title: WiMAX

text: Although WiMax was much earlier to market than LTE, LTE was an upgrade and extension of previous 3G (GSM and CDMA) standards, whereas WiMax was a relatively new and different technology without a large user base. Ultimately, LTE won the war to become the 4G standard because mobile operators such as Verizon, AT&T, Vodafone, NTT, and Deutsche Telekom chose to extend their investments in know-how, equipment and spectrum from 3G to LTE, rather than adopt a new technology standard. It would never have been cost-effective for WiMax network operators to compete against fixed-line broadband networks based on 4G technologies. By 2009, most mobile operators began to realize that mobile connectivity (not fixed 802.16e) was the future, and that LTE was going to become the new worldwide mobile connectivity standard, so they chose to wait for LTE to develop rather than switch from 3G to WiMax.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMax was a superior technology in terms of speed (roughly 25Mbit/s) for a few years (2005-2009), and it pioneered some new technologies such as MIMO. But the mobile version of WiMax (802.16m), intended to compete with GSM and CDMA technologies, was too little/too late in getting established, and by the time the LTE standard was finalized in December 2008, the fate of WiMax as a mobile solution was doomed and it was clear that LTE (not WiMax) would become the world's new 4G standard. The largest wireless broadband partner using WiMax, Clearwire, announced in 2008 that they would begin overlaying their existing WiMax network with LTE technology, which was necessary for Clearwire to obtain investments they needed to stay in business.


title: WiMAX

text: In some areas of the world, the wide availability of UMTS and a general desire for standardization meant spectrum was not allocated for WiMAX: in July 2005, the EU-wide frequency allocation for WiMAX was blocked.


title: WiMAX

text: Early WirelessMAN standards, The European standard HiperMAN and Korean standard WiBro were harmonized as part of WiMAX and are no longer seen as competition but as complementary. All networks now being deployed in South Korea, the home of the WiBro standard, are now WiMAX.


title: WiMAX

text: The following table only shows peak rates which are potentially very misleading. In addition, the comparisons listed are not normalized by physical channel size (i.e., spectrum used to achieve the listed peak rates); this obfuscates spectral efficiency and net through-put capabilities of the different wireless technologies listed below.


title: WiMAX

text: The IEEE 802.16m-2011 standard was the core technology for WiMAX 2. The IEEE 802.16m standard was submitted to the ITU for IMT-Advanced standardization. IEEE 802.16m is one of the major candidates for IMT-Advanced technologies by ITU. Among many enhancements, IEEE 802.16m systems can provide four times faster data speed than the WiMAX Release 1.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX Release 2 provided backward compatibility with Release 1. WiMAX operators could migrate from release 1 to release 2 by upgrading channel cards or software. The WiMAX 2 Collaboration Initiative was formed to help this transition.


title: WiMAX

text: It was anticipated that using 4X2 MIMO in the urban microcell scenario with only a single 20 MHz TDD channel available system wide, the 802.16m system can support both 120 Mbit/s downlink and 60 Mbit/s uplink per site simultaneously.


title: WiMAX

text: WiMAX Release 2.1 was released in early-2010s which have broken compatibility with earlier WiMAX networks. Significant number of operators have migrated to the new standard that is compatible with TD-LTE by the end of 2010s.


title: WiMAX

text: A field test conducted in 2007 by SUIRG (Satellite Users Interference Reduction Group) with support from the U.S. Navy, the Global VSAT Forum, and several member organizations yielded results showing interference at 12 km when using the same channels for both the WiMAX systems and satellites in C-band.


title: WiMAX

text: As of October 2010, the WiMAX Forum claimed over 592 WiMAX (fixed and mobile) networks deployed in over 148 countries, covering over 621 million people. By February 2011, the WiMAX Forum cited coverage of over 823 million people, and estimated coverage to over 1 billion people by the end of the year. Note that coverage means the offer of availability of WiMAX service to populations within various geographies, not the number of WiMAX subscribers.


title: WiMAX

text: South Korea launched a WiMAX network in the second quarter of 2006. By the end of 2008 there were 350,000 WiMAX subscribers in Korea.


title: WiMAX

text: Worldwide, by early 2010 WiMAX seemed to be ramping quickly relative to other available technologies, though access in North America lagged.


title: WiMAX

text: Yota, the largest WiMAX network operator in the world in 4Q 2009, announced in May 2010 that it would move new network deployments to LTE and, subsequently, change its existing networks as well.


title: WiMAX

text: A study published in September 2010 by Blycroft Publishing estimated 800 management contracts from 364 WiMAX operations worldwide offering active services (launched or still trading as opposed to just licensed and still to launch). The WiMAX Forum announced on Aug 16, 2011 that there were more than 20 million WiMAX subscribers worldwide, the high-water mark for this technology. http://wimaxforum.org/Page/News/PR/20110816_WiMAX_Subscriptions_Surpass_20_Million_Globally


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Dimethylmercury ((CH)Hg) is an extremely toxic organomercury compound. A highly volatile, reactive, flammable, and colorless liquid, dimethylmercury is one of the strongest known neurotoxins, with a quantity of less than 0.1 mL capable of inducing severe mercury poisoning resulting in death, and is easily absorbed through the skin. Dimethylmercury is capable of permeating many materials, including plastic and rubber compounds. It has a slightly sweet odor.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: The compound was one of the earliest organometallics reported, reflecting its considerable stability. The compound was first prepared by George Buckton in 1857 by a reaction of methylmercury iodide with potassium cyanide:


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Later, Frankland discovered that it could be synthesized by treating sodium amalgam with methyl halides:


title: Dimethylmercury

text: An unusual feature of this compound is its low reactivity towards proton sources, being stable in water and reacting with mineral acids at a significant rate only at elevated temperatures, whereas the corresponding organocadmium and organozinc compounds (and most metal alkyls in general) hydrolyze rapidly. The difference reflects the high electronegativity of Hg (Pauling EN = 2.00) low affinity of Hg(II) for oxygen ligands. The compound undergoes a redistribution reaction with mercuric chloride to give methylmercury chloride:


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Dimethylmercury currently has few applications because of the risks involved. As with many methyl-organometallics, it is a methylating agent that can donate its methyl groups to an organic molecule; however, the development of less toxic nucleophiles such as dimethylzinc, trimethylaluminium, and Grignard reagents (organomagnesium halides), has essentially rendered this compound obsolete in organic chemistry. It was also studied for reactions involving bonding methylmercury cations to target molecules, forming potent bactericides, but methylmercury's bioaccumulation and ultimate toxicity has led it to be largely abandoned in favor of the less toxic ethylmercury and diethylmercury compounds, which perform a similar function without the bioaccumulation hazard.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: In toxicology, it still finds limited use as a reference toxin. It is also used to calibrate NMR instruments for detection of mercury (δ 0 ppm for Hg NMR), although diethylmercury and less toxic mercury salts are now preferred.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Dimethylmercury is extremely toxic and dangerous to handle. Absorption of doses as low as 0.1 mL can result in severe mercury poisoning. The risks are enhanced because of the compound's high vapor pressure. Medicinal chemist Derek Lowe called it "deadly and hideous" in a 2013 article.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Permeation tests showed that several types of disposable latex or polyvinyl chloride gloves (typically, about 0.1 mm thick), commonly used in most laboratories and clinical settings, had high and maximal rates of permeation by dimethylmercury within 15 seconds. The American Occupational Safety and Health Administration advises handling dimethylmercury with highly resistant laminated gloves with an additional pair of abrasion-resistant gloves worn over the laminate pair, and also recommends using a face shield and working in a fume hood.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Dimethylmercury is metabolized after several days to methylmercury. Methylmercury crosses the blood–brain barrier easily, probably owing to formation of a complex with cysteine. It is not quickly eliminated from the organism, and therefore has a tendency to bioaccumulate. The symptoms of poisoning may be delayed by months, resulting in cases in which a diagnosis is ultimately discovered, but only at a point in which it is too late or almost too late for an effective treatment regimen to be successful. Methylmercury poisoning is also known as Minamata disease.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: As early as 1865, two workers in the laboratory of Frankland died after exhibiting progressive neurological symptoms following accidental exposure to the compound.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: Karen Wetterhahn, a professor of chemistry at Dartmouth College, died in 1997, ten months after spilling only a few drops of dimethylmercury onto her latex gloves. This incident resulted in improved safety procedures for chemical-protection clothing and fume hood use.


title: Dimethylmercury

text: On 15 July 2011, a German man was stabbed with an umbrella in the city of Hanover, Germany. The man, who died a year later, had managed to take the syringe from the umbrella, which was later analyzed to contain dimethylmercury; the reported cause of death was mercury poisoning.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycobacterium is a genus of over 190 species in the phylum Actinomycetota, assigned its own family, Mycobacteriaceae. This genus includes pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including tuberculosis ("M. tuberculosis") and leprosy ("M. leprae") in humans. The Greek prefix "myco-" means 'fungus', alluding to this genus' mold-like colony surfaces. Since this genus has cell walls with Gram-positive and Gram-negative features, acid-fast staining is used to emphasize their resistance to acids, compared to other cell types.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycobacteria are aerobic with 0.2-0.6 µm wide and 1.0-10 µm long rod shapes. They are generally non-motile, except for the species "Mycobacterium marinum", which has been shown to be motile within macrophages. Mycobacteria possess capsules and most do not form endospores. "M. marinum" and perhaps "M. bovis" have been shown to sporulate; however, this has been contested by further research. The distinguishing characteristic of all "Mycobacterium" species is a thick, hydrophobic, and mycolic acid-rich cell wall made of peptidoglycan and arabinogalactan, with these unique components offering targets for new tuberculosis drugs.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Many "Mycobacterium" species readily grow with minimal nutrients, using ammonia and/or amino acids as nitrogen sources and glycerol as a carbon source in the presence of mineral salts. Temperatures for optimal growth vary between species and media conditions, ranging from 25-45°C.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Most "Mycobacterium" species, including most clinically relevant species, can be cultured in blood agar. However, some species grow very slowly due to extremely long reproductive cycles, such as "M. leprae" requiring 12 days per division cycle compared to 20 minutes for some "E. coli" strains.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Whereas "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" and "M. leprae" are pathogenic, most mycobacteria do not cause disease unless they enter skin lesions of those with pulmonary and/or immune dysfunction, despite being widespread across aquatic and terrestrial environments. Through biofilm formation, cell wall resistance to chlorine, and association with amoebas, mycobacteria can survive a variety of environmental stressors. The agar media used for most water testing does not support the growth of mycobacteria, allowing it to go undetected in municipal and hospital systems.


title: Mycobacterium

text: "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" can remain latent in human hosts, decades after an initial infection, to continue infecting others. It has been estimated that a third of the world population has latent tuberculosis (TB). "M. tuberculosis" has many virulence factors, which can be divided across lipid and fatty acid metabolism, cell envelope proteins, macrophage inhibitors, kinase proteins, proteases, metal-transporter proteins, and gene expression regulators.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycobacteria have cell walls with peptidoglycan, arabinogalactan, and mycolic acid; a waxy outer mycomembrane of mycolic acid; and an outermost capsule of glucans and secreted proteins for virulence. It constantly remodels these layers to survive in stressful environments and avoid host immune defenses. This unique structure makes penicillins ineffective, instead requiring a multi-drug antibiotic treatment of isoniazid to inhibit mycolic acid synthesis, rifampicin to interfere with transcription, ethambutol to hinder arabinogalactan synthesis, and pyrazinamide to impede Coenzyme A synthesis.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Comparative analyses of mycobacterial genomes have identified several conserved indels and signature proteins that are uniquely found in all sequenced species from the genus "Mycobacterium". Additionally, 14 proteins are found only in the species from the genera "Mycobacterium" and "Nocardia", suggesting that these two genera are closely related.


title: Mycobacterium

text: The genomes of some mycobacteria are quite large, such as "M. vulneris" encoding 6,653 proteins, larger than the ~6000 proteins of eukaryotic yeast.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycobacteria have historically been categorized through phenotypic testing, such as the Runyon classification of analyzing growth rate and production of yellow/orange carotenoid pigments. Group I contains photochromogens (pigment production induced by light), Group II comprises scotochromogens (constitutive pigment production), and the non-chromogens of Groups III and IV have a pale yellow/tan pigment, regardless of light exposure. Group IV species are "rapidly-growing" mycobacteria compared to the "slowly-growing" species because samples grow into visible colonies in less than seven days.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Because the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (ICNP) currently recognizes 195 "Mycobacterium" species, classification and identification systems now rely on DNA sequencing and computational phylogenetics. The major disease-causing groups are the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (tuberculosis), Mycobacterium avium complex (mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection), "M. leprae" and "M. lepromatosis" (leprosy), and Mycobacterium abscessus (chronic lung infection).


title: Mycobacterium

text: Microbiologist Enrico Tortoli has constructed a phylogentic tree of the genus' key species based on the earlier genetic sequencing of Rogall, et al. (1990), alongside new phylogentic trees based on Tortoli's 2017 sequencing of 148 "Mycobacterium" species:


title: Mycobacterium

text: Gupta "et al." have proposed dividing "Mycobacterium" into five genera, based on an analysis of 150 species in this genus. Due to controversy over complicating clinical diagnoses and treatment, all of the renamed species have retained their original identity in the "Mycobacterium" genus as a valid taxonomic synonym:


title: Mycobacterium

text: The two most common methods for visualizing these acid-fast bacilli as bright red against a blue background are the Ziehl-Neelsen stain and modified Kinyoun stain. Fite's stain is used to color "M. leprae" cells as pink against a blue background. Rapid Modified Auramine O Florescent staining has specific binding to slowly-growing mycobacteria for yellow staining against a dark background. Newer methods include Gomori-Methenamine Silver staining and Perioidic Acid Schiff staining to color "Mycobacterium avium complex" (MAC) cells black and pink, respectively.


title: Mycobacterium

text: While some mycobacteria can take up to eight weeks to grow visible colonies from a cultured sample, most clinically relevant species will grow within the first four weeks, allowing physicians to consider alternative causes if negative readings continue past the first month.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycobacteria can be infected by mycobacteriophages, a class of viruses with high specificity for their targets. By hijacking the cellular machinery of mycobacteria to produce additional phages, such viruses can be used in phage therapy for eukaryotic hosts, as they would die alongside the mycobacteria. Since only some mycobacteriophages are capable of penetrating the "M. tuberculosis" membrane, the viral DNA may be delivered through artificial liposomes because bacteria uptake, transcribe, and translate foreign DNA into proteins.


title: Mycobacterium

text: Mycosides are glycolipids isolated from "Mycobacterium" species with Mycoside A found in photochromogenic strains, Mycoside B in bovine strains, and Mycoside C in avian strains. Different forms of Mycoside C have varying success as a receptor to inactivate mycobacteriophages. Replacement of the gene encoding mycocerosic acid synthase in "M. bovis" prevents formation of mycosides.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: Daniel Peter O'Herlihy (May 1, 1919 – February 17, 2005) was an Irish actor of film, television, and radio. With a distinguished appearance and rich, resonant speaking voice, O'Herlihy's best known-roles included his Oscar-nominated portrayal of the lead character in Luis Buñuel's "Robinson Crusoe" (1954), Brigadier General Warren A. Black in "Fail Safe" (1964), Marshal Ney in "Waterloo" (1970), Conal Cochran in "" (1982), Grig in "The Last Starfighter" in (1984), "The Old Man" in "RoboCop" (1987) and its 1990 sequel, and Andrew Packard in the television series "Twin Peaks" (1990–91).


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy was born in Wexford, County Wexford in 1919, but moved with his family to Dublin when he was young. He was educated at Christian Brothers College in Dún Laoghaire and later studied at University College Dublin, graduating in 1944 with a degree in architecture, following in his father's footsteps.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: He developed a keen interest in acting during his university studies. He joined several amateur theatre groups and joined the Abbey Theatre as a bit player. After graduating from the university, he decided to pursue acting full-time, working at the Abbey and Gate Theatre, first as a set designer, then later as an actor.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy's first acting role came in 1944, when he played the lead in the Gate's production of "Red Roses For Me", written and directed by Seán O'Casey. He appeared in some fifty plays at the Gate. He made his film debut in Carol Reed's "Odd Man Out" in 1947, which was shot on-location in Belfast, and also worked extensively in radio. His first American film role was as Macduff in Orson Welles' version of "Macbeth" (1948).


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: In 1952, he starred in the Red Scare film "Invasion, U.S.A." and, in 1954 in Luis Buñuel's "Robinson Crusoe", which earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. O'Herlihy recalled that the producers of the film wanted Buñuel to use Orson Welles for the role, with Buñuel refusing, saying he was too big and too fat. They arranged a screening of Welles' "Macbeth" to show how a bearded Welles would look but Buñuel demanded O'Herlihy who appeared in the film.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy was later featured in "The Young Land" in 1959 as Judge Millard Isham. In 1960, he played Sir Harry Ivers, an upper-class English drifter who joins Alan Ladd in a plot to ruin an Arizona cattle town by robbing its bank in the western "One Foot in Hell". In 1964, he starred in "Fail Safe" in the role of General Black, or "Blackie". In 1969, he was cast in "The Big Cube" and "100 Rifles". In 1970, he starred in the epic "Waterloo", playing the part of Michel Ney, the marshal of France. In 1982, he starred in "" as Conal Cochran and in 1984, he appeared in "The Last Starfighter" as Grig, Alex Rogan's reptilian copilot, navigator, and sidekick. In 1986's "The Whoopee Boys" he played a judge and in 1987, he appeared in "RoboCop" as "The Old Man". That same year, he was cast in John Huston's "The Dead". In 1990, he appeared in "RoboCop 2", the sequel to the 1987 film.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy had a fairly extensive career in television, having appeared on "Rawhide", "The DuPont Show with June Allyson", "Adventures in Paradise", and "". He portrayed Larry "Ace" Banner in the first season of "The Untouchables" in the episode titled "The Big Squeeze". He was cast as Stephen Jordan in the last season of "Checkmate" episode " "Referendum on Murder". He also appeared on "The Americans" and "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." in the episodes "The Fiddlesticks Affair" and "The Yo-Ho-Ho and a Bottle of Rum Affair" and on "Route 66" in the episode "To Walk with the Serpent". In 1962, he was cast as Glenn Kassin in "The Earth Mover" episode of "Empire". He appeared on "Bonanza" (Episode: "The Artist" as Matthew Raine).


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: In 1963–1964, he was in "The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters". On "The Long, Hot Summer", O'Herlihy became the lead star, having replaced Edmond O'Brien in the part of Will Varner midway through the program's one-season run. In 1966, he appeared in the episode "Have You Seen the Aurora Borealis?" of "The Road West", starring Barry Sullivan. In 1974, he appeared in "QB VII" and played the Senior American Officer, Col. Max Dodd in the second series of BBC's POW drama "Colditz". In 1976, he guest-starred in an episode of "Gibbsville". In 1978, he guest-starred in the second part of the "Battlestar Galactica" episode "Gun on Ice Planet Zero" as Dr. Ravishol. O'Herlihy also portrayed the ill-fated lumber tycoon Andrew Packard in the cult television program "Twin Peaks" (1991) and in the "" episode "Deep Freeze", voicing the villainous theme park mogul Grant Walker. In 1998, O'Herlihy acted in his last film, "The Rat Pack", playing Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: Dan O'Herlihy married Elsie Bennett in 1945. He was the brother of director Michael O'Herlihy and the father of actor Gavan O'Herlihy, visual artist Olwen O'Herlihy, and architect Lorcan O'Herlihy. He and his wife had nine grandchildren and six great-grandchildren. One grandchild, Mica O'Herlihy, is a filmmaker whose work has been shown at the Sundance Film Festival. Another, Alana O'Herlihy, is a photographer and director who has collaborated with Miley Cyrus.


title: Dan O'Herlihy

text: O'Herlihy died of natural causes in Malibu, California in 2005, aged 85. His personal papers are held in the University College Dublin Archives.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Mitsubishi Starion is a two-door, turbocharged four-cylinder rear-wheel drive four-seat hatchback sports car manufactured and marketed by Mitsubishi from 1982-1989 — with badge engineered variants marketed in North America as the Conquest, under the Chrysler, Dodge, and Plymouth brands.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Starion was one of the first modern Japanese turbocharged performance automobiles with electronic fuel injection, following the earlier Isuzu 117 Coupé.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Mitsubishi began marketing the Starion in 1982, during a period in which a number of Japanese grand tourer (GT) sports cars were available, including the Nissan Z cars, Mazda RX-7, Toyota Supra and to a lesser extent, the Honda Prelude, Isuzu Piazza and Subaru XT.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Starion was marketed in the US as the Mitsubishi Starion and badge engineered variants of it were marketed as the Dodge, Plymouth and Chrysler Conquest. In the UK it was sold as the Colt Starion.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: It was manufactured in two body configurations, a narrowbody and widebody; the narrower style complied with Japanese exterior dimension regulations taxing larger vehicles and engine displacement exceeding two liters. Only the narrowbody was offered through the 1985.5 model year.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The introduction of the widebody also split the car into two ranges: a non-intercooled lower-horsepower car using the narrow body style and a high-performance intercooled widebody. In most markets, widebody cars were given the label of Starion ESI-R or Conquest TSi. Markets that never received the widebody had the ESI-R label, these cars had similar performance as the widebodies. Widebody cars were offered in 1986-1989 model years in the US.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Mitsubishi says "Starion" is a contraction of "Star of Arion" — and refers to both a star and the mythical horse, Arion.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The cover of the original Japanese Starion sales brochure, published by Mitsubishi (May 1982) carried the text: "the name STARION — derived from the combination of star and Arion, Hercules' horse in Greek mythology, symbolizes a sense of the universe, and of power and high performance."


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Several sources attribute the name to struggles by Japanese engineers to pronounce the word stallion. An early Japanese television commercial for the Starion closed with a logo of a stallion's head with the word "Starion" below it. One translation of the voiceover says the name refers to a star and the mythical horse, Arion. The Mitsubishi Colt and Mitsubishi Eclipse featured equine names, with the Eclipse named after the champion racehorse.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Starion uses a traditional front-mounted engine with rear-wheel drive layout. Many came with a limited slip differential and anti-lock brakes (single channel, rear wheels only) as standard features. The entire chassis was derived from the previous high-performance variant of the Mitsubishi Sapporo or Mitsubishi Galant Lambda sports coupé, with a MacPherson strut suspension and sway bars that were fitted to the front and rear. Rack and pinion steering was not offered, instead gearbox steering was standard on all models.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Engine capacity differed between markets. American customers received the larger SOHC Astron G54B 2.6 L engine. Most markets received the SOHC 2.0 L Sirius G63B engine, subsequently featured in DOHC form in later Mitsubishi sport compacts such as the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution. Both the 2.0 L and the 2.6 L produced roughly the same horsepower, the larger 2.6 L did have a slight torque advantage and the 2.0L had a higher redline. Reporters of the time considered the 2.0l to be peaky and exciting, while the American market 2.6l had plenty of torque, but was less rewarding. Both engines featured computer-controlled fuel injection and turbocharging. After 1987, European Starion models were also fitted with the 2.6 L engine, as was the GSR-VR for Japan. The move to the 2.6 L in all markets was spurred by emissions restrictions around the world tightening to meet the American standards for lead in fuels. Reviews during the change were negative as many felt the car was slower, for most of these markets this was the case as the engine change also coincided with a move to the heavier body style.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: From 1984 until 1987 in Japan a 12-valve (two intake, one exhaust) SOHC intercooled version of the 2.0 L G63B was made available in the top-spec GSR-V (and some GSR-VR) trim grade Starions. This setup was known as the Dual Action Super Head (or DASH for short) due to its ability to activate the third intake valve above a certain RPM, thereby increasing top end response, flow and overall engine performance. Redline was increased to 7000 rpm on these models.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Horsepower varied between depending mostly upon the turbocharger that was fitted, the presence of an intercooler, and whether the 8-valve or 12-valve head was used.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: A naturally aspirated version known as the GX was offered in the Japanese market, with production ending in 1983. The Starion GX was offered without power windows, air conditioning, independent rear suspension, fuel injection or power-assisted steering.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Seating was a 2+2 with rear seats unsuitable for large adults. The front seats were adjustable for lumbar, angle, knee support, position and featured variable-angle side-braces.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Front seat belts were located in the doors for the driver and front passenger. 1987 and later American models featured electrically operated seat belts. Newer models also featured power windows that remained powered up to 30 seconds after the engine was turned off. In Japan, some of the early cars built still featured fender-mounted mirrors in the traditional Japanese style.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: A five-speed manual transmission was standard in most models, however, an automatic transmission was sold as an option in some markets.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Later upgrades to the model included an intercooler, five-lug wheels replacing the four-bolt wheels it had shared with the rear wheel drive Mitsubishi Galant Lambda, rear power train changes from four- to six-bolt axles, various fuel management upgrades and upgrades to the transmission.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Towards the end of the models US run a widebody could be bought with a "Sports Handling Package" or SHP. This included adjustable front and rear struts and 1 inch wider wheels (from 16 x 7 to 16 x 8 front and 16 x 8 to 16 x 9 rear). The SHP was only offered during the '88 and '89 model years. The package can be retro fitted to earlier pre-widebody cars but include converting to 5 lug hubs from the 4 lug hubs.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The drag coefficient was around 0.32, superior to the Mazda RX-7 and the Nissan 300ZX upon its release.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Notable upgrades included multi-port injection (MPI) consisting of standalone engine management (programmable computers) to control individual fuel injectors, one per cylinder versus the stock PCI-ECM two injector system. Two injector systems, primary (idle injector) and secondary (boost injector) non-sequential firing ('83-'86) and sequential firing ('87-'89).


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: Australian vehicles were mostly similar to the European Turbo specification. The J codes below denote the model version, and are found on the Australian Vehicle Information Plates.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: It was marketed in North America by Mitsubishi as the Starion from 1983 until 1989. It was also sold as a captive import by Chrysler as the Conquest, under both the Dodge and Plymouth names from 1984 to 1986 and only under the Chrysler name from 1987 until 1989. For model year 1987, the Conquest featured front occupant passive belts.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Conquest used the 2.6 L G54B engine with TD05-12A MHI (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) turbocharger. The TD05-12A (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) turbocharger was also fitted to the earlier, non-intercooled narrow-body models, producing .


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: 2.0 L G63B engine with MHI TC06-11A turbocharger, apart from GSR-VR which has 2.6 L G54B engine with TC05-12A turbocharger.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: With the exception of Australia, many models were available as either narrow-body or wide-body shell styles.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Starion was a prominent competitor in motorsports up to International level during the 1980s and performed well on the circuit in Group A and Group N races of the era. Andy McLennan driving a Simmons Drums sponsored Starion was very successful, picking up many race wins and a Monroe championship, this against the semi works car of Colin Blower. In the Netherlands, John Hugenholtz won the over 2L class in the Dutch Championship, with the Colin Blower-prepared Mitsubishi Dealers car. In the United States, the Starion became best known for successes in endurance racing. Starions from Dave Wolin's Team Mitsubishi, with turbocharged 2.6 L G54B engines built by noted Lotus engine guru Dave Vegher, captured the prestigious "Longest Day of Nelson Ledges" 24-hour endurance race four years running from 1984 through 1987. Team Mitsubishi Starions also won the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) U.S. Endurance Championships three of those four years, competing against the fully factory-backed (Wolin's team was only partially sponsored by Mitsubishi) efforts from Chrysler, Audi, Nissan and Mazda. Although not commonly seen in modern motorsports, a number are still raced on both circuit and in special stage rally events, usually by privateers.


title: Mitsubishi Starion

text: The Starion was not very successful off-road, but found victory in Group A World Rally Championships and Asia Pacific Rally Championships during 1987 and 1988. An all wheel drive version of the Starion was also produced for Group B specifications (one of the few Japanese automobile manufacturers to enter this class), but after an encouraging start as a prototype, it was not homologated before the FIA banned Group B cars for safety reasons. The Starion was converted to all wheel drive by adding a strengthened transfer case from a Pajero behind the transmission. This configuration allowed the engine to be situated well back in the chassis, for improved front/rear weight distribution compared to the Audi Quattro, whose configuration required the engine to be far forward in the car. Although the wheelbase did not change, the use of regular headlights rather than the production model's pop-up headlights allowed the nose to be six inches shorter, as well as saving several pounds in weight. Further weight was saved by the use of carbon fiber for the driveshafts, sumpguard, and lower arms of the suspension, and fiberglass for the hood (bonnet), tailgate, door skins, fenders, bumpers and spoilers, resulting in a final weight of less than , lighter than the Audi Quattro. The car was developed with a turbocharged and intercooled version of Mitsubishi's 2.0 L fuel injected engine, but the final goal was to use a turbocharged and intercooled version of the Sirius Dash engine that Mitsubishi announced at the 1983 Tokyo Motor Show, which switched electronically at 2500 rpm from one inlet valve per cylinder to two. The car was campaigned for Mitsubishi by Team Ralliart in Essex, Great Britain, under rally veteran Andrew Cowan and engineer Alan Wilkinson, who had developed the Audi Quattro for Audi Sport UK.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup (officially Arup Group Limited) is a British multinational professional services firm headquartered in London which provides design, engineering, architecture, planning, and advisory services across every aspect of the built environment. The firm employs approximately 16,000 staff in over 90 offices across 35 countries around the world. Arup has participated in projects in over 160 countries.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup was originally established in 1946 by Sir Ove Arup as "Ove N. Arup Consulting Engineers". Through its involvement in various high-profile projects, such as the Sydney Opera House, Arup became well known for undertaking complex and challenging projects involving the built environment. In 1970, Arup stepped down from actively leading the company, setting out the principles which have continued to guide Arup's activities since in his 'Key Speech'.


title: Arup Group

text: The ownership of Arup is structured as a trust. The beneficiaries of the trust are Arup's employees, both past and present, who receive a share of the firm's operating profit each year.


title: Arup Group

text: The company was founded in London in 1946 as "Ove N. Arup Consulting Engineers" by Sir Ove Arup. Arup had established himself in the 1930s as an expert in reinforced concrete, known for projects such as the Penguin Pool at London Zoo. According to the architectural author Ian Volner, Arup's vision when establishing the company came out of a combination of his wartime experiences and a progressive-minded philosophy broadly aligning with early modernism, was for the organisation to be a force for peace and social betterment in the postwar world. To this end, it would employ professionals of diverse disciplines that could work together to produce projects of greater quality than was achievable by them working in isolation, a concept known as 'Total Design'.


title: Arup Group

text: As the company grew, Arup spurned the common practice amongst its rivals of acquiring other companies; instead, it pursued natural growth, opening up new offices at locations where the potential for work had been identified.


title: Arup Group

text: During 1963, together with the architect Philip Dowson, a new division of the company, Arup Associates, was formed.


title: Arup Group

text: Within 25 years of its establishment, the firm had become well known for its design work for the built environment, acquiring a reputation for its competence at undertaking projects that were structurally and/or logistically complex. Arup himself worked on multiple projects during the firm's early years, including the Sydney Opera House, where he was lead engineer, and which author Peter Jones credited with launching Arup into the premier league of engineering consultancies. The Opera House was the first application of computer calculations to an engineering project, using the Ferranti Pegasus computer to generate models.


title: Arup Group

text: During Arup's lifetime, the company would also work on high-profile projects such as the 'inside-out' Centre Pompidou with Rogers & Piano, and the HSBC headquarters with Norman Foster & Partners.


title: Arup Group

text: 1970 was a particularly transformative year for the firm; 24 years after founding the company, Arup opted to retire from actively leading the company. At the time, the firm (then "Ove" "Arup & Partners") was made up of several independent practices spread across the globe, so prior to his departure, Arup delivered his 'Key Speech' on 9 July in Winchester to all his partners from the various practices. The speech set out the aims of the firm and identified the principles of governance by which they might be achieved. These included quality of work, total architecture, humane organisation, straight and honorable dealings, social usefulness, and the reasonable prosperity of its members.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup's philosophy work on influential projects was the subject of a dedicated retrospective at the V&A Museum in 2016.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup is an employee-owned business, with all staff owning a stake in the company and part of a global profit share.


title: Arup Group

text: By 2013, Arup was operating 90 offices across 60 countries around the world. These offices are elaborately interconnected by shared internet-based collaborative working packages and communication systems that can, where required, enable a single project to be worked on by multiple offices across a seamless, 24-hour working cycle. However, it is more common for individual offices to specialise in working on an assigned subsection of a project rather than continuously exchanging.


title: Arup Group

text: The BBC Television and RIBA documentary "The Brits who Built the Modern World" highlighted Arup's collaboration with architects and described Arup as "the engineering firm which Lord Norman Foster and his peers Lord Richard Rogers, Sir Nicholas Grimshaw, Sir Michael Hopkins and Sir Terry Farrell most frequently relied upon."


title: Arup Group

text: The firm has published an annual sustainability report since 2008, and is involved in several projects around the world aiming to cut greenhouse gas emissions, such as Dongtan Eco-City, which is planned to be zero waste, and the High Speed 2 Interchange Station, which is the first railway station in the world to achieve BREEAM 'outstanding certification.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup also runs community engagement programmes comprising initiatives to combat homelessness, improve sanitation in disaster relief programmes, and disaster recovery after earthquakes. They also engage in partnerships with governments, NGOs, think tanks, and other advocacy groups.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup had its own sports division, specialising in designing, consulting and structural engineering for sporting facilities such as stadia. Many of Arup's modern stadia are designed with a contemporary, distinctive edge and the company strives to revolutionise stadium architecture and performance. For instance, the Bird's Nest Stadium for the 2008 Olympics was complimented for its striking architectural appearance and the City of Manchester Stadium for the 2002 Commonwealth Games has stairless entry to the upper tiers through circular ramps outside the stadium. The most notable stadium projects led by Arup remain the City of Manchester Stadium (2002), Allianz Arena (2005), Beijing National Stadium (2008), Donbass Arena (2009) and the Singapore Sports Hub (2014).


title: Arup Group

text: The firm is consistently placed amongst top performers in Corporate and Social Responsibility rankings such as the ACCSR.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup's multidisciplinary sports venue design and engineering scope on the Singapore Sports Hub won the 2013 World Architecture Festival Award in the Future Projects, Leisure Category.


title: Arup Group

text: The Casa da Música, Oporto, designed by Arup and Office for Metropolitan Architecture was nominated for the 2007 Stirling Prize.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup's work with The Druk White Lotus School, Ladakh, won them Large Consultancy Firm of the Year 2003 at the British Consultants and Construction Bureau – International Expertise Awards, 2003 building on their triple win at the 2002 World Architecture Awards.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup was awarded the Worldaware Award for Innovation for its Vawtex air system in Harare International School.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup won the Gold Medal for Architecture at the National Eisteddfod of Wales of 1998 for their work on the Control Techniques Research and Development HQ, in Newtown, Powys.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup Fire has won the Fire Safety Engineering Design award four times since its creation in 2001. The 2001 inaugural award was won for Arup's contribution to the Eden Project in Cornwall, UK, the world's largest greenhouse. In 2004, the design for London's City Hall was appointed joint winner. In 2005, the Temple Mills Eurostar Depot won. The 2006 winning entry was for Amethyst House, a nine-storey building with an atrium from the ground to the top, in Manchester, UK.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup was awarded the 2010 Live Design Excellence Award for Theatre Design for the integrated theatre and acoustic team's design for the new Jerome Robbins Theatre, created for Mikhail Baryshnikov and The Wooster Group.


title: Arup Group

text: The Evelyn Grace Academy, London designed by Zaha Hadid Architects and Arup won the RIBA Stirling Prize in 2011.


title: Arup Group

text: Barbara Lane, associate director with Arup, won the Royal Academy of Engineering Silver Medal in 2008 for her outstanding contribution to British engineering on design of structures for fire.


title: Arup Group

text: Arup Fellow is a lifelong honorary title awarded to selected honorary individuals in the firm. It acknowledges the highest design and technical achievements of people, not only within the firm, but also in the industry as a whole. They are considered role models who possess world-class expertise who put theory into effective practice.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Farīd al-Dīn Masʿūd Ganj-i-Shakar ( ; – 7 May 1266) was a 13th-century Punjabi Sunni Muslim preacher and mystic, who was one of the most revered and distinguished Muslim mystics of the medieval period. He is known reverentially as Bābā Farīd or Shaikh Farīd by Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs of the Punjab Region, or simply as Farīduddīn Ganjshakar.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Fariduddin Masud was born in 1188 (573 AH) in Kothewal, 10 km from Multan in the Punjab region, to Jamāl-ud-dīn Suleimān and Maryam Bībī (Qarsum Bībī), daughter of Wajīh-ud-dīn Khojendī.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Baba Farid received his early education at Multan, which had become a centre for Muslim education. There he met his teacher Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, who was passing through Multan on his way from Baghdad to Delhi.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Once his education was over, he moved to Delhi, where he learned the Islamic doctrine from his master, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. He later moved to Hansi, Haryana. When Quṭbuddīn Bakhtiyār Kākī died in 1235, Farīd left Hansi and became his spiritual successor, and he settled in Ajodhan (the present Pakpattan, Pakistan) instead of Delhi.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: The small Shrine of Baba Farid is made of white marble with two doors, one facing east and called the Nūrī Darwāza or 'Gate of Light', and the second facing north called Bahishtī Darwāza, or 'Gate of Paradise'. There is also a long covered corridor. Inside the tomb are two white marbled graves. One is Baba Farid's, and the other is his elder son's. These graves are always covered by sheets of cloth called "Chaddars"' (the green coloured chaddars are covered with Islamic verses), and flowers that are brought by visitors. The space inside the tomb is limited; not more than ten people can be inside at one time. Women are not allowed inside the tomb, but the late Benazir Bhutto, then Prime Minister of Pakistan, was permitted to enter inside by the shrine guardians, when she visited the shrine. Another rare exceptional case was the late Hajjah Kainz Hussain of Jhelum, wife of the late Haji Manzoor Hussain, who was allowed inside the tomb and was given a "Chaddar".


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Charity food called "Langar" is distributed all day to visitors here and the Auqaf Department, which administers the shrine. The shrine is open all day and night for visitors. The shrine has its own huge electricity generator that is used whenever there is power cut or loadshedding, so the shrine remains bright all night, all year round. There is no separation of male and female areas but a small female area is also available. There is a big new mosque in the shrine. Thousands of people daily visit the shrine for their wishes and unresolvable matters; for this they vow to give to some charity when their wishes or problems are resolved. When their matters are solved they bring charity food for visitors and the poor, and drop money in big money boxes that are kept for this purpose. This money is collected by the Auqaf Department of the Government of Pakistan that looks after the shrine.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: In great old holy city of Jerusalem, there is a place called "Al-Hindi Serai" or "Indian hospice" (Indian lodge or shrine), where it is claimed Baba Farid lived for many years in the early 13th century, almost 800 years ago. Baba Farid walked into Jerusalem around the year 1200, little more than a decade after the armies of Saladin had forced the Crusaders out of Jerusalem. The place is now a pilgrim lodge for people of the Indian sub-continent. It is claimed that this building is currently cared for by the 94-year-old caretaker, Muhammad Munir Ansari, in 2014. "No one knows how long Baba Farid stayed in the city. But long after he had returned to the Punjab, where he eventually became head of the Chishti order, Indian Muslims passing through Jerusalem on their way to Mecca wanted to pray where he had prayed, to sleep where he had slept. Slowly, a shrine and pilgrim lodge, the Indian Hospice, formed around the memory of Baba Farid." "Later accounts of his life said that he spent his days sweeping the stone floors around al-Aqsa mosque, or fasting in the silence of a cave inside the city walls."


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: A chilla is also found on the top of hill of Donphin nose hill of Visakhapatnam port of Visakhapatnam city in which it is believed that Hazarat Baba Fareed spent some time here, and there is a vast banyan tree in the premises which used to shed sugar in Baba's honour


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Every year, the saint's death anniversary or "Urs" is celebrated for six days in the first Islamic month of Muharram, in Pakpattan, Pakistan. The "Bahishtī Darwāza" (Gate of Paradise) is opened only once a year, during the time of the "Urs" fair. Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims and visitors from all over the country and the world come to pay homage. The door of the Bahishti Darwaza is made of silver, with floral designs inlaid in gold leaf. This "Gate to Paradise" is padlocked all year, and only opened for five days from sunset to sunrise in the month of Muharram. Some followers believe that by crossing this door all of one's sins are washed away. During the opening of the Gate of Paradise, extensive security arrangements are made to protect people from stampedes. In 2001, 27 people were crushed to death and 100 were injured in a stampede.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: One of the significant features of the daily life of the shrine is Qawwali. It is performed all day at some part of the shrine, but at night it attracts a huge gathering. Every Thursday evening, there is a big Mehfil-e-Sama just outside the tomb, that lasts all night and attracts hundreds of people. Many famous and popular Qawwals (Qawwali singers) of the country participate in the Mehfil. Many listeners become so mesmerised that they start dancing a traditional religious dance called Dhamaal. The first Thursday evening of every lunar month attracts extra thousands of people, making the shrine jam packed.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: One of Farīd's most important contributions to Punjabi literature was his development of the language for literary purposes. Whereas Sanskrit, Arabic, Turkish and Persian had historically been considered the languages of the learned and the elite, and used in monastic centres, Punjabi was generally considered a less refined folk language. Although earlier poets had written in a primitive Punjabi, before Farīd there was little in Punjabi literature apart from traditional and anonymous ballads. By using Punjabi as the language of poetry, Farīd laid the basis for a vernacular Punjabi literature that would be developed later. The English translation of Farid's devotional poetry by Rana Nayar was conferred with Sahitya Akademi Golden Jubilee award in 2007.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: The city of Faridkot bears his name. According to legend, Farīd stopped by the city, then named Mokhalpūr, and sat in seclusion for forty days near the fort of King Mokhal. The king was said to be so impressed by his presence that he named the city after Baba Farid, which today is known as "Tilla Baba Farid". The festival Bābā Sheikh Farād Āgman Purb Melā' is celebrated in September each year from (21–23 Sep, for 3 days), commemorating his arrival in the city. Ajodhan was also renamed as Farīd's 'Pāk Pattan', meaning 'Holy Ferry'; today it is generally called Pāk Pattan Sharīf.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: In Bangladesh, one of the largest districts of the country Faridpur District was named after him. It is believed that he established his seat in this town.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Faridia Islamic University, a religious madrassa in Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan, is named after him, and in July 1998, the Punjab Government in India established the Baba Farid University of Health Sciences at Faridkot, the city which itself was named after him.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: There are various explanations of why Baba Farid was given the title Shakar Ganj ('Treasure of Sugar'). One legend says his mother used to encourage the young Farīd to pray by placing sugar under his prayer mat. Once, when she forgot, the young Farīd found the sugar anyway, an experience that gave him more spiritual fervour and led to his being given the name.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Baba Farid, as he is commonly known, has his poetry included in the "Guru Granth Sahib", the most sacred scripture of Sikhism, which includes 123 (or 134) hymns composed by Farid. Guru Arjan Dev Ji, the 5th guru of Sikhism, included these hymns himself in the "Adi Granth", the predecessor of the "Guru Granth Sahib". There are 10 Sikh gurus, but also there are 15 Bhagats in Sikhism. Baba Sheikh Farid is one of these equally revered 15 Bhagats.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: Fariduddin Ganjshakar first introduced the institution of the Langar in the Punjab region. The institution greatly contributed to the social fabric of Punjabi society and allowed peoples of various faiths and backgrounds to attain free food and drink. The practice, introduced by Fariduddin Ganjshakar grew and is documented in the "Jawahir al-Faridi" compiled in 1623 CE. It was later, both the institution and term, adopted by Sikhs.


title: Fariduddin Ganjshakar

text: In 1989, on the 800th birth anniversary of Baba Farid, the Pakistan Post Office issued a commemorative postage stamp in his honor.


title: Luxor Temple

text: The Luxor Temple () is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE. In the Egyptian language it was known as "ipet resyt", "the southern sanctuary". It was one of the two primary temples on the east bank, the other being Karnak. Unlike the other temples in Thebes, Luxor temple is not dedicated to a cult god or a deified version of the pharaoh in death. Instead, Luxor temple is dedicated to the rejuvenation of kingship; it may have been where many of the pharaohs of Egypt were crowned in reality or conceptually (as in the case of Alexander the Great, who claimed he was crowned at Luxor but may never have traveled south of Memphis, near modern Cairo).


title: Luxor Temple

text: To the rear of the temple are chapels built by Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, and Alexander. Other parts of the temple were built by Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. During the Roman era, the temple and its surroundings were a legionary fortress and the home of the Roman government in the area. During the Roman period a chapel inside the Luxor Temple originally dedicated to the goddess Mut was transformed into a Tetrarchy cult chapel and later into a church.


title: Luxor Temple

text: Along with the other archeological sites in Thebes, the Luxor Temple was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979.


title: Luxor Temple

text: The Luxor Temple was built with sandstone from the Gebel el-Silsila area, which is located in South-Western Egypt. This sandstone is referred to as Nubian sandstone. It was used for the construction for monuments in Upper Egypt as well as in the course of past and current restoration works.


title: Luxor Temple

text: Like other Egyptian structures, a common technique used was symbolism, or illusionism. For example, to the Egyptian, a sanctuary shaped like an Anubis jackal was really Anubis. At the Luxor Temple, the two obelisks (the smaller one closer to the west is now at the Place de la Concorde in Paris) flanking the entrance were not the same height, but they created the illusion that they were. With the layout of the temple they appear to be of equal height, but using illusionism, it enhances the relative distances hence making them look the same size to the wall behind it. Symbolically, it is a visual and spatial effect to emphasize the heights and distance from the wall, enhancing the already existing pathway.


title: Luxor Temple

text: From the Middle Ages, the Muslim population of Luxor had settled in and around the temple, at the southward end of the mount. Due to the Luxor's past city population building on top of and around the Luxor temple, centuries of rubble had accumulated, to the point where there was an artificial hill some in height. The Luxor Temple had begun to be excavated by Professor Gaston Maspero after 1884, after he had been given permission to commence operations. The excavations were carried out sporadically until 1960. Over time, accumulated rubbish of the ages had buried three quarters of the temple which contained the courts and colonnades which formed the nucleus of the Arab half of the modern village. Maspero had taken an interest earlier, and he had taken over the post of Mariette Pasha to complete the job in 1881. Not only was there rubbish, but there were also barracks, stores, houses, huts, pigeon towers, which needed to be removed in order to excavate the site. (There still exists a working mosque within the temple which was never removed.) Maspero received from the Egyptian minister of public works the authorization needed to obtain funds in order to negotiate compensation for the pieces of land covered by the houses and dependencies.


title: Luxor Temple

text: The Luxor Temple was built during the New Kingdom and dedicated to the Theban Triad consisted of Amun, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu. The focus of the annual Opet Festival, in which a cult statue of Amun was paraded down the Nile from nearby Karnak Temple ("ipet-sut") to stay there for a while with his consort Mut, was to promote the fertility of Amun-Re and the Pharaoh. However, other studies at the temple by the Epigraphic Survey team present a completely new interpretation of Luxor and its great annual festival (the Feast of Opet). They have concluded that Luxor is the temple dedicated to the divine Egyptian ruler or, more precisely, to the cult of the Royal Ka. Examples of the cult of the Royal Ka can be seen with the colossal seated figures of the deified Ramesses II before the Pylon and at the entrance to the Grand colonnade are clearly Ka-statues, cult statues of the king as embodiment of the royal Ka.


title: Luxor Temple

text: The avenue (known as "wi.t ntr" "path of god"; ) which went in a straight line for about between the Luxor Temple and the Karnak area was lined with human-headed sphinxes; in ancient times it is probable that these replaced earlier sphinxes which may have had different heads. Six barque shrines, serving as way stations for the barques of the gods during festival processions, were set up on the avenue between the Karnak and Luxor Temple. Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple. Each station had a purpose, for example the fourth station was the station of Kamare, which cooled the oar of Amun. The Fifth station of Kamare was the station which received the beauty of Amun. Lastly the Sixth Station of Kamare was a shrine for Amun, Holy of Steps.


title: Luxor Temple

text: A small mudbrick shrine was built in the courtyard of Nectanebo I in early second century (126 CE) and was dedicated to Serapis and Isis; it was presented to Roman Emperor Hadrian on his birthday.


title: Luxor Temple

text: The active Abu Haggag Mosque () is located within the temple, standing on the ancient columns themselves. That part of the Luxor Temple was converted to a church by the Romans in 395 AD, and then to a mosque in 640, which is more than 3,400 years of continuous religious worship. Hence, the Luxor Temple is the oldest building in the world at least partially active for other than archeological or tourist purposes.


title: Luxor Temple

text: In 2013, a Chinese student posted a picture of engraved graffiti that read "Ding Jinhao was here" () in Chinese on a sculpture. This discovery spurred debate about increased tourism after the media confirmed a Chinese student caused this and other defacements. The engraving has since been partially cleared.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Darwin's finches (also known as the Galápagos finches) are a group of about 18 species of passerine birds. They are well known for their remarkable diversity in beak form and function. They are often classified as the subfamily Geospizinae or tribe Geospizini. They belong to the tanager family and are not closely related to the true finches. The closest known relative of the Galápagos finches is the South American "Tiaris obscurus". They were first collected when the second voyage of the "Beagle" visited the Galápagos Islands, with Charles Darwin on board as a gentleman naturalist. Apart from the Cocos finch, which is from Cocos Island, the others are found only on the Galápagos Islands.


title: Darwin's finches

text: The term "Darwin's finches" was first applied by Percy Lowe in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by David Lack in his book "Darwin's Finches". Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from and weigh between . The smallest are the warbler-finches and the largest is the vegetarian finch. The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, which are highly adapted to different food sources. The birds are all dull-coloured. They are thought to have evolved from a single finch species that came to the islands more than a million years ago.


title: Darwin's finches

text: During the survey voyage of HMS "Beagle", Darwin was unaware of the significance of the birds of the Galápagos. He had learned how to preserve bird specimens from John Edmonstone while at the University of Edinburgh and had been keen on shooting, but he had no expertise in ornithology and by this stage of the voyage concentrated mainly on geology. In Galápagos he mostly left bird shooting to his servant Syms Covington. Nonetheless, these birds were to play an important part in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.


title: Darwin's finches

text: On the Galápagos Islands and afterward, Darwin thought in terms of "centres of creation" and rejected ideas concerning the transmutation of species. From Henslow's teaching, he was interested in the geographical distribution of species, particularly links between species on oceanic islands and on nearby continents. On Chatham Island, he recorded that a mockingbird was similar to those he had seen in Chile, and after finding a different one on Charles Island he carefully noted where mockingbirds had been caught. In contrast, he paid little attention to the finches. When examining his specimens on the way to Tahiti, Darwin noted that all of the mockingbirds on Charles Island were of one species, those from Albemarle of another, and those from James and Chatham Islands of a third. As they sailed home about nine months later, this, together with other facts, including what he had heard about Galápagos tortoises, made him wonder about the stability of species.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Following his return from the voyage Darwin presented the finches to the Zoological Society of London on 4 January 1837, along with other mammal and bird specimens that he had collected. The bird specimens, including the finches, were given to John Gould, the famous English ornithologist, for identification. Gould set aside his paying work and at the next meeting, on 10 January, reported that the birds from the Galápagos Islands that Darwin had thought were blackbirds, "gross-beaks" and finches were actually "a series of ground Finches which are so peculiar [as to form] an entirely new group, containing 12 species." This story made the newspapers.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Darwin had been in Cambridge at that time. In early March, he met Gould again and for the first time to get a full report on the findings, including the point that his Galápagos "wren" was another closely allied species of finch. The mockingbirds that Darwin had labelled by island were separate species rather than just varieties. Gould found more species than Darwin had expected, and concluded that 25 of the 26 land birds were new and distinct forms, found nowhere else in the world but closely allied to those found on the South American continent. Darwin now saw that, if the finch species were confined to individual islands, like the mockingbirds, this would help to account for the number of species on the islands, and he sought information from others on the expedition. Specimens had also been collected by Captain Robert FitzRoy, FitzRoy's steward Harry Fuller, and Darwin's servant Covington, who had labelled them by island. From these, Darwin tried to reconstruct the locations from where he had collected his own specimens. The conclusions supported his idea of the transmutation of species.


title: Darwin's finches

text: At the time that he rewrote his diary for publication as "Journal and Remarks" (later "The Voyage of the Beagle"), he described Gould's findings on the number of birds, noting that "Although the species are thus peculiar to the archipelago, yet nearly all in their general structure, habits, colour of feathers, and even tone of voice, are strictly American". In the first edition of "The Voyage of the Beagle", Darwin said thatIt is very remarkable that a nearly perfect gradation of structure in this one group can be traced in the form of the beak, from one exceeding in dimensions that of the largest gros-beak, to another differing but little from that of a warbler".


title: Darwin's finches

text: By the time the first edition was published, the development of Darwin's theory of natural selection was in progress. For the 1845 second edition of "The Voyage" (now titled "Journal of Researches"), Darwin added more detail about the beaks of the birds, and two closing sentences which reflected his changed ideas:Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."


title: Darwin's finches

text: Darwin discussed the divergence of species of birds in the Galápagos more explicitly in his chapter on geographical distribution in "On the Origin of Species":


title: Darwin's finches

text: Whereas Darwin spent just five weeks in the Galápagos, and David Lack spent three months, Peter and Rosemary Grant and their colleagues have made research trips to the Galápagos for about 30 years, particularly studying Darwin's finches.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Females are dimorphic in song type: songs A and B are quite distinct. Also, males with song A have shorter bills than B males. This is also a clear difference. With these beaks, males are able to feed differently on their favourite cactus, the prickly pear "Opuntia". Those with long beaks are able to punch holes in the cactus fruit and eat the fleshy aril pulp, which surrounds the seeds, whereas those with shorter beaks tear apart the cactus base and eat the pulp and any insect larvae and pupae (both groups eat flowers and buds). This dimorphism clearly maximises their feeding opportunities during the non-breeding season when food is scarce.


title: Darwin's finches

text: If the population is panmixic, then "Geospiza conirostris" exhibits a balanced genetic polymorphism and not, as originally supposed, a case of nascent sympatric speciation. The selection maintaining the polymorphism maximises the species' niche by expanding its feeding opportunity. The genetics of this situation cannot be clarified in the absence of a detailed breeding program, but two loci with linkage disequilibrium is a possibility.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either 'pink' or 'yellow'. All species of Darwin's finches exhibit this morphism, which lasts for two months. No interpretation of this phenomenon is known.


title: Darwin's finches

text: For some decades, taxonomists have placed these birds in the family Emberizidae along with the New World sparrows and Old World buntings. However, the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy puts Darwin's finches with the tanagers (Monroe and Sibley 1993), and at least one recent work follows that example (Burns and Skutch 2003). The American Ornithologists' Union, in its North American checklist, places the Cocos finch in the Emberizidae, but with an asterisk indicating that the placement is probably wrong (AOU 1998–2006); in its tentative South American check-list, the Galápagos species are "incertae sedis", of uncertain place (Remsen et al. 2007).


title: Darwin's finches

text: A long-term study carried out for more than 40 years by the Princeton University researchers Peter and Rosemary Grant has documented evolutionary changes in beak size affected by El Niño/La Niña cycles in the Pacific.


title: Darwin's finches

text: Developmental research in 2004 found that bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), and its differential expression during development, resulted in variation of beak size and shape among finches. BMP4 acts in the developing embryo to lay down skeletal features, including making the beak stronger. The same group showed that the development of the different beak shapes in Darwin's finches are also influenced by slightly different timing and spatial expressions of a gene called calmodulin (CaM). Calmodulin acts in a similar way to BMP4, affecting some of the features of beak growth like making them long and pointy. The authors suggest that changes in the temporal and spatial expression of these two factors are possible developmental controls of beak morphology. In a recent study genome sequencing revealed a 240 kilobase haplotype encompassing the ALX1 gene that encodes a transcription factor affecting craniofacial development is strongly associated with beak shape diversity. Moreover, these changes in the beak size have also altered vocalizations in Darwin's finches.


title: Irezumi

text: All forms of are applied by hand, using wooden handles and metal needles attached via silk thread. This method also requires special ink known as ink (also called ); tattooing practiced by both the Ainu people and the Ryukyuan people uses ink derived from the indigo plant. It is a painful and time-consuming process, practiced by a limited number of specialists known as . typically have one or more apprentices working for them, whose apprenticeship can last for a long time period; historically, were admired as figures of bravery and roguish sex appeal.


title: Irezumi

text: During the Edo period, ("tattoo punishment") was a criminal penalty. The location of the tattoo was determined by the crime; thieves were tattooed on the arm, murderers on the head. The shape of the tattoo was based on where the crime occurred. Tattoos came to be associated with criminals within Japanese society. Two characters in the 1972 film Hanzo the Razor, set in the Edo period, are depicted with ring tattoos on their left arms as punishment for theft and kidnapping.


title: Irezumi

text: At the beginning of the Meiji period, the Japanese government outlawed tattoos, which reinforced the stigma against people with tattoos and tattooing in modern-day Japan.


title: Irezumi

text: In Japanese, literally means 'inserting ink' and can be written in several ways, most commonly as . Synonyms include , , and . Each of these synonyms can also be read as , a reading of these kanji. Tattoos are also sometimes called which have a slightly different significance.


title: Irezumi

text: Tattooing for spiritual and decorative purposes in Japan is thought to extend back to at least the Jōmon or paleolithic period (approximately 10,000 BC) on the Japanese archipelago. Some scholars have suggested that the distinctive cord-marked patterns observed on the faces and bodies of figures dated to that period represent tattoos, but this claim is not unanimously accepted. There are similarities, however, between such markings and the tattoo traditions observed in other contemporaneous cultures. In the following Yayoi period (), tattoo designs were observed and remarked upon by Chinese visitors in Kyushu. Such designs were thought to have spiritual significance as well as functioning as a status symbol.


title: Irezumi

text: However, evidence suggesting a lack of tattooing traditions also exists; according to the early 8th-century , no such traditions of tattooing existed on the ancient Japanese mainland, with people who were tattooed regarded as outsiders. A further record in the (the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history) chronicles that tattooing traditions were confined only to the Tsuchigumo people.


title: Irezumi

text: Starting in the Kofun period (300–600 AD), tattoos began to assume negative connotations. Instead of being used for ritual or status purposes, tattoo marks began to be placed on criminals as a punishment.


title: Irezumi

text: The Ainu people, the indigenous people of northern Japan, are known for their traditions of tattooing, though few Ainu people and people of Ainu descent have these tattoos in the modern day. These tattoos were frequently used for decorative and social purposes, with both women and men being tattooed. Women were tattooed on the hands, forearms, and mouths in indigo to signify moving into adulthood, to protect against disease, and for aesthetic purposes.


title: Irezumi

text: Until the Edo period (1603–1867), the role of tattoos in Japanese society fluctuated. Tattooed marks were still used as punishment, but minor fads for decorative tattoos, some featuring designs that would be completed only when lovers' hands were joined, also came and went. It was in the Edo period however, that Japanese decorative tattooing began to develop into the advanced art form it is known as today.


title: Irezumi

text: The impetus for the development of as an artform was the development of the art of woodblock printing, and the release of the popular Chinese novel in 1757 in Japan; though the novel dates back several centuries before this, 1757 marked the released of the first Japanese edition. , a tale of rebel courage and manly bravery, was illustrated with lavish woodblock prints showing men in heroic scenes, their bodies decorated with dragons and other mythical beasts, flowers, ferocious tigers and religious images. The novel was an immediate success, creating a demand for the type of tattoos seen in the woodblock illustrations.


title: Irezumi

text: Woodblock artists also began to practice tattooing, using many of the same tools they used for woodblock printing. These included chisels, gouges, and, most importantly, a unique type of ink known as " ink" or " black", which turns blue-green under the skin.


title: Irezumi

text: There is some academic debate over who wore these elaborate tattoos. Some scholars say that it was the lower classes who wore—and flaunted—such tattoos. Others claim that wealthy merchants, barred by law from flaunting their wealth, wore expensive under their clothes. It is known for certain that became associated with firemen, who wore them as a form of spiritual protection.


title: Irezumi

text: Following the opening of Japan's borders to the rest of the world at the beginning of the Meiji period, the Japanese government, conscious to protect its image and make a good first impression in the face of its new international status, outlawed tattooing, with soon taking on connotations of criminality. Nevertheless, many foreigners, fascinated with the unique skills of Japanese tattoo artists, travelled to Japan with the express intention of being tattooed there, and traditional tattooing continued underground.


title: Irezumi

text: Tattooing was legalized by the occupation forces in 1948, but has retained its image of criminality. For many years, traditional Japanese tattoos were associated with the yakuza, Japan's notorious mafia, and many businesses in Japan (such as public baths, fitness centers and hot springs) still ban customers with tattoos. In 2020, the Supreme Court of Japan ruled that tattoos could be performed by people other than licensed medical professionals, a requirement still present in South Korea, after the home studio of an Osaka-based tattoo artist, Taiki Masuda, was raided by the police and the artist was fined. As a result, the Japan Tattooist Organization formed and created a hygiene and safety online course for artists that provides a certificate of completion, similar to practices in other countries.


title: Irezumi

text: Although tattoos have gained popularity among the youth of Japan due to Western influence, tattoos continue to be stigmatised throughout most of Japan; unlike many other countries, even finding a tattoo shop in Japan can prove difficult, with tattoo shops primarily placed in areas that are very tourist- or US military-friendly. According to Kunihiro Shimada, the president of the Japan Tattoo Institute, there are an estimated 3,000 tattoo artists throughout the entirety of Japan. Around 1.4 million adults in Japan have tattoos. Attitudes around the acceptability of tattoos vary significantly by age, with 60% of Japanese people in their 20s and younger agreed that rules for tattoos should be relaxed, according to the results of a 2021 survey.


title: Irezumi

text: There are even current political repercussions for tattoos in Japan. In 2012, the then-mayor of Osaka, Tōru Hashimoto, started a campaign to rid tattoos from public sector employees, claiming that "tattoos on City workers undermined trust in the City" and threatening to fire any government employee with tattoos. That year, he authorized a survey of all public sector employees asking whether they had tattoos. Multiple city employees filed lawsuits against the City of Osaka after being reprimanded for having tattoos. This survey, along with other tattoo-related policies implemented by Hashimoto, was eventually found to have violated the city's privacy protection ordinance by the Osaka District Court.


title: Irezumi

text: Modern tattoos in Japan are done mostly in a similar manner to Western tattooing. Unlike traditional , where the design is mostly left up to the artist, customers bring in a design of their choice or can decide on what they would like at the shop. Many Japanese artists are well-versed in multiple styles besides traditional Japanese tattoos, giving customers the ability to select from a wide assortment of options.


title: Irezumi

text: Modern tattoos are also done via an electric tattoo machine, in which the ink can be inserted into the machine, or the needle tip can be dipped into ink for application. Japanese artists are widely recognised for the quality of their work, despite the relative expense of tattoos, and are highly sought-after.


title: Irezumi

text: Despite the majority of modern tattooing being done by needle and machine, is also practiced with traditional tools, though tattoo artists trained in this style can be difficult to find; unlike most Western-style tattoo artists in Japan, the majority of traditional artists are not located in the Tokyo area. Also unlike Western tattooing is the high expense of the technique, as well as the higher proportion of time required to complete one piece and the higher level of pain involved. A typical traditional body suit, covering the arms, back, thighs and chest, with a space left down the centre of the torso, can take up to five years of weekly visits to complete, and cost in excess of US$30,000. The process is also more formal than Western tattooing, with the artist having a greater level of control over the finished design.


title: Irezumi

text: The process of being tattooed in the style can be difficult and time-consuming. The first step of finding a traditional tattoo artist can be a daunting task, as many tattoo artists in Japan are somewhat secretive in their work, with introductions made by word-of-mouth only, though the advent of the Internet has made finding an artists more accessible.


title: Irezumi

text: After an initial consultation during which the client will discuss with the tattooist the designs they are interested in, the work begins with the tattooing of the outline. This will usually be done in one sitting, often freehand (without the use of a stencil), which may require several hours to complete. When the outline is complete, the shading and colouring is done in weekly visits, whenever the client has money to spare. When the tattoo is finished, the artist will "sign" his name in a space reserved for that purpose, most often somewhere on the back.


title: Irezumi

text: Wearers of traditional tattoos frequently keep their art secret, as tattoos are still seen as a sign of criminality in Japan, particularly by older people and in the work place. Many yakuza and other criminals themselves now avoid tattoos for this very reason.


title: Irezumi

text: The process of training to become a traditional tattoo artist is difficult and time-consuming; tattoo artists will train for many years under a master, sometimes living in the master's house, and may spend years cleaning the studio, observing and practicing in their own skin, making both the needles and other tools required, mixing inks, and painstakingly copying designs from the master's book before being allowed to tattoo clients.


title: Irezumi

text: Tattoo artists must master the unique styles of tattooing by hand required, and will usually be given a tattoo name by their master, most often incorporating the word (to engrave) and a syllable derived from the master's own name, or some other significant word. In some cases, the apprentice will take the master's name, and will become The Second or Third (and so on).


title: Cypherpunk

text: A cypherpunk is any individual advocating widespread use of strong cryptography and privacy-enhancing technologies as a route to social and political change. Originally communicating through the Cypherpunks electronic mailing list, informal groups aimed to achieve privacy and security through proactive use of cryptography. Cypherpunks have been engaged in an active movement since at least the late 1980s.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Until about the 1970s, cryptography was mainly practiced in secret by military or spy agencies. However, that changed when two publications brought it into public awareness: the US government publication of the Data Encryption Standard (DES), a block cipher which became very widely used, and the first publicly available work on public-key cryptography, by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The technical roots of Cypherpunk ideas have been traced back to work by cryptographer David Chaum on topics such as anonymous digital cash and pseudonymous reputation systems, described in his paper "Security without Identification: Transaction Systems to Make Big Brother Obsolete" (1985).


title: Cypherpunk

text: In late 1992, Eric Hughes, Timothy C. May, and John Gilmore founded a small group that met monthly at Gilmore's company Cygnus Solutions in the San Francisco Bay Area and was humorously termed "cypherpunks" by Jude Milhon at one of the first meetings - derived from "cipher" and "cyberpunk". In November 2006, the word was added to the Oxford English Dictionary.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The Cypherpunks mailing list was started in 1992, and by 1994 had 700 subscribers. At its peak, it was a very active forum with technical discussions ranging over mathematics, cryptography, computer science, political and philosophical discussion, personal arguments and attacks, etc., with some spam thrown in. An email from John Gilmore reports an average of 30 messages a day from December 1, 1996 to March 1, 1999, and suggests that the number was probably higher earlier. The number of subscribers is estimated to have reached 2000 in the year 1997.


title: Cypherpunk

text: In early 1997, Jim Choate and Igor Chudov set up the Cypherpunks Distributed Remailer, a network of independent mailing list nodes intended to eliminate the single point of failure inherent in a centralized list architecture. At its peak, the Cypherpunks Distributed Remailer included at least seven nodes. By mid-2005, al-qaeda.net ran the only remaining node. In mid-2013, following a brief outage, the al-qaeda.net node's list software was changed from Majordomo to GNU Mailman, and subsequently the node was renamed to cpunks.org. The CDR architecture is now defunct, though the list administrator stated in 2013 that he was exploring a way to integrate this functionality with the new mailing list software.


title: Cypherpunk

text: For a time, the cypherpunks mailing list was a popular tool with mailbombers, who would subscribe a victim to the mailing list in order to cause a deluge of messages to be sent to him or her. (This was usually done as a prank, in contrast to the style of terrorist referred to as a mailbomber.) This precipitated the mailing list sysop(s) to institute a reply-to-subscribe system. Approximately two hundred messages a day was typical for the mailing list, divided between personal arguments and attacks, political discussion, technical discussion, and early spam.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The cypherpunks mailing list had extensive discussions of the public policy issues related to cryptography and on the politics and philosophy of concepts such as anonymity, pseudonyms, reputation, and privacy. These discussions continue both on the remaining node and elsewhere as the list has become increasingly moribund.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Events such as the GURPS Cyberpunk raid lent weight to the idea that private individuals needed to take steps to protect their privacy. In its heyday, the list discussed public policy issues related to cryptography, as well as more practical nuts-and-bolts mathematical, computational, technological, and cryptographic matters. The list had a range of viewpoints and there was probably no completely unanimous agreement on anything. The general attitude, though, definitely put personal privacy and personal liberty above all other considerations.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The list was discussing questions about privacy, government monitoring, corporate control of information, and related issues in the early 1990s that did not become major topics for broader discussion until at least ten years later. Some list participants were highly radical on these issues.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Those wishing to understand the context of the list might refer to the history of cryptography; in the early 1990s, the US government considered cryptography software a munition for export purposes. (PGP source code was published as a paper book to bypass these regulations and demonstrate their futility.) In 1992, a deal between NSA and SPA allowed export of cryptography based on 40-bit RC2 and RC4 which was considered relatively weak (and especially after SSL was created, there were many contests to break it). The US government had also tried to subvert cryptography through schemes such as Skipjack and key escrow. It was also not widely known that all communications were logged by government agencies (which would later be revealed during the NSA and AT&T scandals) though this was taken as an obvious axiom by list members.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The original cypherpunk mailing list, and the first list spin-off, "coderpunks", were originally hosted on John Gilmore's toad.com, but after a falling out with the sysop over moderation, the list was migrated to several cross-linked mail-servers in what was called the "distributed mailing list." The "coderpunks" list, open by invitation only, existed for a time. "Coderpunks" took up more technical matters and had less discussion of public policy implications. There are several lists today that can trace their lineage directly to the original Cypherpunks list: the cryptography list (cryptography@metzdowd.com), the financial cryptography list (fc-announce@ifca.ai), and a small group of closed (invitation-only) lists as well.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Toad.com continued to run with the existing subscriber list, those that didn't unsubscribe, and was mirrored on the new distributed mailing list, but messages from the distributed list didn't appear on toad.com. As the list faded in popularity, so too did it fade in the number of cross-linked subscription nodes.


title: Cypherpunk

text: To some extent, the cryptography list acts as a successor to cypherpunks; it has many of the people and continues some of the same discussions. However, it is a moderated list, considerably less zany and somewhat more technical. A number of current systems in use trace to the mailing list, including Pretty Good Privacy, /dev/random in the Linux kernel (the actual code has been completely reimplemented several times since then) and today's anonymous remailers.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The basic ideas can be found in "A Cypherpunk's Manifesto" (Eric Hughes, 1993): "Privacy is necessary for an open society in the electronic age. ... We cannot expect governments, corporations, or other large, faceless organizations to grant us privacy ... We must defend our own privacy if we expect to have any. ... Cypherpunks write code. We know that someone has to write software to defend privacy, and ... we're going to write it."


title: Cypherpunk

text: Some are or were senior people at major hi-tech companies and others are well-known researchers (see list with affiliations below).


title: Cypherpunk

text: The first mass media discussion of cypherpunks was in a 1993 "Wired" article by Steven Levy titled "Crypto Rebels":


title: Cypherpunk

text: The three masked men on the cover of that edition of "Wired" were prominent cypherpunks Tim May, Eric Hughes and John Gilmore.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Later, Levy wrote a book, "Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government – Saving Privacy in the Digital Age",


title: Cypherpunk

text: covering the crypto wars of the 1990s in detail. "Code Rebels" in the title is almost synonymous with cypherpunks.


title: Cypherpunk

text: The term "cypherpunk" is mildly ambiguous. In most contexts it means anyone advocating cryptography as a tool for social change, social impact and expression. However, it can also be used to mean a participant in the Cypherpunks electronic mailing list described below. The two meanings obviously overlap, but they are by no means synonymous.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Documents exemplifying cypherpunk ideas include Timothy C. May's "The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto" (1992) and "The Cyphernomicon" (1994), "A Cypherpunk's Manifesto".


title: Cypherpunk

text: A very basic cypherpunk issue is privacy in communications and data retention. John Gilmore said he wanted "a guarantee -- with physics and mathematics, not with laws -- that we can give ourselves real privacy of personal communications."


title: Cypherpunk

text: Such guarantees require strong cryptography, so cypherpunks are fundamentally opposed to government policies attempting to control the usage or export of cryptography, which remained an issue throughout the late 1990s. The "Cypherpunk Manifesto" stated "Cypherpunks deplore regulations on cryptography, for encryption is fundamentally a private act."


title: Cypherpunk

text: This was a central issue for many cypherpunks. Most were passionately opposed to various government attempts to limit cryptography — export laws, promotion of limited key length ciphers, and especially escrowed encryption.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Arguably, the possibility of anonymous speech, and publication is vital for an open society and genuine freedom of speech — this is the position of most cypherpunks. That the Federalist Papers were originally published under a pseudonym is a commonly-cited example.


title: Cypherpunk

text: A whole set of issues around privacy and the scope of self-revelation were perennial topics on the list.


title: Cypherpunk

text: One prominent example given in these discussions was of a young person required to show their driver's license at a bar to verify their age. Cypherpunks consider it problematic that doing so reveals a range of private, yet irrelevant, information, including full name and home address. In the view of cypherpunks, a government mandating such ID checks must also create a form of ID that is more privacy protecting; else, cypherpunks largely consider it ethical to eschew the problem by showing a bogus driver's license in order to protect one's privacy. Members of the group similarly consider problematic other instances that make unnecessary privacy violations possible, including access to personal data by police, hidden tracking via company reward cards, or cameras in public places that are able to perform license plate or facial recognition.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Cypherpunks naturally consider suggestions of various forms of national uniform identification card too dangerous, deeming the risks of abuse to be far higher than any benefits.


title: Cypherpunk

text: In particular, the US government's Clipper chip scheme for escrowed encryption of telephone conversations (encryption supposedly secure against most attackers, but breakable by government) was seen as anathema by many on the list. This was an issue that provoked strong opposition and brought many new recruits to the cypherpunk ranks. List participant Matt Blaze found a serious flaw in the scheme, helping to hasten its demise.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Steven Schear first suggested the warrant canary in 2002 to thwart the secrecy provisions of court orders and national security letters. , warrant canaries are gaining commercial acceptance.


title: Cypherpunk

text: An important set of discussions concerns the use of cryptography in the presence of oppressive authorities. As a result, Cypherpunks have discussed and improved steganographic methods that hide the use of crypto itself, or that allow interrogators to believe that they have forcibly extracted hidden information from a subject. For instance, "Rubberhose" was a tool that partitioned and intermixed secret data on a drive with fake secret data, each of which accessed via a different password. Interrogators, having extracted a password, are led to believe that they have indeed unlocked the desired secrets, whereas in reality the actual data is still hidden. In other words, even its presence is hidden. Likewise, cypherpunks have also discussed under what conditions encryption may be used without being noticed by network monitoring systems installed by oppressive regimes.


title: Cypherpunk

text: As the "Manifesto" says, "Cypherpunks write code"; the notion that good ideas need to be implemented, not just discussed, is very much part of the culture of the mailing list. John Gilmore, whose site hosted the original cypherpunks mailing list, wrote: "We are literally in a race between our ability to build and deploy technology, and their ability to build and deploy laws and treaties. Neither side is likely to back down or wise up until it has definitively lost the race."


title: Cypherpunk

text: Anonymous remailers such as the Mixmaster Remailer were almost entirely a cypherpunk development. Among the other projects they have been involved in were PGP for email privacy, FreeS/WAN for opportunistic encryption of the whole net, Off-the-record messaging for privacy in Internet chat, and the Tor project for anonymous web surfing.


title: Cypherpunk

text: In 1998, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, with assistance from the mailing list, built a $200,000 machine that could brute-force a Data Encryption Standard key in a few days. The project demonstrated that DES was, without question, insecure and obsolete, in sharp contrast to the US government's recommendation of the algorithm.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Cypherpunks also participated, along with other experts, in several reports on cryptographic matters.


title: Cypherpunk

text: One such paper was "Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security". It suggested 75 bits was the "minimum" key size to allow an existing cipher to be considered secure and kept in service. At the time, the Data Encryption Standard with 56-bit keys was still a US government standard, mandatory for some applications.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Other papers were critical analysis of government schemes. "The Risks of Key Recovery, Key Escrow, and Trusted Third-Party Encryption", evaluated escrowed encryption proposals. "Comments on the Carnivore System Technical Review". looked at an FBI scheme for monitoring email.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Cypherpunks provided significant input to the 1996 National Research Council report on encryption policy,


title: Cypherpunk

text: "Cryptography's Role In Securing the Information Society" (CRISIS). This report, commissioned by the U.S. Congress in 1993, was developed via extensive hearings across the nation from all interested stakeholders, by a committee of talented people. It recommended a gradual relaxation of the existing U.S. government restrictions on encryption. Like many such study reports, its conclusions were largely ignored by policy-makers. Later events such as the final rulings in the cypherpunks lawsuits forced a more complete relaxation of the unconstitutional controls on encryption software.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Cypherpunks have filed a number of lawsuits, mostly suits against the US government alleging that some government action is unconstitutional.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Phil Karn sued the State Department in 1994 over cryptography export controls after they ruled that, while the book "Applied Cryptography" could legally be exported, a floppy disk containing a verbatim copy of code printed in the book was legally a munition and required an export permit, which they refused to grant. Karn also appeared before both House and Senate committees looking at cryptography issues.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Daniel J. Bernstein, supported by the EFF, also sued over the export restrictions, arguing that preventing publication of cryptographic source code is an unconstitutional restriction on freedom of speech. He won, effectively overturning the export law. See "Bernstein v. United States" for details.


title: Cypherpunk

text: Cypherpunks encouraged civil disobedience, in particular, US law on the export of cryptography. Until 1997, cryptographic code was legally a munition and fall until ITAR, and the key length restrictions in the EAR was not removed until 2000.