title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Studies by Eric Snively "et al.," published in 2019 indicate that tyrannosaurids such as "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus" itself were more manœuvrable than allosauroids of comparable size due to low rotational inertia compared to their body mass combined with large leg muscles. As a result, it is hypothesized that tyrannosaurids were capable of making relatively quick turns and could likely pivot their bodies more quickly when close to their prey, or that while turning, they could "pirouette" on a single planted foot while the alternating leg was held out in a suspended swing during pursuit. The results of this study potentially could shed light on how agility could have contributed to the success of tyrannosaurid evolution.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Additionally, a 2020 study indicates that tyrannosaurids were exceptionally efficient walkers. Studies by Dececchi "et al.", compared the leg proportions, body mass, and the gaits of more than 70 species of theropod dinosaurs including tyrannosaurids. The research team then applied a variety of methods to estimate each dinosaur's top speed when running as well as how much energy each dinosaur expended while moving at more relaxed speeds such as when walking. Among smaller to medium-sized species such as dromaeosaurids, longer legs appear to be an adaptation for faster running, in line with previous results by other researchers. But for theropods weighing over , top running speed is limited by body size, so longer legs instead were found to have correlated with low-energy walking. The results of the study further indicated that smaller theropods evolved long legs for speed as a means to both aid in hunting and escape from larger predators while larger predatory theropods that evolved long legs did so to reduce the energy costs and increase foraging efficiency, as they were freed from the demands of predation pressure due to their role as apex predators. Compared to more basal groups of theropods in the study, tyrannosaurids showed a marked increase in foraging efficiency due to reduced energy expenditures during hunting and scavenging. This likely resulted in tyrannosaurs having a reduced need for hunting forays and requiring less food to sustain themselves as a result. Additionally, the research, in conjunction with studies that show tyrannosaurs were more agile than other large-bodied theropods, indicates they were quite well-adapted to a long-distance stalking approach followed by a quick burst of speed to go for the kill. Analogies can be noted between tyrannosaurids and modern wolves as a result, supported by evidence that at least some tyrannosaurids such as "Albertosaurus" were hunting in group settings.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: An ongoing debate in the paleontological community surrounds the extent and nature of tyrannosaurid integumentary covering. Long filamentous structures have been preserved along with skeletal remains of numerous coelurosaurs from the Early Cretaceous Yixian Formation and other nearby geological formations from Liaoning, China. These filaments have usually been interpreted as "protofeathers," homologous with the branched feathers found in birds and some non-avian theropods, although other hypotheses have been proposed. A skeleton of "Dilong" was described in 2004 that included the first example of "protofeathers" in a tyrannosauroid. Similarly to down feathers of modern birds, the "protofeathers" found in "Dilong" were branched but not pennaceous, and may have been used for insulation. The discovery and description of the feathered tyrannosauroid "Yutyrannus" in 2012 indicates the possibility large tyrannosaurids were also feathered as adults.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Based on the principle of phylogenetic bracketing, it was predicted that tyrannosaurids might also possess such feathering. However, a study in 2017 published by a team of researchers in Biology Letters described tyrannosaurid skin impressions collected in Alberta, Montana, and Mongolia, which came from five genera ("Tyrannosaurus", "Albertosaurus", "Gorgosaurus", "Daspletosaurus" and "Tarbosaurus"). Although the skin impressions are small, they are widely dispersed across the post-cranium, being collectively located on the abdomen, thoracic region, ilium, pelvis, tail, and neck. They show a tight pattern of fine, non-overlapping pebbly scales (which co-author Scott Persons compared to those seen on the flanks of a crocodile) and preserve no hints of feathering. The basic texture is composed of tiny "basement scales" approximately 1 to 2 mm in diameter, with some impressions showing 7 mm "feature scales" interspersed between them. Additional scales can be seen in tyrannosaurid footprints. Studies find that the facial integument of tyrannosaurids had scales on the dentary and maxilla, cornified epidermis and armor-like skin on the subordinate regions.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Bell "et al." performed an ancestral character reconstruction based on what is known about integument distribution in tyrannosauroids. Despite an 89% probability that tyrannosauroids started out with feathers, they determined that scaly tyrannosaurids have a 97% probability of being true. The data "provides compelling evidence of an entirely squamous covering in Tyrannosaurus," the team wrote, although they conceded that plumage may have still been present on the dorsal region where skin impressions haven't been found yet. Bell "et al." hypothesizes that the scale impressions of tyrannosaurids are possibly reticula which are secondarily derived from feathers though evidence is needed to support this. However, others argue that this is because of taphonomic bias in tyrannosaurids.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: It has yet to be determined why such an integumentary change might have occurred. A precedent for feather loss can be seen in other dinosaur groups such as ornithischians, in which filamentous structures were lost, and scales reappeared. Although gigantism has been suggested as a mechanism, Phil R. Bell, who co-authored the study, noted that the feathered "Yutyrannus" overlapped in size with "Gorgosaurus" and "Albertosaurus". "The problem here is that we have big tyrannosaurs, some with feathers, some without that live in pretty similar climates. So what's the reason for this difference? We really don't know."


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: The eye-sockets of "Tyrannosaurus" are positioned so that the eyes would point forward, giving them binocular vision slightly better than that of modern hawks. While predatory theropods in general had binocular vision directly in front of their skull, tyrannosaurs had a significantly larger area of overlap. Jack Horner also pointed out that the tyrannosaur lineage had a history of steadily improving binocular vision. It is hard to see how natural selection would have favored this long-term trend if tyrannosaurs had been pure scavengers, which would not have needed the advanced depth perception that stereoscopic vision provides. In modern animals, binocular vision is found mainly in predators (the principal exceptions are primates, which need it for leaping from branch to branch). Unlike "Tyrannosaurus", "Tarbosaurus" had a narrower skull more typical of other tyrannosaurids in which the eyes faced primarily sideways. All of this suggests that "Tarbosaurus" relied more on its senses of smell and hearing than on its eyesight. In "Gorgosaurus" specimens, the eye socket was circular rather than oval or keyhole-shaped as in other tyrannosaurid genera. In "Daspletosaurus", this was a tall oval, somewhere in between the circular shape seen in "Gorgosaurus" and the 'keyhole' shape of "Tyrannosaurus".


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Based on comparisons of bone texture of "Daspletosaurus" with extant crocodilians, a detailed study in 2017 by Thomas D. Carr "et al." found that tyrannosaurs had large, flat scales on their snouts.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: At the center of these scales were small keratinised patches. In crocodilians, such patches cover bundles of sensory neurons that can detect mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli. They proposed that tyrannosaurs probably also had bundles of sensory neurons under their facial scales and may have used them to identify objects, measure the temperature of their nests and gently pick-up eggs and hatchlings.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Bony crests are found on the skulls of many theropods, including many tyrannosaurids. "Alioramus", a possible tyrannosaurid from Mongolia, bears a single row of five prominent bony bumps on the nasal bones; a similar row of much lower bumps is present on the skull of "Appalachiosaurus", as well as some specimens of "Daspletosaurus", "Albertosaurus", and "Tarbosaurus". In "Albertosaurus", "Gorgosaurus" and "Daspletosaurus", there is a prominent horn in front of each eye on the lacrimal bone. The lacrimal horn is absent in "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus", which instead have a crescent-shaped crest behind each eye on the postorbital bone. These head crests may have been used for display, perhaps for species recognition or courtship behavior.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: "Tyrannosaurus", like most dinosaurs, was long thought to have an ectothermic ("cold-blooded") reptilian metabolism but was challenged by scientists like Robert T. Bakker and John Ostrom in the early years of the "Dinosaur Renaissance", beginning in the late 1960s. "Tyrannosaurus rex" itself was claimed to have been endothermic ("warm-blooded"), implying a very active lifestyle. Since then, several paleontologists have sought to determine the ability of "Tyrannosaurus" to regulate its body temperature. Histological evidence of high growth rates in young "T. rex", comparable to those of mammals and birds, may support the hypothesis of a high metabolism. Growth curves indicate that, as in mammals and birds, "T. rex" growth was limited mostly to immature animals, rather than the indeterminate growth seen in most other vertebrates. It has been indicated that the temperature difference may have been no more than 4 to 5 °C (7 to 9 °F) between the vertebrae of the torso and the tibia of the lower leg. This small temperature range between the body core and the extremities was claimed by paleontologist Reese Barrick and geochemist William Showers to indicate that "T. rex" maintained a constant internal body temperature (homeothermy) and that it enjoyed a metabolism somewhere between ectothermic reptiles and endothermic mammals. Later they found similar results in "Giganotosaurus" specimens, who lived on a different continent and tens of millions of years earlier in time. Even if "Tyrannosaurus rex" does exhibit evidence of homeothermy, it does not necessarily mean that it was endothermic. Such thermoregulation may also be explained by gigantothermy, as in some living sea turtles.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: In the Dinosaur Park Formation, "Gorgosaurus" lived alongside a rarer species of the tyrannosaurine "Daspletosaurus". This is one of the few examples of two tyrannosaur genera coexisting. Similarly sized predators in modern predator guilds are separated into different ecological niches by anatomical, behavioral or geographical differences that limit competition. Niche differentiation between the Dinosaur Park tyrannosaurids is not well understood. In 1970, Dale Russell hypothesized that the more common "Gorgosaurus" actively hunted fleet-footed hadrosaurs, while the rarer and more troublesome ceratopsians and ankylosaurians (horned and heavily armoured dinosaurs) were left to the more heavily built "Daspletosaurus". However, a specimen of "Daspletosaurus" (OTM 200) from the contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation of Montana preserves the digested remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its gut region.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Unlike some other groups of dinosaurs, neither genus was more common at higher or lower elevations than the other. However, "Gorgosaurus" appears more common in northern formations like the Dinosaur Park, with species of "Daspletosaurus" more abundant to the south. The same pattern is seen in other groups of dinosaurs. Chasmosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurine hadrosaurs are also more common in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana and in southwestern North America during the Campanian, while centrosaurines and lambeosaurines dominate in northern latitudes. Holtz has suggested that this pattern indicates shared ecological preferences between tyrannosaurines, chasmosaurines and hadrosaurines. At the end of the later Maastrichtian stage, tyrannosaurines like "Tyrannosaurus rex", hadrosaurines like "Edmontosaurus" and chasmosaurines like "Triceratops" were widespread throughout western North America, while albertosaurines and centrosaurines became extinct, and lambeosaurines were rare.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: There is limited evidence of social behavior among the tyrannosaurids. Researchers reported that a subadult and a juvenile skeleton were found in the same quarry as the "Sue" specimen, which has been used to support the hypothesis that tyrannosaurs may have lived in social groups of some kind. While there is no evidence of gregarious behavior in "Gorgosaurus", there is evidence of some pack behavior for "Albertosaurus" and "Daspletosaurus".


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: A young specimen of the Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" species (TMP 94.143.1) shows bite marks on the face that were inflicted by another tyrannosaur. The bite marks are healed over, indicating that the animal survived the bite. A full-grown Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" (TMP 85.62.1) also exhibits tyrannosaur bite marks, showing that attacks to the face were not limited to younger animals. While it is possible that the bites were attributable to other species, intraspecific aggression, including facial biting, is very common among predators. Facial bites are seen in other tyrannosaurs like "Gorgosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus", as well as in other theropod genera like "Sinraptor" and "Saurornitholestes". Darren Tanke and Phil Currie hypothesize that the bites are due to intraspecific competition for territory or resources, or for dominance within a social group.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Evidence that "Daspletosaurus" lived in social groups comes from a bonebed found in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana. The bonebed includes the remains of three "Daspletosaurus", including a large adult, a small juvenile, and another individual of intermediate size. At least five hadrosaurs are preserved at the same location. Geologic evidence indicates that the remains were not brought together by river currents but that all of the animals were buried simultaneously at the same location. The hadrosaur remains are scattered and bear many marks from tyrannosaur teeth, indicating that the "Daspletosaurus" were feeding on the hadrosaurs at the time of death. The cause of death is unknown. Currie speculates that the daspletosaurs formed a pack, although this cannot be stated with certainty. Other scientists are skeptical of the evidence for social groups in "Daspletosaurus" and other large theropods; Brian Roach and Daniel Brinkman have suggested that "Daspletosaurus" social interaction would have more closely resembled the modern Komodo dragon, where non-cooperative individuals mob carcasses, frequently attacking and even cannibalizing each other in the process.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 22 "Albertosaurus", the most individuals found in one locality of any Cretaceous theropod, and the second-most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the "Allosaurus" assemblage at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah. The group seems to be composed of one very old adult; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old; seven sub-adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years, who had not yet reached the growth phase. The near-absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation between the many individuals at the "Albertosaurus" bonebed quarry led Phil Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the La Brea Tar Pits in California, and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time. Currie claims this as evidence of pack behavior. Other scientists are skeptical, observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought, flood or for other reasons.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: While it generally remains controversial, evidence does exist that supports the theory that at least some tyrannosaurids were social. In British Columbia's Wapiti Formation, a trackway composed of the footprints of three individual tyrannosaurids (named as the ichnogenus "Bellatoripes fredlundi") was discovered by a local outfitter named Aaron Fredlund and described in the journal PLOS One by Richard McCrea et al. An examination of the trackway found no evidence of one trackway being left long after another had been made, further supporting the hypothesis that three individual tyrannosaurs were traveling together as a group. Further research revealed the animals were traveling at a speed of between and likely had a hip height of around 7 to 9 feet. As three different genera of tyrannosaurids ("Gorgosaurus", "Daspletosaurus", and "Albertosaurus", respectively) are known from the formation, it is unknown which genus was the maker of the trackway. Additional evidence in the form of a bone-bed from the Rainbows and Unicorns Quarry in Southern Utah's Kaiparowits Formation described in 2021 attributed to "Teratophoneus" suggests other tyrannosaurids were also social animals. The fossils, consisting of four or possibly five different animals ranging from 4–22 years of age, suggest a mass mortality event, possibly caused by flooding, or less likely by cyanobacterial toxicosis, fire, or drought. The fact that all of the animals preserved seemed to have perished within a short timespan further strengthens the argument for gregarious behavior in tyrannosaurids, with the bone beds of such genera as "Teratophoneus", "Albertosaurus", "Tyrannosaurus" and "Daspletosaurus" showcasing suggested social behavior may have been widespread amongst tyrannosauridae in general.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Tyrannosaur tooth marks are the most commonly preserved feeding traces of carnivorous dinosaurs. They have been reported from ceratopsians, hadrosaurs and other tyrannosaurs. Tyrannosaurid bones with tooth marks represent about 2% of known fossils with preserved tooth marks. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body, rather than knife-like cutting functions. Tooth wear patterns hint that complex head shaking behaviors may have been involved in tyrannosaur feeding.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Speculation on the pack-hunting habits of "Albertosaurus" were made by a few researchers who suggest that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults, who were larger and more powerful, but also slower. Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults, filling predator niches between those of the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods, the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than an adult "Albertosaurus" in mass. However, as the preservation of behavior in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, these ideas cannot readily be tested. Phil Currie speculates that the "Daspletosaurus" formed packs to hunt, although this cannot be stated with certainty. There is no evidence of such gregarious behavior in "Gorgosaurus".


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: The debate about whether "Tyrannosaurus" was a predator or a pure scavenger is as old as the debate about its locomotion. Lambe (1917) described a good skeleton of "Tyrannosaurus"s close relative "Gorgosaurus" and concluded that it and therefore also "Tyrannosaurus" was a pure scavenger, because the "Gorgosaurus"s teeth showed hardly any wear. This argument is no longer taken seriously, because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly. Ever since the first discovery of "Tyrannosaurus" most scientists have agreed that it was a predator, although like modern large predators it would have been happy to scavenge or steal another predator's kill if it had the opportunity.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Noted hadrosaur expert Jack Horner is currently the major advocate of the idea that "Tyrannosaurus" was exclusively a scavenger and did not engage in active hunting at all. Horner has presented several arguments to support the pure scavenger hypothesis. The presence of large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves suggests a highly developed sense of smell for sniffing out carcasses over great distances. The teeth could crush bone, and therefore could extract as much food (bone marrow) as possible from carcass remnants, usually the least nutritious parts. At least some of its potential prey could move quickly, while evidence suggests that Tyrannosaurus walked instead of ran.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Other evidence suggests hunting behavior in "Tyrannosaurus". The eye-sockets of tyrannosaurs are positioned so that the eyes would point forward, giving them binocular vision slightly better than that of modern hawks. Tyrannosaur-inflicted damage has been found on skeletons of hadrosaurs and "Triceratops" that seemed to have survived initial attacks. Some researchers argue that if "Tyrannosaurus" were a scavenger, another dinosaur had to be the top predator in the Amerasian Upper Cretaceous. The top prey were the larger marginocephalians and ornithopods. The other tyrannosaurids share so many characteristics with "Tyrannosaurus" that only small dromaeosaurs remain as feasible top predators. In this light, scavenger hypothesis adherents have suggested that the size and power of tyrannosaurs allowed them to steal kills from smaller predators.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Evidence also strongly suggests that tyrannosaurids were at least occasionally cannibalistic. "Tyrannosaurus" itself has strong evidence pointing towards it having been cannibalistic in at least a scavenging capacity based on tooth marks on the foot bones, humerus, and metatarsals of one specimen. Fossils from the Fruitland Formation, Kirtland Formation (both Campanian in age), and Maastichtian-aged Ojo Alamo Formation suggest that cannibalism was present in various tyrannosaurid genera of the San Juan Basin. The evidence gathered from the specimens suggests opportunistic feeding behavior in tyrannosaurids that cannibalized members of their own species.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: While earlier tyrannosauroids are found on all three northern continents, tyrannosaurid fossils are known only from North America and Asia. Sometimes fragmentary remains uncovered in the Southern Hemisphere have been reported as "Southern Hemisphere tyrannosaurids," although these seem to have been misidentified abelisaurid fossils. The exact time and place of origin of the family remain unknown due to the poor fossil record in the middle part of the Cretaceous on both continents, although the earliest confirmed tyrannosaurids lived in the early Campanian stage in western North America.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Tyrannosaurid remains have never been recovered from eastern North America, while more basal tyrannosauroids, like "Dryptosaurus" and "Appalachiosaurus", persisted there until the end of the Cretaceous, indicating that tyrannosaurids must have evolved in or dispersed into western North America after the continent was divided in half by the Western Interior Seaway in the middle of the Cretaceous. Tyrannosaurid fossils have been found in Alaska, which may have provided a route for dispersal between North America and Asia. "Alioramus" and "Tarbosaurus" are found to be related in one cladistic analysis, forming a unique Asian branch of the family. This was later disproven with the discovery of "Qianzhousaurus" and the description of the tyrannosaur family Alioramini. Tyrannosaurid teeth from a large species of unknown variety were discovered in the Nagasaki Peninsula by researchers from the Fukui Prefectural Dinosaur Museum, further expanding the range of the group. The teeth were estimated to be 81 million years old (Campanian Age).


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: Of the two subfamilies, tyrannosaurines appear to have been more widespread. Albertosaurines are unknown in Asia, which was home to the tyrannosaurines, such as "Tarbosaurus" and "Zhuchengtyrannus", and "Qianzhousaurus" and "Alioramus" of the Alioramini. Both the Tyrannosaurinae and Albertosaurinae subfamilies were present in the Campanian and early Maastrichtian stages of North America, with tyrannosaurines like "Daspletosaurus" ranging throughout the Western Interior, while the albertosaurines "Albertosaurus" and "Gorgosaurus" are currently known only from the northwestern part of the continent.


title: Tyrannosauridae

text: By the late Maastrichtian, albertosaurines appear to have gone extinct, while the tyrannosaurine "Tyrannosaurus" roamed from Saskatchewan to Texas. This pattern is mirrored in other North American dinosaur taxa. During the Campanian and early Maastrichtian, lambeosaurine hadrosaurs and centrosaurine ceratopsians are common in the northwest, while hadrosaurines and chasmosaurines were more common to the south. By the end of the Cretaceous, centrosaurines are unknown and lambeosaurines are rare, while hadrosaurines and chasmosaurines were common throughout the Western Interior. A study published in the journal "Scientific Reports" on February 2, 2016, by Steve Brusatte, Thomas Carr "et al". indicates that during the later Maastrichtian, "Tyrannosaurus" itself might have been partially responsible for the extinction of the other tyrannosaurids in most of western North America. The study indicates that "Tyrannosaurus" might have been an immigrant from Asia as opposed to having evolved in North America (possibly a descendant of the closely related "Tarbosaurus") that supplanted and outcompeted other tyrannosaurids. This theory is further supported by the fact that few to no other types of tyrannosaurid are found within "Tyrannosaurus"' known range.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In Christianity, disciple primarily refers to a dedicated follower of Jesus. This term is found in the New Testament only in the Gospels and Acts. In the ancient world, a disciple is a follower or adherent of a teacher. Discipleship is not the same as being a student in the modern sense. A disciple in the ancient biblical world actively imitated both the life and teaching of the master. It was a deliberate apprenticeship which made the fully formed disciple a living copy of the master.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The New Testament records many followers of Jesus during his ministry. Some disciples were given a mission, such as the Little Commission, the commission of the seventy in Luke's Gospel, the Great Commission after the resurrection of Jesus, or the conversion of Paul, making them "apostles", charged with proclaiming the gospel (the Good News) to the world. Jesus emphasised that being his disciples would be costly.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The term "disciple" represents the Koine Greek word (), which generally means "one who engages in learning through instruction from another, "pupil, apprentice"" or in religious contexts such as the Bible, "one who is rather constantly associated with someone who has a pedagogical reputation or a particular set of views, "disciple, adherent."" The word "disciple" comes into English usage by way of the Latin "discipulus" meaning a learner, but given its biblical background, should not be confused with the more common English word "student."


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: A disciple is different from an apostle, which instead means a messenger, more specifically "messengers with extraordinary status, especially of God’s "messenger, envoy."" But predominately in the New Testament it is used of ""a group of highly honored believers with a special function as God’s envoys."" While a disciple is one who learns and apprentices under a teacher or rabbi, an apostle is one sent as a missionary to proclaim the good news and to establish new communities of believers.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The meaning of the word "disciple" is not derived primarily from its root meaning or etymology but from its widespread usage in the ancient world. Disciples are found in the world outside of the Bible. For example among the ancient Greek philosophers, disciples learned by imitating the teacher’s entire way of life and not just by remembering the spoken words of the teacher.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The first-century philosopher Seneca appeals to the "living voice and intimacy of common life" of the discipleteacher relationship of many different philosophers:


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In the world of the Bible, "a disciple" was a person who followed a teacher, or rabbi, or master, or philosopher. The disciple desired to learn not only the teaching of the rabbi, but to imitate the practical details of their life. A disciple did not merely attend lectures or read books, they were required to interact with and imitate a real living person. A disciple would literally follow someone in hopes of eventually becoming what they are.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: A Christian disciple is a believer who follows Christ and then offers his own imitation of Christ as model for others to follow (1 Corinthians 11:1). A disciple is first a believer who has exercised faith (Acts 2:38). This means they have experienced conversion and put Jesus at the center of their life and participated in rites of Christian imitation. A fully developed disciple is also a leader of others who attempts to pass on this faith to his followers, with the goal of repeating this process.(1 Corinthians 4:16-17; 2 Timothy 2:2). A special form of passing on leadership through discipleship is called apostolic succession.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In addition to the Twelve Apostles there is a much larger group of people identified as disciples in the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain. In addition, seventy (or seventy-two, depending on the source used) people are sent out in pairs to prepare the way for Jesus (Luke 10). They are sometimes referred to as the "Seventy" or the "Seventy Disciples". They are to eat any food offered, heal the sick and spread the word that the Kingdom of God is coming.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Jesus practiced open table fellowship, scandalizing his critics by dining with sinners, tax collectors, and women.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The gospels use the term "sinners and tax collectors" to depict those he fraternized with. Sinners were Jews who violated purity rules, or generally any of the 613 mitzvot, or possibly Gentiles who violated Noahide Law, though halacha was still in dispute in the 1st century, see also Hillel and Shammai and Circumcision controversy in early Christianity. Tax collectors profited from the Roman economic system that the Romans imposed in Iudaea province, which was displacing Galileans in their own homeland, foreclosing on family land and selling it to absentee landlords. In the honor-based culture of the time, such behavior went against the social grain.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Samaritans, positioned between Jesus' Galilee and Jerusalem's Judea, were mutually hostile with Jews. In Luke and John, Jesus extends his ministry to Samaritans.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In Luke (10:38–42), Mary, sister of Lazarus, is contrasted with her sister Martha, who was "cumbered about many things" while Jesus was their guest, while Mary had chosen "the better part," that of listening to the master's discourse. John names her as the "one who had anointed the Lord with perfumed oil and dried his feet with her hair" (11:2). In Luke, an unidentified "sinner" in the house of a Pharisee anoints Jesus' feet.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Luke refers to a number of people accompanying Jesus and the twelve. From among them he names three women: "Mary, called Magdalene, ... and Joanna the wife of Herod's steward Chuza, and Susanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources" (Luke 8:2-3). Mary Magdalene and Joanna are among the women who went to prepare Jesus' body in Luke's account of the resurrection, and who later told the apostles and other disciples about the empty tomb and words of the "two men in dazzling clothes". Mary Magdalene is the most well-known of the disciples outside of the Twelve. More is written in the gospels about her than the other female followers. There is also a large body of lore and literature covering her.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Other gospel writers differ as to which women witness the crucifixion and witness to the resurrection. Mark includes Mary, the mother of James and Salome (not to be confused with Salomé the daughter of Herodias) at the crucifixion and Salome at the tomb. John includes Mary the wife of Clopas at the crucifixion.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Tabitha (Dorcas) is the only female follower of Jesus named in the New Testament and explicitly called a disciple.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In Luke, Cleopas is one of the two disciples to whom the risen Lord appears at Emmaus (Luke 24:18). Cleopas, with an unnamed disciple of Jesus' are walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus on the day of Jesus' resurrection. Cleopas and his friend were discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asked them what they spoke of. The stranger is asked to join Cleopas and his friend for the evening meal. There the stranger is revealed, in blessing and breaking the bread, as the resurrected Jesus before he disappears. Cleopas and his friend hastened to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples, to discover that Jesus had appeared there also and would do so again. The incident is without parallel in Matthew, Mark, or John.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: A definition of disciple is suggested by Jesus' self-referential example from the Gospel of John 13:34-35: "I give you a new commandment, that you love one another. Just as I have loved you, you also should love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another." (NRSV) Further definition by Jesus can be found in the Gospel of Luke, Chapter 14. Beginning with a testing trap laid out by his adversaries regarding observance of the Jewish Sabbath, Jesus uses the opportunity to lay out the problems with the religiosity of his adversaries against his own teaching by giving a litany of shocking comparisons between various, apparent socio-political and socio-economic realities versus the meaning of being his disciple.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The canonical gospels, Acts, and the Pauline epistles urge disciples to be imitators of Jesus Christ or of God himself. Being imitators requires obedience exemplified by moral behavior. With this biblical basis, Christian theology teaches that discipleship entails transformation from some other worldview and practice of life into that of Jesus Christ, and so, by way of Trinitarian theology, of God himself.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Paul the Apostle stressed transformation as a prerequisite for discipleship when he wrote that disciples must "not be conformed to this world" but must "be transformed by the renewing of [their] minds" so that they "may discern what is the will of God—what is good and acceptable and perfect." Therefore, a disciple is not simply an accumulator of information or one who merely changes moral behavior in conformity with the teachings of Jesus Christ, but seeks a fundamental shift toward the ethics of Jesus Christ in every way, including complete devotion to God.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: In several Christian traditions, the process of becoming a disciple is called the "Imitation of Christ." This concept goes back to the Pauline epistles: "be imitators of God" (Ephesians 5:1) and "be imitators of me, as I am of Christ" (1 Corinthians 11:1). "The Imitation of Christ" by Thomas à Kempis promoted this concept in the 14th century.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Ubiquitous throughout Christianity is the practice of proselytism, making new disciples. In Matthew, at the beginning of Jesus' ministry, when calling his earliest disciples—Simon, Peter, and Andrew—he says to them: "Follow me and I will make you fishers of men" (). Then, at the very end of his ministry Jesus institutes the Great Commission, commanding all present to "go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you" (Matthew 28:19-20a).


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Jesus called on disciples to give up their wealth and their familial ties. In his society, family was the individual's source of identity, so renouncing it would mean becoming virtually nobody. In , Jesus used a hyperbolic metaphor to stress the importance of this, and another in : ""If anyone comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters—yes, even their own life—such a person cannot be my disciple."" There are different interpretations of this text on counting the cost of discipleship.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: The "Discipleship Movement" (also known as the "Shepherding Movement") was an influential and controversial movement within some British and American churches, emerging in the 1970s and early 1980s. The doctrine of the movement emphasized the "one another" passages of the New Testament, and the mentoring relationship prescribed by the Apostle Paul in 2 Timothy 2:2 of the Holy Bible. It was controversial in that it gained a reputation for controlling and abusive behavior, with a great deal of emphasis placed upon the importance of obedience to one's own shepherd. The movement was later denounced by several of its founders, although some form of the movement continues today.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Radical discipleship is a movement in practical theology that has emerged from a yearning to follow the true message of Jesus and a discontentment with mainstream Christianity. Radical Christians, such as Ched Myers and Lee Camp, believe mainstream Christianity has moved away from its origins, namely the core teachings and practices of Jesus such as turning the other cheek and rejecting materialism. Radical is derived from the Latin word "radix" meaning "root", referring to the need for perpetual re-orientation towards the root truths of Christian discipleship.


title: Disciple (Christianity)

text: Radical discipleship also refers to the Anabaptist Reformation movement beginning in Zurich, Switzerland in 1527. This movement grew in part out of the belief that the Protestant Reformers such Martin Luther, John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli were not going far enough in their respective reforms.


title: Firework (song)

text: "Firework" is a song by American singer Katy Perry from her third studio album, "Teenage Dream" (2010). Perry co-wrote the song with Ester Dean and the song's producers Stargate and Sandy Vee. It is a dance-pop self-empowerment anthem with inspirational lyrics, and Perry felt it was an important song for her on the record. Capitol Records released it as the album's third single on October 26, 2010.


title: Firework (song)

text: The song was commercially successful, reaching number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and the top five on 20 charts around the world. "Firework" has sold over 1 million copies in the United Kingdom, and was certified 12× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of over 12 million copies in the United States. "'Firework" received mixed to positive reviews from critics upon release, lauding Perry's vocals but finding the lyrics "clunky".


title: Firework (song)

text: An accompanying music video, directed by Dave Meyers, was released on October 28, 2010. It portrays Perry singing and dancing around Budapest, with interspersed scenes of young people becoming confident in themselves. An open casting call for the music video drew an unprecedented 38,000 applicants. On MuchMusic's top 50 videos of 2010, "Firework" reached the top position. The music video was said to be a more upbeat take on Christina Aguilera's message in "Beautiful". It was nominated for three awards at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, eventually winning one of those, the Video of the Year, the main and final award. "Firework" was nominated for Record of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards. On January 5, 2012, "Firework" was elected the fifth most played single on US radio during 2011 by Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, with 509,000 plays.


title: Firework (song)

text: "Firework" was written by Perry, Stargate, Sandy Wilhelm, and Ester Dean while produced by Stargate and Sandy Vee at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. It was recorded at Roc the Mic Studios. It was mixed at The Bunker Studios by Vee. Audio engineering was done by Carlos Oyanedel and Damien Lewis. All instruments were done by Stargate and Vee. Lead and background vocals were provided by Perry. Perry said that "Firework" is her favorite song on "Teenage Dream". She explained that:


title: Firework (song)

text: "Now, people are coming back and almost adopting it as their own anthem, and it's hard, I think, to write an anthem that's not cheesy, and I hope that this could be something in that category. I hope this could be one of those things where it's like, 'Yeah, I want to put my fist up and feel proud and feel strong. But I also don't want to be cheesy, it's a fine line, and I think 'Firework' ... would be like the opus or my one song — if I had to pick a song to play — 'cause it has a great beat. But it also has a fantastic message. Many people refer to the lines 'like the 4th of July'; however the original lyrics were 'like a firefly' as they reminded me of fireworks at night whenever I saw them. However the trend caught on and in live performances I now sing 4th of July, which happens to make great sense for the song name."


title: Firework (song)

text: According to Perry, "Firework" is influenced by Jack Kerouac's novel, "On the Road". The line "Cause baby, you're a firework / Come on, show 'em what you're worth / Make 'em go, awe, awe, awe" is based on Kerouac's line "burn, burn, burn, like fabulous yellow roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars and in the middle you see the blue centerlight pop and everybody goes 'Awww!'"


title: Firework (song)

text: "Firework" is a dance-pop song. The song is composed in the key of A major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 124 beats per minute. Perry's vocal range spans from A to E.


title: Firework (song)

text: MTV praised Perry's vocals, though felt the lyrics were "clunky". "Slant Magazine" stated that the song is "not an actively painful listen. Sure, the would-be inspirational lyrics ('Baby you're a firework/Come on show them what you're worth') are nonsensical, ... but the chorus gains some momentum and the song would work well enough in a club setting that you could forgive its otherwise glaring weaknesses." Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic chose "Firework" among the top tracks on the album, Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song five out of five stars, calling it "a straight up self-empowerment anthem wrapped in a Coldplay-on-poppers club banger from the Stargate team. " PopMatters wrote that "Firework" is "the record's last hurrah; though nothing particularly memorable...'Firework' has at least a bit of staying power". "The Washington Post" described the song as "too mushy". Al Fox of BBC Music said that the song "displays a breezy maturity and serious set of pipes, a true demonstration of Perry's musicianship without contradicting the kittenish mischief of the bigger picture." The song was nominated for Grammy Award for Record of the Year at the 54th Grammy Awards but lost to Adele's "Rolling in the Deep".


title: Firework (song)

text: In the United States, "Firework" debuted at position 57 on the issue dated November 6, 2010. On the issue dated December 18, 2010, it reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Perry's fourth number-one single in the US and third number-one single from the album. This made Perry the first female artist since Monica to have three consecutive singles from an album top the chart. It spent four non-consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot 100. The song topped on Hot Dance Club Songs, Pop chart, Adult Pop Songs and Adult Contemporary chart. On the week ending January 8, 2011, "Firework" sold 509,000 digital downloads in the US which is tied with Lady Gaga's "Born This Way" as the seventh highest amount ever sold by a female artist behind Adele's "Hello" (1.1 million), Taylor Swift's "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" (623,000) and Kesha's "Tik Tok" (610,000), Swift's "I Knew You Were Trouble" (582,000), Perry's own "Roar" (557,000), Swift's "Shake It Off" (544,000) and ninth highest overall. The song was certified 12× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In 2014, she became the first artist in digital history to sell 5 million or more copies of six different songs with "Firework", "Hot n Cold", "California Gurls", "ET", "Roar", and "Dark Horse". As of August 2020, the song has sold 7,400,000 copies in the United States.


title: Firework (song)

text: In Canada, "Firework" debuted at number 51 on the Canadian Hot 100 issue dated November 6, 2010 and reached number one on December 18, 2010. On October 31, 2010, "Firework" debuted at number 37 in Australia on the official ARIA Singles Chart and moved to number 15 the next week. It peaked at number three and was certified six-times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales over 350,000 copies. The song debuted at number 34 in New Zealand on October 4, 2010 and reached number one.


title: Firework (song)

text: The song entered at number five on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number three. "Firework" became Perry's first song to sell over one million copies in the United Kingdom, and has sold a total of 1,091,743 copies in the nation as of February 2017. It has also been certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Across Europe, the song reached the top five in Germany, Austria, Belgium, Italy, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, while reaching the top ten in France and the Netherlands.


title: Firework (song)

text: The video is part of a cross-promotional deal with European telecommunications group Deutsche Telekom. Deutsche Telekom hosted a series of activities and competitions from which fans around Europe would be recruited to be in the video. MTV reported that Perry started filming the video on September 28, 2010. The video was directed by Dave Meyers, choreographed by Natricia Bernard, and shot in Budapest. The official teaser trailer of the music video was released on October 15, 2010. An open casting call for the music video drew an unprecedented 38,000 applicants. Perry dedicated it to the It Gets Better Project. The video was released on TwitVid, DirectLyrics, and Youku on October 28, 2010. It premiered on October 28, 2010, on YouTube, and as of November 2019, has amassed more than 1.2 billion views. It was presented in the anamorphic widescreen 2.35:1 aspect ratio.


title: Firework (song)

text: Perry opens the video gazing down upon the city from a balcony. As she sings into the night, fireworks burst from her soul and soon inspire young people throughout the city to overcome their fears and insecurities, in the process igniting their own fireworks. A boy confronts his parents, who are in a heated argument and upsetting his little sister, and pushes them apart. A shy overweight girl, playing the role of wallflower at a pool party, finds the courage to shed her clothes and jump in the pool with her friends. A leukemia patient at a children's hospital proves to herself that she can show herself out on the street and in public despite her loss of hair. A closeted teenage boy approaches his male friend in a club and kisses him. A struggling young performer walking home in a dark alley uses tricks from his magic act to win over a group of street toughs who were trying to rob him. Soon the youth of the city are converging upon the courtyard of Buda Castle, dancing and lighting up the night with their fireworks, as the camera pans up to the sky for their popping sounds, ending the video.


title: Firework (song)

text: On MuchMusic's top 50 videos of 2010, "Firework" was ranked No. 1. The video won Video of the Year at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards and was nominated for Best Female Video and the newly introduced Best Video with a Message category.


title: Firework (song)

text: Perry performed "Firework" live for the first time on the "Late Show with David Letterman" on August 24, 2010. On November 7, 2010, she performed the song at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards held in Madrid, Spain on November 7, 2010, in an outdoor performance in the front of the Puerta de Alcalá monument. Perry also performed the song again in the United Kingdom, this time on the chat show "Paul O'Grady Live" on November 12, 2010, the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on November 14, 2010, and at the American Music Awards of 2010. She performed "Firework" at the 2010 annual Victoria's Secret Fashion Show which aired on November 30, 2010. Perry's performance of "Firework" on "Willkommen bei Mario Barth" aired December 4, 2010, in Germany, a performance that was recorded in October 2010. She appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" on December 8, 2010, to perform an acoustic version of the song. Also, she performed the song in the 2010 "VH1 Divas" show at the closing of the event. Perry also performed the acoustic version on the 12th Annual "A Home for the Holidays" special on CBS.


title: Firework (song)

text: On May 1, 2011, Perry sang "Firework" at the 53rd TV Week Logie Awards in Australia. The song is featured on the set list of the California Dreams Tour. Perry performed the song at as part of a "Live Lounge" special for BBC Radio 1's Fearne Cotton on March 19, 2012, along with "Part of Me", "The One That Got Away", "Thinking of You" and "Niggas in Paris". On October 13, 2012, Perry performed the song as a duet with Jodi DiPiazza, an 11-year-old girl with autism, as part of the "Night of Too Many Stars" benefit, later broadcast on Comedy Central. For Obama's 2012 presidential candidacy, Perry performed several of her hit songs dressed as a ballot, including "Teenage Dream", "Firework", and "Wide Awake". Expressing solidarity for his campaign, the box next to Obama's name was shaded.


title: Firework (song)

text: Perry was the headliner of Super Bowl XLIX halftime show, which took place on February 1, 2015, and "Firework" was the last song of the performance.


title: Firework (song)

text: On January 20, 2021, Perry performed the song in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the "Celebrating America" inaugural concert special commemorating the Inauguration of Joe Biden as the 46th President of the United States, closing out the show. A massive firework display was coordinated to appear near the Washington Monument, to serve as a backdrop for her performance.


title: Golden Horn

text: The Golden Horn ( or "Haliç"; , "Chrysókeras"; ) is a major urban waterway and the primary inlet of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey. As a natural estuary that connects with the Bosphorus Strait at the point where the strait meets the Sea of Marmara, the waters of the Golden Horn help define the northern boundary of the peninsula constituting "Old Istanbul" (ancient Byzantium and Constantinople), the tip of which is the promontory of Sarayburnu, or Seraglio Point. This estuarial inlet geographically separates the historic center of Istanbul from the rest of the city, and forms a horn-shaped, sheltered harbor that in the course of history has protected Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and other maritime trade ships for thousands of years.


title: Golden Horn

text: Throughout its history, the Golden Horn has witnessed many tumultuous historical incidents, and has been depicted in numerous works of art.


title: Golden Horn

text: An hourly Golden Horn ferry service connects Üsküdar and Karaköy with most of the suburbs along the estuary. In 2021 the T5 tramline opened on the western shore of the Golden Horn. It runs from the Alibeyköy bus station as far as Cibali, beside the Atatürk Bridge, although an extension already in the making will continue it to Eminönü where it will intersect with the T1 tramline and several ferry services.


title: Golden Horn

text: The Golden Horn is the estuary of the Alibey and Kağıthane Rivers. It is 7.5 kilometers (4.66 mi) long, and 750 meters (2,460 ft) across at its widest. Its maximum depth, where it flows into the Bosphorus, is about 35 meters (115 ft). While the reference to a "horn" is understood to refer to the inlet's aerial silhouette, the significance of the designation "golden" remains more obscure, with historians believing it to refer to either the riches brought into the city through the bustling historic harbor located along its shores, or to romantic artistic interpretations of the rich yellow light blazing upon the estuary's waters as the sun sets over the city. Its Greek and English names mean the same, while its Turkish name, "Haliç", simply means "estuary", and derives from the Arabic word "khaleej", meaning "gulf".


title: Golden Horn

text: The following districts line the western shore of the Golden Horn from south to north: Cibali, Fener, , Ayvansaray, Eyüp, Silahtarağa, Sakarya and Alibeyköy. The following districts line the eastern shore of the Golden Horn from south to north: Kasımpaşa, Hasköy, and Sütlüce.


title: Golden Horn

text: At present, the Golden Horn is spanned by four bridges. Moving from upstream to downstream (i.e. northwest to southeast), these are as follows:


title: Golden Horn

text: The Eski Galata Bridge (literally, "Old Galata Bridge"), now-defunct, used to connect the downstream neighborhoods of Karaköy and Eminönü, but was disassembled and relocated upstream between Ayvansaray and Keçeci Piri following extensive damage in 1992 caused by a fire originating in the kitchen of one of the restaurants located on the bridge's lower level. Originally dating back to 1912, the now-retired structure is no longer used for vehicular or pedestrian traffic, but functions as a seasonal outdoor exhibit and event space attached to Haliç Park.


title: Golden Horn

text: Archaeological records show a significant urban presence on and around the Golden Horn dating back to at least the 7th century BC, with smaller settlements going as far back as 6700 BC as confirmed by recent discoveries of ancient ports, storage facilities, and fleets of trade ships unearthed during construction work for the Yenikapı subway station and the Marmaray tunnel project.


title: Golden Horn

text: Indeed, the deep natural harbor provided by the Golden Horn has always been a major economic attraction and strategic military advantage for inhabitants of the area. Emperor Constantine I established "Nova Roma" (later Constantinople) on top of the existing city of Byzantium to capitalize on the same benefits, as did the founders of the previous settlement and its modern successor, Istanbul.


title: Golden Horn

text: The Eastern Roman Empire had its naval headquarters there, and walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city of Constantinople from naval attacks. At the entrance to the Horn on the northern side, a large chain was pulled across from Constantinople to the old Tower of Galata to prevent unwanted ships from entering. Known among the Byzantines as the "Megàlos Pyrgos" (meaning "Great Tower" in Greek), this tower was largely destroyed by the Latin Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In 1348, the Genoese built a new tower nearby which they called "Christea Turris" (Tower of Christ), now called Galata Tower.


title: Golden Horn

text: There were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken or circumvented. In the 10th century the Kievan Rus' dragged their longships out of the Bosphorus, around Galata, and relaunched them in the Horn; the Byzantines defeated them with Greek fire. In 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, Venetian ships were able to break the chain with a ram. In 1453, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, having failed in his attempt to break the chain with brute force, instead used the same tactic as the Rus'; towing his ships across Galata over greased logs and into the estuary.


title: Golden Horn

text: After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II resettled ethnic Greeks along the Horn in the Phanar (today's Fener). Balat continued to be inhabited by Jews, as during the Byzantine age, though many Jews decided to leave following the takeover of the city. This area was repopulated when Bayezid II invited the Jews who were expelled from Spain to resettle in Balat.


title: Golden Horn

text: In 1502, Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single-span bridge over the Golden Horn as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Bayezid II. Leonardo's drawings and notes regarding this bridge are currently displayed at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia in Milan, Italy. While the original design was never executed, the vision of Leonardo's Golden Horn Bridge was resurrected in 2001, when a small footbridge based on Leonardo's design was constructed near Ås in Norway by Vebjørn Sand.


title: Golden Horn

text: Until the 1980s, the Horn was polluted with industrial waste from the factories, warehouses, and shipyards along its shores. It has since been cleaned, and the local fish, wildlife, and flora have been largely restored. The clean-up happened in two main phases under Mayor Bedrettin Dalan in the 1980s and under Mayor Recep Tayyıp Erdoğan in the 1990s.


title: Golden Horn

text: Nowadays, the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each shore. The Istanbul Chamber of Commerce is also located along the shore, as are several Muslim, Jewish and Christian cemeteries. Other institutions along the Horn's banks include museums, congress and cultural halls, supporting facilities of the Turkish Navy, and campuses of various universities.


title: Golden Horn

text: Today, the Horn's history and natural environment make it a popular tourist attraction in Istanbul, visited by 10 million international vacationers annually.


title: Golden Horn

text: Sometimes claimed as the oldest shipyard in the world, the Haliç Shipyard ("Haliç Tersanesi" in Turkish) was founded by Sultan Mehmed II in 1455. It remained in operation both for shipbuilding and repairs into the 1960s but then fell into disrepair. The site is now being redeveloped as the giant Tersane Istanbul project which will bring hotels, museums, art galleries, shops and restaurants to a very rundown area. In February 2019 President Erdoğan announced the start of the project and in October 2021 it started to open when the Contemporary Istanbul art fair was staged there. It is intended that the Sadberk Hanım Museum will relocate to Tersane Istanbul from Sarıyer as part of the project.


title: Golden Horn

text: The Golden Horn is featured in many works of literature dealing with classical themes. For example, G. K. Chesterton's poem "Lepanto" contains the memorable couplet "From evening isles fantastical rings faint the Spanish gun, / And the Lord upon the Golden Horn is laughing in the sun."


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: The third and final series of the British crime drama "Broadchurch" began airing on the ITV broadcast network in the United Kingdom on 27 February 2017 and is set three years after the events of series two. The eight-episode series follows the rape of a local woman in the fictional, close-knit coastal town of Broadchurch in Dorset, England. The return features series stars David Tennant and Olivia Colman and many other actors from the first two series.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: While conceiving and writing the first series of "Broadchurch" in 2012, Chris Chibnall designed his story to be told as a trilogy but, of course, the first series had to be self-contained in case the show did not do well in the ratings and a second series was not commissioned. When he pitched series one to ITV, in the autumn of 2012, he pitched series two and three at the same time.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: On 1 December 2014, a number of media outlets reported that ITV had commissioned a third series of "Broadchurch".


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: On 23 February 2015, ITV confirmed that "Broadchurch", as well as David Tennant and Olivia Colman, would return for a third series, repeating the use of ""Broadchurch" will return" after the closing credits. Jane Featherstone and Chris Chibnall continued as executive producers of the programme in series three, with Dan Winch replacing Richard Stokes as producer for the final series. Chibnall is the lead writer.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: Filming for the third series began in May 2016 and broadcast started on 27 February 2017. The final series follows Miller and Hardy as they investigate a serious sexual assault. Creator Chris Chibnall said, "We have one last story to tell, featuring both familiar faces and new characters. I hope it's a compelling and emotional farewell to a world and show that means so much to me." The Shores, Dorset’s Sexual Assault Referral Centre (SARC), and the Dorset Rape Crisis charity, along with various police advisers assisted Chibnall throughout writing the scripts.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: David Tennant and Olivia Colman were the first two cast members to be confirmed to return for the third and final series. On 12 April 2016, ITV officially announced the casting for the third and final series, with Jodie Whittaker, Andrew Buchan, Arthur Darvill, Carolyn Pickles, and Adam Wilson returning to play their respective roles as Beth Latimer, Mark Latimer, Rev. Paul Coates, Maggie Radcliffe, and Tom Miller. Joe Sims confirmed his return as Nigel Carter via Twitter. Charlotte Rampling confirmed she will not return as Jocelyn Knight QC, with her character's absence explained in the second episode as being due to her being involved in a big trial in London.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: New to "Broadchuch" include Mark Bazeley, Georgina Campbell, Julie Hesmondhalgh, Charlie Higson, Sarah Parish, Lenny Henry, Roy Hudd, Sunetra Sarker, Sebastian Armesto, Becky Brunning, Jim Howick, Chris Mason, and Deon-Lee Williams.


title: Broadchurch (series 3)

text: "Broadchurch" won the award for best Crime Drama at National Television Awards in early 2018. This was the first year the award was presented and "Broadchurch" was competing against "Sherlock", "Line of Duty" and "Little Boy Blue".


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: The Boss is a 2016 American comedy film directed by Ben Falcone and written by Falcone, Melissa McCarthy and Steve Mallory. The film stars McCarthy, Kristen Bell, Ella Anderson, Tyler Labine, Kathy Bates, Annie Mumolo, Timothy Simons, and Peter Dinklage.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: The film follows a wealthy woman who, after being arrested and losing her fortune, uses her assistant's daughter's Dandelion Girls cookie sales to return to the top.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: "The Boss" had its premiere in Sydney on March 21, 2016, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 8 by Universal Pictures. Although it received generally negative reviews from critics, it grossed over $78 million worldwide on a budget of $29 million.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Set in Chicago first in 1975, a young Michelle Darnell returns to the orphanage she was adopted from. She bounces between the orphanage and other homes within 5–10 years later until her sadness turns into rage and realises that she will succeed on her own.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: In the present, Michelle is the CEO of three Fortune 500 companies, guru and best-selling author of self-help books and is the 47th wealthiest woman in the US. After a successful event at the United Center, Michelle and her nemesis/lover Renault originally named Ronald face off about a recent stock deal Michelle made in which she had acquired the stock due to insider trading and is turned into the SEC by Renault as revenge. Following a disastrous interview with Gayle King, Michelle is arrested for insider trading and sent to prison for five months, while her companies are taken over by Renault and all her assets are seized and frozen by the government. When released, Michelle finds her home foreclosed and seeks out Claire, her former assistant, and her daughter Rachel with whom she stays until she gets back on her feet.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: After Michelle fails to get back on her feet with colleagues she insults, she is soon inspired by Rachel's Dandelions scout cookies and the profit the organisation makes a year. Furthermore, Michelle decides to start her own company named Darnell's Darlings by selling Claire's homemade brownies and brings in Claire as a partner. Recruiting girls from the Dandelions and other students, the girls are successful in selling brownies, even causing trouble with the Dandelions which leads to a street fight between the two. Michelle, Rachel and Claire soon grow closer together; especially with Michelle inspiring Claire to quit her job and go on a date with Mike, a coworker, while growing close to Rachel as the company grows.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Michelle, having brought in her former mentor Ida Marquette as an investor in the company, is spooked at a celebratory dinner when she receives a handmade gift from Rachel who declares the three as a family due to her own personal background of abandonment. Michelle, overwhelmed, soon begins to become absent in Rachel and Claire's lives especially when she begins making big business decisions without Claire's involvement and the two clash heads after Michelle mistakenly believes that Claire has sold out the company to Renault. In return, Michelle sells the company to Renault. Michelle soon returns to Rachel and Claire, feeling regretful and apologises, explaining her childhood where she was abandoned frequently. Michelle decides to help Claire get her company back by stealing the contract from Renault's office. Mike, now Claire's boyfriend, decides to assist.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: While Mike distracts the doormen, the two women successfully steal the contract but are intercepted by Renault who fights with Michelle, leading to the rooftop where Michelle is seemingly pushed off the roof to her death (however fell to the level below). Claire also shoves Renault. Michelle and Renault, having had a background of being romantically involved, make peace with one another.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: A year later, the business achieves great success and Claire and Rachel use the money to purchase a new family home.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Initially announced as "Michelle Darnell", the film is based on a character McCarthy created for the comedy troupe Groundlings. Universal was at first unable to decide on the gender of the film's antagonist. Before Peter Dinklage was finally cast, the studio also considered Oprah Winfrey, Jon Hamm and Sandra Bullock as possibilities. Kathy Bates plays Ida Marquette, Darnell's mentor, and Kristen Bell plays Claire, Darnell's former personal assistant.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Set in Chicago, the movie began filming in Chicago on March 12, 2015. In addition to filming in Chicago, the movie was also filmed throughout various locations in the Atlanta, Georgia area, including Agnes Scott College, Crescent Avenue in Midtown, Glenwood Park, and the Buckhead Loop area.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: "The Boss" grossed $63.3 million in the United States and Canada, plus $15.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $78.8 million against a budget of $29 million.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, pre-release tracking suggested the film would gross $20–24 million from 3,480 theaters in its opening weekend, besting fellow newcomers "Hardcore Henry" ($7–10 million projection) and "Demolition" ($2–3 million projection). The film grossed $985,000 from its early Thursday screenings and $8.1 million on its first day. It went on to gross $23.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing first at the box office.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: "The Boss" received generally negative reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 22%, based on 197 reviews, with an average of 4.40/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Melissa McCarthy remains as fiercely talented as ever, but her efforts aren't enough to prop up the baggy mess of inconsistent gags and tissue-thin writing that brings down "The Boss"." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 40 out of 100, based on reviews from 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Manohla Dargis of The New York Times writes: "The movie is funny without being much good; mostly, it’s another rung on Ms. McCarthy’s big ladder up."


title: The Boss (2016 film)

text: Justin Chang of "Variety magazine" calls the film a "sloppy, haphazard comic vehicle" although he does praise McCarthy for doing the most possible to extract laughs from the material.


title: TRS-80

text: The TRS-80 Micro Computer System (TRS-80, later renamed the Model I to distinguish it from successors) is a desktop microcomputer launched in 1977 and sold by Tandy Corporation through their Radio Shack stores. The name is an abbreviation of "Tandy Radio Shack, Z80 [microprocessor]". It is one of the earliest mass-produced and mass-marketed retail home computers.


title: TRS-80

text: The TRS-80 has a full-stroke QWERTY keyboard, the Zilog Z80 processor, 4 KB dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) standard memory, small size and desk area, floating-point Level I BASIC language interpreter in read-only memory (ROM), 64-character per line video monitor, and a starting price of US$600 (equivalent to US$ in 2021). A cassette tape drive for program storage was included in the original package.


title: TRS-80

text: While the software environment was stable, the cassette load/save process combined with keyboard bounce issues and a troublesome Expansion Interface contributed to the Model I's reputation as not well-suited to serious use. It lacked support for lowercase characters, which also hampered business adoption.


title: TRS-80

text: An extensive line of upgrades and add-on hardware peripherals for the TRS-80 was developed and marketed by Tandy/Radio Shack. The basic system can be expanded with up to 48 KB of RAM (in 16 KB increments), and up to four floppy disk drives and/or hard disk drives. Tandy/Radio Shack provided full-service support including upgrade, repair, and training services in their thousands of stores worldwide.


title: TRS-80

text: By 1979, the TRS-80 had the largest selection of software in the microcomputer market. Until 1982, the TRS-80 was the best-selling PC line, outselling the Apple II series by a factor of five according to one analysis.


title: TRS-80

text: In mid-1980, the broadly compatible TRS-80 Model III was released. The Model I was discontinued shortly thereafter, primarily due to stricter Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations on radio-frequency interference to nearby electronic devices. In April 1983, the Model III was succeeded by the compatible TRS-80 Model 4.


title: TRS-80

text: Following the original Model I and its compatible descendants, the TRS-80 name became a generic brand used on other unrelated computer lines sold by Tandy, including the TRS-80 Model II, TRS-80 Model 2000, TRS-80 Model 100, TRS-80 Color Computer, and TRS-80 Pocket Computer.


title: TRS-80

text: In the mid-1970s, Tandy Corporation's Radio Shack division was a successful American chain of more than 3,000 electronics stores. Among the Tandy employees who purchased a MITS Altair kit computer was buyer Don French, who began designing his own computer and showed it to vice president of manufacturing John V. Roach, Tandy's former electronic data processing manager. Although the design did not impress Roach, the idea of selling a microcomputer did. When the two men visited National Semiconductor in California in mid-1976, Homebrew Computer Club member Steve Leininger's expertise on the SC/MP microprocessor impressed them. National executives refused to provide Leininger's contact information when French and Roach wanted to hire him as a consultant, but they found Leininger working part-time at Byte Shop. Leininger was unhappy at National, his wife wanted a better job, and Texas did not have a state income tax. Hired for his technical and retail experience, Leininger began working with French in June 1976. The company envisioned a kit, but Leininger persuaded the others that because "too many people can't solder", a preassembled computer would be better.


title: TRS-80

text: Tandy had 11 million customers that might buy a microcomputer, but it would be much more expensive than the median price of a Radio Shack product, and a great risk for the very conservative company. Executives feared losing money as Sears did with Cartrivision, and many opposed the project; one executive told French, "Don't waste my time—we can't sell computers." As the popularity of CB radio—at one point comprising more than 20% of Radio Shack's sales—declined, however, the company sought new products. In December 1976 French and Leininger received official approval for the project but were told to emphasize cost savings; for example, leaving out lowercase characters saved US$1.50 in components and reduced the retail price by . The original retail price required manufacturing cost of ; the first design had a membrane keyboard and no video monitor. Leininger persuaded Roach and French to include a better keyboard; it, a monitor, datacassette storage, and other features required a higher retail price to provide Tandy's typical profit margin. In February 1977 they showed their prototype, running a simple tax-accounting program, to Charles Tandy, head of Tandy Corporation. The program quickly crashed as the computer's implementation of Tiny BASIC could not handle the figure that Tandy typed in as his salary, and the two men added support for floating-point math to its Level I BASIC to prevent a recurrence. The project was formally approved on 2 February 1977; Tandy revealed that he had already leaked the computer's existence to the press. When first inspecting the prototype, he remarked that even if it did not sell, the project could be worthy if only for the publicity it might generate.


title: TRS-80

text: MITS sold 1,000 Altairs in February 1975, and was selling 10,000 a year. When Charles Tandy asked who would buy the computer, company president Lewis Kornfeld admitted that they did not know if anyone would, but suggested that small businesses and schools might. Knowing that demand was very strong for the Altair—which cost more than $1,000 with a monitor—Leininger suggested that Radio Shack could sell 50,000 computers, but no one else believed him; Roach called the figure "horseshit", as the company had never sold that many of anything at that price. Roach and Kornfeld suggested 1,000 to 3,000 per year; 3,000 was the quantity the company would have to produce to buy the components in bulk. Roach persuaded Tandy to agree to build 3,500—the number of Radio Shack stores—so that each store could use a computer for inventory purposes if they did not sell. RCA agreed to supply the video monitor—a black-and-white television with the tuner and speakers removed—after others refused because of Tandy's low initial volume of production. Tandy used the black-and-silver colors of the RCA CRT unit's cabinet for the TRS-80 units also.


title: TRS-80

text: Having spent less than on development, Radio Shack announced the TRS-80 (Tandy Radio Shack) at a New York City press conference on August 3, 1977. It cost ($ today), or ($ today) with a 12" monitor and a Radio Shack tape recorder; the most expensive product Radio Shack previously sold was a stereo. The company hoped that the new computer would help Radio Shack sell higher-priced products, and improve its "schlocky" image among customers. Small businesses were the primary target market, followed by educators, then consumers and hobbyists; despite its hobbyist customer base, Radio Shack saw them as "not the mainstream of the business" and "never our large market".


title: TRS-80

text: Although the press conference did not receive much media attention because of a terrorist bombing elsewhere in the city, the computer received much more publicity at Boston University's Personal Computer Fair two days later. A front-page Associated Press article discussed the novelty of a large consumer-electronics company selling a home computer that could "do a payroll for up to 15 people in a small business, teach children mathematics, store your favorite recipes or keep track of an investment portfolio. It can also play cards." Six sacks of mail arrived at Tandy headquarters asking about the computer, over 15,000 people called to purchase a TRS-80—paralyzing the company switchboard—and 250,000 joined the waiting list with a $100 deposit.


title: TRS-80

text: Despite the internal skepticism, Radio Shack aggressively entered the market. The company advertised ""The $599 personal computer"" as "the most important, useful, exciting, electronic product of our time". Kornfeld stated when announcing the TRS-80, "This device is inevitably in the future of everyone in the civilized world—in some way—now and so far as ahead as one can think", and Tandy's 1977 annual report called the computer "probably the most important product we've ever built in a company factory". Unlike competitor Commodore—which had announced the PET several months earlier but had not yet shipped any—Tandy had its own factories (capable of producing 18,000 computers a month) and distribution network, and even small towns had Radio Shack stores. The company announced plans to be selling by Christmas a range of peripherals and software for the TRS-80, began shipping computers by September, opened its first computer-only store in October, and delivered 5,000 computers to customers by December. Still forecasting 3,000 sales a year, Radio Shack sold over 10,000 TRS-80s in its first one and a half months of sales, 55,000 in its first year, and over 200,000 during the product's lifetime; one entered the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History. By mid-1978 the waits of two months or more for delivery were over, and the company could state in advertisements that TRS-80 was "on demonstration and available "from stock now" at every Radio Shack store in this community!"


title: TRS-80

text: The first units, ordered unseen, were delivered in November 1977, and rolled out to the stores the third week of December. The line won popularity with hobbyists, home users, and small-businesses. Tandy Corporation's leading position in what "Byte" magazine called the "1977 Trinity" (Apple Computer, Commodore, and Tandy) had much to do with Tandy's retailing the computer through more than 3,000 of its Radio Shack storefronts in the USA. Tandy claimed it had "7000 [Radio Shack] stores in 40 countries".<ref name="Tandy/Radio Shack"></ref> The pre-release price for the basic system (CPU/keyboard and video monitor) was and a deposit was required, with a money-back guarantee at time of delivery.


title: TRS-80

text: By 1978, Tandy/Radio Shack promoted itself as "The Biggest Name in Little Computers". By 1979 1,600 employees built computers in six factories. "Kilobaud Microcomputing" estimated in 1980 that Tandy was selling three times as many computers as Apple Computer, with both companies ahead of Commodore. By 1981, "InfoWorld" described Radio Shack as "the dominant supplier of small computers". Hundreds of small companies produced TRS-80 software and accessories, and Adam Osborne described Tandy as "the number-one microcomputer manufacturer" despite having "so few roots in microcomputing". That year Leininger left his job as director for advanced research; French had left to found a software company, while Roach became Tandy's CEO. Selling computers did not change the company's "schlocky" image; the Radio Shack name embarrassed business customers, and Tandy executives disliked the "Trash-80" nickname for its products. By 1984, computers accounted for 35% of sales, however, and the company had 500 Tandy Radio Shack Computer Centers.


title: TRS-80

text: By 1979, when Radio Shack launched the business-oriented, and incompatible, TRS-80 Model II, the TRS-80 was officially renamed the TRS-80 Model I to distinguish the two product lines.


title: TRS-80

text: After some exhibitors at the 1979 Northeast Computer Show were forced to clarify that their products bearing the TRS-80 name were not affiliated with Radio Shack, publications and advertisers briefly began to use "S-80" generically rather than "TRS-80" under scare of legal action, though this never materialized.


title: TRS-80

text: Following the Model III launch in mid-1980, Tandy stated that the Model I was still sold, but it was discontinued by the end of the year. Tandy cited one of the main reasons as being the prohibitive cost of redesigning it to meet stricter FCC regulations covering the significant levels of radio-frequency interference emitted by the original design. The Model I radiated so much interference that, while playing games, an AM radio placed next to the computer could be used to provide sounds. Radio Shack offered upgrades (double-density floppy controller, LDOS, memory, reliable keyboard with numeric keypad, lowercase, Level II, RS-232C) as late as 1985.


title: TRS-80

text: The Model I combines the mainboard and keyboard into one unit, which became a design trend in the 8-bit microcomputer era, although the Model I has a separate power supply unit. It uses a Zilog Z80 processor clocked at 1.78 MHz (later models shipped with a Z80A). The initial Level I machines shipped in late 1977-early 1978 have only 4 KB of RAM. After the Expansion Interface and Level II BASIC were introduced in mid-1978, RAM configurations of 16 KB and up were offered (the first 16 KB was in the Model I itself and the remaining RAM in the Expansion Interface).


title: TRS-80

text: The OS ROMs, I/O area, video memory and OS work space occupy the first 16 KB of memory space on the Model I. The remaining 48 KB of the 64 KB memory map space is available for program use, subject to the amount of physical RAM installed. Although the Z80 CPU can use port-based I/O, the Model I's I/O is memory-mapped aside from the cassette tape and RS-232 serial ports.


title: TRS-80

text: The TRS-80 Model I keyboard uses mechanical switches that suffer from "keyboard bounce", resulting in multiple letters being typed per keystroke. The problem was described in Wayne Green's editorial in the first issue of "80 Micro". Dirt, cigarette smoke, or other contamination enters the unsealed key switches, causing electrical noise that the computer detects as multiple presses. The key switches can be cleaned, but the bounce recurs when the keyboard is reexposed to the contaminating environment.


title: TRS-80

text: Keyboard bounce only occurs in Model I computers with Level II BASIC firmware; Level I BASIC has a "debounce" delay to the keyboard driver to avoid the noisy switch contacts. Tandy's utility, the Model III, the last Model I firmware, and most third-party operating systems also implement the software fix, and Tandy changed the keyboard during the Model III's lifetime to an Alps Electric design with sealed switches. The Alps keyboard was available as an upgrade for the Model I for $79.


title: TRS-80

text: The keyboard is memory mapped so that certain locations in the processor's memory space correspond to the status of a group of keys.


title: TRS-80

text: The color of the 12" KCS 172 RCA monitor's text is faintly blue (the standard P4 phosphor used in black-and white televisions). Green and amber filters, or replacement tubes to reduce eye fatigue were popular aftermarket items. Later models came with a green-on-black display.


title: TRS-80

text: Complaints about the video display quality were common. As Green wrote, "hells bells, [the monitor] "is" a cheap black and white television set with a bit of conversion for computer use". (The computer could be purchased without the Radio Shack monitor.) CPU access to the screen memory causes visible flicker. The bus arbitration logic blocks video display refresh (video RAM reads) during CPU writes to the VRAM, causing a short black line. This has little effect on normal BASIC programs, but fast programs made with assembly language can be affected. Software authors worked to minimize the effect, and many arcade-style games are available for the Tandy TRS-80.


title: TRS-80

text: Because of bandwidth problems in the interface card that replaced the TV's tuner, the display loses horizontal sync if large areas of white are displayed. A simple half-hour hardware fix corrects the problem.


title: TRS-80

text: The graphics are displayed at a resolution of 64×16 character positions on a screen measuring wide and tall. Each character is composed of a 2×3 matrix of pixels, and corresponds to one byte of the 1 KB video memory used by the TRS-80. In each of those bytes, the first six bits control which pixel is displayed. The seventh bit is ignored, and the eighth toggles graphics mode. The reason that the seventh bit is ignored is due to the company's decision to have only seven 2102 static RAM chips installed on the computer's motherboard instead of eight to keep the manufacturing cost low. Thus, there are no lowercase letters in the TRS-80 character set of an unmodified Model I, and the number of both graphics symbols and alphanumeric symbols is 64. This can be worked around by deleting the unused bit and piggybacking an eighth 2102 chip onto another. The alphanumeric symbols are displayed in 5×7 matrices of pixels. The 1978 manual for the popular word processor Electric Pencil came with instructions for modifying the computer. Although the modification needs to be disabled for Level II BASIC, its design became the industry standard and was widely sold in kit form, along with an eighth 2102 chip. Later models came with the hardware for the lowercase character set to be displayed with descenders.


title: TRS-80

text: With higher-density RAM chips and purpose-built monitors, higher resolution crisp displays are obtainable; 80x24 character displays are available in the Model II, Model 4, and later systems.


title: TRS-80

text: The Model I has no built-in speaker. Square wave tones can be produced by outputting data to the cassette port and plugging an amplifier into the cassette "Mic" line. Most games use this ability for sound effects. An adapter was available to use Atari joysticks.


title: TRS-80

text: User data was originally stored on cassette tape. Radio Shack's model CTR-41 cassette recorder was included with the US$599 package. The software-based cassette tape interface is slow and erratic; Green described it as "crummy ... drives users up the wall", and the first issue of "80 Micro" has three articles on how to improve cassette performance. It is sensitive to audio volume, and the computer gives only a crude indication as to whether the correct volume was set, via a blinking character on screen while data is loaded. To find the correct volume at first use, the load is started and the volume is adjusted until the TRS-80 picked up the data. Then it is halted to rewind the tape and restart the load. Users were instructed to save multiple copies of a software program file, especially if audio tape cassettes instead of certified data tape was used. Automatic gain control or indicator circuits can be constructed to improve the loading process (the owner's manual provides complete circuit diagrams for the whole machine, including the peripheral interfaces, with notes on operation).


title: TRS-80

text: An alternative to using tape was data transmissions from the BBC's "Chip Shop" programme in the UK, which broadcast software for several different microcomputers over the radio. A special program was loaded using the conventional tape interface. Then the radio broadcast was connected to the cassette tape interface. Tandy eventually replaced the CTR-41 unit with the CTR-80 which had built-in AGC circuitry (and no volume control). This helped the situation, but tape operation is still unreliable.


title: TRS-80

text: TRS-80 Model I computers with Level I BASIC read and wrote tapes at 250 baud (about 30 bytes per second); Level II BASIC doubles this to 500 baud (about 60 bytes per second). Some programmers wrote machine-language programs that increases the speed to up to 2,000 bits per second without a loss of reliability on their tape recorders. With the Model III and improved electronics in the cassette interface, the standard speed increased to 1,500 baud that works quite reliably on most tape recorders.


title: TRS-80

text: For loading and storing data from tape, the CPU creates the sound by switching the output voltage between three states, creating crude sine wave audio.


title: TRS-80

text: The first version of the Model I also has a hardware problem that complicated loading programs from cassette recorders. Tandy offered a small board which was installed at a service center to correct the issue. The ROMs in later models were modified to correct this.


title: TRS-80

text: Only the Model I uses an Expansion Interface; all later models have everything integrated in the same housing.


title: TRS-80

text: The TRS-80 does not use the S-100 bus like other early 8080 and Z80-based computers. A proprietary Expansion Interface (E/I) box, which fits under the video monitor and served as its base, was offered instead. Standard features of the E/I are a floppy disk controller, Centronics parallel port for a printer, and added cassette connector. Optionally, an extra 16 or 32 KB of RAM can be installed and a daughterboard with an RS-232 port. The 40-conductor expansion connector passes through to a card edge connector, which permits the addition of external peripherals such as an outboard hard disk drive, a voice synthesizer, or a VOXBOX voice recognition unit.


title: TRS-80

text: Originally, printing with the Model I requires the Expansion Interface, but later Tandy made an alternative parallel printer interface available.


title: TRS-80

text: The Model I Expansion Interface is the most troublesome part of the TRS-80 Model I system. It went through several revisions. The E/I connects to the CPU/keyboard with a 6-inch ribbon cable which is unshielded against RF interference and its card edge connector tends to oxidize due to its base metal contacts. This demands periodic cleaning with a pencil eraser in order to avoid spontaneous reboots, which contributes to its "Trash-80" sobriquet. Aftermarket connectors plated with gold solves this problem permanently. Software developers also responded by devising a recovery method which became a standard feature of many commercial programs. They accept an "asterisk parameter", an asterisk (star) character typed following the program name when the program is run from the TRSDOS Ready prompt. When used following a spontaneous reboot (or an accidental reset, program crash, or exit to TRSDOS without saving data to disk), the program loads without initializing its data area(s), preserving any program data still present from the pre-reboot session. Thus, for example, if a VisiCalc user suffers a spontaneous reboot, to recover data the user enters at TRSDOS Ready, and Visicalc restores the previous computing session intact.


title: TRS-80

text: The power button on the E/I is difficult to operate as it is recessed so as to guard against the user accidentally hitting it and turning it off while in use. A pencil eraser or similar object is used to depress the power button and the E/I has no power LED, making it difficult to determine if it is running or not.


title: TRS-80

text: The expansion unit requires a second power supply, identical to the base unit power supply. An interior recess holds both supplies.


title: TRS-80

text: The user is instructed to power on and power off all peripherals in proper order to avoid corrupting data or potentially damaging hardware components. The manuals for the TRS-80 advise turning on the monitor first, then any peripherals attached to the E/I (if multiple disk drives are attached, the last drive on the chain is to be powered on first and work down from there), the E/I, and the computer last. When powering down, the computer is to be turned off first, followed by the monitor, E/I, and peripherals. In addition, users are instructed to remove all disks from the drives during power up or down (or else leave the drive door open to disengage the read/write head from the disk). This is because a transient electrical surge from the drive's read/write head would create a magnetic pulse that could corrupt data. This was a common problem on many early floppy drives.


title: TRS-80

text: The E/I displays a screen full of garbage characters on power up and unless a bootable system disk is present in Drive 0, it hangs there until the user either presses on the back of the computer, which causes it to attempt to boot the disk again, or was pressed, which drops the computer into BASIC. Due to the above-mentioned problems with potentially corrupting disks, it is recommended to power up to the garbage screen with the disk drives empty, insert a system disk, and then hit .


title: TRS-80

text: "InfoWorld" compared the cable spaghetti connecting the TRS-80 Model I's various components to the snakes in "Raiders of the Lost Ark". Radio Shack offered a "TRS-80 System Desk" that concealed nearly all the cabling. It can accommodate the complete computer system plus up to four floppy drives and the Quick Printer. Since the cable connecting the Expansion Interface carries the system bus, it is short (about 6 inches). The user has no choice but to place the E/I directly behind the computer with the monitor on top. This causes problems for a non-Tandy monitor whose case did not fit the mounting holes. Also, the friction fit of the edge connector on the already short interconnect cable makes it possible to disconnect the system bus from the CPU if either unit is bumped during operation.


title: TRS-80

text: Radio Shack introduced floppy drives in July 1978, about six months after the Model I went on sale. The Model I disk operating system TRSDOS was written by Randy Cook under license from Radio Shack; Randy claimed to have been paid $3000 for it. The first version released to the public was a buggy v2.0. This was quickly replaced by v2.1. Floppy disk operation requires buying the Expansion Interface, which included a single-density floppy disk interface (with a formatted capacity of 85K) based on the Western Digital 1771 single-density floppy disk controller chip. The industry standard Shugart Associates SA-400 minifloppy disk drive was used. Four floppy drives can be daisy-chained to the Model I. The last drive in the chain is supposed to have a termination resistor installed but often it is not needed as it is integrated into later cables.


title: TRS-80

text: Demand for Model I drives greatly exceeded supply at first. The drive is unreliable, partly since the interface lacked an external data separator (buffer). The early version(s) of TRSDOS are also buggy, and not helped by the Western Digital FD1771 chip that cannot reliably report its status for several instruction cycles after it receives a command. A common method of handling the delay was to issue a command to the 1771, perform several "NOP" instructions, then query the 1771 for the result. Early TRSDOS neglects the required yet undocumented wait period, and thus false status often returns to the OS, generating random errors and crashes. Once the 1771 delay was implemented, it is fairly reliable.


title: TRS-80

text: In 1981, Steve Ciarcia published in "Byte" the design for a homemade, improved expansion interface with more RAM and a disk controller for the TRS-80.


title: TRS-80

text: A data separator and a double-density disk controller (based on the WD 1791 chip) were made by Percom (a Texas peripheral vendor), LNW, Tandy, and others. The Percom Doubler adds the ability to boot and use double density floppies using a Percom-modified TRSDOS called DoubleDOS. The LNDoubler adds the ability to read and write diskette drives with up to 720 KB of storage, and also the older diskettes with up to 1,155 KB. Near the end of the Model I's lifespan in 1982, upgrades were offered to replace its original controller with a double-density one.


title: TRS-80

text: The first disk drives offered on the Model I were Shugart SA-400s which supported 35 tracks and was the sole -inch drive on the market in 1977–78. By 1979, other manufacturers began offering drives. Models 3/4/4P uses Tandon TM-100 40-track drives. The combination of 40 tracks and double density gives a capacity of 180 kilobytes per single-sided floppy disk. The use of index-sync means that a "flippy disk" requires a second index hole and write-enable notch. One could purchase factory-made "flippies". Some software publishers formatted one side for Apple systems and the other for the TRS-80.


title: TRS-80

text: The usual method of connecting floppy drives involves setting the drive letter via jumper blocks on the drive controller board, but Tandy opted for a slightly more user-friendly technique where all four select pins on the drives are jumpered and the ribbon cable is missing the Drive Select line. Thus, the user does not need to worry about moving jumpers around depending on which position on the chain a drive was in.


title: TRS-80

text: A standard flat floppy ribbon cable is usable on the Model I, in which case the drives is jumpered to their number on the chain, or even an IBM PC "twist" cable, which requires setting each drive number to 1, but only permits two drives on the chain.