg-based characters.


title: Gudetama

text: In general, eggs in Japan have a rich social resonance. According to Emi Nagashima, designer of Gudetama, the origin of the character was the start-up breakfast for Japanese workers: tamago kake gohan (raw egg on white rice). It is argued, then, that eggs have rich symbolic and metaphoric potential in terms of the millennial workers that inspired its creation. Gudetama is only the yolk, not the entire egg, implying the selective nature of employment and capitalist valuation, which demands the best of people and discards the rest. Just like eggs, people in today's society are valued for what they can contribute to the society. Therefore, Gudetama has social resonance and has been able to gain popularity.


title: Gudetama

text: A series of animated Gudetama shorts were broadcast on the Japanese channel TBS (Tokyo Broadcasting System) between 2014 and 2020. It aired as part of a morning family news section called . Episodes included a game called "Gudetama Chance!" where the audience used their remote controls to win prizes. Each episode and game segment only lasts for approximately one minute. Up to 2017 there were nearly 1000 episodes.


title: Gudetama

text: The series follows the exploits of Gudetama and a cast of recurring human characters. One such character is , a young man dressed in a yellow suit similar to a zentai suit but with the face exposed, akin to a humanoid Gudetama. The series' short segments end with a rendition of the Gudetama theme song and a contemporary style dance performed by Nisetama-san. There are also special stories about festivals.


title: Gudetama

text: A live action/CG animation hybrid streaming television series called "Gudetama: An Eggcellent Adventure" was released to Netflix worldwide in December 2022, with a total of 10 episodes. The series involves Gudetama and the chick character Shakipiyo searching across Japan for their mother. Shunsuke Takeuchi provides the voice for 24 different egg characters in the series, including Gudetama, while the voice of Shakipiyo is provided by Seiran Fukushima. The theme song is performed by Yuko Hara from the band Southern All Stars.


title: Gudetama

text: There are two Japanese video games with Gudetama on the Nintendo 3DS, released in 2015 and 2016, and a Gudetama-themed Tamagotchi from 2017.


title: Gudetama

text: "Gudetama Tap!" is a mobile game released in 2019 and is a casual game or a collecting game. The game is simple but requires long waiting time, while this game is mainly about use various recipes to cook different kinds of Gudetama. A recipe requires long hours to wait can cook rare Gudetama, and players are aimed to collect all kinds of Gudetama as they can.


title: Gudetama

text: In 2019, Sentosa, an island off the coast of mainland Singapore, got more than 800 Gudetama inflatables which were used to celebrated the annual Sentosa Funset.


title: Gudetama

text: Originally targeted at a preadolescent audience, the Gudetama market has expanded to include millennials, with exports to many countries such as China, Singapore, the UK, and South Korea. Within two years after the introduction of Gudetama, Sanrio has shipped nearly 2000 kinds of themed products in Japan, from pencils to suitcases.


title: Gudetama

text: In November 2016, EVA Air launched a new Sanrio-themed airplane with a Gudetama theme. It is an Airbus A321-200 which can carry 184 passengers: 8 business seats and 176 in economy. It flies between Taiwan and Tokyo. Pillows and chairs are painted with the picture of Gudetama with sunglasses on its hands, illustrating a leisure atmosphere of traveling.


title: Gudetama

text: In 2016, a Korean cosmetics brand called Holika Holika created a Gudetama-themed cosmetics series. There are 11 products in this series, featuring faces of Gudetama on the products.   Gudetama along with other Sanrio characters also appears on skincare products by the Creme Shop.


title: Gudetama

text: There are Gudetama-themed restaurants in Japan, China, Singapore, and London. The restaurants are decorated with the style of Gudetama, serving various egg dishes with the face of Gudetama to the customers. In 2014, Village Vanguard Diner Lumine Machida opened a limited time Gudetama-themed café, offering themed cakes, burgers, pudding, etc.


title: Gudetama

text: In 2016, Shoryu Ramen created a limited edition menu with dishes cooked to look like characters from the Gudetama series. Gudetama's face was painted on the bread of burgers and most of the dishes had egg as an ingredient.


title: Gudetama

text: In March 2016, Stayreal collaborated with Gudetama, and listed a few limited edition T-shirts, caps, cups, masks, etc.


title: Gudetama

text: In April 2019, Stayreal had a second collaboration with Gudetama, adding the female brand Rockcoco. The collaboration was centered around the theme “Lazy is the new busy”.


title: Gudetama

text: In 2018, Seibu Railway created a Gudetama-themed train. This train ran along Shinjuku Line and the Haijima Line from mid-August to November; it was then on the Seibu Ikebukuro Line until the end of December 2018. The entire train was painted yellow, with Gudetama's face featured on the front and back. Inside the train, large Gudetama fixtures were added to the sides of seats and from above the racks.


title: MHC class I

text: MHC class I molecules are one of two primary classes of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules (the other being MHC class II) and are found on the cell surface of all nucleated cells in the bodies of vertebrates. They also occur on platelets, but not on red blood cells. Their function is to display peptide fragments of proteins from within the cell to cytotoxic T cells; this will trigger an immediate response from the immune system against a particular non-self antigen displayed with the help of an MHC class I protein. Because MHC class I molecules present peptides derived from cytosolic proteins, the pathway of MHC class I presentation is often called "cytosolic" or "endogenous pathway".


title: MHC class I

text: Class I MHC molecules bind peptides generated mainly from degradation of cytosolic proteins by the proteasome. The MHC I:peptide complex is then inserted via endoplasmic reticulum into the external plasma membrane of the cell. The epitope peptide is bound on extracellular parts of the class I MHC molecule. Thus, the function of the class I MHC is to display intracellular proteins to cytotoxic T cells (CTLs). However, class I MHC can also present peptides generated from exogenous proteins, in a process known as cross-presentation.


title: MHC class I

text: A normal cell will display peptides from normal cellular protein turnover on its class I MHC, and CTLs will not be activated in response to them due to central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms. When a cell expresses foreign proteins, such as after viral infection, a fraction of the class I MHC will display these peptides on the cell surface. Consequently, CTLs specific for the MHC:peptide complex will recognize and kill presenting cells.


title: MHC class I

text: Alternatively, class I MHC itself can serve as an inhibitory ligand for natural killer cells (NKs). Reduction in the normal levels of surface class I MHC, a mechanism employed by some viruses and certain tumors to evade CTL responses, activates NK cell killing.


title: MHC class I

text: Paired-immunoglobulin-like receptor B (PirB), an MHCI-binding receptor, is involved in the regulation of visual plasticity. PirB is expressed in the central nervous system and diminishes ocular dominance plasticity in the developmental critical period and adulthood. When the function of PirB was abolished in mutant mice, ocular dominance plasticity became more pronounced at all ages. PirB loss of function mutant mice also exhibited enhanced plasticity after monocular deprivation during the critical period. These results suggest PirB may be involved in modulation of synaptic plasticity in the visual cortex.


title: MHC class I

text: MHC class I molecules are heterodimers that consist of two polypeptide chains, α and β-microglobulin (B2M). The two chains are linked noncovalently via interaction of B2M and the α domain. Only the α chain is polymorphic and encoded by a HLA gene, while the B2M subunit is not polymorphic and encoded by the Beta-2 microglobulin gene. The α domain is plasma membrane-spanning and interacts with the CD8 co-receptor of T-cells. The α-CD8 interaction holds the MHC I molecule in place while the T cell receptor (TCR) on the surface of the cytotoxic T cell binds its α-α heterodimer ligand, and checks the coupled peptide for antigenicity. The α and α domains fold to make up a groove for peptides to bind. MHC class I molecules bind peptides that are predominantly 8-10 amino acid in length (Parham 87), but the binding of longer peptides have also been reported.


title: MHC class I

text: The peptides are generated mainly in the cytosol by the proteasome. The proteasome is a macromolecule that consists of 28 subunits, of which half affect proteolytic activity. The proteasome degrades intracellular proteins into small peptides that are then released into the cytosol. Proteasomes can also ligate distinct peptide fragments (termed spliced peptides), producing sequences that are noncontiguous and therefore not linearly templated in the genome. The origin of spliced peptide segments can be from the same protein (cis-splicing) or different proteins (trans-splicing). The peptides have to be translocated from the cytosol into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to meet the MHC class I molecule, whose peptide-binding site is in the lumen of the ER. They have membrane proximal Ig fold


title: MHC class I

text: The peptide translocation from the cytosol into the lumen of the ER is accomplished by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). TAP is a member of the ABC transporter family and is a heterodimeric multimembrane-spanning polypeptide consisting of TAP1 and TAP2. The two subunits form a peptide binding site and two ATP binding sites that face the cytosol. TAP binds peptides on the cytoplasmic side and translocates them under ATP consumption into the lumen of the ER. The MHC class I molecule is then, in turn, loaded with peptides in the lumen of the ER.


title: MHC class I

text: The peptide-loading process involves several other molecules that form a large multimeric complex called the Peptide loading complex consisting of TAP, tapasin, calreticulin, calnexin, and Erp57 (PDIA3). Calnexin acts to stabilize the class I MHC α chains prior to β2m binding. Following complete assembly of the MHC molecule, calnexin dissociates. The MHC molecule lacking a bound peptide is inherently unstable and requires the binding of the chaperones calreticulin and Erp57. Additionally, tapasin binds to the MHC molecule and serves to link it to the TAP proteins and facilitates the selection of peptide in an iterative process called peptide editing, thus facilitating enhanced peptide loading and colocalization.


title: MHC class I

text: Once the peptide is loaded onto the MHC class I molecule, the complex dissociates and it leaves the ER through the secretory pathway to reach the cell surface. The transport of the MHC class I molecules through the secretory pathway involves several posttranslational modifications of the MHC molecule. Some of the posttranslational modifications occur in the ER and involve change to the N-glycan regions of the protein, followed by extensive changes to the N-glycans in the Golgi apparatus. The N-glycans mature fully before they reach the cell surface.


title: MHC class I

text: Peptides that fail to bind MHC class I molecules in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are removed from the ER via the sec61 channel into the cytosol, where they might undergo further trimming in size, and might be translocated by TAP back into ER for binding to a MHC class I molecule.


title: MHC class I

text: MHC class I molecules are loaded with peptides generated from the degradation of ubiquitinated cytosolic proteins in proteasomes. As viruses induce cellular expression of viral proteins, some of these products are tagged for degradation, with the resulting peptide fragments entering the endoplasmic reticulum and binding to MHC I molecules. It is in this way, the MHC class I-dependent pathway of antigen presentation, that the virus infected cells signal T-cells that abnormal proteins are being produced as a result of infection.


title: MHC class I

text: The fate of the virus-infected cell is almost always induction of apoptosis through cell-mediated immunity, reducing the risk of infecting neighboring cells. As an evolutionary response to this method of immune surveillance, many viruses are able to down-regulate or otherwise prevent the presentation of MHC class I molecules on the cell surface. In contrast to cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells are normally inactivated upon recognizing MHC I molecules on the surface of cells. Therefore, in the absence of MHC I molecules, NK cells are activated and recognize the cell as aberrant, suggesting that it may be infected by viruses attempting to evade immune destruction. Several human cancers also show down-regulation of MHC I, giving transformed cells the same survival advantage of being able to avoid normal immune surveillance designed to destroy any infected or transformed cells.


title: MHC class I

text: The MHC class I genes originated in the most recent common ancestor of all jawed vertebrates, and have been found in all living jawed vertebrates that have been studied thus far. Since their emergence in jawed vertebrates, this gene family has been subjected to many divergent evolutionary paths as speciation events have taken place. There are, however, documented cases of trans-species polymorphisms in MHC class I genes, where a particular allele in an evolutionary related MHC class I gene remains in two species, likely due to strong pathogen-mediated balancing selection by pathogens that can infect both species. Birth-and-death evolution is one of the mechanistic explanations for the size of the MHC class I gene family.


title: MHC class I

text: Birth-and-death evolution asserts that gene duplication events cause the genome to contain multiple copies of a gene which can then undergo separate evolutionary processes. Sometimes these processes result in pseudogenization (death) of one copy of the gene, though sometimes this process results in two new genes with divergent function. It is likely that human MHC class Ib loci (HLA-E, -F, and -G) as well as MHC class I pseudogenes arose from MHC class Ia loci (HLA-A, -B, and -C) in this birth-and-death process.


title: Gaullism

text: Gaullism () is a French political stance based on the thought and action of World War II French Resistance leader Charles de Gaulle, who would become the founding President of the Fifth French Republic. De Gaulle withdrew French forces from the NATO Command structure, forced the removal of Allied bases from France, and initiated France's own independent nuclear deterrent programme. His actions were predicated on the view that France would not be subordinate to other nations.


title: Gaullism

text: According to Serge Berstein, Gaullism is "neither a doctrine nor a political ideology" and cannot be considered either left or right. Rather, "considering its historical progression, it is a pragmatic exercise of power that is neither free from contradictions nor of concessions to momentary necessity, even if the imperious word of the general gives to the practice of Gaullism the allure of a programme that seems profound and fully realised". Gaullism is "a peculiarly French phenomenon, without doubt the quintessential French political phenomenon of the 20th century".


title: Gaullism

text: Lawrence D. Kritzman argues that Gaullism may be seen as a form of French patriotism in the tradition of Jules Michelet. He writes: "Aligned on the political spectrum with the right, Gaullism was committed nevertheless to the republican values of the Revolution, and so distanced itself from the particularist ambitions of the traditional right and its xenophobic causes". Furthermore, "Gaullism saw as its mission the affirmation of national sovereignty and unity, which was diametrically opposed to the divisiveness created by the leftist commitment to class struggle".


title: Gaullism

text: Gaullism was nationalistic. In the early post-WWII period, Gaullists advocated for retaining the French Empire. De Gaulle shifted his stance on empire in the mid-1950s, suggesting potential federal arrangements or self-determination and membership in the French Community.


title: Gaullism

text: Since 1969, Gaullism has been used to describe those identified as heirs to de Gaulle's ideas. The Cross of Lorraine, used by the Resistant Free France (1940–1944) during World War II, has served as the symbol of many Gaullist parties and movements, including the Rally of the French People (1947–1955), the Union for the New Republic (1958–1967), or the Rally for the Republic (1976–2002).


title: Gaullism

text: The "fundamental principle" of Gaullism is a "certain idea of France" as a strong state. In his "War Memoirs", de Gaulle describes France as "an indomitable entity, a 'person' with whom a mystical dialogue was maintained throughout history. The goal of Gaullism, therefore, is to give precedence to its interests, to ensure that the voice is heard, to make it respected, and to assure its survival … to remain worthy of its past, the nation must endow itself with a powerful state." Kritzman writes that "the Gaullist idea of France set out to restore the honor of the nation and affirm its grandeur and independence" with de Gaulle seeking to "construct a messianic vision of France's historic destiny, reaffirm its prestige in the world, and transcend the national humiliations of the past." Accordingly, de Gaulle urged French unity over divisive "partisan quarrels" and emphasized French heritage, including both the Ancien Régime and the Revolution. The French political figures most admired by de Gaulle "were those responsible for national consensus—Louis XIV, Napoleon, Georges Clemenceau—who saw as their goal the creation of political and social unity by a strong state."


title: Gaullism

text: In order to strengthen France, Gaullists also emphasize the need for "a strong economy and a stable society." Gaullism believes, according to Berstein, that "it is the imperative of the state, as guardian of the national interest, to give impetus to economic growth and to guide it. Liberal opinion is accepted if it promises more efficiency than planning. As for social justice, so long as its natural distrust of big business can be allayed, it is less a matter of doctrine than a means of upholding stability. To put an end to class struggle, Gaullists hope to make use of participation, a nineteenth-century concept of which the general spoke frequently, but which he allowed his associates to ignore."


title: Gaullism

text: As part of a strong state, de Gaulle highlighted the necessity to found state institutions on a strong executive, contrasting with the French republican tradition, which emphasized the role of the elected assembly. During his time in office, de Gaulle sought to establish authority by holding direct universal votes and popular referendums and by directly engaging with the nation (via speeches broadcast over radio, press conferences, and trips to the provinces). Even though he frequently spoke on his respect for democracy, his political opponents perceived in his rule a tendency toward dictatorial power; many feared a Bonapartist revival or a republican monarchy. France remained a democracy, however, and de Gaulle's decision to step down as president following voters' rejection of the April 1969 constitutional referendum showed that his commitment to democratic principles was not merely a rhetorical ploy.


title: Gaullism

text: In foreign policy, Gaullists are identified with both realism and French exceptionalism, and de Gaulle sought to impose French influence on the global order. Gaullists supported decolonization, which freed France from the burden of empire. This was reflected in de Gaulle's resolution of the Algeria crisis (1958–62), which was strongly influenced by de Gaulle's realpolitik, or "keen sense of political expediency." Realizing that decolonization was inevitable, and that a continued crisis and extended Algerian War would harm the French economy and perpetuate national disunity, "de Gaulle felt that it was in France's best interests to grant independence and desist from military engagement," thereby preserving French unity and grandeur.


title: Gaullism

text: Gaullists emphasize the need for France to "guarantee its national independence without resorting to allies whose interests might not coincide with those of France." The development of independent French nuclear capability, undertaken at significant effort despite much international criticism, was an outgrowth of this worldview. However, de Gaulle simultaneously initiated one of the first international nonproliferation efforts by quietly unshackling and distancing the French program from a diplomatically troublesome secret involvement with an Israeli junior partner, attempting to demilitarize and open to international oversight the Israeli nuclear arms program.


title: Gaullism

text: France under de Gaulle sought to avoid a post-World War II bipolar global political order dominated by the two superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union, and sought to avoid dependence on the United States. Kritzman writes: "Gaullist foreign policy was motivated by its need to distinguish itself from … the two great superpowers. Paradoxically, [de Gaulle] desired to be part of the Western alliance and be critical of it at the same time on key issues such as defense." Most notably, de Gaulle withdrew France from North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military operations in 1966, and directed non-French NATO troops to leave France, although France remained a NATO member. Gaullists were also critical of the overseas economic influence of the U.S. and the role of the U.S. dollar in the international monetary system. Under de Gaulle, France established diplomatic relations with China earlier than most other Western nations; imposed an arms embargo against Israel (1967); and denounced American imperialism in the Third World.


title: Gaullism

text: De Gaulle and the Gaullists did not support Europe as a supranational entity, but did favour European integration in the form of "a confederation of sovereign states mutually engaged in "common policy, autonomous from the superpowers," and significantly influenced by France. De Gaulle's hopes to advance this sort of union largely failed, however, "in the face of the desire of the other European powers to remain closely allied to the United States."


title: Gaullism

text: De Gaulle's political legacy has been profound in France and has gradually influenced the entirety of the political spectrum. His successor as president, Georges Pompidou, consolidated Gaullism during his term from 1969 to 1974. Once-controversial Gaullist ideas have become accepted as part of the French political consensus and "are no longer the focus of political controversy." For instance, the strong presidency was maintained by all of de Gaulle's successors, including the socialist François Mitterrand (1981–1995). French independent nuclear capability and a foreign policy influenced by Gaullism–although expressed "in more flexible terms"–remains "the guiding force of French international relations." During the 2017 presidential election, de Gaulle's legacy was claimed by candidates ranging from the radical left to the radical right, including Jean-Luc Mélenchon, Benoît Hamon, Emmanuel Macron, François Fillon and Marine Le Pen.


title: Gaullism

text: According to Berstein, "It is no exaggeration to say that Gaullism has molded post-war France. At the same time, considering that the essence of Gaullist ideas are now accepted by everyone, those who wish to be the legitimate heirs of de Gaulle (e.g., Jacques Chirac of the RPR) now have an identity crisis. It is difficult for them to distinguish themselves from other political perspectives." Not all Gaullist ideas have endured, however. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, there have been several periods of "cohabitation" (1986–1988, 1993–1995, 1997–2002), in which the president and prime minister have been from different parties, a marked shift from the "imperial presidency" of de Gaulle. De Gaulle's economic policy, based on the idea of "dirigisme" (state stewardship of the economy), has also weakened. Although the major French banks, as well as insurance, telecommunications, steel, oil and pharmaceutical companies, were state-owned as recently as the mid-1980s, the French government has since then privatized many state assets.


title: Gaullism

text: The term "traditional Gaullism" ("Gaullisme traditionnel") has been used by scholars to describe the core values of Gaullism embodied by the actions and policies of Charles de Gaulle, generally in distinction with other Gaullist currents such as "social Gaullism" and "neo-Gaullism".


title: Gaullism

text: Resistant Gaullism ("Gaullisme de Résistance") emphasizes the need for French political and military independence from potentially hostile powers, inspired by de Gaulle's role in the fight against Nazi Germany and Vichy France during World War II. The term "first-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" ("Gaullisme chiraquien de première génération") has been used to describe politicians loyal to the populist stance and the opposition to European integration and the free market as initially advocated by Jacques Chirac in the late 1970s. This position was embodied in particular by Charles Pasqua and Philippe Séguin, who came to oppose Chirac's shift to neo-Gaullism during the 1990s.


title: Gaullism

text: Social Gaullism (or "left-wing Gaullism") focuses on the social dimensions of Gaullism, and has often been linked by scholars to social democracy. Opposed to the class conflict analysis of Marxism, which was perceived as a threat to national unity, de Gaulle advocated instead a "capital-labour association", that is the need for the direct participation of workers in their company's financial results and management, which he believed was a necessary condition for them to take an interest in its functioning and development. This aspect of Gaullism has been promoted by the Democratic Union of Labour between 1959 and 1967, and by politicians like René Capitant, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, Jean Charbonnel, Léo Hamon, or Jean Mattéoli.


title: Gaullism

text: "Neo-Gaullism" has been used in the literature to describe a movement that emerged after the death of de Gaulle in 1970 and drew more influence from economic liberalism. Many aspects of neo-Gaullism, such as support for the Maastricht Treaty (1992) and French rapprochement with NATO under Chirac's presidency, have been described as difficult to reconcile with the historical idea of Gaullism. However, key components of Gaullism have remained, including the concept of a strong, independent state, the unity of the French people and references to de Gaulle's leadership. Neo-Gaullists have also conserved in some aspects the idea that France has a role to play in containing the world's "hyperpowers", as seen in Chirac's refusal to follow the US in the Iraq War in 2003.


title: Gaullism

text: Pompidolian Gaullism ("Gaullism pompidolien") highlights the need for France to adapt its economy in an increasingly competing world that may threaten social peace at home, in the legacy of French president Georges Pompidou (1969–1974). "Second-generation Chiraquian Gaullism" (or "Chiraquian neo-Gaullism"), which emerged in the mid-1980s, has been influenced by neoliberalism and is more open to European integration, in the legacy of French president Jacques Chirac (1995–2007).


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: Ronald Clark O'Bryan (October 19, 1944 – March 31, 1984), nicknamed The Candy Man and The Man Who Killed Halloween, was an American man convicted of killing his eight-year-old son Timothy (April 5, 1966 – October 31, 1974) on Halloween 1974 with a potassium cyanide-laced Pixy Stix that was ostensibly collected during a trick or treat outing. O'Bryan poisoned his son in order to claim life insurance money to ease his own financial troubles, as he was $100,000 in debt. O'Bryan also distributed poisoned candy to his daughter and three other children in an attempt to cover up his crime; however, neither his daughter nor the other children ate the poisoned candy. He was convicted of capital murder in June 1975 and sentenced to death. He was executed by lethal injection in March 1984.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: O'Bryan lived with his wife, Daynene, in Deer Park, Texas, with their son Timothy and daughter Elizabeth (born 1969). O'Bryan worked as an optician at Texas State Optical in Sharpstown, Houston. He was a deacon at the Second Baptist Church, where he sang in the choir and ran a local bus program.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: On October 31, 1974, O'Bryan took his two children trick-or-treating in a Pasadena, Texas, neighborhood. O'Bryan's neighbor and his two children accompanied them. After visiting a home where the occupant failed to answer the door, the children grew impatient and ran ahead to the next home while O'Bryan stayed behind. He eventually caught up with the group and produced five Pixy Stix, which he would later claim he was given from the occupant of the house that had not answered the door. At the end of the evening, O'Bryan gave each of his neighbor's two children a Pixy Stix and one each to Timothy and Elizabeth. Upon returning home, O'Bryan gave the fifth Pixy Stix to a 10-year-old boy whom he recognized from his church.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: Before bed, Timothy asked to eat some of the candy he collected, and according to Ronald, he chose the Pixy Stix. Timothy had trouble getting the powdered candy out of the straw so O'Bryan helped him loosen the powder. After tasting the candy, Timothy complained that it tasted bitter. O'Bryan then gave his son Kool-Aid to wash away the taste. Timothy immediately began to complain that his stomach hurt and ran to the bathroom where he began vomiting and convulsing. O'Bryan later claimed he held Timothy while he was vomiting and the child went limp in his arms. Timothy O'Bryan died en route to the hospital less than an hour after consuming the candy.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: Timothy's death from poisoned Halloween candy raised fear in the community. Numerous parents in Deer Park and the surrounding area turned in candy their children got from trick or treating to the police, fearing it was laced with poison. The police did not initially suspect O'Bryan of any wrongdoing until Timothy's autopsy revealed that the Pixy Stix he had consumed was laced with a fatal dose of potassium cyanide. Four of the five Pixy Stix O'Bryan claimed to have received were recovered by authorities from the other children, none of whom had consumed the candy. The parents of the fifth child became hysterical when they could not locate the candy after being notified by the police. The parents rushed upstairs to find their son asleep, holding the unconsumed candy. The boy had been unable to open the staples that sealed the wrapper shut. All five of the Pixy Stix had been opened, with the top refilled with cyanide powder and resealed with a staple. According to a pathologist who tested the Pixy Stix, the candy consumed by Timothy contained enough cyanide to kill two adults, while the other four candies contained enough to kill three to four adults.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: O'Bryan initially told police that he could not remember which house he got the Pixy Stix from. Police became suspicious because O'Bryan and his neighbor had only taken their children to homes on two streets because it had been raining. Their suspicions increased after learning that none of the homes they visited had given out Pixy Stix. After walking the neighborhood with police three times, O'Bryan led them to the home where no one had answered the door. O'Bryan claimed that he went back there before catching up with the group. He said the owner of the home did not turn the lights on, but did crack the door open and hand him five Pixy Stix. He claimed to have only seen the man's arm, which he described as "hairy". The home was owned by a man named Courtney Melvin. Melvin was an air traffic controller at William P. Hobby Airport and did not get home from work until 11 p.m. on Halloween night. Police ruled Melvin out as a suspect when over 200 people confirmed that he had been at work.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: As their investigation progressed, police learned that Ronald O'Bryan was over in debt and had a history of being unable to hold a job. In the ten years preceding the crime, O'Bryan had held 21 jobs. At the time of his arrest, he was suspected of theft at his job at Texas State Optical and was close to being fired. His car was about to be repossessed, he had defaulted on several bank loans, and the family home had been foreclosed on. Police discovered that O'Bryan had taken out life insurance policies on his children in the months preceding Timothy's death. In January 1974, he had taken out life insurance policies on both of his children. One month before Timothy's death, O'Bryan took out additional $20,000 policies on both children, despite the objections of his life insurance agency. In the days preceding Timothy's death, O'Bryan had taken out yet another $20,000 policy on each child. The various policies totaled approximately $60,000. O'Bryan's wife maintained that she did not know about the insurance policies on her children's lives. Police also learned that on the morning after Timothy's death, O'Bryan had called his insurance company to inquire about collecting the policies he had taken out on his son. After learning that O'Bryan had visited a chemical supply store in Houston to buy cyanide shortly before Halloween 1974 (he left without purchasing anything after learning the smallest amount available to purchase was five pounds), police began to suspect that Ronald O'Bryan had laced the candies with poison in an effort to kill his children to collect on their life insurance policies. They believed he gave the other children poisoned candy in an effort to cover up his crime. Police repeatedly questioned O'Bryan but he maintained his innocence.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: Although police never discovered when or where O'Bryan bought the poison, he was arrested for Timothy's murder on November 5, 1974. He was indicted on one count of capital murder and four counts of attempted murder. O'Bryan entered a plea of not guilty to all five counts. O'Bryan's trial began in Houston on May 5, 1975. During the trial, a chemist who was acquainted with O'Bryan testified that in summer 1973, O'Bryan contacted him asking about cyanide and how much would be fatal. A chemical supply salesman also testified that O'Bryan had asked him how to purchase cyanide. Friends and co-workers testified that in the months before Timothy's death, O'Bryan showed an "unusual interest" in cyanide and spoke about how much it would take to kill a person. O'Bryan's sister-in-law and brother-in-law testified that on the day of Timothy's funeral, he spoke of using the money from Timothy's insurance policy to take a long vacation and buy other items. As well, his wife rejected the claim that Timothy chose the Pixy Stix, stating that O'Bryan had, in fact, forced him to choose the Stix. O'Bryan continued to maintain his innocence. His defense mainly drew upon the decades-old urban legend concerning a "mad poisoner" who hands out Halloween candy laced with poison or needles or candy apples with razor blades inserted. These stories have persisted despite the fact that there are no documented instances of strangers poisoning Halloween candy.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: The case and subsequent trial garnered national attention and the press dubbed O'Bryan "The Candyman".


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: On June 3, 1975, a jury took 46 minutes to find O'Bryan guilty of capital murder and four counts of attempted murder. The jury took 71 minutes to sentence him to death by electrocution. Shortly after he was convicted, his wife filed for divorce. She later remarried and her new husband adopted her daughter Elizabeth.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: At the time, men sentenced to death under Texas law were confined to the Ellis I Unit near Huntsville, Texas. According to Reverend Carroll Pickett, a former chaplain who worked for the Texas Department of Criminal Justice, O'Bryan was shunned and despised by his fellow death row inmates for killing his child and was "absolutely friendless". The inmates reportedly petitioned to hold an organized demonstration on O'Bryan's execution date to express their hatred of him.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: O'Bryan's first execution date was set for August 8, 1980. His attorney successfully petitioned for a stay of execution. A second date was scheduled for May 25, 1982. That date was also postponed. Judge Michael McSpadden scheduled a third execution date for October 31, 1982, the eighth anniversary of the crime, and he offered to personally drive O'Bryan to the death chamber. It was to have been the first time Texas executed an inmate by lethal injection. The Supreme Court delayed the date yet again to give O'Bryan a chance to pursue an appeal to seek a new trial. A fourth date was scheduled for March 31, 1984. O'Bryan's lawyer sought a fourth stay on the basis that lethal injection was a "cruel and unusual punishment". On March 28, a federal judge rejected the request. On March 31, 1984, shortly after midnight, O'Bryan was executed by lethal injection at the Huntsville Unit. His last meal consisted of T-bone steak (medium to well done), french fries and ketchup, whole kernel corn, sweet peas, lettuce and tomato salad with egg and french dressing, iced tea, sweetener, saltines, Boston cream pie, and rolls.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: O'Bryan last words were "What is about to transpire in a few moments is wrong! However, we as human beings do make mistakes and errors. This execution is one of those wrongs yet doesn’t mean our whole system of justice is wrong. Therefore, I would forgive all who have taken part in any way in my death. Also, to anyone I have offended in any way during my 39 years, I pray and ask your forgiveness, just as I forgive anyone who offended me in any way. And I pray and ask God’s forgiveness for all of us respectively as human beings. To my loved ones, I extend my undying love. To those close to me, know in your hearts I love you one and all. God bless you all and may God’s best blessings be always yours. Ronald C. O’Bryan P.S. During my time here, I have been treated well by all T.D.C. personnel." During the execution, a crowd of 300 demonstrators gathered outside the prison cheered while some yelled "Trick or treat!" Others showered anti-death penalty demonstrators with candy.


title: Ronald Clark O'Bryan

text: Ronald O'Bryan is buried in Forest Park East Cemetery in Webster, Texas. Timothy is buried in Forest Park Lawndale Cemetery in Houston.


title: I Origins

text: I Origins is a 2014 American science fiction romantic drama film written and directed by Mike Cahill. The independent production premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival on , 2014. It is distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures, and opened in limited release on , 2014. It won the Best Feature Length Film Award at the Festival Internacional de Cinema Fantàstic de Catalunya on October 11, 2014.


title: I Origins

text: A Ph.D. student, Ian Gray, is researching the evolution of the eye with research partner, Kenny, and first-year lab assistant, Karen. At a Halloween party Gray encounters Sofi, a young woman masked with only hazel-speckled, ash-blue eyes visible. She later leads him into the washroom to have sex before abruptly leaving.


title: I Origins

text: Mysterious synchronicities, like the recurring number 11, guide Gray to a billboard on which he recognizes Sofi's eyes. Eventually he sees her on a train. They begin a relationship although his rationalism clashes with her fey spirituality. One day they spontaneously agree to marry but must wait a day for a license. Disappointed, they walk out of the registry office. Ian gets a call from Karen. She has found a blind worm—"Eisenia fetida"—with the DNA necessary to develop an eye. Ian takes Sofi to the lab with him.


title: I Origins

text: Karen leaves while Sofi is upset by the research they are doing. Ian accidentally splashes his eyes with formaldehyde. They call Karen, who administers first aid. Sofi takes Ian home. On the way up, Sofi's lower half is chopped off in an elevator accident.


title: I Origins

text: The film flashes forward seven years. Ian has written an eye evolution book and is now married to pregnant Karen. When their baby is born, the hospital takes an iris scan of baby Tobias' eyes. The results are entered in the database and the program identifies the baby as a certain Paul Edgar Dairy. The nurse re-enters the results, thinking it is a glitch, and the problem disappears. A few months later, a Dr. Simmons calls, recommending further testing the baby. The test involves seemingly random photographs. Ian and Karen become suspicious. He tracks some pictures from the test to Idaho and the family of Paul Edgar Dairy, who had died just before their baby was conceived.


title: I Origins

text: Kenny is now creator of the iris scan database used to store Tobias' scan, and Kenny reveals that Dr. Simmons is in fact one of only five people with full access to the database. As a test, he helps Ian and Karen run some photos of deceased family members, plus various other people's eyes through the database to see if there are any other recent matches. They get a hit for Sofi, whose iris scan matches one made in India just three months prior, years after Sofi's death.


title: I Origins

text: Ian goes to India to find the subject of this scan, an orphan girl named Salomina. With help from Priya Varma, he spends weeks searching and putting up billboards. Eventually he finds the little girl staring at the billboard. He takes Salomina back to his hotel and contacts Karen over Skype. The two of them conduct a simple test designed to reveal if Salomina might be somehow linked with Sofi's memories. The results match the probable range of random chance, with a 44% success score. Feeling somewhat disheartened, Ian intends to take Salomina to Priya. But when they reach the elevator, the moment the doors open Salomina panics and throws herself into his arms, too frightened to enter. Staring into each other's eyes with a certain recognition, they then cling to each other, tears streaming down both their faces. He picks her up and takes her down the stairs instead, with Salomina tightly gripping his neck, till they walk from the dark interior and step out into the light.


title: I Origins

text: A post-credits scene shows Dr. Simmons scanning the irises of famous deceased figures finding many such matches.


title: I Origins

text: "I Origins" was the second feature film by writer-director Mike Cahill after his earlier independent science fiction-drama, "Another Earth" (2011), also with actress Brit Marling. Cahill sold the film rights to "Another Earth" to Fox Searchlight Pictures at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival. At that time he also sold a screenplay to what would be his next feature film titled "I". Though during the development of "I", after failing to "crack" some aspects of the story, Cahill instead decided to make an origin story for the film, in which he had a "rich back story for".


title: I Origins

text: Although Fox Searchlight owned the rights to any prequels or sequels to the "I" script, Cahill decided to make "I Origins" independently. He intended to sell the film at the Sundance Film Festival, like he did for "Another Earth". Fox Searchlight agreed and the film was produced by Verisimilitude and WeWork Studios in association with Bersin Pictures and Penny Jane Films. After the premiere of "I Origins" at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival, Fox Searchlight ended up buying the rights to the film.


title: I Origins

text: "I Origins" premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival on , 2014. After its premiere, Fox Searchlight Pictures bought rights to worldwide distribution of the film. The film won the festival's Alfred P. Sloan Prize, which recognizes films that depict science and technology. The win was Cahill's second; his film "Another Earth" also won the prize in 2011. "I Origins" also screened at the Brooklyn-based BAMcinemaFest and at the Nantucket Film Festival, both in late June 2014.


title: I Origins

text: "I Origins" began its limited theatrical release on , 2014 in just four theaters. The following week, it expanded to 76 theaters.


title: I Origins

text: "I Origins" received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 53%, based on 100 reviews, with a weighted average score of 6/10. The site's consensus states: "Writer-director Mike Cahill remains an intriguingly ambitious talent, but with the uneven sci-fi drama "I Origins", his reach exceeds his grasp". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Jordan Zakarin, of entertainment and media news website TheWrap, said that "The movie starts as a love story and then morphs into a thriller, propelled always by the push and pull of faith and logic, with tragedy shifting world views over time". He continued, saying that "The message is both micro and macro, aimed at the renewed war in the United States over issues like science education and contraception, as well as Cahill's way of working out his own mixed emotions".


title: I Origins

text: "I Origins" was developed as a prequel to "I", a screenplay which Cahill sold to Fox Searchlight Pictures in 2011. Cahill intended for "I" to take place twenty years after the event of "I Origins", after the repercussions of Dr. Ian Gray’s discoveries take hold, as teased in the post-credits of the film.


title: I Origins

text: During press interviews for the film, Cahill spoke of plans to go ahead with a sequel to "I Origins", saying "There's a sequel in the works. It's not scripted. We're not in production yet, but we set up at Fox Searchlight".


title: Upper Egypt

text: Upper Egypt ( "", shortened to , , ; ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the lands on both sides of the Nile that extend upriver from Lower Egypt in the north to Nubia in the south.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In ancient Egypt, Upper Egypt was known as "tꜣ šmꜣw", literally "the Land of Reeds" or "the Sedgeland".


title: Upper Egypt

text: It is believed to have been united by the rulers of the supposed Thinite Confederacy who absorbed their rival city states during the Naqada III period (c. 3200–3000 BC), and its subsequent unification with Lower Egypt ushered in the Early Dynastic period. Upper and Lower Egypt became intertwined in the symbolism of pharaonic sovereignty such as the Pschent double crown. Upper Egypt remained as a historical region even after the classical period.


title: Upper Egypt

text: Upper Egypt is between the Cataracts of the Nile beyond modern-day Aswan, downriver (northward) to the area of El-Ayait, which places modern-day Cairo in Lower Egypt. The northern (downriver) part of Upper Egypt, between Sohag and El-Ayait, is also known as Middle Egypt.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In Arabic, inhabitants of Upper Egypt are known as Sa'idis and they generally speak Sai'idi Egyptian Arabic.


title: Upper Egypt

text: The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen. The patron deity was the goddess Nekhbet, depicted as a vulture.


title: Upper Egypt

text: By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. Shortly thereafter, Egypt began to grow and increase in complexity. A new and distinctive pottery appeared, related to the Levantine ceramics, and copper implements and ornaments became common. Mesopotamian building techniques became popular, using sun-dried adobe bricks in arches and decorative recessed walls.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In Upper Egypt, the predynastic Badari culture was followed by the Naqada culture (Amratian), closely related to the Nubian and other tropical African populations, and the Proto-dynastic kings emerged from the Naqada region. Excavations at Hierakonpolis (Upper Egypt) found archaeological evidence of ritual masks similar to those used further south of Egypt, and obsidian linked to Ethiopian quarry sites.


title: Upper Egypt

text: According to bioarchaeologist Nancy Lovell, the morphology of ancient Egyptian skeletons gives strong evidence that "In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more


title: Upper Egypt

text: S.O.Y. Keita, a biological anthropologist also reviewed studies on the biological affinities of the Ancient Egyptian population and characterised the skeletal morphologies of predynastic southern Egyptians as a "Saharo-tropical African variant". Keita had also added that whilst Egyptian society became more socially complex and biologically varied, the “ethnicity of the Niloto-Saharo-Sudanese origins did not change”.


title: Upper Egypt

text: These cultural advances paralleled the political unification of towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, while the same occurred in the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt. This led to warfare between the two new kingdoms. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the delta and became sole ruler of the two lands of Upper and Lower Egypt, a sovereignty which endured throughout Dynastic Egypt.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In royal symbolism, Upper Egypt was represented by the tall White Crown "Hedjet", the flowering lotus, and the sedge. Its patron deity, Nekhbet, was depicted by the vulture. After unification, the patron deities of Upper and Lower Egypt were represented together as the "Two Ladies", to protect all of the ancient Egyptians, just as the two crowns were combined into a single pharaonic diadem.


title: Upper Egypt

text: Several dynasties of southern or Upper Egyptian origin, which included the 11th, 12th, 17th, 18th and 25th dynasties, reunified and reinvigorated pharaonic Egypt after periods of fragmentation.


title: Upper Egypt

text: For most of Egypt's ancient history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. After its devastation by the Assyrians, the importance of Egypt declined. Under the dynasty of the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of the capital city of Upper Egypt.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In the eleventh century, large numbers of pastoralists, known as Hilalians, fled Upper Egypt and moved westward into Libya and as far as Tunis. It is believed that degraded grazing conditions in Upper Egypt, associated with the beginning of the Medieval Warm Period, were the root cause of the migration.


title: Upper Egypt

text: In the twentieth-century Egypt, the title Prince of the Sa'id (meaning "Prince of Upper Egypt") was used by the heir apparent to the Egyptian throne.


title: Upper Egypt

text: Although the Kingdom of Egypt was abolished after the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the title continues to be used by Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: .hack () is a series of single-player action role-playing video games developed for the PlayStation 2 console by CyberConnect2 and published by Bandai. The four games, ".hack//Infection", ".hack//Mutation", ".hack//Outbreak", and ".hack//Quarantine", all feature a "game within a game", a fictional massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) called "The World" which does not require the player to connect to the Internet. Players may transfer their characters and data between games in the series. Each game comes with an extra DVD containing an episode of ".hack//Liminality", the accompanying original video animation (OVA) series which details fictional events that occur concurrently with the games.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The games are part of a multimedia franchise called "Project .hack", which explores the mysterious origins of "The World". Set after the events of the anime series, ".hack//Sign", the games focus on a player character named Kite and his quest to discover why some users have become comatose in the real world as a result of playing "The World". The search evolves into a deeper investigation of the game and its effects on the stability of the Internet.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Critics gave the series mixed reviews. It was praised for its unique setting and its commitment to preserve the suspension of disbelief, as well as the character designs. However, it was criticized for uneven pacing and a lack of improvement between games in the series. The commercial success of the franchise led to the production of ".hack//frägment"—a Japan-only remake of the series with online capabilities—and ".hack//G.U.", another video game trilogy which was released for the PlayStation 2 between 2006 and 2007. A remastered collection of the latter was released for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows in 2017, titled ".hack//G.U. Last Recode". The collection was later released on the Nintendo Switch on March 11, 2022.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: ".hack" simulates an MMORPG; players assume the role of a participant in a fictional game called "The World". The player controls the on-screen player character Kite from a third-person perspective but first-person mode is available. The player manually controls the viewing perspective using the game controller. Within the fictional game, players explore monster-infested fields and dungeons, and "Root Towns" that are free of combat. They can also log off from "The World" and return to a computer desktop interface which includes in-game e-mail, news, message boards, and desktop and background music customization options. The player may save the game to a memory card both from the desktop and within "The World" at a Save Shop. A Data Flag appears on the save file after the player completes the game, allowing the transfer of all aspects of the player character and party members to the next game in the series.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The series is typical of action role-playing games, in which players attack enemies in real time. The game's action pauses whenever the menu is opened to select magic to cast, items to use, or skills to perform. The player directly controls Kite and the other characters are controlled by artificial intelligence. The player may either provide the computer-controlled characters with guidelines ("attack", "first aid", "magic", etc.) or issue direct commands. Most hostile creatures are contained within magic portals and combat will not begin until the player character approaches the portal and releases the monsters inside. Kite possesses a unique ability called "Data Drain" which allows him to transform these enemies into rare items. Many boss monsters are known as "Data Bugs"—enemies with corrupted data which gives them infinite health. Data Drain is used to repair the damaged monsters' data and render them vulnerable but its use increases Kite's level of infection, randomly causing harmful side effects. The infection can be cured by defeating enemies without Data Drain.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Root Towns are non-combat areas of "The World" where the player may restock items, buy equipment, or chat and trade with other players of "The World". In many towns, the player may also raise a sentient, pig-like creature called a Grunty, which can be ridden in fields and in later games raced for prizes. A blue portal called the Chaos Gate is used to travel between towns (called "servers") and to access the fields and dungeons where battles occur. A three-word password system controls the characteristics of each area; attributes such as the prevalence of monsters or items change depending on the properties of each word in the password phrase. Certain plot-related areas have restricted access, but the player character has an ability called "Gate Hacking" which allows him to access these areas using "Virus Cores" obtained through Data Drain.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The ".hack" games are set in an alternate timeline of Earth, in the year 2010. After a computer virus called "Pluto's Kiss" crashes nearly every computer in the world, access to the Internet is closed to the general public to address security concerns. After two years without the Internet and online games, a MMORPG called "The World" is released. It becomes the most popular online game of all time with over 20 million unique players. Shortly before the events portrayed in the ".hack" games, a number of users become comatose as a result of playing "The World". However, the developers blame their condition on cyberterrorism.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: "The World" was developed by a German programmer named Harald Hoerwick; its backstory is based on the "Epitaph of Twilight", an epic poem by Emma Wielant. Her death inspired Hoerwick to create the game. Elements of the poem are coded into the game's programming. The hidden purpose of Hoerwick's game is to develop the ultimate artificial intelligence (AI), which is capable of making decisions for itself. To this end, Hoerwick inserted functions into the system which monitor and extract behavioral data from millions of the game's players to aid in the AI's learning process. After Hoerwick's death, these pieces of code became black boxes to the current developers, who cannot fathom their purpose, yet are critical to the proper functioning of the game.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The main protagonist of ".hack" is Kite, a new player of "The World" whose friend Orca becomes comatose under mysterious circumstances. Kite is joined by nearly twenty other players in his quest to solve the mystery of the coma victims. The players who have the greatest impact on the success of Kite's mission are BlackRose, a fellow newbie to "The World" whose brother is also in a coma; Balmung, a legendary player who seeks to eliminate sources of corruption in the game he loves; and Wiseman, an information broker who becomes a key strategist for Kite's team. Helba, a professional hacker, and Lios, a reluctant system administrator, also aid in Kite's efforts to rescue the coma victims. Two non-human characters play important roles in the story: Aura seeks to complete her growth into the ultimate AI, while Morganna, an AI who rebels against her task of nurturing Aura, acts as the unseen primary antagonist.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: In ".hack//Infection", Kite's friend Orca invites him to play "The World". In the first dungeon they visit, they encounter a girl in white, Aura, being chased by a humanoid monster. Aura tries to entrust Orca with an item called "the Book of Twilight", but the monster attacks him, crashing "The World"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s servers. Kite's player discovers that Yasuhiko, Orca's player, has fallen comatose after the attack, and resolves to discover the cause. Kite meets BlackRose, who takes him to a cathedral where they are attacked by a headless swordsman. The legendary player Balmung appears and defeats it, but the monster revives itself as a Data Bug. The Book of Twilight then activates, altering Kite's character data and giving him the Twilight Bracelet. He uses its Data Drain to correct the swordsman's code, allowing Balmung to kill it. Balmung accuses Kite of causing the viral infection spreading through the game, and leaves. Kite and BlackRose decide to cooperate to help the coma victims. After investigating a number of leads, Kite and BlackRose track down Skeith, the creature that put Orca into a coma. They defeat Skeith. The remnants of Skeith attracts a much larger enemy named Cubia, which defeats Kite and his party. Helba then drives Cubia away.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: In ".hack//Mutation", Kite and BlackRose encounter system administrator Lios, who declares Kite's bracelet to be an illegal hack. He tries to delete Kite's character data, but fails due to Kite's data being encrypted by the Book of Twilight. Helba intervenes, and convinces Lios to observe Kite for the time being. Lios directs them to an area where they find Innis, a monster with powers similar to Skeith's. Upon defeating Innis, Kite receives an e-mail from Aura, who reveals that she is an AI. They travel to an area to meet her; but Cubia attacks them, and they repel the monster with difficulty. Short on leads, they contact Wiseman, who is intrigued by Kite's bracelet. He suggests that Skeith and Innis are based on the "Cursed Wave", an antagonistic force featured in the poem "Epitaph of Twilight", upon which "The World" is based. Wiseman helps grant them access to Net Slum, a place known as a paradise for hackers and wandering AIs. Upon arrival, another Cursed Wave monster called Magus attacks them. They defeat it and return to the Root Town, where they discover that the computer virus has spread to "The World" main servers and into the real world.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: In ".hack//Outbreak", Balmung realizes that he cannot end the situation on his own, and joins Kite's quest. BlackRose tells Kite that her brother became comatose under similar circumstances as Orca, which renews both characters' determination. Wiseman formulates a plan to combat the Cursed Wave, enlisting Helba's assistance. Their teamwork destroys the Wave monster Fidchell, but the aftermath causes networks in the real world to malfunction. Aura contacts Kite again, but their meeting is cut short by Cubia's reappearance. Lios, observing Cubia's power, agrees to join Kite, Helba, and the others to combat the Cursed Wave. In the resulting operation, the team pools their resources to defeat another Wave monster called Gorre, with no repercussions in the real world.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: ".hack//Quarantine" sees the current server becoming increasingly unstable. To fix the problem, Helba replaces it with a copy of the Net Slum. At the bottom of a dungeon, Kite encounters Mia, a member of his party. He discovers that Mia is actually another Cursed Wave monster named Macha, whom he reluctantly defeats. Meanwhile, Cubia grows stronger, and Kite's team barely fends off its latest attack. In contrast, Operation Orca is a success as they destroy Tarvos, the next Wave monster. Kite seeks the advice of Harald Hoerwick, the creator of the game who survives beyond death through his AI incarnations. Aura appears and hints that Cubia is the "shadow" of Kite's Twilight Bracelet. Cubia ambushes them and destroys the AI Harald. In their final battle, Kite recalls Aura's hint and has BlackRose destroy the bracelet, causing Cubia to fade away. Without the bracelet, the final Wave member, Corbenik, ambushes the party in Net Slum Root Town. With the aid of the spirits of the coma victims, Kite penetrates Corbenik's barrier. Aura sacrifices herself to end the battle, restoring the network to normal and reviving all the coma victims.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Development for ".hack" began in early 2000 with the aim of shocking and surprising the player and creating a distinctive product. CyberConnect2's president Hiroshi Matsuyama played a key role in developing the concept for the series. A number of core ideas, including "slaying dragons or being a thief in London" were explored, but these were rejected in favor of an "offline/online game". Matsuyama said that this would give young gamers an opportunity to experience online play without paying monthly fees or needing powerful Internet connections. The developers looked at a number of MMORPGs such as "Phantasy Star Online", "Ultima Online", and "Final Fantasy XI" for inspiration, and drew influences from the prior works of character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto ("Neon Genesis Evangelion") and scenario writer Kazunori Itō ("Ghost in the Shell"). Itō noted that casting the player into the role of a subscriber of "The World" creates a unique story-telling situation which draws the player deeper into the plot.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: From the start of its development, ".hack" was envisioned as a four-part series intended to mirror the four-volume story arcs found in manga. Matsuyama theorized that the act of transferring saved data across the four volumes would help to create a sense of the human drama embodied by the games' story and invest the player into the narrative. The games were developed simultaneously alongside other elements of "Project .hack" such as ".hack//Sign" to emphasize the multimedia aspect of the franchise. The three-month gap between each game's release allowed the developers to make minor changes in response to criticisms. The games were packaged with bonus DVDs featuring episodes of ".hack//Liminality", an original video animation (OVA) series that depicts events that occur concurrently with the games. The developers intended the OVA series to depict fictional events happening in the real world outside the game. Players in Japan who purchased all four games were rewarded with ".hack//Gift", an OVA parodying the ".hack" series. After the completion of the series, the development team produced ".hack//frägment", a game using the same engine as the ".hack" series with an online multiplayer component. The aims of ".hack//frägment" were to allow the developers to watch player interactions in an online environment and to gauge interest in an online ".hack" game.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: By April 2004, the games had sold units in Japan and the United States. By March 2004, sales of the ".hack" games exceeded 1.73 million, with 780,000 copies sold in Japan.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Critics gave the series mixed reviews. ".hack//Infection" received the most positive reviews of the series; critics were intrigued by the games' unique premise. Jeremy Dunham of IGN was impressed by the game's commitment to preserve the illusion of online and praised the character designs and the inclusion of the Japanese voice track, but criticized the camera manipulation and the game's shortness and lack of difficulty. A "Game Informer" reviewer praised the way it captures the sense of community that a real MMORPG offers.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Many reviewers cited the game's unusual setting as the counterbalance to the mediocre gameplay, repetitive environments and poor camera control. Overall, the first game was moderately well received, with reviewers overlooking gameplay flaws because of a compelling story. Christian Nutt of GameSpy awarded if four stars out of five and commended Bandai for breaking new ground and Cyber Connect 2 for providing an engrossing RPG experience. Gary Steinman of "Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine" wrote, "[a]t its core, ".hack" is not a good game", calling the battle systems "wildly unbalanced" and the graphics "spectacularly underwhelming", but said the "mind-bending" story allowed him to look past its obvious flaws and anticipate future games in the series. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot was less forgiving, deriding ".hack//Infection" as a sub-par version of "Kingdom Hearts".


title: .hack (video game series)

text: ".hack//Mutation" also received mixed reviews, and many critics complained that little was done to address the problems of its predecessor. Fennec Fox of Gamepro said that game, "is simply an extension of Infection", with "muddy graphics, questionable control, and a story concept that's just interesting enough to keep you going." Greg Kasavin of GameSpot gave it a rating of 6.7 out of 10 and wrote, "not only does it bring you exactly the same sort of repetitive hack-and-slash gameplay, but it's also similarly short and simple and once again offers little in the way of plot or character development." Nutt found the second game to be more addictive than the first, despite its numerous shortcomings such as obvious padding towards the end of the story. He praised the "mixture of cool story and viscerally engaging RPG gameplay", the accelerating story, gameplay progression and memorable boss battles. Other reviewers were encouraged by the MMORPG-oriented details that contribute to the game's presentation and built excitement for the future of the series. IGN also named ".hack//Mutation" as PlayStation 2 Game of the Month for May 2003.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: ".hack//Outbreak" represented a shift in the critical reception of the series as reviewers grew tired of the incremental or nonexistent improvements between titles. Kasavin rated it 6.4 out of 10, and wrote that it "just doesn't make for a satisfying experience".


title: .hack (video game series)

text: Some critics called the final game, ".hack//Quarantine", a satisfying conclusion to a mediocre series, while others said it is a confusing mess of poor pacing and plot holes. Dunham awarded the game 8.3 out of 10 and called the plot twists "shocking and clever". Kasavin rated it 6.1 out of 10 and wrote that, "[o]n its own merits, Quarantine isn't a bad game, and [loyal players] should find it to have a satisfying conclusion that, sure enough, leaves the possibility for further adventures in The World". He also called Bandai's decision to add 60 to 80 hours of padding to the game, split it into four full-priced products, and release these as a series disappointing. Nutt was similarly disappointed with the final game, awarding it two stars out of five. He wrote that the story was well-presented and excellent, but that it was only present in the game's first and last quarters. He was satisfied by the game's ending and loved its story, style, and characters, but grew tired of the game's "endless chains of chambers, these easily-defeated enemies, this total lack of strategy". The "Game Informer" reviewer hoped to see a more effective implementation of ".hack"s concept in the future. Japanese magazine "Famitsu Weekly" gave the ".hack" games scores in the 29 to 30 out of 40 range, indicating average reviews. However, the Japanese Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association (CESA) honored the series for its combination of different fictional media including games, anime, radio, and manga into a compelling whole at the 2002-2003 CESA Awards.


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The ".hack" video games are part of a multimedia franchise that includes novels, manga, and anime series. Set before the events of the video games, ".hack//Sign" is an anime television series that establishes "The World" as a setting. ".hack//Another Birth" is a series of novels that retells the story of the games from BlackRose's perspective. ".hack//XXXX" is a manga adaptation of the games' story with changes to some elements, such as Cubia acting as a player character. The first official sequel to the games is the manga and anime series ".hack//Legend of the Twilight", which began serializing on July 30, 2002. It tells the story of Shugo and Rena—regular players who win avatars of Kite and BlackRose in a contest—and their exploration of "The World" and its secrets. ".hack//G.U." is a series of video games also released in multiple parts that forms the centerpiece of ".hack Conglomerate", a new project set seven years after the events of "Project .hack" with a new version of "The World".


title: .hack (video game series)

text: The games' soundtrack, titled ".hack//Game Music Perfect Collection", was released as a double album in Japan on April 23, 2003. It features 68 compositions by Chikayo Fukuda, Seizo Nakata, and Norikatsu Fukuda. A special edition of this soundtrack includes a third disc featuring sound effects and clips used in the games. The album was released with fewer tracks in North America as ".hack//Game Music Best Collection". Patrick Gann of RPGFan wrote that the second disc, which contains music for cutscenes and special events, was stronger than the first disc's generic town and battle themes. He called the soundtrack "techno meets opera", singled out the volume intro tracks for particular praise. Gann noted that the North American release functions as a "Best of" album, but felt that "a lot of solid music [is] missing" in this release. Other reviewers were less enthusiastic; Paul Koehler of RPGamer called the music "particularly bland" and IGN's Dunham lamented that the second installment did not introduce many new pieces. However, he concluded that "the melodious piano and oboe themes were still brawny enough to convince us that we needed to buy the soundtrack sometime in the near future".


title: .hack (video game series)

text: ".hack//frägment" is a multiplayer online game based on the fictional MMORPG, "The World". It was released only in Japan on November 23, 2005 and online service ended on January 18, 2007, after being extended two months because of its popularity. "Famitsu Weekly" gave ".hack//frägment" a cumulative score of 29 out of 40 over four reviews, much like its reviews of the main series. The game was never released outside of Japan because it was only intended for a Japanese audience. The game uses a modified version of the engine used in the ".hack" video game series and thus its gameplay differs from those games in a few ways. Players explore areas and fight monsters in real time but the game does not pause when the menu is opened. Due to this change it is now possible to assign items, messages and skills to hotkeys like in many other online games. Players may still use the skill "Data Drain" to weaken monsters and collect rare items. The user interface and control scheme are otherwise mostly unchanged.