title: Cover version

text: This began to change in the late 1930s, when the growing record-buying public began including a younger age group. During the swing era, when a bobby soxer went looking for a recorded tune, say "In the Mood", typically she wanted the version popularized by her favorite artist(s), e.g. the Glenn Miller version (on RCA Victor's cheaper Bluebird label), not someone else's (sometimes presented on a more expensive record company's label). This trend was marked closely by the charting of record sales by the different artists, not just hit tunes, on the music industry's Hit Parades. However, for sound commercial reasons, record companies still continued to record different versions of tunes that sold well. Most audiences until the mid-1950s still heard their favorite artists playing live music on stage or via the radio. And since radio shows were for the most part aimed at local audiences, it was still rare for an artist in one area to reach a mass audience. Also radio stations tended to cater to broad audience markets, so an artist in one vein might not get broadcast on other stations geared to a set audience. So popular versions of jazz, country and western or rhythm and blues tunes, and vice versa, were frequent. Consider "Mack the Knife" ("Die Moritat vom Mackie Messer"): this was originally from Bertolt Brecht's 1928 "Die Dreigroschenoper". It was popularized by a 1956 Hit Parade instrumental tune, "Moritat", for the Dick Hyman Trio, also recorded by Richard Hayman & Jan August, but a hit also for Louis Armstrong 1956/1959, Bobby Darin, 1959, and Ella Fitzgerald, 1960, as vocal versions of "Mack the Knife".


title: Cover version

text: Europe's Radio Luxembourg, like many commercial stations, also sold "air time"; so record companies and others bought air time to promote their own artists or products, thus increasing the number of recorded versions of any tune then available. Add to this the fact that many radio stations were limited in their permitted "needle time" (the amount of recorded music they were allowed to play), or were regulated on the amount of local talent they had to promote in live broadcasts, as with most national stations like the BBC in the UK.


title: Cover version

text: In the US, unlike most countries, broadcasters pay royalties to authors and publishers. Artists are not paid royalties, so there is an incentive to record numerous versions of a song, particularly in different genres. For example, King Records frequently cut both rhythm and blues and country and western versions of novelty songs like "Good Morning, Judge" and "Don't Roll those Bloodshot Eyes at Me". This tradition was expanded when rhythm and blues songs began appearing on pop music charts.


title: Cover version

text: In the early days of rock and roll, many tunes originally recorded by R&B and country musicians were still being re-recorded in a more popular vein by other artists with a more toned-down style or professional polish. This was inevitable because radio stations were reluctant to play formats outside their target audience's taste. By far the most popular style of music in the mid-1950s / mid-1960s was still the professional light orchestra, therefore popular recording artists sought that format.


title: Cover version

text: For many purists these popular versions lacked the raw earthiness of the original introducing artists.


title: Cover version

text: Most did not have the kudos that rebellious teenagers craved, the street credibility — of rock and roll music; most were performed, and some were written, by black artists not heard in popular mass entertainment markets. Most parents considered the bowdlerized popular cover versions more palatable for the mass audience of parents and their children. Artists targeting the white-majority family audience were more acceptable to programmers at most radio and TV stations. Singer-songwriter Don McLean called the cover version a "racist tool". Many parents in the 1950s - 60s, whether intentionally racist or not, felt deeply threatened by the rapid pace of social change. They had, for the most part, shared entertainment with their parents in ways their children had become reluctant to do. The jukebox and the personal record disc player were still relatively expensive pieces of machinery — and the portable radio a great novelty, allowing truculent teenagers to shut themselves off.


title: Cover version

text: Tunes by introducing or "original" niche market artists that became successful on the mass audience Hit Parade charts are called crossovers as they "crossed over" from the targeted country, jazz or rhythm audience. Also, many songs originally recorded by male artists were rerecorded by female artists, and vice versa. Such a cover version is also sometimes called a "cross cover version", "male cover", or "female cover". Incidentally, until the mid-1930s male vocalists often sang the female lyrics to popular songs, though this faded rapidly after it was deemed decadent in Nazi Germany. Some songs such as "If Only for One Night" were originally recorded by female artists but covered by mostly male artists.


title: Cover version

text: Reworking non-English language tunes and lyrics for the Anglo-Saxon markets was once a popular part of the music business. For example, the 1954 worldwide hit The Happy Wanderer was originally "Der fröhliche Wanderer", to this must be added "Hymne a l'amour", "Mutterlein", "Volare", "Seeman", ""Quando, Quando, Quando,"" "L'amour est bleu", etc.


title: Cover version

text: Cover versions of many popular songs have been recorded, sometimes with a radically different style, sometimes virtually indistinguishable from the original. For example, Sir Mix-a-Lot's 1992 rap "Baby Got Back" was covered by indie rock singer Jonathan Coulton in 2005, in an acoustic soft rock style. Coulton's cover was then covered, without attribution, in 2013 by the show "Glee", and was so similar that Coulton, among others, alleged plagiarism of his arrangement and melody. Some producers or recording artists may also enlist the services of a sample replay company such as Titan Tribute Media or Scorccio, in order to replicate an original recording with precision detail and accuracy.


title: Cover version

text: A song may be covered into another language. For example, in the 1930s, a recording of "Isle of Capri" in Spanish, by Osvaldo Fresedo and singer Roberto Ray, is known. Falco's 1982 German-language hit "Der Kommissar" was covered in English by After the Fire, although the German title was retained. The English version, which was not a direct translation of Falco's original but retained much of its spirit, reached the Top 5 on the US charts. "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" evolved over several decades and versions from a 1939 Solomon Linda "a cappella" song. Many of singer Laura Branigan's 1980s hits were English-language covers of songs already successful in Europe, for the American record market. Numerable English-language covers exist of "99 Luftballons" by German singer Nena (notably one by punk band Goldfinger), one having been recorded by Nena herself following the success of her original German version. "Popcorn", a song that was originally completely instrumental, has had lyrics added in at least six different languages in various covers. During the heyday of Cantopop in Hong Kong in the late 1970s to early 1990s, many hits were covers of English and Japanese titles that have gained international fame but with localized lyrics (sometimes multiple sets of lyrics sung to the same tune), and critics often chide the music industry of shorting the tune-composing process.


title: Cover version

text: Although modern cover versions are often produced for artistic reasons, some aspects of the disingenuous spirit of early cover versions remain. In the album-buying heyday of the 1970s, albums of sound-alike covers were created, commonly released to fill bargain bins in the music section of supermarkets and even specialized music stores, where uninformed customers might easily confuse them with original recordings. The packaging of such discs was often intentionally confusing, combining the name of the original artist in large letters with a tiny disclaimer like "as originally sung by" or "as made popular by". More recently, albums such as the Kidz Bop series of compact discs, featuring versions of contemporary songs sung by children, have sold successfully.


title: Cover version

text: In 2009, the American musical comedy-drama television series "Glee" debuted, featuring several musical performances per episode. The series featured solely cover songs performed by the series' titular glee club until near the end of its second season with the episode "Original Song". The series still primarily uses cover songs of both chart hits and show tunes, occasionally as mashups or distinct variations. The show's musical performances have been a commercial success, with over twenty-one million copies of "Glee" cast single releases purchased digitally, and over nine million albums purchased worldwide.


title: Cover version

text: Australian alternative/indie radio station Triple J presents a weekly segment called "Like a Version" in which a band or musician performs one of their own songs as well as a song they love by another artist. Originating in 2004, the popularity of the performances have resulted in the release of annual compilation albums of selected covers and, more recently, votes in the annual Triple J Hottest 100 poll (which has even sparked its own controversy).


title: Cover version

text: On occasion, a cover can become more popular than the original, for instance Jimi Hendrix's version of Bob Dylan's "All Along the Watchtower" became the standard, and Dylan even adjusted his performance style closer to the Hendrix version. Johnny Cash's 2002 cover of "Hurt" by Nine Inch Nails is another example of the cover version eclipsing the original. Besides these, Elvis Presley's version of Carl Perkins' original "Blue Suede Shoes", Santana's 1970 version of Peter Green's and Fleetwood Mac's 1968 "Black Magic Woman", Jeff Buckley's version of Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah", Michael Jackson's version of Yellow Magic Orchestra's "Behind the Mask", Whitney Houston's versions of Dolly Parton's "I Will Always Love You" and of George Benson's "The Greatest Love of All", Gary Jules's version of Tears for Fears's "Mad World", Glenn Medeiros's version of George Benson's "Nothing's Gonna Change My Love for You", Lenny Kravitz's version of The Guess Who's "American Woman", Soft Cell's version of Gloria Jones's "Tainted Love", They Might Be Giants' version of "Istanbul (Not Constantinople)" by The Four Lads, and Sinéad O'Connor's version of "Nothing Compares to You" by Prince, are songs where the cover was more successful than the original.


title: Cover version

text: Cover versions (as the term is now used) are often contemporary versions of familiar songs. For example, "Singin' in the Rain" was originally introduced by Cliff Edwards in the film "The Hollywood Revue of 1929". The famous Gene Kelly version was a revision that brought it up to date for a 1950s Hollywood musical, and was used in the 1952 film "Singin' in the Rain". In 1978, it was covered by French singer Sheila, accompanied by the B. Devotion group, as a disco song, once more updating it to suit the musical taste of the era. During the disco era there was a trend of taking well known songs and recording them in the disco style. More recently "Singin' in the Rain" has been covered and remixed by British act Mint Royale for a television commercial for Volkswagen. Another example of this, from a different angle, is the tune "Blueberry Hill", many mistakenly believe the Fats Domino 1956 release to be the original recording and artist. In fact, it was originally introduced on film by Gene Autry and popularized on the record Hit Parade of 1940 by Glenn Miller. The Fats Domino rock and roll version is the only one that might currently get widespread airplay on most media. Similarly, "Unchained Melody" was originally performed by Todd Duncan, featured in the 1955 film "Unchained" (based on the non-fiction story "Prisoners are People" by Kenyon J. Scudder); Al Hibbler having the biggest number of worldwide record sales for the vocal version with Jimmy Young's cover version rival outdoing this in the UK, Les Baxter's Orchestra gaining the big instrumentalist sales, reaching the US Hit Parade number one spot in May 1955, but the Righteous Brothers' later version (top five on the US Hit Parade of September 1965 stalling at number 14 in the UK in August) is by far the wider known version, and especially so following its appearance in the 1990 film "Ghost". "House of the Rising Sun" has hundreds of versions and in many genres such as folk, blues rock and punk as well as dance and dubstep.


title: Cover version

text: Director Baz Luhrmann has contemporized and stylized older songs for use in his films. New or cover versions such as John Paul Young's "Love Is in the Air" occur in "Strictly Ballroom", Candi Staton's "Young Hearts Run Free" appear in "Romeo + Juliet", and adaptations of artists such as Nat King Cole, Nirvana, Kiss, Elton John, Thelma Houston, Marilyn Monroe, Madonna, T. Rex, David Bowie, Queen, and the Police are used in "Moulin Rouge!". The covers are carefully designed to fit into the structure of each film and suit the taste of the intended audience.


title: Cover version

text: Other artists release new versions of their own songs, like German singer Nena who recorded an entire album with great success, with new versions of older hits. Cover songs can be used to display creativity of a performers work through the talent of another artist's previous production. Not to be confused with a remix, which is defined as altering or distorting the original sound electronically; cover versions give a performer the ability to adapt music to their own style, typically allowing them to change the genre of a song and recreating it to their own taste. For example, in 2008, Fall Out Boy covered Michael Jackson's hit song "Beat It", changing the genre from pop rock to a more punk rock feel. Another example is when My Chemical Romance covered the Bob Dylan track "Desolation Row". This is more common with today's covers, taking older popular music and revamping it to compare with modern popular music. Aretha Franklin's cover of Otis Redding's "Respect" was voted the greatest cover song of all-time, according to Forbes.com.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Prom Night is a 1980 slasher film directed by Paul Lynch and written by William Gray. Jamie Lee Curtis and Leslie Nielsen star. The film's plot follows a group of high school seniors who are targeted at their prom by a masked killer, seeking vengeance for the accidental death of a young girl (six years earlier). The film features supporting performances from Casey Stevens, Eddie Benton, Mary Beth Rubens and Michael Tough.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: "Prom Night" was filmed in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in late 1979 on a budget of $1.5 million. Distributed by Astral Films in Canada and AVCO Embassy Pictures in the United States, the film was released on July 18, 1980 in select cinemas and was an immediate financial success. The film's theatrical release platform was expanded to major USA cities such as Los Angeles in California and New York City in New York in August where the film was again met with high box-office receipts. At the time, the film was AVCO Embassy's most financially successful release, breaking weekend records in Los Angeles, Philadelphia and New England.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: By the end of the film's theatrical run, "Prom Night" had grossed $15 million in the United States and was Canada's highest-earning horror film of 1980. Critical reaction to the film was varied and dismissed for the film's depictions of violence against young women, while others alternately praising "Prom Night" for the film's more muted violent content. "Prom Night" received some critical accolades, garnering Genie Award nominations for editing and also for the leading performance of Jamie Lee Curtis. An alternative cut of the film was popularly aired on American and Canadian television networks in 1981.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In the intervening years, "Prom Night" has accrued a substantial cult following for the film's horror content and also for the film's soundtrack album (which was released by RCA Records in Japan in 1980). Some film scholars have cited "Prom Night" as one of the most influential slasher films of the period. Several companies released "Prom Night" on video and the film was also released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment in 1998. A remastered Blu-ray edition of the film was released by Synapse Films in 2014.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In 1974, 11-year-olds Wendy Richards, Jude Cunningham, Kelly Lynch, and Nick McBride play hide-and-seek in an abandoned convent. When 10-year-old Robin Hammond tries to join them, the group starts teasing her, repeating "Kill! Kill! Kill!", and leading to a scared Robin accidentally falling to her death through a second-story window. The children make a pact not to tell anyone what happened and keep the incident a secret and they leave. Just then, the shadow of an unseen person who witnessed Robin's death crosses over her body.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Six years later in 1980, Robin's family attend her memorial on the anniversary of her death. Robin's teenage sister, Kim, and fraternal twin brother, Alex, are preparing for the school prom to be held that evening. Kelly, Jude, and Wendy begin receiving anonymous obscene phone calls, while Nick ignores his ringing phone.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Kim and Nick are now dating and plan on attending prom together. Jude is asked by goofy jokester Seymour "Slick" Crane, who she meets by chance. Kelly is going with Drew, her boyfriend. Wendy—Nick's ex-girlfriend—asks school bully Lou to the prom with the sole purpose of embarrassing Nick and her rival Kim. In the changing room after gym class, Kim and Kelly discover the locker room mirror cracked with a shard missing. Later, Wendy, Jude and Kelly each find their yearbook photos stabbed with a piece of glass. Meanwhile, Kim and Alex's father (also the school principal) learns that the sex offender blamed for Robin's death has escaped from a psychiatric facility. Lt. McBride, Nick's father, investigates his disappearance.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: During the senior prom, Kelly and Drew make out in the changing room, but Kelly, a virgin, refuses to have sex and Drew angrily leaves. As Kelly gets dressed, an unidentified figure wearing a ski mask and all-black clothing approaches her and slits her throat with a mirror shard. Jude and Slick have sex and smoke marijuana in his van parked outside school grounds. They are attacked by the masked killer, who stabs Jude in the throat. Slick struggles with the killer, who jumps from the vehicle before Slick drives off a cliff to his death. Staking out the prom, McBride is informed that the sex offender blamed for Robin's death has been caught.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Now wielding an ax, the killer confronts and chases Wendy through the school. Evading the killer several times, she screams when she discovers Kelly's body in a storage room and is hacked to death. The alcoholic school janitor, Sykes, witnesses Wendy's murder and attempts to notify the school staff, but they dismiss it as a drunken rant. Meanwhile, Kim and Nick prepare to be crowned prom king and queen, but Lou and his lackeys tie up Nick, and Lou takes his crown. Mistaking him for Nick, the killer approaches Lou from behind and decapitates him. Lou's severed head rolls onto the dance floor, sending the prom-goers fleeing in horror.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Kim finds Nick and frees him. As they prepare to escape, they are confronted by the killer who attacks Nick but not Kim. In the ensuing brawl, Kim strikes the killer's head with the ax. She and the killer stare at each other and Kim realizes his identity. The killer runs outside where the police have arrived. The killer collapses and is then revealed to be Alex, who explains to Kim that he witnessed their sister's death, and that Jude, Kelly, Wendy and Nick were responsible. He cries out Robin's name before dying in Kim's arms. Kim cries over the death of another sibling.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Director Paul Lynch developed "Prom Night" after a meeting with producer Irwin Yablans, who had previously produced "Halloween" (1978). Lynch had wanted to work on a horror film, and had initially pitched "Don't Go See the Doctor", a film about a physician who murders his patients. Yablans instead suggested that Lynch utilize a holiday as a basis for the film, which resulted in Lynch deciding to build the premise around the event of the high school prom. Writer Robert Guza Jr., a University of Southern California film student of whom Lynch was an acquaintance, had written a story about a group of teenagers whose involvement in a tragic event as children came back to haunt them. Guza's story was then adapted and incorporated into the film as the central premise and motive for the film's villain.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: While attending a Telefilm Canada event in Los Angeles, Lynch met producer Peter Simpson, to whom he pitched the idea. "I said, 'I'm working on this thing that is called "Prom Night"," Lynch recalled. "[Peter] said, 'Look, let's get together and talk.' This was on a Thursday. On Monday he read the treatment, came back and said, 'We'll make a deal to develop a script and do "Prom Night".' And that's how "Prom Night" came about." The film was an international co-production between Canada and the United States, and was made under a tax shelter for American film productions shot in Canada.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In the documentary "" (2006), Lynch stated he was having difficulty securing financing for the film until Jamie Lee Curtis signed onto the project; she received a salary of $30,000 () for her appearance in the film. According to the producer of "Prom Night", Eve Plumb (from television's "The Brady Bunch") originally auditioned for the role of Kim Hammond, but was passed over after Jamie Lee Curtis' manager contacted Paul Lynch about her starring in the film. Lynch was enthusiastic about casting Curtis, as she had established herself in the horror genre portraying Laurie Strode in "Halloween" (1978). After auditioning for producer Simpson—which included a dance audition for the film's dance numbers—Curtis was officially cast in the role. Lynch recalled, "For whatever reason, Peter [Simpson] made her jump through hoops, but she wanted it, and she got it." According to Curtis, "Prom Night" was the first project in which she "made any money."


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Leslie Nielsen, an established film and television actor, was cast as Kim Hammond's father; this role marks one of the last serious films for Nielsen, as he spent the remainder of his career performing in comedies. Lynch sought Nielsen for the role as he was one of Canada's "most-experienced actors." Opposite Nielsen, portraying his character's wife, is Antoinette Bower, whom Lynch had seen on numerous Canadian television programs. The majority of the film's supporting actors and actresses were stage performers and recent theater graduates from the University of Toronto. Michael Tough, a 17-year-old actor who was cast as Kim's younger brother, Alex, recalled that he and Curtis spent an afternoon together shopping to become familiar with each other and establish a sibling-like dynamic. Mary Beth Rubens, who appears as Kim's ill-fated friend, Kelly Lynch, had recently graduated from the Montreal Theatre School when she was cast in the role. Joy Thompson was cast as Jude Cunningham, another of Kim's friends stalked by the killer.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: "Prom Night" was filmed over twenty-four days in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, with principal photography beginning August 13, 1979, and completing September 13. The majority of the crew were recent graduates from film schools in Canada. Don Mills Collegiate Institute served as the main school location, while the Langstaff Jail Farm in Richmond Hill was used for the abandoned building featured prominently in the beginning of the film. Art director Reuben Freed had wanted to take advantage of Toronto's Victorian architecture, and felt that the Langstaff building had an appropriate Gothic appearance.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Because of the way the film is structured, the majority of the film's cast spent little time together collectively, as each appear in their own individual subplots leading up to (and during) the prom. The initial shoot took place in the school, as the crew had to complete before school was back in session in late August, while the remainder of the shoot was spent filming the sequences at the various characters' homes. The filming of the dance numbers, which were choreographed by Lynch's sister, were completed without the use of a Steadicam. Lynch stated that he was "amazed they turned out as well as they did", as the crew had little experience with filming such sequences.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In terms of on-screen violence, Lynch had intentionally devised the film to have a minimal amount of gore, as he did not want it to be overtly gratuitous; however, the distributor, Avco Embassy Pictures, mandated that they include some graphic violence, resulting in the on-screen beheading of Lou Farmer in the finale. In order to make the sequence appear realistic, the special effects team decided to build a prop floor through which the actor, David Mucci, could place his head, creating the illusion of his severed head lying on the floor. For the filming of this sequence itself, a dummy head was crafted via prosthetics, and moulded around a prop skull.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: The "Prom Night" score and soundtrack was composed by Paul Zaza and Carl Zittrer, with additional writing by Bill Crutchfield and James Powell. Director Lynch sought Zittrer after hearing his compositions in "Black Christmas" (1974). The soundtrack of "Prom Night" includes several disco songs which are featured prominently in the film's prom scenes. Originally, the film was shot with the actors dancing to then-popular tracks by Gloria Gaynor, Donna Summer, France Joli, Patrick Hernandez and Cheryl Lynn, but, according to Zaza, the publishing rights to the songs were far outside the film's budget. Under orders from producer Peter Simpson, Zaza wrote a series of original disco songs over a five-day period which closely copied the original tracks that were intended to be used in the film. This resulted in a copyright lawsuit for $10 million, which was eventually settled for $50,000.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: An official release of the "Prom Night" soundtrack was issued in Japan in 1980, featuring both the musical score as well as the original disco songs featured in the film. Other "source" music was provided by Canadian band Highstreet.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: After production wrapped, Paramount Pictures expressed interest in distributing the movie. However, they only wanted to open it in 300 theaters whereas Avco Embassy purchased the film at the Cannes film market in May 1980 (instead, Paramount released another independent slasher film, "Friday the 13th", which premiered two months before Prom Night as an "exact replica of [the trailer] for "Carrie" (1976)." The distributor issued a total of 250 prints of the film for theatrical distribution.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: On July 25, 1980, it was reported that Avco Embassy Pictures was planning a promotional tour for the film, which would have Curtis appearing at openings for the film in various U.S. cities, such as New York City, Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Cincinnati, Denver and Los Angeles. Additionally, 10,000 promotional "scream pillows" were to be distributed at screenings to help quiet the outbursts of theater patrons.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Given a limited release in the United States on July 18, 1980, "Prom Night" had financial success as a sleeper hit. During its opening week in select cities (including Chicago, Milwaukee, Louisville, and several cities in Texas), it grossed $1,189,636 at the U.S. box office, and was subsequently slated for a staggered platform release.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Its theatrical run expanded on August 15, 1980, to New York City and Los Angeles, and included select midnight screenings. During its opening week runs in New York City and Los Angeles, the film earned a combined $1.3 million, and marked Avco Embassy's highest-grossing Los Angeles opening to date, as well as breaking weekend records in Philadelphia and New England. The film continued to prove financially successful through Labor Day, earning $2.1 million over the holiday weekend. By October 1980, the film had grossed a sum of $12 million. The film premiered in Canada through Astral Films on September 12, 1980.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: By the end of its theatrical run, "Prom Night" grossed a total of $14.8 million at the U.S. box office. It earned an additional $6 million in rentals during its home video release.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Upon release in 1980, "Prom Night" received mostly negative reviews from critics, with frequent comparisons to "Halloween" (1978) and "Carrie" (1976). Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" referred to the film as a "watered-down cross between "Carrie" and "Halloween"", though he noted it was "not as violent as one might expect, based on those frightening ads of a masked man holding a phallic knife... You would think that "Prom Night" was another one of those hideous attacks-on-promiscuous-women pictures. It's not. Gender makes no difference in this routine revenge film." The film's advertising campaign was criticized by Siskel and Roger Ebert in a September 18, 1980 episode of "Sneak Previews", cited among a glut of other violent slasher films released the same year that thematized "Women in Danger." Siskel and Ebert used the episode to criticize the advertising campaigns for several films, including "Don't Answer the Phone", "Hell Night" and "Prom Night": "[These] ads have been saturating television for the past two years," said Ebert, "and the summer and fall of 1980 are the worst yet."


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: "Variety" noted that the film "[borrows] shamelessly from "Carrie" and any number of gruesome exploitationers pic [from a story by Robert Gunza ("sic") Jr.] manages to score a few horrific points amid a number of sagging moments." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" gave the film a middling review, writing: ""Prom Night", the Canadian film that opened yesterday at the Loews State 2 and other theaters, is a comparatively genteel hybrid, part shock melodrama, like "Halloween," and part mystery, though it's less a whodunit than a who's-doing-it." He also praised the film's restrained violence, writing that director Lynch "chooses to underplay the bloody spectacle. This isn't to say that there aren't some sticky moments, including one not especially convincing beheading, but that more often than not the camera cuts away, or the screen goes discreetly gray, before the audience is drenched in gore. This may or may not be the reason that the audience with which I saw the film yesterday booed at the end." Jack Mathews of the "Detroit Free Press" also drew comparisons to "Halloween" and "Carrie", though deeming it "not as effective as either."


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" deemed the film "an efficient rather than stylish Canadian-made horror picture that mercifully lets you complete its grislier moments in your imagination. Even so, its various jolts should be sufficient to satisfy scare-show fans." "The Atlanta Constitution" reviewed the film favorably, deeming it a "surprisingly good scare film. At least the murderer actually has a motive, for a change. If nothing else, it proves there's still a line between a respectable horror film and gross exploitation." "The News-Press" wrote: "If "Carrie" and "Friday the 13th" weren't enough for you, this will satisfy your appetite for youth, gore and chills." The "Montreal Gazette"s Bruce Bailey praised Curtis's performance but criticized the film's lengthy exposition, noting that "it takes rather long to get down to the business of delivering a few shocks."


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Prom Night" holds a 48% approval rating based on 23 critic reviews and an average rating of 4.60/10. The consensus reads: "Horror aficionados might have a ball with "Prom Night", but a lack of mystery and inability to capitalize on the dance hall setting makes for a generic night of mayhem.” "AllMovie"s review of the film was generally negative, but wrote that it "utilizes a surprising amount of skill both behind and in front of the camera as it goes through its paces".


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In a review published by "Time Out", the film was called "a sincere "Halloween" rip-off which takes time out to milk "Carrie", "Saturday Night Fever", and all those B-feature 'lust and rivalry' high school sagas", but praised Jamie Lee Curtis's performance, writing: "Curtis is superb as Miss Naturally Popular and Prom Queen-to-be, isolated in empty high school corridors." "TV Guide" gave the film one out of four stars, writing: "Curtis disco-dancing and wonderful moments such as when the severed head of a victim rolls across the dance floor. "Prom Night" is better than most slasher movies, mainly because it's funnier."


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Scholar Richard Nowell considers "Prom Night" one of the most influential slasher films of the 1980s.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In late 1980, Canada's CTV Network paid a record $200,000 for three television airings of "Prom Night". The film was also acquired for television broadcast in the United States on NBC, who purchased two prime time showings of the film for $3.25 million. In order to slightly lengthen the film after nudity was excised for television airings, an alternate cut of "Prom Night" was crafted by editor Michael MacLaverty. The television version of the film features some additional scenes that were excised from the original theatrical cut, as well as extended sequences that had been truncated. Among these were a scene in which Mr. and Mrs. Hammond meet with Dr. Fairchild, a psychologist evaluating Mrs. Hammond; three brief scenes featuring Adele, a temporary school secretary who is encountered by Mr. Hammond and Kim, respectively; a sequence in which Jude, Vicki and Kim pass notes during biology class; and Kim returning home and speaking briefly with her mother.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: Seven months after its theatrical premiere, the television cut of "Prom Night" premiered on NBC, on February 22, 1981.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: "Prom Night" has had an inconsistent release history on home video. It was originally released on in 1981 on Laserdisc and VHS and Betamax videocassettes by MCA Universal in North America, at the beginnings of home video popularity, licensed directly from then-production company SimCom, who had licensed theatrical distribution to Avco-Embassy. In 1988, it was re-released on VHS by Virgin Vision in tandem with the in-name-only sequel "Hello Mary Lou; Prom Night II", which Virgin handled through a separate deal with that film's then-distributor The Samuel Goldwyn Company. In 1997, the film was re-released again, by Anchor Bay Entertainment, in both standard and "collector's" editions. It was then released on DVD by Anchor Bay on February 18, 1998 with a re-mastered widescreen transfer, and was one of the company's first DVD releases. By 2000, Anchor Bay's DVD release had gone out of print and became a rarity, with fans starting online petitions for a re-release.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In 2004, Alliance Atlantis released the film on DVD, but the film was sourced from an extremely dark, low-quality VHS transfer, which resulted in some of the film's darker scenes being nearly illegible; this transfer was also used for Platinum Disc's full-screen DVD edition of the movie for the United States.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: In September 2007, Echo Bridge Home Entertainment re-released the film on DVD in the United States in a completely re-mastered print from a PAL source, which was given an uncorrected transfer to NTSC. Due to the uncorrected transfer, the film is slightly "sped up," which, though mostly unnoticeable to the naked eye, reduced the film's run time by several minutes.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: On September 9, 2014, the film was released on Blu-ray and DVD by Synapse Films, featuring a restored print from the original film negatives, as well as featuring a documentary as well as outtakes, original promotional material, and deleted scenes from the network television cut as bonus material.


title: Prom Night (1980 film)

text: "Prom Night" was followed by three sequels, each of which has little in common with the 1980 film, aside from all being set at Hamilton High School. In 2008, a remake was released, which also bears little resemblance to the 1980 film.


title: Kritika Kamra

text: Kamra is known for playing Arohi in television shows "Kitani Mohabbat Hai", Dr. Nidhi in "Kuch Toh Log Kahenge", Ananya in "Reporters" and Chandrakanta in "Prem Ya Paheli - Chandrakanta". In 2014 she participated in the dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa".


title: Kritika Kamra

text: Kamra was born in Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh and grew up in her hometown Ashoknagar, Madhya Pradesh. She did her early schooling at Anand Primary School, Sukhpur, where her father is a dentist and mother a nutritionist and an educationist in Shri Anandpur Trust Charitable Hospital, Ashoknagar. She also briefly attended Tara Sadan Sr. Secondary school, Ashoknagar, M.P. She completed her middle school from St. Joseph's Senior Secondary School, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh and then pursued secondary and higher secondary studies at Delhi Public School, New Delhi. She then went on to study fashion at National Institute of Fashion Technology but dropped out after her first year, as she was cast for "Yahan Ke Hum Sikandar".


title: Susuwatari

text: Susuwatari (, ; "wandering soot"), also called Makkuro kurosuke (; "makkuro" meaning "pitch black", "kuro" meaning "black" and "-suke" being a common ending for boys names), is the name of a fictitious sprite that was devised by Hayao Miyazaki and Studio Ghibli, known from the famous anime-productions "My Neighbor Totoro" (1988) and "Spirited Away" (2001) where, in the former, they are identified as "black soots" in early subtitles, as "soot sprites" or "dust bunnies" in the Streamline Pictures English dub, and as "soot gremlins" in the Walt Disney Studios English dubbed version.


title: Susuwatari

text: Susuwatari are described and shown as golf ball-sized, pitch-black and fuzzy-haired beings with two large eyes and long, thin limbs. They move by hovering around, but they can extend stick-like limbs from their bodies to do certain tasks, and can lift objects many times their own weight. They make a squeaky murmuring sound when excited, and dissolve into powder (soot) if crushed.


title: Susuwatari

text: In "My Neighbor Totoro", the house the main characters move into is full of Susuwatari, which are rationalized as "Makkuro Kurosuke", an optical illusion caused by moving quickly from light into darkness. Seeing that the family is made of good people, the Susuwatari leave the house to move to another abandoned area.


title: Susuwatari

text: The protagonist Sen (Chihiro) befriends a number of them by helping them carry coal. Sen is told that if these Susuwatari are not given a job to do, they turn back into soot. Another character, Lin, feeds the Susuwatari much like farmers feed chickens, throwing handfuls of the Japanese candy konpeitō onto the ground for them to eat. After Sen is accepted among the staff of the bathhouse, chiefly by Kamaji and Lin, the Susuwatari become almost admiring of her, and help her in their small ways.


title: Susuwatari

text: In 2022, Studio Ghibli and Lucasfilm collaborated on a Star Wars short for Disney+ where "The Mandalorian" character Grogu interacts with a band of dust bunnies that gift him a flower.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Dan in Real Life is a 2007 American comedy-drama film directed by Peter Hedges, and stars Steve Carell, Alison Pill, Juliette Binoche, Dianne Wiest, John Mahoney and Dane Cook.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: This is the first Touchstone Pictures film to be distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures after Disney retired the Buena Vista brand from its distribution division.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Dan Burns is a newspaper advice columnist, widower, and single-parent to his three daughters, living in North Jersey. The family takes a trip to the oceanside Rhode Island home of his parents for an annual family gathering. Also in attendance are Dan's brother and sister with their families, along with Dan's younger brother Mitch, who is known for his carefree lifestyle.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: The morning after their arrival, Dan meets Marie in a bookshop. They share a muffin and a heart-felt conversation, although Marie gently warns Dan that she has a boyfriend. Dan returns to his parents' house and announces that he has "met someone". Mitch introduces his new girlfriend, who turns out to be Marie. Dan is disheartened and resists his father's relationship advice about finding someone of his own.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Dan reluctantly agrees to a double date with their once unattractive childhood friend, Ruthie "Pig Face" Draper. Marie jealously watches Dan and Ruthie. The next morning, Dan endures her 'punishment' for his late night with Ruthie by eating the burnt pancakes which she serves him. Tension grows between Dan and Marie, culminating at the family talent show. Dan accompanies Mitch on the guitar as Mitch sings, "Let My Love Open the Door". During the bridge, Dan begins to sing too, seemingly to Marie. The next morning, Marie breaks up with Mitch. However, Marie and Dan meet to talk at a bowling alley. The meeting evolves into a date and finally a passionate kiss, interrupted when Dan's entire family arrives to bowl. Mitch punches Dan in the face, and Marie hurries out. Meanwhile, Dan's middle daughter, Cara, grows more frustrated because of his meddling in her relationship with her boyfriend, Marty.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Dan and his daughters travel to New York City, where they finally find Marie at her gym. As he makes eye contact with her, Dan, in voice-over, tells the readers of his advice column that instead of merely planning ahead in life, they should "plan to be surprised."


title: Dan in Real Life

text: The film ends with Dan and Marie celebrating their wedding at his parents' Rhode Island home, Mitch happily dancing with Ruthie, and Cara happily dancing with Marty, whom Dan has now accepted.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: The film opened October 26, 2007 in the United States and Canada and grossed $11.8 million in 1,921 theaters its opening weekend, ranking #2 at the box office. As of February 2, 2011, it has grossed $68,377,859. It is the first Touchstone movie to be released under the Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures name following the retirement of the previous Buena Vista Pictures Distribution.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: The opening scene was in New Jersey and then Rhode Island in the cities of Newport, East Greenwich, West Greenwich, Jamestown, Westerly, and Providence in November and December 2006. The opening scene was filmed at Seven Stars Bakery in Providence. However, the facade of the building and the interior are altered. The first time Dan is pulled over by the Jamestown, Rhode Island police, he is on Ocean Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island. The second time Dan is pulled over by Mackerel Cove in Jamestown. In scenes filmed in Jamestown, two bridges are clearly visible: the Jamestown Bridge and its replacement, the Jamestown-Verrazzano Bridge. Demolition of the Jamestown Bridge was initiated on April 18, 2006. The film also cast local residents of neighboring towns and cities consisting of Middletown, North Kingstown and North Providence as Dan's nieces and nephews. The date scene was filmed in two different places in Westerly. The inside shots were filmed at Alley Katz Bowling Center, while the exterior shots were filmed at Misquamicut Beach. What is now the Windjammer was dressed to look like the outside of the bowling center. The sunset scene with the entire family on the beach was filmed at Napatree Point in Westerly.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Norwegian singer-songwriter Sondre Lerche composed the majority of the music in the film, and has a cameo appearance in a scene at the end.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: "Mr. Blue Sky" by the Electric Light Orchestra is featured in the TV and radio advertisements for the movie, as well as "Let My Love Open the Door" by Pete Townshend and "Henrietta" by The Fratellis. The club mix of Inaya Day's "Nasty Girl (Vanity 6 song)" and Earth, Wind & Fire's "September '99 (Phats & Small Remix)" are also featured in separate scenes in the movie but are not on the soundtrack. "Human Hands" written by Elvis Costello (the original version appears on his album "Imperial Bedroom").


title: Dan in Real Life

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 65% based on 170 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The fine performances elevate "Dan in Real Life" beyond its sentimental plot." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Dan in Real Life

text: Some critics described it as a non-holiday holiday film that is derived from that genre and the rom-com genre in general. A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" wrote "not to expect too much from "Dan in Real Life" that way you can be pleasantly surprised" but did while drawing attention to characterization questions regarding the female roles.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The Rattanakosin Kingdom (, , , abbreviated as , ) or Kingdom of Siam were names used to reference the fourth and current Thai kingdom in the history of Thailand (then known as Siam). It was founded in 1782 with the establishment of Rattanakosin (Bangkok), which replaced the city of Thonburi as the capital of Siam. This article covers the period until the Siamese revolution of 1932.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The maximum zone of influence of Rattanakosin included the vassal states of Cambodia, Laos, Shan States, and the northern Malay states. The kingdom was founded by Rama I of the Chakri Dynasty. The first half of this period was characterized by the consolidation of the kingdom's power and was punctuated by periodic conflicts with Burma, Vietnam and Laos. The second period was one of engagements with the colonial powers of Britain and France in which Siam remained the only Southeast Asian state to maintain its independence.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Internally the kingdom developed into a modern centralized nation state with borders defined by interactions with Western powers. Economic and social progress was made, marked by an increase in foreign trade, the abolition of slavery and the expansion of formal education to the emerging middle class. However, the failure to implement substantial political reforms culminated in the 1932 revolution and the abandonment of absolute monarchy in favor of a constitutional monarchy.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: In 1767, after dominating Southeast Asia for almost four centuries, Ayutthaya was brought down by the Burmese Konbaung dynasty. Despite its complete defeat and subsequent occupation, Siam made a rapid recovery. The resistance to Burmese rule was led by a noble of Chinese descent, Taksin, a military leader. Initially based at Chanthaburi in the southeast, within a year, he had defeated the Burmese occupation army and reestablished a Siamese state with its capital at Thonburi on the west bank of the Chao Phraya, 20 km from the sea. In 1768 he was crowned as Taksin. He re-united the central Thai heartlands under his rule, and in 1769 he also occupied western Cambodia. He then marched south and re-established Siamese rule over the Malay Peninsula as far as Penang and Terengganu. Having secured his base in Siam, Taksin attacked the Burmese in the north in 1774 and captured Chiang Mai in 1776, permanently uniting Siam and Lanna. Taksin's leading general in this campaign was Thong Duang, known by the title "Chaophraya" or Lord Chakri was himself a descendant of Mon people. In 1778, Chakri led a Siamese army which captured Vientiane and Luang Phrabang, a northern Lao kingdom, and eventually established Siamese domination over Laotian kingdoms.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Despite these successes, by 1779 Taksin was in political trouble at home. He seems to have developed a religious mania, alienating the powerful Buddhist monk-hood by claiming to be a "sotapanna" or divine figure. He was also in troubles with the court officials, Chinese merchants, and missionaries. The foreign observers began to speculate that he would soon be overthrown. In 1782 Taksin sent his armies under Chakri, the future Rama I of Rattanakosin, to invade Cambodia, but while they were away a rebellion broke out in the area around the capital. The rebels, who had popular support, offered the throne to General Chakri, the 'supreme general'. Chakri who was on war duty marched back from Cambodia and deposed Taksin, who was purportedly 'secretly executed' shortly after.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Chakri ruled under the name Ramathibodi, but was generally known as King Rama I, moved the royal seat from Thonburi on the West bank of Chao Phraya River to the East bank, the village of Bang Makok, meaning "place of olive plums", for better strategic position in defences against Burmese invasions from the West, protected from attack by the river to the west and by a series of canals to the north, east and south. The East bank was low marshlands inhabited by the Chinese, whom King Rama I ordered to move to Sampheng. The official foundation date of Bangkok was April 21, 1782 when the city pillar was consecrated in a ceremony. King Rama I underwent an abbreviated form of coronation in 1782. He founded the Chakri dynasty and made his younger brother Chao Phraya Surasi the "Wangna" or Prince Sura Singhanat of the Front Palace. In 1783, Bangkok city walls were constructed with part of the bricks taken from Ayutthaya ruins. Lao and Cambodian laborers were assigned to dig the city moat. The Grand Palace and the Wat Phra Kaew were completed in 1784 and the Emerald Buddha was transferred from Wat Arun to be placed in Wat Phra Kaew. In 1785, King Rama I performed full coronation ceremony and named the new city "Rattanakosin", which meant the "Jewel of Indra" referring to the Emerald Buddha.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The Burmese continued to pose the major threat to Siamese state of existence. In 1785, King Bodawpaya of the Burmese Konbaung dynasty sent massive armies to invade Siam in five directions in the Nine Armies' War. Decades of continuous warfare had left Siam depopulated and the Siamese court managed to muster only the total of 70,000 men against the 144,000 men of Burmese invaders. The Burmese, however, were over-stretched and unable to converge. Prince Sura Singhanat led his army to defeat the main army of King Bodawpaya in the Battle of Latya in Kanchanaburi in 1786. In the north, the Burmese laid siege on Lanna Lampang. Kawila the ruler of Lampang managed to hold the siege for four months until relief forces from Bangkok came to rescue Lampang. In the south, Lady Chan and Lady Mook were able to fend off Burmese attacks on Thalang (Phuket) in 1786. After the unfruitful campaign, King Bodawpaya of Burma sent his son "Uparaja" Thado Minsaw to invade Kanchanaburi concentrating only in one direction. King Rama I and his brother Prince Sura Singhanat defeated the Burmese in the Tha Dindaeng Campaign in 1786–1787.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: After victories over Burmese invaders, Siam staged the offensives on the Tenasserim Coast, which was the former territory of Ayutthaya. King Rama I marched Siamese armies to lay siege on Tavoy in 1788 but did not succeed. In 1792, the Burmese governors of Tavoy and Mergui defected to Siam. Siam came to temporarily occupy the Tenasserim Coast. However, as the court was preparing for the invasions of Lower Burma, King Bodawpaya sent his son Thado Minsaw to reclaim Tenasserim. The Siamese were soundly defeated by the Burmese in the Battle of Tavoy in 1793 and ceded the Tenasserim Coast to Burma for perpetuity, becoming modern Tanintharyi Division.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Lord Kawila was finally able to re-establish Chiang Mai as the centre of Lanna in 1797. King Bodawpaya was eager to regain Burmese control over Lanna. The Burmese invaded Chiang Mai in 1797 and 1802, in both occasions Kawila defended the city and Prince Sura Singhanat marched north to relieve Chiang Mai. The Siamese and Lanna forces then proceeded to capture Chiang Saen, the stronghold of Burmese authority in Lanna, in 1804, eliminating Burmese influence in Lanna. Siamese victories over the Burmese in Lanna allowed Siam to expand domination north towards the northernmost Tai princedoms: Keng Tung and Chianghung. Kawila of Chiang Mai sent forces to raid Keng Tung and Mong Hsat in 1802 and subjugated Mong Yawng, Mueang Luang Phukha, and Chiang Hung in 1805. In 1805, the Prince of Nan invaded the Tai Lue confederacy of Sipsongpanna and Chiang Hung surrendered.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Prince Sura Singhanat of the Front Palace died in 1803. King Rama I appointed his own son Prince Itsarasunthon as the succeeding Prince of the Front Palace in 1806. King Rama I died in 1809 and Prince Itsarasunthon ascended to become King Rama II. King Bodawpaya then took the opportunity to initiate the Burmese invasion of Thalang on the Andaman Coast. Bangkok court sent armies to relieve Thalang but faced logistic difficulties before when Thalang fell to the Burmese in 1810. The Siamese were able to repel the Burmese from Thalang anyway. The Burmese Invasion of Phuket in 1809-1810 was the last Burmese incursion into Siamese territories in Thai history. Siam remained vigilant of prospective Burmese invasions through the 1810s. Only when Burma ceded Tenasserim to the British in the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826 in aftermath of the First Anglo-Burmese War that Burmese threats effectively ended.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: When the Siamese forces took Vientiane in 1779 in Thonburi period, all three Lao kingdoms of Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak came under Siamese domination. Lao Princes Nanthasen, Inthavong and Anouvong were taken as hostages to Bangkok. In 1782, King Rama I installed Nanthasen as King of Vientiane. However, Nanthasen was dethroned in 1795 due to his alleged diplomatic overtures with Tây Sơn dynasty in favor of Inthavong. When King Inthavong died in 1804, Anouvong succeeded as King of Vientiane.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Yumreach Baen, a pro-Siamese Cambodian noble, staged a coup in Cambodia to overthrow and kill the pro-Vietnamese Cambodian Prime Minister Tolaha Mu in 1783. Chaos and upheavals that ensued caused Yumreach Baen to take young King Ang Eng to Bangkok. King Rama I appointed Yumreach Baen as Chaophraya Aphaiphubet. Also in 1783, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh arrived in Bangkok to take refuge from the Tây Sơn. In 1784, Siamese forces invaded Saigon to reinstate Nguyễn Phúc Ánh but were defeated in the Battle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút by the Tây Sơn. In 1789, Aphaiphubet took control of Cambodia and became the Regent. Also in the same year Nguyễn Phúc Ánh took Saigon and established himself in Southern Vietnam. In 1794, King Rama I allowed Ang Eng to return to Cambodia to rule as king and carved northwestern part of Cambodia including Battambang and Siemreap for Aphaiphubet to govern as the governor of Battambang under direct Siamese rule.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: King Ang Eng of Cambodia died in 1796 and was succeeded by his son Ang Chan who became pro-Vietnamese. Pro-Siamese Prince Ang Sngoun, younger brother of Ang Chan, decided to rebel against his brother in 1811. The Siamese forces marched from Battambang to Oudong. The panicked King Ang Chan fled to take refuge at Saigon under the protection of Vietnam. Siamese forces sacked Oudong and returned. Lê Văn Duyệt brought Ang Chan back to Phnom Penh to rule under Vietnamese influence.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: King Anouvong of Vientiane rebelled against Siam in 1827. He led the Lao armies to capture Nakhon Ratchasima and Saraburi, while his son King Raxabut Nyô of Champasak invaded Southern Isan. Phraya Palat and his wife Lady Mo led the Siamese captives to rise against their Laos overseers in the Battle of Samrit Fields. King Rama III sent Prince Sakdipolsep of the Front Palace to defeat Anouvong at Nong Bua Lamphu and Phraya Ratchasuphawadi (later Chaophraya Bodindecha) to capture Raxabut Nyô. Anouvong and his family fled to Nghệ An Province of Vietnam under protection of Emperor Ming Mạng. Ming Mạng sent Anouvong back to Vientiane to negotiate with Siam. However, Anouvong retook control of Vientiane only to be pushed back by Phraya Ratchasuphawadi in 1828. Anouvong was eventually captured and sent to Bangkok where he was imprisoned and died in 1829.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Anouvong's rebellion worsened Siamese-Vietnamese relations. Lê Văn Duyệt died in 1832 and his posthumous punishments by Ming Mạng spurred the Lê Văn Khôi rebellion at Saigon in 1833. King Rama III took the opportunity to eliminate Vietnamese influence in the region. He assigned Chaophraya Bodindecha to lead armies to invade Cambodia and Saigon, while Chaophraya Phrakhlang led the fleet. However, the Siamese forces were defeated in the naval Battle of Vàm Nao and retreated. The Siamese defeat confirmed Vietnamese domination over Cambodia. Ming Mạng annexed Cambodia into Trấn Tây Province with Trương Minh Giảng as the governor. After the death of Ang Chan, Minh Mạng also installed Ang Mey as puppet queen regnant of Cambodia. In 1840, the Cambodians arose in general rebellion against Vietnamese domination. Bodindecha marched Siamese armies to attack Pursat and Kampong Svay in 1841. The new Vietnamese Emperor Thiệu Trị ordered the Vietnamese to retreat and the Siamese took over Cambodia. The war resumed in 1845 when Emperor Thiệu Trị sent Nguyễn Tri Phương to successfully take Phnom Penh and lay siege on Siamese-held Oudong. After months of siege, Siam and Vietnam negotiated for peace with Prince Ang Duong, who would recognize both Siamese and Vietnamese suzerainty, installed as the new King of Cambodia in 1848.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Northern Malay states that used to pay "bunga mas" tributes to Siam were freed temporarily from Siamese domination. In 1786, after expelling Burmese invaders from Southern Siam, Prince Sura Singhanat declared that Northern Malay sultanates should resume tributary obligations as it had used to be during the Ayutthaya times. Kedah and Terengganu resolved to send tributes but Pattani refused. The Siamese prince then sent armies to sack Pattani in 1786, bringing Pattani into Siamese rule. Malay states of Pattani, Kedah and Terengganu (including Kelantan, which was then part of Terengganu) came under Siamese suzerainty as tributary states. Pattani rebelled in 1789–1791 and 1808. Siam ended up dividing Pattani into seven distinct townships to rule. Kelantan was separated from Terengganu in 1815. In 1821, Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Halim Shah (known in Thai sources as Tuanku Pangeran) of Kedah was found forging alliance with Burma – Siam's archnemesis. Siamese forces under Phraya Nakhon Noi the "Raja of Ligor" invaded and captured Kedah. The Kedah sultan took refuge in British-held Penang. A son of Nakhon Noi was installed as the governor of Kedah. The Kedah sultanate ceased to exist for a time being.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Since the fifteenth century, the Siamese royal court had retained monopoly on foreign trades through the "Phra Khlang Sinkha" or Royal Warehouse. Foreign merchants had to present their ships and goods at "Phra Khlang Sinkha" for tariffs to be levied and goods to be purchased by the Royal Warehouse. Foreigners could not directly and privately trade important profitable government-restricted goods with the native Siamese. In 1821, the Governor-General of British India, in the mission to establish trade contacts with Siam, sent John Crawfurd to Bangkok. Crawfurd arrived in Bangkok in 1822, delivering the British concern for Kedah sultan and demands for trade concessions, which turned negotiation soured. Siam sent military troops to aid the British in Tenasserim in the First Anglo-Burmese War. However, a dispute prompted King Rama III to withdraw the Siamese armies from Burma. In 1825, the British sent another mission led by Henry Burney to Bangkok. The Anglo-Siamese Burney Treaty was ratified in 1826, in which centuries-old royal Siamese monopoly over Western trades was ended with the British granted to trade freely in Siam. The treaty also recognized Siamese claims over Kedah. However, some trade restrictions including the "Phasi Pak Ruea" or measurement duties were still intact. Siam also concluded the similar "Roberts Treaty" with the United States in 1833.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Tunku Kudin, a nephew of the former Kedah sultan, reclaimed Kedah by force in 1831 and rose up against Siam. Pattani, Kelantan and Terengganu joined on Kedahan side against Siam. King Rama III sent forces under Nakhon Noi and a navy fleet under Chaophraya Phrakhlang to put down Malay insurgency. The Raja of Ligor recaptured Kedah in 1832. Six years later, in 1838, Tunku Muhammad Sa'ad, another nephew of the Kedah sultan, in concert with Wan Muhammad Ali (called Wan Mali in Thai sources) the Andaman Sea adventurer, again retook Alor Setar from the Siamese. Kedahan forces invaded Southern Siam, attacking Trang, Pattani and Songkhla. King Rama III sent fleet, led by Phraya Siphiphat (younger brother of Phrakhlang), to quell the rebellion. Siamese forces recaptured Alor Setar in 1839. Chaophraya Nakhon Noi the Raja of Ligor died in 1838, leaving Malay affairs to Phraya Siphiphat. Siphiphat divided Kedah into four states: Setul, Kubang Pasu, Perlis and Kedah proper. The former Kedah sultan reconciled and he was finally restored as Sultan of Kedah in 1842. Journey of Phraya Siphiphat to the south in 1839 coincided with the Kelantanese Civil War. Sultan Muhammad II of Kelantan had conflicts with his rival contender Tuan Besar and requested for military aid from Phraya Siphiphat. Siphiphat, however, posted himself as the negotiator and forced peace agreement upon warring Kelantan factions. Tuan Besar arose again in 1840. Siam resolved to move Tuan Besar to somewhere else to placate the conflicts. Eventually, Tuan Besar was made the ruler of Pattani in 1842, becoming Sultan Phaya Long Muhammad of Pattani. Descendants of Phaya Long Muhammad would continue to rule Pattani until 1902.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: After the First Opium War, British Empire emerged as the most powerful maritime power in the region and was eager for more favorable trade agreements. Both the British and the Americans sent their delegates to Bangkok in 1850 to propose treaty amendments for abolition of all commercial restrictions but were not successful. Only with the Bowring Treaty of 1855 that these goals were achieved, liberalizing the Siamese economy and ushering new period of Thai history. King Rama III reportedly said on his deathbed in 1851: ""...there will be no more wars with Vietnam and Burma. We will have them only with the West."". King Mongkut, who had been a Buddhist monk for twenty-seven years, ascended the throne in 1851 with supports from Bunnag family. King Mongkut made his younger brother Pinklao the Vice-King or Second King of the Front Palace. Mongkut also granted the exceptionally high rank of "Somdet Chaophraya" to the Bunnag brothers – Chaophraya Phrakhlang (Dit Bunnag) and Phraya Siphiphat (That Bunnag), who became Somdet Chaophraya Prayurawong and Somdet Chaophraya Phichaiyat, respectively, cementing the roles and powers of Bunnag family in Siamese foreign affairs in mid-nineteenth century. Chuang Bunnag, Prayurawong's son, also became Chaophraya Si Suriyawong.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Mongkut came to the throne as Rama IV in 1853, determined to prevent Siam from falling under colonial domination by forcing modernization on his reluctant subjects. But although he was in theory an absolute monarch, his power was limited. Having been a monk for 27 years, he lacked a base among the powerful royal princes, and did not have a modern state apparatus to carry out his wishes. His first attempts at reform, to establish a modern system of administration and to improve the status of debt slaves and women, were frustrated.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Rama IV came to welcome Western intrusion in Siam. The king himself and his entourages were actively pro-British. This became evident in 1855 when a mission led by the Governor of Hong Kong, Sir John Bowring, arrived in Bangkok with demands for immediate changes, backed by the threat of force. The king readily agreed to demands for a new treaty, called the Bowring Treaty, which restricted import duties to three percent, abolished royal trade monopolies, and granted extraterritoriality to British subjects. Other Western powers soon demanded and got similar concessions.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The king came to believe that the real threat to Siam came from the French, not the British. The British were interested in commercial advantage, the French in building a colonial empire. They occupied Saigon in 1859, and 1867 established a protectorate over southern Vietnam and eastern Cambodia. Rama IV hoped that the British would defend Siam if he gave them the economic concessions they demanded. In the next reign this would prove to be an illusion, but it is true that the British saw Siam as a useful buffer state between British Burma and French Indochina.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Rama IV died in 1868, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son Chulalongkorn, who reigned as Rama V and is now known as Rama the Great. Rama V was the first Siamese king to have a full Western education, having been taught by a British governess, Anna Leonowens – whose place in Siamese history has been fictionalized as "The King and I". At first Rama V's reign was dominated by the conservative regent, Chaophraya Si Suriyawongse, but when the king came of age in 1873 he soon took control. He created a Privy Council and a Council of State, a formal court system and budget office. He announced that slavery would be gradually abolished and debt-bondage restricted.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: At first the princes and conservatives successfully resisted the king's reform agenda, but as the older generation was replaced by younger, Western-educated princes, resistance faded. He found powerful allies in his brothers Prince Chakkraphat, whom he made finance minister, Prince Damrong, who organized interior government and education, and his brother-in-law Prince Devrawongse, foreign minister for 38 years. In 1887 Devrawonge visited Europe to study governmental systems. On his recommendation the king established cabinet government, an audit office, and an education department. The semi-autonomous status of Chiang Mai was ended and the army was reorganized and modernized.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: In 1893 French authorities in Indochina used a minor border dispute to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at Bangkok and demanded the cession of Lao territories east of the Mekong. The king appealed to the British, but the British minister told the king to settle on whatever terms he could get. The king had no choice but to comply. Britain's only gesture was an agreement with France guaranteeing the integrity of the rest of Siam. In exchange, Siam had to give up its claim to the Tai-speaking Shan region of northeastern Burma to the British.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The French, however, continued to pressure Siam, and in 1906–1907 they manufactured another crisis. This time Siam had to concede French control of territory on the west bank of the Mekong opposite Luang Prabang and around Champasak in southern Laos, as well as western Cambodia. The British interceded to prevent more French pressure on Siam, but their price, in 1909 was the acceptance of British sovereignty over of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu under Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. All of these "lost territories" were on the fringes of the Siamese sphere of influence and had never been securely under their control, but being compelled to abandon all claim to them was a substantial humiliation to both king and country. Historian David K. Wyatt describes Chulalongkorn as "broken in spirit and health" following the 1893 crisis. It became the basis for the country's name change: with the loss of these territories "Great Siam" was no more; the king now ruled only the core "Thai lands".


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Meanwhile, reform continued unabated, transforming an absolute monarchy based on traditional relationships of power into a modern, centralized nation state. The process was increasingly under the control of Rama V's European-educated sons. Railways and telegraph lines united previously remote and semi-autonomous provinces. The currency was tied to the gold standard and a modern system of taxation replaced the arbitrary levies and corvee labor of the past. The biggest problem was the shortage of trained civil servants, and many foreigners had to be employed until new schools could be built and Siamese graduates produced. By 1910, when the king died, Siam had become a semi-modern country and continued to escape colonial rule.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: One of Rama V's reforms was to introduce a Western-style law of royal succession, so in 1910 he was peacefully succeeded by his son Vajiravudh, who reigned as Rama VI. He had been educated at Sandhurst military academy and at Oxford, and was an anglicized Edwardian gentleman. Indeed, one of Siam's problems was the widening gap between the Westernized royal family and upper aristocracy and the rest of the country. It took another 20 years for Western education to permeate the bureaucracy and the army.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: There had been some political reform under Rama V, but the king was still an absolute monarch, who acted as the head of the cabinet and staffed all the agencies of the state with his own relatives. Vajiravudh knew that the rest of the "new" nation could not be excluded from government forever, but he had no faith in Western-style democracy. He applied his observations of the success of the British monarchy ruling India, appearing more in public and instituting more royal ceremonies. However, Rama VI also carried on his father's modernization plan.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Bangkok became more and more the capital of the new nation of Siam. Rama VI's government began several nationwide development projects, despite financial hardship. New roads, bridges, railways, hospitals and schools mushroomed throughout the country with funds from Bangkok. Newly created "viceroys" were appointed to the newly restructured "regions", or "monthon" (circles), as king's agents supervising administrative affairs in the provinces.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The king established the "Wild Tiger Corps", or "Kong Suea Pa" (), a paramilitary organization of Siamese of "good character" united to further the nation's cause. He also created a junior branch which continues today as the National Scout Organization of Thailand. The king spent much time on the development of the movements as he saw it as an opportunity to create a bond between himself and loyal citizens. It was also a way to single out and honor his favourites. At first the Wild Tigers were drawn from the king's personal entourage, but an enthusiasm among the population arose later. Of the adult movement, a German observer wrote in September 1911: "This is a troop of volunteers in black uniform, drilled in a more or less military fashion, but without weapons. The British Scouts are apparently the paradigm for the Tiger Corps. In the whole country, at the most far-away places, units of this corps are being set up. One would hardly recognize the quiet and phlegmatic Siamese." The paramilitary movement largely disappeared by 1927, but was revived and evolved into the Volunteer Defense Corps, also called the Village Scouts. ()


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Vajiravudh's style of government differed from that of his father. In the beginning, the king continued to use his father's team and there was no sudden break in the daily routine of government. Much of the running of daily affairs was therefore in the hands of experienced and competent men. To them and their staff Siam owed many progressive steps, such as the development of a national plan for the education of the whole populace, the setting up of clinics where free vaccination was given against smallpox, and the continuing expansion of railways. However, senior posts were gradually filled with members of the king's coterie when a vacancy occurred through death, retirement, or resignation. By 1915, half the cabinet consisted of new faces. Most notable was Chao Phraya Yomarat's presence and Prince Damrong's absence. He resigned from his post as Minister of the Interior officially because of ill health, but in actuality because of friction between himself and the king.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: In 1917 Siam declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary, mainly to be favor with the British and the French. Siam's taken participation in World War I secured it a seat at the Versailles Peace Conference, and Foreign Minister Devawongse used this opportunity to argue for the repeal of 19th century treaties and the restoration of full Siamese sovereignty. The United States obliged in 1920, while France and Britain delayed until 1925. This victory gained the king some popularity, but it was soon undercut by discontent over other issues, such as his extravagance, which became more noticeable when a sharp postwar recession hit Siam in 1919. There was also concern that the king had no son, which undermined the stability of the monarchy due to the absence of heirs. Thus when Rama VI died suddenly in 1925, aged only 44, the monarchy was in a weakened state. He was succeeded by his younger brother Prajadhipok.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Unlike other states of Southeast Asia, Thailand was never formally colonised by colonial powers, although significant territory had been ceded under duress to Britain and France. Conventional perspectives attribute this to the efforts made by the monarchs of the Chakri Dynasty, particularly Rama IV and Rama V, to "modernise" the Siamese polity, and also to the relative cultural and ethnic homogeneity of the Thai nation. Rama IV (King Mongkut) opened Siam to European trade and began the process of modernisation. His son, Rama V (King Chulalongkorn), consolidated control over Thai vassal states, creating an absolute monarchy and a centralised state. The success of the Chakri monarchs would sow the seeds of the 1932 revolution and the end of the absolute monarchy. "Modernisation" mandated from above had, by the early 20th century, created a class of Western-educated Thais in the commoner and lower nobility classes, who staffed the middle and lower ranks of the nascent Siamese bureaucracy. They were influenced by the ideals of the French and Russian Revolutions. This new faction would eventually form the People's Party, the nucleus of the 1932 revolution.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Recent scholarship offers alternative perspectives that challenge conventional views of the creation of the nation. Thongchai Winichakul's hypothesis on the emergence of the "geo-body" of Siam is widely accepted by scholars in Thai and Southeast Asian studies. Thongchai argues that the traditional Hindu-Buddhist paradigms of culture, space, governance, and power were challenged by a significantly different civilisation, arising mainly from Latin Christianity tempered by the humanism of the Enlightenment. The East became increasingly described as "barbaric", "ignorant", or "inferior". The mission to "civilise" the "barbaric Asiatics" became the "raison d'être" for colonialism and imperialism. The "siwilai" ('civilise') programme in 19th century Siam was part of a strategy the Chakri monarchy adopted to justify their country's continued existence as a legitimate independent state to fend off colonial intervention. Other components involved the spatial and political reorganisation of the Siamese polity along Western lines to strengthen the state and gain recognition from the Western powers. Thongchai argues that the tactics adopted by the Siamese state were similar to those adopted by Western colonial powers in administering their colonies. Space and power were essentially redefined by the Siamese state. Autonomous and semi-autonomous mueangs were brought under the direct control of the state by the beginning of the 20th century. Cartography was employed to define national borders, replacing the vague frontiers of the Mandala kingdoms. People were assigned to ethnic groups. To promote the new Western-inspired definitions of "siwilai", the educated Siamese of the 19th century, mainly the aristocracy, began writing ethnographies and creating their own versions of the "other" to strengthen the identity of the Siamese nation by emphasising its superiority, in contrast to the barbarity of upland tribal peoples such as the Lue and the Lahu.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: These new perspectives created a politically dominant Siamese aristocracy that became increasingly powerful from the "modernisation/self-colonisation" process it initiated and directed. This seems to contradict conventional perspectives, which are based on the assumption that the Chakri absolute monarchy by the early 1930s was a relatively passive actor, due to the political weakness of Rama VI (King Vajiravudh) and Rama VII (King Prajadhipok) and crises such as the Great Depression. No longer in control of events and political developments in Siam, they were swept aside by adherents of democracy and nationalism. Revisionists counter by noting that the weaknesses of an individual monarch do not necessarily mean that the resolve and power of the traditional landed aristocracy or the so-called "Sakdina" aristocracy in maintaining its preeminence through upholding the political prerogatives of the absolute monarchy was in any way lessened. In their view, attributing the outbreak of the 1932 revolution largely to the beliefs and ambitions of the Western-educated promoters of the People's Party obscures the role played by the Siamese monarchy and aristocracy.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Unprepared for his new responsibilities, all Prajadhipok had in his favor was a lively intelligence, a charming diplomacy in his dealings with others, modesty and industrious willingness to learn, and the somewhat tarnished, but still potent, allure of the crown.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Unlike his predecessor, the king diligently read virtually all state papers that came his way, from ministerial submissions to petitions by citizens. Within half a year, only three of Vajiravudh's twelve ministers stayed put, the rest having been replaced by members of the royal family. On the one hand, these appointments brought back men of talent and experience; on the other, it signaled a return to royal oligarchy. The king obviously wanted to demonstrate a clear break with the discredited sixth reign, and the choice of men to fill the top positions appeared to be guided largely by a wish to restore a Chulalongkorn-type government.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The legacy that Prajadhipok received from his elder brother were problems of the sort that had become chronic in the Sixth Reign. The most urgent of these was the economy: the finances of the state were in chaos, the budget heavily in deficit, and the royal accounts a nightmare of debts and questionable transactions. That the rest of the world was deep in the Great Depression following World War I did not help the situation either.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Virtually the first act of Prajadipok as king entailed an institutional innovation intended to restore confidence in the monarchy and government, the creation of the Supreme Council of the State. This privy council was made up of a number of experienced and extremely competent members of the royal family, including the longtime Minister of the Interior (and Chulalongkorn's right-hand man) Prince Damrong. Gradually these princes arrogated increasing power by monopolizing all the main ministerial positions. Many of them felt it their duty to make amends for the mistakes of the previous reign, but it was not generally appreciated.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: With the help of this council, the king managed to restore stability to the economy, although at a price of making a significant number of the civil servants redundant and cutting the salary of those that remained. This was obviously unpopular among the officials, and was one of the trigger events for the coup of 1932. Prajadhipok then turned his attention to the question of future politics in Siam. Inspired by the British example, the king wanted to allow the common people to have a say in the country's affairs by the creation of a parliament. A proposed constitution was ordered to be drafted, but the king's wishes were rejected by his advisers, who felt that the population was not yet ready for democracy.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: In 1932, with the country deep in depression, the Supreme Council opted to introduce cuts in spending, including the military budget. The king foresaw that these policies might create discontent, especially in the army, and he therefore convened a special meeting of officials to explain why the cuts were necessary. In his address he stated the following, "I myself know nothing at all about finances, and all I can do is listen to the opinions of others and choose the best... If I have made a mistake, I really deserve to be excused by the people of Siam."


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: No previous monarch of Siam had ever spoken in such terms. Many interpreted the speech not as Prajadhipok apparently intended, namely as a frank appeal for understanding and cooperation. They saw it as a sign of his weakness and evidence that a system which perpetuated the rule of fallible autocrats should be abolished. Serious political disturbances were threatened in the capital, and in April the king agreed to introduce a constitution under which he would share power with a prime minister. This was not enough for the radical elements in the army, however. On 24 June 1932, while the king was at the seaside, the Bangkok garrison mutinied and seized power, led by a group of 49 officers known as "Khana Ratsadon". Thus ended 800 years of absolute monarchy.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Thai political history was little researched by Western Southeast Asian scholars in the 1950s and 1960s. Thailand, as the only nominally "native" Southeast Asian polity to escape colonial conquest, was deemed to be relatively more stable as compared with other newly independent states in Southeast Asia. It was perceived to have retained enough continuity from its "traditions", such as the institution of the monarchy, to have escaped from the chaos and troubles caused by decolonisation and to resist the encroachment of revolutionary communism. By implication, this line of argument suggests the 1932 revolution was nothing more than a coup that simply replaced the absolute monarchy and its aristocracy with a commoner elite class made up of Western-educated generals and civilian bureaucrats and essentially that there was little that was revolutionary about this event. David K. Wyatt, for instance, described the period of Thai history from 1910 to 1941 as "essentially the political working out of the social consequences of the reforms of Chulalongkorn's reign". The 1932 revolution was generally characterised as the inevitable outcome of "natural consequences of forces set in motion by Rama IV and Rama V".


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: In the early period, Rattanakosin inherited most of the bureaucratic apparatus from the late Ayutthaya. The Siamese royal court bureaucracy centred on the six ministries. The two top prime ministers of the court were "Samuha Nayok" (), the Prime Minister of Northern Siam who oversaw the "Mahatthai" or Ministry of Interior, and "Samuha Kalahom" (), the Prime Minister of Southern Siam who oversaw the "Kalahom" or Ministry of Military. Below them were the Four Ministries or "Chatusadom" ();


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Government officials were ranked by "Bandasak" () levels and the "Sakdina" (). The "Bandasak" levels determined the official's position in the bureaucratic hierarchy (see Thai nobility). The "Bandasak" levels were, in descending order; "Chaophraya", "Phraya", "Phra", "Luang", "Khun", "Meun", "Phan" and "Nai". The two top ministers, "Samuha Nayok" and "Samuha Kalahom", were always ranked "Chaophraya" in the Bangkok period. The Four Ministers of "Chatusadom" were initially ranked "Phraya" in the reign of King Rama I, with some exceptions. They were later elevated to "Chaophraya" in subsequent reigns.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: "Sakdina" is the theoretical amount of land and numerical rank accorded to an official for his position in bureaucracy, which determined the amount of production received and the severity of punishment for crime. The "Sakdina" of each every single government position was described in the Three Seals Law. For example, the "Sakdina" of "Samuha Nayok", "Samuha Kalahom" and the Four Ministers of "Chatusadom" were 10,000 "rai" each.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Cities and towns in 'Siam proper', which correspond roughly to modern Central and Southern Thailand, were organized into the 'Hierarchy of Cities', in which small towns were under the jurisdiction of larger cities. There were four levels of cities, in descending order; the "Mueang Ek" (), "Mueang Tho" (), "Mueang Tri" () and "Mueang Chattawa" (). "Mueang Ek" was the highest level of city representing regional centre. The "Mueang Ek"s in the Rattanakosin period were Nakhon Si Thammarat, which was the centre of Southern Siam, and Nakhon Ratchasima, which was the centre of the northeast. Phitsanulok, which had been the centre of Northern Siam, used to be "Mueang Ek" in the Ayutthaya period. However, Phitsanulok was largely depopulated in the early Rattanakosin due to the wars in the Thonburi period and its role as an outpost against northern Burmese invasions diminished in favor of Lanna kingdom. The cities and towns in Northern Siam were under jurisdiction of "Samuha Nayok" and Southern Siam under "Samuha Kalahom".


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The governors of cities were ranked according to the level and importance of their cities. The governors of "Mueang Ek"s were usually ranked "Chaophraya". The local bureaucracy in each city was headed by the governor. Below the governor was the vice-governor called either "Palat" () or "Tukkarat" (), Below the vice-governor was the deputy vice-governor called "Yokkrabat" (). The governorship of large cities were usually passed down through generations of the same family due to that family's important role and connections in the area.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The tributary kingdoms were called "Prathetsarat" (), each of which were political entities in its own rights and bound to Siam through the Southeast Asian political ideology of mandala system. Native culture and traditions were largely retained. The Siamese court required the periodic presentation of ceremonial golden and silver trees and the provision of other resources. In wartime, tributary kingdoms were requested to send troops or to join the war on behalf of Siam. Tributary kingdoms of the Rattanakosin included;


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The governors of large cities, in practice, were also in charge of the affairs of its adjacent tributary kingdoms. The governor of Nakhon Ratchasima was responsible for the affairs in Lao kingdoms of Vientiane and Champasak. The governor of Nakhon Si Thammarat (Ligor) was responsible for the affairs in Kedah and Kelantan. The governor of Songkhla was responsible for the affairs in Pattani and Terengganu.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Majority of the Siamese legal corpus were lost in the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767. Siamese authorities then relied on scattered legal manuscripts to operate. In 1804, a woman who was in relationship with another man successfully sued for divorce from her husband. The husband complained that the court ruling was unjustified and appealed the case to King Rama I. King Rama I then opinioned that the existing laws of Siam were corrupted and ordered the recompilation of Ayutthaya laws to rectify and cleanse or "chamra" the laws of any distortions. The physical copies were imprinted with the three seals of "Mahatthai" (north), "Kalahom" (south) and "Phrakhlang" (treasury), signifying that the laws affected kingdom-wide and became known as the Three Seals Law that served the Siamese kingdom for the next century. The Siamese laws had taken the Indic Mānu-Dharmaśāstra as its model.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The king was the sole legislator of the kingdom. His words were recorded and inscribed to become laws. There was no single unified judiciary department as cases were distributed among the judging courts of each ministries according to the concerning matter. For example, foreign trade disputes belonged to the "Kromma Tha" or Trade Ministry and land disputes belonged to "Krom Na" or Ministry of Agriculture. The "Mahatthai" maintained the appeal court that settled cases from the primary courts. Unsettled cases from outlying cities were also appealed to Bangkok. When the appeal court failed to settle the case, it would be forwarded to the king himself. Presiding over the Supreme Royal Court was a part of royal daily routines.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Siamese law court involved two sets of legal personnel: the "Lukkhun" () or council of twelve Bramanistic jurors who possessed legal knowledge and acted only as the advisory body of consultants but held no power to judge the cases and "Tralakarn" () or layman judges who carried out actual judgements under suggestions from the "Lukkhun". The "Nakhonban" or Police Bureau dealt specifically with criminal cases including murder, robbery and adultery. The "Nakhonban" employed the trial by ordeal or judiciary tortures including compression of skull, hammering of nails and entering a large rattan ball to be kicked by an elephant. These torture methods were known as the "Nakhonban" creed () and were used only in certain circumstances in criminal cases. Sometimes when the issues were not settled, defendants were made to dive into water or walk into fire to prove their guilty or innocence. Westerners were particularly horrified by these methods of judiciary tortures and sought to dissociate themselves from traditional Siamese inquisition, resulting in the granting of extraterritoriality to Western nations in the Bowring Treaty of 1855 and other subsequent treaties.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Siam had entered the Chinese tributary relationship system, in which the Chinese imperial court recognized the rulers of Siam to maintain relations, since Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods. Siamese missions to the Chinese imperial court were called "Chim Kong" (進貢 POJ: chìn-kòng "to offer gifts"). The Chinese Emperors conferred the "Hong" investitures (封 Peng'im: hong ) on Siamese monarchs as "Siamlo Kok Ong" (暹羅國王). Siamese kings did not consider themselves as submitted tributary rulers but rather as amicable gift exchangers, while the Chinese court would construe this as vassal homage from Siam. Entering the tributary relationship with China permitted the Siamese royal court to conduct lucrative commercial activities there. The Siamese court presented commodities ascribed by the imperial court as tributes to the Chinese Emperor who, in return, granted luxurious goods, which were more valuable than Siamese presented goods, in exchange. The Siamese mission to China was a profitable expenditure in itself in the view of Siamese royal court. The tributary relation with China did not have political implications in Siam as the Beijing court wielded little to no influence over Siam.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: Kings of the Chakri dynasty of the early Rattanakosin period continued the tradition of "Chim Kong". The Siamese court of Bangkok was officially recognized and invested title by the Qing court in 1787. Siam sent tributes to China once every three years. The Chakri kings used the family name "Zheng" (鄭), which was the family name of King Taksin, in diplomatic letters to China. Chinese imperial court granted the "Lokto" Seal (駱駝 ) to the Siamese king in recognition. The jaded "Lokto" Seal bore Chinese letters "Siamlo Kok Ong" with the handle sculpted in the shape of camel. On each mission, the Siamese envoys presented three letters to the Chinese court;


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The "Lokto" Seal served as confirmation of validity of the Siamese mission. Siamese envoys to China were hailed from the "Kromma Tha Sai" ( 'Department of the Left Pier') that dealt with Chinese affairs and were usually Chinese-speakers themselves. The mission consisted of three dignitaries; the First Envoy "Rachathut", the Second Envoy "Upathut", the Third Envoy "Trithut" and two translators; "Thongsue" and "Pansue". The Siamese mission took maritime journey to Guangzhou, where Chinese officials verified the "Lokto". The Siamese mission then proceeded by land to Beijing.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: By the 1830s, the Chinese junk trades declined. In 1839, Emperor Daoguang ordered Siam to send tributes once every four years instead of three years. The Treaty of Nanking of 1842, in the aftermath of First Opium War, abolished the Canton system and the British took over maritime trade in Asia. The Sino-Siamese trades shifted from junk trades based on the "Chim Kong" to the free trades using British cargoes. Upon his ascension, King Mongkut dispatched a "Chim Kong" mission to China in 1851. The mission was rejected at Guangzhou on the grounds that Emperor Xienfeng was in mourning for his father Emperor Daoguang. Another mission was re-dispatched in 1852. However, the mission was robbed by local Chinese bandits and the "Pansue" translator was killed. King Mongkut then asserted that the "Chim Kong" tradition might give misguided impression that Siam had been under political suzerainty of China and was inappropriate for an independent sovereign kingdom to conduct. King Mongkut then ordered the "Chim Kong" to be discontinued in 1863. The "Chim Kong" of 1852 was the last Siamese tribute mission to China in history.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: The Sri Lankan Kingdom of Kandy or Kandyan Kingdom, which also followed Theravada Buddhism as state religion, established diplomatic religious relation with Siam in 1753 in Ayutthaya period when Singhalese envoys arrived requesting for Siamese Buddhist monks to revitalize Buddhism in Sri Lanka. In 1815, King Rama II dispatched the religious mission to Sri Lanka. The mission to Lanka was under the responsibility of Siamese monkhood. Venerable and learned monks were selected to embark on the mission. Phraya Nakhon Noi arranged for the monks to board an Indian ship from Nakhon Si Thammarat to Sri Lanka. By that time, Sri Lanka had no king as the Singhalese Radala nobility had agreed to the British rule in the Kandyan Convention. The Siamese religious envoys reached Kandy, which was called "Singkhan" () in Thai language, in 1815. They were received by the native Singhalese Radala and monkhood and worshipped the Temple of the Tooth at Kandy and other religious sites. Siamese monks were also taken to visit Robert Brownrigg the British governor of Ceylon in Colombo. The envoys left Sri Lanka in 1816 and returned to Siam.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: King Mongkut sent another religious mission to Sri Lanka in 1852. The mission reached Galle, where they were received by the native Singhalese. Siamese monks delivered sermons to the Singhalese people. However, the Siamese monks failed to obtain the permission of British colonial government in time to travel to Kandy to worship the Temple of the Tooth and returned.


title: Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)

text: After the Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the surviving Portuguese community moved to settle on the West bank of Chao Phraya River in Thonburi in the Kudi Chin district around the Santa Cruz church. In 1786, a Portuguese envoy named Antonio de Veesent from Macau arrived in Bangkok, bearing the royal letter of Queen Maria I of Portugal from Lisbon. King Rama I offered permission to open a trading post in Bangkok in exchange for firearms supply.