title: Russian battleship Potemkin

text: In accordance with the Marxist doctrine that history is made by collective action, not individuals, Eisenstein forbore to single out any person in his film, but rather focused on the "mass protagonist". Soviet film critics hailed this approach, including the dramaturge and critic, Adrian Piotrovsky, writing for the Leningrad newspaper "Krasnaia gazeta": The hero is the sailors' battleship, the Odessa crowd, but characteristic figures are snatched here and there from the crowd. For a moment, like a conjuring trick, they attract all the sympathies of the audience: like the sailor Vakulinchuk, like the young woman and child on the Odessa Steps, but they emerge only to dissolve once more into the mass. This signifies: no film stars but a film of real-life types.


title: Russian battleship Potemkin

text: Similarly, theatre critic Alexei Gvozdev wrote in the journal "Artistic Life" ("Zhizn ikusstva"): "In "Potemkin" there is no individual hero as there was in the old theatre. It is the mass that acts: the battleship and its sailors and the city and its population in revolutionary mood."


title: Russian battleship Potemkin

text: The last survivor of the mutiny was Ivan Beshoff, who died on 24 October 1987 at the age of 102 in Dublin, Ireland.


title: Ghoti

text: Ghoti is a creative respelling of the word "fish", used to illustrate irregularities in English spelling and pronunciation.


title: Ghoti

text: The key to the phenomenon is that the pronunciations of the constructed word's three parts are inconsistent with how they would ordinarily be pronounced in those placements. To illustrate: "gh" can only resemble "f" when following the letters "ou" or "au" at the end of certain morphemes ("tough", "cough", "laugh"), while "ti" would only resemble "sh" when followed by a vowel sound ("martian", "patient", "spatial"). The expected pronunciation in English would sound like "goaty" , not "fish".


title: Ghoti

text: In 1815, there were several examples of absurd spellings given in a book by Alexander J. Ellis, "A Plea for Phonotypy and Phonography", which advocated spelling reform. However, "ghoti" was not among the examples, which were all relatively lengthy and thus harder to remember.


title: Ghoti

text: The first confirmed use of "ghoti" is in a letter dated 11 December 1855 from Charles Ollier to Leigh Hunt. On the third page of the letter, Ollier explains, "My son William has hit upon a new method of spelling Fish." Ollier then demonstrates the rationale, "So that "ghoti" is "fish"." The letter credits "ghoti" to William Ollier Jr., born 1824.


title: Ghoti

text: An early known "published" reference is an October 1874 article by S. R. Townshend Mayer in "St. James's Magazine", which cites the letter.


title: Ghoti

text: Another relatively early appearance of "ghoti" was in a 1937 newspaper article, and the term is alluded to in the 1939 James Joyce milestone experimental work of fiction "Finnegans Wake".


title: Ghoti

text: "Ghoti" is often cited to support English spelling reform, and is often attributed to George Bernard Shaw, a supporter of this cause. However, the word does not appear in Shaw's writings, and a biography of Shaw attributes it instead to an anonymous spelling reformer. Similar constructed words exist that demonstrate English idiosyncrasies, but "ghoti" is one of the most widely recognized.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Shane Smith (born 28 September 1969) is a Canadian journalist and media executive. He is executive chairman of the international media company Vice Media, operating an international network of digital channels, a television production studio, a record label, an in-house creative services agency, a book-publishing house, and a feature film division. Smith served as CEO of Vice from its founding until March 2018. Former A+E Networks CEO Nancy Dubuc was named CEO 13 March 2018. In his role as Executive Chairman, "Smith will now be focused on creating content and strategic deals and partnerships to help grow the company."


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Shane Smith was born in Ottawa, Ontario, in 1969. He attended the Lisgar Collegiate Institute and later graduated from Carleton University with a degree in English literature and political science.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Before Vice, Smith went to university in Ottawa, played in local punk bands, and travelled around Eastern Europe before moving to Montreal.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Smith, Suroosh Alvi, and Smith's childhood friend Gavin McInnes acquired the youth magazine "Voice of Montreal" in 1994 and changed its name to "Vice". The magazine was originally funded by the Government of Canada as part of a welfare program. After being acquired in 1999 and moving to New York City, Smith and his co-founders bought "VICE" back and moved to Williamsburg, Brooklyn in 2001. Initially publishing print articles based on offbeat alternative culture, "VICE" moved to creating news content and social criticism on multiple media platforms in 2006. Smith remains an owner of the company, and "The New York Times" has described Smith as "a cross between a punk rocker and "Fortune 500" Executive".


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In 2006, on the advice from the company's creative director Spike Jonze, VICE Media began expanding into digital video. This led to a massive expansion of VICE into new channels, including a partnership with Intel in 2010 for The Creators Project, as well as deals with partners like Viacom, YouTube, and HBO, led by Smith.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In April 2013, VICE started a new series with HBO, "VICE", in which Smith and other VICE correspondents cover news stories from around the globe. The show's second season won an Emmy for Outstanding Informational Series or Special. The show was picked up for two more 14-episode seasons by HBO in May 2014, which aired in 2015 and 2016. Based on the success of the weekly show, in 2015 HBO and VICE announced an expanded deal including a daily news show on HBO Now premiering in 2016, 32 VICE-produced specials over four years, and an expansion of the existing show from 14 to nearly 30 episodes per year. "VICE" started its 5th season of weekly broadcasts on HBO under the expanded episode deal on Friday, 24 February 2017.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In 2015, VICE partnered with several companies, including Verizon, Rogers Communications, Live Nation, Spotify and Snapchat, where VICE was a launch partner for Snapchat's “Discover” platform.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: As a journalist Smith has travelled to locations including North Korea, Iran, Afghanistan, Libya, Kashmir, Liberia, Sudan, and Greenland, initially for the 2006 online TV series "VICE Guide to Travel". Smith has continued to serve as a correspondent for VICE, appearing in online content as well as the host of VICE's HBO show and VICE Special Reports.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In 2015, Smith accompanied US President Barack Obama as part of the president's first historic visit to a federal prison, interviewing Obama along with five non-violent drug offenders at El Reno Prison. He also conducted the first public interview with the Eagles of Death Metal following the 2015 terrorist shooting at their show at the Bataclan in Paris that left 89 dead.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: On 9 December 2016, HBO broadcast "Vice Special Report: A House Divided", which explores the political dysfunction in the United States during the Obama presidency. The 75-minute program features Smith interviewing influential US politicians including President Obama, former Speaker of the House John Boehner and former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor to understand the development of excessive polarization and gridlock, culminating in the 2016 presidential election. It was nominated for an Emmy award.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In June 2014, it was reported that Time Warner was negotiating to acquire a minority stake in VICE Media; among the company's plans were to give Vice Media control over the programming of HLN—a spin-off network of CNN which had recently struggled in its attempts to re-focus itself as a younger-skewing, social media-oriented news service. However, the deal fell through as the companies were unable to agree on a proper valuation, and VICE Media partnered with A&E Networks for a 10% minority stake in VICE Media for $250 million, keeping VICE Media independent. The following April, it was announced that A&E's channel H2 would be rebranded as VICELAND, a lifestyle channel aimed at millennials. On 29 February 2016, VICE Media officially launched VICELAND with investment support by Disney and A&E. Disney has since increased their stake in VICE Media through A&E with two $200 million investments—the first in November 2015, followed by the second a week later in December 2015—for a roughly 10% stake to assist in funding programming and growth.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Smith, in interviews, has mentioned the possibility of VICE going public, saying in a 2015 interview: “There hasn’t been a media company like this to go public in 15 years… the markets would love it,” and he told CNBC in 2016 that “it’s the best time in history to be a content creator.”


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: On 22 June 2016, VICE Media unveiled a number of international deals that, by the end of 2017, will make its programs available in over 50 new territories, over 80 in total.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: In 2015, "Canadian Business" placed him on "Canada's Richest People", claiming his net worth to be at $1.27 billion.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Smith currently resides in Santa Monica, California, US with his wife, Tamyka, and his three daughters.


title: Shane Smith (journalist)

text: Smith's work on VICE's HBO show won him an Emmy award in 2014, as well as a number of environmental awards for his work covering global warming in Greenland, Antarctica and beyond. He has also been honoured with a Frank Stanton Award for Excellence in Communication, an LA Press Club Award, and two Peabody awards for serving as executive producer of "VICE News" documentaries "The Islamic State" and "Last Chance High".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet was an Australian rock band, formed in Melbourne, Victoria in 2001. For most of the band's tenure, it consisted of lead guitarist and vocalist Cameron Muncey, bassist Mark Wilson, and brothers Nic (vocals, rhythm guitar) and Chris Cester (drums, vocals). The group sold 6.5 million albums worldwide, releasing three studio albums: 2003's "Get Born", 2006's "Shine On" and 2009's "Shaka Rock". The band dissolved in 2012, but they reformed in 2016 for a run of shows before splitting again at the end of 2019.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The Cester brothers grew up in Dingley Village, a south-eastern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, and attended St Bede's College Mentone, listening to their father's classic rock records from the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: However, according to Nic, it was Australian band You Am I who had the biggest influence on Jet's developing musical tastes:


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The brothers decided to form a band with Cameron Muncey, Nic's friend and previous bandmate, and with bassist Doug Armstrong whom Nic and Chris met while working together at their father's spice factory. During 2001. an old high-school friend of Chris's joined the band on keyboard, and it was at this time that the band took their current name. They wanted a short name so when it showed up on festival advertisements, it would be large and bold in print. "Radio Song", from their album "Get Born", was written about the troubles that the band had getting recognition at this time. Jet got their big break when seminal Melbourne Punk rock band The Specimens took Jet under their wing and put them on as an opening act at The Duke of Windsor. This is where Dave Powell first saw the band perform and went on to sign them to his management firm Majorbox.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The new band met Mark Wilson one night in 2002 at a concert and, despite already having a bass player, asked him to play with them. Wilson was then the bassist in a band called The CA$inos, so he initially declined. However, a few days later he called the band and said he would like to join them instead.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In 2002, the band released the "Dirty Sweet" EP, whose initial 1000 copies quickly sold out. "NME" obtained a copy of the single from "Dirty Sweet", "Take It or Leave It", and praised it. Elektra Records offered the band a contract and re-released "Dirty Sweet" in 2003.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet entered the Sunset Sound Studios in Los Angeles with Dave Sardy to produce their debut album "Get Born". Sardy had previously produced records for Marilyn Manson and The Dandy Warhols. They also enlisted the services of keyboard maestro Billy Preston for two of the songs. The album derived its name from the blockbuster action movie, "The Bourne Identity", starring Matt Damon as Jason Bourne. Halfway through recording, the band received a call from The Rolling Stones offering them a support slot on the Australian leg of their 2003 tour. Jet played more than 200 shows in 2003.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Their singles "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" and "Rollover DJ" were voted number one and number nineteen, respectively, on the 2003 Triple J Hottest 100. "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" appeared on the soundtracks for the video games "Madden NFL 2004", "", "Rock Band", and "Strictly Come Dancing"; the 2006 animated film "Flushed Away"; the live-action films "Eurotrip" and "What Happens in Vegas"; and as part of two major worldwide advertising campaigns for Vodafone and Apple's iPod and iMac. "Rollover DJ" features on the soundtrack to PlayStation 2 game "Gran Turismo 4". "Get Born" also includes the song "Timothy", dedicated to deceased brother of vocalist/guitarist Cameron Muncey, who died before Cameron was born. Due to the sensitive nature of the song, the band rarely played "Timothy" live.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In early 2004, Jet teamed up with The Vines and The Living End on "the Aussie invasion" tour of US cities. A new Jet song not included on "Get Born", called "Hold On", was featured on the "Spider-Man 2" soundtrack that year. TV/film producer J. J. Abrams – whose credits include "Lost" and "Felicity" – contacted Jet to record a song for the Season 4 premiere to his show "Alias". "Cold Hard Bitch" from "Get Born" was used, and became the soundtrack to a frenetic scene of two CIA agents sprinting down a Hong Kong street, giving Jet further US exposure.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Later the same year, Jet received nominations for the annual Radio Music Awards, including 'Artist of the Year: Rock Radio', 'Artist of the Year: Rock Alternative Radio', and 'Song of the Year: Rock Radio' (for "Cold Hard Bitch"). Still in the U.S. Jet received the 32nd Annual American Music Awards nomination as 'Favorite Artist – Alternative Music', as well as three nominations for the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, held in Miami in August. "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" was nominated for Best Rock Video, Best New Artist and Best Editing in a video. Jet performed "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" live at the ceremony and picked up the award for Best Rock Video, dedicating the award to Chris and Nic's late father John Cester. Following their success in Miami, back home in Australia the band was nominated in seven categories at the 2004 ARIA (Australian Record Industry Association) Music Awards, receiving nominations in a stunning seven categories; 'Album of the Year', 'Single of the Year' (for "Are You Gonna Be My Girl"), 'Best Group', 'Best Rock Album', 'Breakthrough Artist – Album', 'Breakthrough Artist – Single' (for "Are You Gonna Be My Girl"), and 'Highest Selling Album'. At the awards ceremony on 17 October 2004, Jet dominated the ceremony receiving six awards out of the seven nominations. Nic Cester also performed as part of supergroup The Wrights, featuring members of other Australian rock bands Spiderbait (Kram, drums), The Living End (Chris Cheney, guitar), Dallas Crane (Pat Bourke, bass) and You Am I/The Pictures (Davey Lane, guitar).


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: During a show at the MCG in October 2005, founder Nic Cester declared loudly between songs that he considered Jet to be 'up there with the greatests, with f**king Lennon and the Stones'. This caused considerable controversy but was soon settled when Australian music magazines began publishing articles comparing Jet albums with those of famous 60s and 70s bands.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The debut single from the band's second album, "Shine On", titled "Put Your Money Where Your Mouth Is", was released to radio on 7 August 2006. "Shine On" was released on 30 September 2006 (2 October in the UK, 3 October in the US) with a final track listing of 15 songs, but with an extra sixteenth track, titled "Coming Home Soon", available only on the ITunes Store. It debuted at No. 3 on the Australian charts. Critical reaction to the album was mixed, with British music magazine "NME" calling the record "another joyfully old-fashioned rock'n'roll album immersed in the classics." but influential American music blog Pitchfork gave the album 0 out of 10 stars, posting a video of a chimpanzee urinating in its own mouth in place of a review. The song also appeared on "NME"s compilation CD, "NME: The Essential Bands – Festival Edition".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: "Put Your Money Where Your Mouth Is" appeared on the "Chuck (TV series)" pilot episode; Season 1 Episode 1 "Chuck Versus the Intersect".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet played at the MTV Europe Awards in Copenhagen. It was their first live performance since Nic Cester's laryngitis halted their World Tour. In November 2006 Jet flew back to Australia to perform at the Make Poverty History Concert in Melbourne at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl; upon their return they also held a secret show on a barge floating on the Yarra River. The second singles from the album, "Bring It on Back" (in the UK) and "Rip It Up" (in Australia) were released in November 2006. The album also spawned an EP, the "Shine On" EP released December 2006.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The title track, "Shine On", was released on various dates in March 2007 around the world as the third single (second single in some countries). The song is a tribute to Nic and Chris Cester's father, who died from cancer in 2004. It was written by Nic Cester from the perspective of his father encouraging those who survive him to "shine on". Many songs on the album ("Come On Come On", "Bring It on Back", "Stand Up", "Holiday", "All You Have to Do") are primarily about overcoming adversity and challenge.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet co-headlined a series of shows during the 2007 Big Day Out festival in Australia and New Zealand, with acts Tool, Muse, The Killers, and My Chemical Romance. The band played their Rip It Up Oz tour in late May and June 2007, which was supported by Channel V. Also in 2007, they released a new song for the "Spider-Man 3" soundtrack titled "Falling Star". In addition, their song "Rip It Up" appeared on the "TMNT" soundtrack. It also became the official theme for the wrestling show "WWE" "Summerslam". In August, the band was again asked to support The Rolling Stones on the European leg of their World Tour. Jet played multiple support slots for the Stones in both Spain and London's O2 Arena.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In October 2007, the band returned to Australia to perform at the AFL Grand Final and to finish the rest of their world tour. They announced on their website that they would begin production on their third studio album, due for a 2008 release. However, in November, the band announced they would take "some time off". They stated that after touring for "Shine On" they needed some "down time". On 24 October Chris and Mark produced a song, under the name "The Vice Lords" for the Japanese former duo Superfly titled "I Spy I Spy".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In a video on their website, the band talked about writing and recording songs at Atlantic Sound Studios in New York City. Chris Cester cheated: "We've got to stop writing; we got too many songs." They also collaborated with Iggy Pop to release a cover of the Johnny O'Keefe single "Wild One". Jet returned to Australia to play a secret show in Melbourne on 17 December to debut new material, including new songs titled "Goodbye Hollywood", "Walk", "Start The Show", "Black Hearts", "She's a Genius", "Seventeen", and "Beat On Repeat". Guitarist Cameron Muncey particularly expressed that he "really, really loves the song 'Seventeen'." Said Cameron of the song, "I think is sort of a step forward for us songwriting-wise. It's sorta got everything wrapped into one, a storyline, and sad to say melancholy. It's rock and roll, it's rocking, it's got all these other albums to it, you know, so I find it really interesting."


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground on 14 March 2009 for Sound Relief, which was a multi-venue rock music concert in support of relief for the Victorian Bushfire Crisis. The event was held simultaneously with a concert at the Sydney Cricket Ground. All the proceeds from the Melbourne Concert went to the Red Cross Victorian Bushfire relief. Half the proceeds from the Sydney concert went to the Victorian Bushfire relief and the other half for Queensland Flood relief. Appearing with Jet at the Sydney concert were Coldplay, Eskimo Joe, Hoodoo Gurus, Icehouse, Josh Pyke, Little Birdy, The Presets, Wolfmother, You Am I, and additional artists. Jet and Wolfmother were the only bands to perform at both venues.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet's song, "She's a Genius" from this album, appeared on a "NCIS" episode; Season 7 Episode 2 – "Reunion". In April 2009, a song titled "K.I.A (Killed in Action)" was made available to listen to on the band's official website. "Killed in Action" was the 5th most added song to radio in Australia. "She's a Genius" was the first single released from the album on 19 June 2009. The new album was titled "Shaka Rock" and was released in Australia on 21 August 2009:it has been certified gold in Australia in 2009.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: "Black Hearts (On Fire)" was released as the second single from the album on 2 November 2009 with a music video filmed for the single. Black Hearts also appeared in the Australian film adaptation of Tomorrow, When the War Began. On 8 November 2009 "She's a Genius" was certified Gold by the Australian Record Industry Association (ARIA) for selling more than 35,000 shipments.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet was featured on the album "Shock Value II" by American record producer Timbaland. The song was titled "Timothy (Where Have You Been)".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In December 2009, Jet was the support act for punk rock trio Green Day on the Australian leg of their 21st Century Breakdown World Tour.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: "Seventeen" was released as the third single from Shaka Rock in April 2010, climbing up to No. 31 on the Australian Singles Chart in its 5th week on the chart. In October 2010 it was certified Gold in Australia with shipments of over 35 000 copies.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: During April 2010, the band also appeared on Hey Hey It's Saturday's first episode since the reunion series, for a broadcast performance of "She's a Genius" and "Seventeen".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Throughout September to November 2010, Jet extensively toured Australia as the supporting act for Powderfinger's Sunsets Farewell Tour.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: While Nic Cester and Cameron Muncey were on a hiatus from the band, Wilson and Chris Cester formed a 'doom-disco' band named the DAMNDOGS, and released their debut EP "Strange Behaviour" on 9 August 2011 via iTunes.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: On 26 March 2012, Jet announced their 'discontinuation as a group,' via the band's website and Facebook:


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In 2016, it was announced that Jet would be reforming and in 2017 opening five dates for Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band on their "Summer '17" tour. It was then announced in October that Jet would play their first headline show in 6 years at Sydney's Taronga Zoo in February 2017. The show subsequently sold out, with a second added.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Jet made their official live return at a one-off headlining show at Melbourne's Gasometer Hotel on 31 January 2017. The band performed with previous keyboardist Louis Macklin, and played a 23-song setlist that drew from all three of their studio albums.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In 2018, Jet announced a 15th anniversary Australian national tour for their album "Get Born", including dates in Newcastle, Sydney, Canberra, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide and Melbourne. They also issued the live album "Get Born: Live at the Forum" to commemorate the tour. They then embarked on a mini UK tour, playing Manchester and London. The band toured as Jimmy Barnes' opener in 2019, and played their final show to date at the By The C open-air concert in Coffs Harbour on October 26, 2019.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Nic Cester resumed his solo career, releasing the album "The Skipping Girl" in 2021. The album was a companion piece to Cester's first children's book. Cester also released an album as part of the supergroup The Jaded Hearts Club, entitled "You've Always Been Here", in October 2020.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: Wilson began performing as part of the Australian Rock Collective – also known as ARC – which features Spiderbait's Kram, Powderfinger's Darren Middleton and You Am I's Davey Lane. The quartet performs tribute shows to classic albums, including The Beatles' "Let It Be" and Neil Young's "Harvest".


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: At the end of 2022, Nic was interviewed on a podcast and revealed the band was in talks to reunite in the studio. “Next year is the 20 year anniversary of the release of the first Jet album. We’re actually in discussions right now, sharing musical ideas for the first time with the idea of maybe trying to release some new material next year. This is just as of 3 weeks ago, so we’ll see if it happens or not. It’s looking good so far.”


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: In May 2008, Jet released a video clip on YouTube paying tribute to the work of the late Fred Hollows and The Fred Hollows Foundation. Lead singer Nic Cester says he wanted to highlight that Professor Hollow's work to restore sight to the cataract blind in developing countries was ongoing 15 years after his death. "Fred Hollows was such a big figure in Australia and he had a huge impact, but he passed away when there was still work to do," Cester said in a statement. "This clip is a bit of a reminder, hopefully it encourages people to make a donation to keep Fred's work going." The video tribute features Jet's song "Shine On" along with images compiled by The Fred Hollows Foundation.


title: Jet (Australian band)

text: The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA).


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo () (died 22 May 192), courtesy name Zhongying, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. At the end of the reign of the Eastern Han, Dong Zhuo was a general and powerful minister of the imperial government. Yet he forced the young Emperor Shao of Han to abdicate and replaced him with his half-brother Emperor Xian of Han while he sought to become the de facto ruler of China in the boy-emperor's name. The Eastern Han dynasty regime survived in name only.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo seized control of the imperial capital Luoyang in 189 when it entered a state of turmoil following the death of Emperor Ling of Han and a massacre of the eunuch faction by the court officials led by General-in-Chief He Jin. Dong Zhuo subsequently deposed Liu Bian (Emperor Shao) and replaced him with his half-brother, the puppet Emperor Xian of Han. Dong Zhuo's rule was brief and characterized by cruelty and tyranny. In the following year, a coalition of regional officials (cishi) and warlords launched a campaign against him. Failing to stop the coalition forces, Dong Zhuo sacked Luoyang and relocated further west to the former Western Han capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an, Shaanxi province). He was assassinated soon after in 192 by his subordinate Lü Bu in a plot orchestrated by Interior Minister Wang Yun.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo was born in Lintao, Longxi Commandery in the early 140s and was said to be a chivalrous youth who was physically strong and excelled in horseback archery. He travelled around the Qiang and Xiongnu regions and befriended many men of valor.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Around 165, Dong Zhuo became a member of the Wulin corps (羽林郎, branch of the Imperial Guard) in the capital. Zhuo served under Zhang Huan's northern campaign to suppress an uprising of the Qiang. He eventually became a county magistrate in the Yanmen Commandery, a divisional commandant in the Shu Commandery, the Wu and Ji colonel in the Western Regions, inspector of Bing Province, and administrator of the Hedong Commandery.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: At the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion in the summer of 184, Dong Zhuo was sent to take over from Lu Zhi in the attack on Zhang Jue in Julu. Although his efforts during the rebellion were initially unsuccessful, with the arrival of Huangfu Song, victory was gained in the winter against the peasants.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: When the Liang Province Rebellion occurred and the barbarians rebelled with local gentries Han Sui and Bian Zhang, Dong was reinstated and sent to suppress the rebels. While suppressing this rebellion, Dong Zhuo had several tactical and strategic disagreements with Huangfu Song; after Huangfu managed to achieve victory despite Dong's disagreements, Dong became resentful and fearful of Huangfu.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo was given the title General Who Smashes the Caitiffs in 185, and General of the Vanguard in 188. He was promoted to be the governor of Bing Province, but he refused to take up his new post as he was unwilling to leave his men.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: During the turbulent situation, the power of the Eastern Han dynasty was clearly waning. Dong Zhuo then settled in Liang Province and built up his power.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Following the death of Emperor Ling of Han in 189, General-in-Chief He Jin ordered Dong Zhuo to lead troops into Luoyang to aid him in eliminating the eunuch faction known as the Ten Attendants. Before Dong could arrive, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and the capital city fell into a state of turmoil. The eunuchs took Liu Bian (Emperor Shao) hostage and fled from Luoyang. Dong Zhuo's army intercepted the eunuchs and brought the emperor back to the palace.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: At the same time, He Jin's step-brother, General of Chariots and Cavalry He Miao (), was killed by He Jin's subordinate Wu Kuang (吳匡) and Dong Zhuo's brother Dong Min after He Jin's death, for sympathizing with the eunuch faction who assassinated He Jin.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: After arriving in Luoyang, Dong Zhuo realized that his 3000 men were unequal to the numerous troops in and about the capital. Dong ordered some of his army to march out at night and re-enter the city at dawn, thus making it seem as though he was receiving reinforcements. Dong then took command of the leaderless forces of He Jin and He Miao, convinced Lü Bu to join his ranks, and made himself Excellency of Works.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: In 189, Dong deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with the Emperor Xian of Han. Dong declared himself chancellor, and became the head of the imperial court in Luoyang. However, in the words of Rafe de Crespigny, Dong Zhuo's "conduct towards the court and the imperial officials was bullying, oppressive and frequently bloody." This prompted Yuan Shao to form an army in opposition to Dong Zhuo's military authority.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: In the same year, regional officials and warlords around the country formed a coalition force and launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo. In response, he sent a detachment to intercept the coalition vanguard led by Sun Jian, and ordered his son-in-law, Niu Fu, to supply the fortress of Mei with 30 years' worth of rations. After his subordinates Hua Xiong, Hu Zhen, and Lu Bu were defeated by Sun Jian at Yangren, Dong Zhuo sent Li Jue to propose a marriage between Sun's son and Dong's daughter, and split the empire between the two families. Sun Jian refused and prepared to attack Luoyang.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong evacuated everyone in Luoyang and moved them to Chang'an in the west. Before the relocation, Dong ordered his troops to ransack the tombs of the late Han emperors for treasures, seize valuables from the wealthy residents in Luoyang, and burn down the palaces and anything that might be useful to the coalition.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Then the chancellor assembled his forces in the city and personally led them to ambush the approaching army. Dong's ambush failed and he was driven back by Sun Jian. He ordered Lu Bu to lead a cavalry force back to the city to halt Sun's progress before he took flight for Mianchi. Sun Jian broke through one of the eastern gates and defeated Lu Bu, taking the city.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Despite taking Luoyang, the city was so heavily damaged that Sun Jian chose to retreat rather than to try to hold it.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo then sent his generals Li Jue, Guo Si, and Zhang Ji to the frontline against the eastern warlords. By this time the coalition had already fallen into disarray and internal bickering. The only ones who actively opposed Dong were the senior imperial officer, Zhu Jun and his old friend, Tao Qian. Tao, despite having a general alliance with Dong, sent 3,000 elite troops from Danyang to aid Zhu in the battle with Dong's forces at Zhongmu. Zhu was defeated. Li Jue and his comrades then raided the surrounding area around Chenliu and Yingchuan for slaves. Morale among the allied soldiers were low due to news of the ways in which Dong Zhuo would torture captives. Apparently he would have them tied up with fat-soaked clothes and start a fire from their foot. He left their heads unbound so he could enjoy their screams and watch their expressions while being tortured.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Two months after he moved the capital, Dong Zhuo revived the title of Grand Master, an antiquated title once reinvigorated by Wang Mang, but scrapped in Eastern Han. He appointed his younger brother Dong Min as General of the Left and gave official posts to several of his kin.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo threw lavish banquets during which torture would be performed on captured enemies, such as the severing of limbs or removal of tongues and eyeballs or being burnt alive. His audience were said to have experienced a high degree of discomfort.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: For Yuan Shao's role as leader of the coalition against him, Dong Zhuo had the entire Yuan clan in Luoyang wiped out. Within two years, thousands of public servants were wrongly accused and executed, and numerous commoners were kidnapped or killed. In order to purchase materials for further development of the Mei citadel, he had bells and bronze statues, among which were nine of the Twelve Metal Colossi, melted and recast into coins. The coins did not weigh the same, however, resulting in all copper cash being devalued.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo kept Lü Bu as a personal bodyguard, and swore an oath as father and son. However, after an argument, Dong threw a hand-axe at Lü Bu, who dodged the weapon. Lü Bu's relationship with Dong Zhuo was also weakened when he established an affair with one of Dong's harem.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: In 192, with encouragement from Interior Minister Wang Yun, Lü Bu made his decision to kill Dong Zhuo. On the morning of May 22, 192, Lü greeted Dong at the palace gate with a dozen trusted men led by Cavalry Captain Li Su. Li stepped forward and stabbed Dong. Dong cried out for Lü Bu to save him, but Lü merely answered, "This is an imperial order," after which he delivered a fatal blow to Dong. It was recorded that Dong's corpse was left on the streets with a lit wick placed on his navel. The wick burned for several days on the fat of the corpse. It was said that the light from the flame could last for days. A special order stated that anyone who went forth to collect the body would be killed. However, three officials, including Cai Yong, still challenged the order and were executed. Meanwhile, all affiliates of the Dong clan, including Dong's 90-year-old mother, were put to death.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: After Dong Zhuo's death, several of his loyalists, such as Li Jue, Guo Si, Zhang Ji and Fan Chou, escaped on the belief that their allegiance to him would be considered treason. Wang Yun, who had taken control of the government, heard their appeal for pardon and said, "Of all those who should be forgiven, they are the exceptions." The four then planned to relinquish their positions and go into hiding. However, an advisor named Jia Xu suggested they should take this opportunity to launch a strike at Chang'an since the Liang faction was practically unscathed. The four then roused several-thousand core followers to attack Chang'an. Wang sent Xu Rong and Hu Zhen (former members of the Liang faction) to fight the Liang force en route, but Xu was killed in the first encounter and Hu joined the rebels, inflating the size of their army to 100,000 when they surrounded the capital. Lü Bu attempted to break the siege, but was defeated outside the city gate, and thus Chang'an fell into the hands of Dong Zhuo's followers. Emperor Xian was taken hostage and power in the court fell into the hands of the Liang faction once again.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", a 14th-century historical novel by Luo Guanzhong, was a romanticization of the events that occurred before and during the Three Kingdoms era. Because the real-life Dong Zhuo was already much of a cruel and treacherous character, the novel probably could do little more to accentuate that treachery and cruelty. It did, however, on two occasions deviate from the history.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Dong Zhuo first appeared as early as late in Chapter 1. Being sent to quell the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Dong Zhuo was defeated by the rebel leader Zhang Jiao and the battle was turning into a rout.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: The three newly sworn brothers, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, happened to be nearby. They then led their forces out to Dong Zhuo's rescue. Suddenly met with this new opposition, the rebels were swept off their feet and had to retreat.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: After returning to camp, Dong Zhuo asked the three brothers what offices they currently held. And they replied that they held none. Dong Zhuo harrumphed and then ignored them. This angered Zhang Fei so much that he grabbed his sword and wanted to kill Dong Zhuo. He was however stopped by his two brothers, who suggested taking their service elsewhere. Thus was Dong Zhuo's life spared and the three brothers went their own way.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Perhaps the most popular story about Dong Zhuo was the fictional love triangle involving Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu and Diaochan, which eventually led to the death of Dong Zhuo at the hands of his own adoptive son, Lü Bu.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: After Dong Zhuo moved the capital to the more strategically sound Chang'an, Interior Minister Wang Yun started to contemplate a plot to assassinate the tyrant by using the petite Diaochan, a song girl who was brought up in his household but whom he had been treating like his own daughter, to plant the seed of dissension between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Inviting Lü Bu over one night, Wang Yun asked Diaochan to serve wine to the guest. Lü Bu was immediately seized by the girl's beauty. Well aware of this, Wang Yun then promised to marry Diaochan to the mighty warrior.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: A few days later, however, Wang Yun laid a feast for Dong Zhuo and repeated the feat. Like Lü Bu, Dong Zhuo could not lift his eyes off Diaochan, who also displayed her prowess in song and dance. Dong Zhuo then brought Diaochan home and made her his concubine.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: When Lü Bu heard about this early the next morning, he headed for Dong Zhuo's bedroom and peeped in through the window. There he saw Diaochan sitting up grooming her hair while Dong Zhuo was still asleep. Aware of Lü Bu's presence, Diaochan put up a sorrowful expression and pretended to wipe tears off her eyes with a handkerchief.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: A similar incident recurred about a month later, but this time Dong Zhuo woke up in time to see Lü Bu staring fixedly at Diaochan. Lü Bu was then thrown out and forbidden from entering the house.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Then one day, while Dong Zhuo was holding a conversation with Emperor Xian, Lü Bu stole to his foster father's residence and met with Diaochan in the Fengyi Pavilion (). Weeping, Diaochan pleaded with Lü Bu to rescue her from Dong Zhuo. Placing his halberd aside, Lü Bu held Diaochan in his arms and comforted her with words.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Right then, Dong Zhuo returned to find the duo in the pavilion. The startled Lü Bu turned to flee. Dong Zhuo grabbed the halberd and gave chase. Being too slow, Dong Zhuo could not catch up with the agile Lü Bu. He then hurled the halberd at Lü Bu but the latter fended it off and got away.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: After the incident, Lü Bu became increasingly displeased with Dong Zhuo. The displeasure was further inflamed by Wang Yun, who suggested subtly that Lü Bu kill Dong Zhuo. Lü Bu was eventually persuaded.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: The conspirators sent Li Su to fetch Dong Zhuo from his castle in Meiwu () under the pretense that the emperor intended to abdicate the throne to the warlord. The overjoyed Dong Zhuo then came to the palace gate, where his troops were barred from entering. As Dong Zhuo's carriage neared the palace building, soldiers loyal to Wang Yun escorted Dong Zhuo to the trap they set. Then suddenly a general stabbed Dong Zhuo.


title: Dong Zhuo

text: Injured only in the arms, Dong Zhuo then cried out for Lü Bu to save him. Lü Bu walked over and impaled Dong Zhuo's throat with his halberd, proclaiming, "I have an imperial decree to slay the rebel!"


title: Rhyme scheme

text: A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes at the end of each line of a poem or song. It is usually referred to by using letters to indicate which lines rhyme; lines designated with the same letter all rhyme with each other.


title: Rhyme scheme

text: An example of the ABAB rhyming scheme, from "To Anthea, who may Command him Anything", by Robert Herrick:


title: Rhyme scheme

text: A basic distinction is between rhyme schemes that apply to a single stanza, and those that continue their pattern throughout an entire poem (see chain rhyme). There are also more elaborate related forms, like the sestina – which requires repetition of exact words in a complex pattern. Rhyming is not a mandatory feature of poetry; a four line stanza with non-rhyming lines could be described as using the scheme ABCD.


title: Rhyme scheme

text: Hip-hop music and rapping's rhyme schemes include traditional schemes such as couplets, as well as forms specific to the genre, which are broken down extensively in the books "How to Rap" and "Book of Rhymes". Rhyme schemes used in hip-hop music include


title: Rhyme scheme

text: Couplets are the most common type of rhyme scheme in old school rap and are still regularly used, though complex rhyme schemes have progressively become more frequent. Rather than relying on end rhymes, rap's rhyme schemes can have rhymes placed anywhere in the bars of music to create a structure. There can also be numerous rhythmic elements which all work together in the same scheme – this is called internal rhyme in traditional poetry, though as rap's rhymes schemes can be anywhere in the bar, they could all be internal, so the term is not always used. Rap verses can also employ 'extra rhymes', which do not structure the verse like the main rhyme schemes, but which add to the overall sound of the verse.


title: Rhyme scheme

text: Examples: We find one rhyme scheme for a one-line poem (A), two different rhyme schemes for a two-line poem (AA, AB), and five for a three-line poem: AAA, AAB, ABA, ABB, and ABC.


title: Rhyme scheme

text: These counts, however, include rhyme schemes in which rhyme is not employed at all (ABCD). There are many fewer rhyme schemes when all lines must rhyme with at least one other line; a count of these is given by the numbers,


title: Rhyme scheme

text: For example, for a three-line poem, there is only one rhyming scheme in which every line rhymes with at least one other (AAA), while for a four-line poem, there are four such schemes (AABB, ABAB, ABBA, and AAAA).


title: University of New Mexico

text: The University of New Mexico (UNM; ) is a public research university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Founded in 1889, it is the state's flagship academic institution and the largest by enrollment, with over 25,400 students in 2021.


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM comprises twelve colleges and schools, including the only law school in New Mexico. It offers 94 baccalaureate, 71 masters, and 37 doctoral degrees. The main campus spans in central Albuquerque, with branch campuses in Gallup, Los Alamos, Rio Rancho, Taos, and Los Lunas. UNM is classified as "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity"; it spent over $243 million on research and development in 2021, ranking 103rd in the nation.


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM's NCAA Division I program (FBS for football) offers 16 varsity sports; known as the Lobos, the teams compete in the Mountain West Conference and have won national championships in skiing and cross country running. The official school colors are cherry and silver.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The University of New Mexico was founded on February 28, 1889, with the passage of House Bill No. 186 by the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of New Mexico; stipulating that "Said institution is hereby located at or near the town of Albuquerque, in the county of Bernalillo within two miles north of railroad avenue in said town, upon a tract of good high and dry land, of not less than twenty acres suitable for the purposes of such institution," and that it would be the state university when New Mexico became a state. Bernard Shandon Rodey, a judge of the territory of New Mexico, pushed for Albuquerque as the location of the university and was one of the authors of the statute that created UNM, earning him the title of "Father of the University." Two years later, Elias S. Stover became the first president of the University and the following year the university's first building, Hodgin Hall, opened.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The third president of UNM, William G. Tight, who served from 1901 to 1909, introduced many programs for students and faculty, including the first fraternity and sorority. Tight introduced the Pueblo Revival architecture for which the campus has become known. During Tight's term, the first Pueblo Revival style building on campus, the Estufa, was constructed, and the Victorian-style Hodgin Hall was plastered over to create a monument to Pueblo Indian culture. However, Tight was vilified for his primitivism and was removed from office for political reasons, though history would vindicate him as the Pueblo Revival style became the dominant architectural style on campus.


title: University of New Mexico

text: Under David Ross Boyd, the university's fifth president, the campus was enlarged from 20 to and a federal land grant was made to the university. In 1922, the university was accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. During this time, more facilities were constructed for the university, but it was under the tenure of James F. Zimmerman, the university's seventh president, that the university underwent its first major expansion. Under Zimmerman, many new buildings were constructed, student enrollment increased, new departments were added, and greater support was generated for scientific research. Among the new buildings constructed were Zimmerman Library, Scholes Hall, the first student union building (now the anthropology complex), the university's first gymnasium and its first stadium. John Gaw Meem, an architect based in Santa Fe, was contracted to design many of the buildings constructed during this period, and is credited with imbuing the campus with its distinctive Pueblo Revival style.


title: University of New Mexico

text: During World War II, University of New Mexico was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In 1945, the university hired John Philip Wernette to be its eighth president. Upon arrival, Wernette focused on improving the university's faculty, programs, and services. He instituted an eighteen-point program of procedures for the selection of new faculty and appointed a committee to ensure better teaching candidates for faculty members. He also developed a program for faculty advancement. Offices of the General Placement Bureau, Veterans Assistance, and Testing and Counseling Services were formed to assist students and Wernette required all seniors in 1946 to take the Graduate Record Examinations test to provide the school with a measurement of how well it was educating its students. The university started the Law School and the School of Business Administration during his tenure.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In 1947 Wernette came into conflict with the Board of Regents over the hiring of two faculty members who he thought were unqualified. His contract was not renewed by the Board of Regents in 1948.


title: University of New Mexico

text: Thomas L. Popejoy, the ninth and the first native New Mexican university president, was appointed in 1948 and oversaw the university through the next twenty years, a period of major growth for the university. During this time, enrollment jumped from nearly 5,000 to more than 14,000, new programs such as medicine, nursing, dental, and law were founded, and new facilities such as Mesa Vista Hall, Mitchell Hall, Johnson Gymnasium, new dormitories, the current student union building, the College of Education complex, the business center, the engineering complex, the Fine Arts Center, the Student Health Center, University Stadium, University Arena (now officially known by its nickname of The Pit), and the first facilities on North Campus were constructed. This period also saw the foundation of UNM's branch facilities in Los Alamos and Gallup and the acquisition of the D.H. Lawrence Ranch north of Taos.


title: University of New Mexico

text: During the early 1970s, two sit-in protests at the university led to a response from law enforcement officers. On May 5, 1970, a protest over the Vietnam War and the Kent State massacre occupied the Student Union Building. The National Guard was ordered to sweep the building and arrest those inside; eleven students and journalists were bayonetted when those outside did not hear the order to disperse given inside. On May 10, 1972, a peaceful sit-in protest near Kirtland Air Force Base led to the arrest of thirty-five people and was pushed back to UNM, leading to eight more arrests. The following day, tear gas was used against hundreds of demonstrators on campus and the situation continued to deteriorate, leading to the university to declare a state of emergency.


title: University of New Mexico

text: New programs and schools were created in the 1970s and the university gained control over the hospital on North Campus. New facilities for the medical and law schools were constructed on North Campus and new Main Campus buildings were constructed on the site of the now demolished Zimmerman Field and Stadium, including Ortega Hall, Woodward Hall, the Humanities building, and the Art building. The campus also underwent a new landscaping plan, which included the construction of the duck pond west of Zimmerman Library and the conversion of many streets to pedestrian malls in order to make a more pedestrian-friendly campus.


title: University of New Mexico

text: At the end of the decade, the university was implicated in a recruiting scandal dubbed "Lobogate" by the press. An FBI wiretap on the phone of a prominent Lobo booster recorded a conversation in which basketball head coach Norm Ellenberger arranged with assistant coach Manny Goldstein to transfer bogus credits from a California junior college to the office of the UNM registrar. Subsequent investigation turned up a manufactured college seal from Mercer County Community College in New Jersey, along with blank transcripts and records of previous forgery. Further investigation uncovered alleged incentives like cars and apartments doled out to prime players and exposed a vast network of sports gambling. The scandal forced Ellenberger to resign and defined the term of William E. Davis, UNM's eleventh president.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The university has continued to grow, with expanding enrollment and new facilities. In the 1980s, dramatic expansion occurred at the medical center, business school, and engineering school. The Centennial Library was also constructed. During the 1990s, an Honors College was founded, and the university completed construction of a new bookstore and Dane Smith Hall. The Research Park at South Campus was also expanded.


title: University of New Mexico

text: By this point, the university had one of the largest student and faculty populations of Hispanics and Native Americans in the country. A study released in 1995 showed that the number of full-time Hispanic faculty at UNM was four times greater than the national average and the number of Native American teachers five times greater. The schools of law and business had some of the largest Hispanic student populations of any university in the country.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In the first decade of the 2000s, major expansion began on medical facilities on North Campus. The current visitor center, a new engineering center, and George Pearl Hall were constructed. Renovations and expansions were undertaken on several buildings on Main Campus, along with the creation of a branch campus in Rio Rancho. This wave of construction is continuing at present with more projects ongoing.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In 2016, UNM was the first university in the country to launch a Signature School Program with the Central Intelligence Agency, which enables students to interact with analysts and learn how to join the CIA once they graduate.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In 2017, the campus became smoke and tobacco free, with the exception of a few designated smoking areas located near the residence halls. The New Mexico Department of Health assisted in the effort, paying for signs and stickers around campus as well as a PSA shown during orientation.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The main campus is located on in Albuquerque on the heights a mile east of Downtown Albuquerque, and is split in three parts – central, north, and south. The central campus is situated between Central Avenue on the south, Girard Boulevard on the east, Lomas Boulevard on the north, and University Boulevard on the west, and is home to the main academic university. The North Campus, which includes the medical, nursing, pharmacological, and law schools as well as the University of New Mexico Hospital, is located on the north side of Lomas across from the central campus. The South campus is located a mile south of the central campus, centered around the intersection of University Boulevard and Avenida César Chavez, and includes most of UNM's athletic facilities. The central campus is noted for its unique Pueblo Revival architectural style, with many of the buildings designed by former university architect John Gaw Meem, who is credited with imbuing the campus with its distinctive Southwestern feel. The central campus is also home to the University of New Mexico Arboretum, which contains some 320 species of woody plants.


title: University of New Mexico

text: Eight university buildings are listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places, including Hodgin Hall, the university's first building, and two adjacent structures, the Art Annex and Sara Reynolds Hall. The Estufa, one of the first Pueblo Revival style structures in the country and the first on campus, is also on the list. Other structures on the registry are Carlisle Gymnasium, Jonson Gallery, Scholes Hall, and the University House.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The central campus is home to four museums: the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology in the anthropology building, the Geology and Meteorite Museums in Northrop Hall, the Southwest Biology Museum in the CERIA building, and the University Art Museum in the Center for the Arts.


title: University of New Mexico

text: In an effort to promote sustainability and lessen the environmental impact of the campus, UNM has been reducing the campus energy usage through monitoring and retrofitting cooling, heating, water, and lighting technologies. Due to these efforts, the University of New Mexico's grade on the College Sustainability Report Card 2009 improved from a "C" to a "B" according to the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Since 2008, following an executive order that all new state buildings over need to meet LEED silver at minimum, all new construction on campus has been registered for LEED status. So far, an expansion of Castetter Hall and the Technology and Education Center are the only LEED-certified buildings on campus, with a Gold and Platinum rating respectively. Several other buildings are currently registered for LEED status.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The primary UNM library units are the Health Sciences Library and Informatics Center, the Law Library, and the University Libraries, which consists of:


title: University of New Mexico

text: The University of New Mexico offers more than 215 degree and certificate programs, including 94 baccalaureate, 71 masters and 37 doctoral degrees, through 12 colleges and schools:


title: University of New Mexico

text: In its list of "Best Colleges" in the U.S. for 2022, "U.S. News & World Report" ranked UNM as tied for 212th among national universities, tied for 107th among public universities, and tied at 90th for "Top Performers on Social Mobility". Several graduate programs are highly ranked nationally, namely family medicine (7th), graduate clinical training (8th), nuclear engineering (14th), and primary care (16th); among the graduate programs in the top 100 nationwide are electrical engineering (63), computer engineering (69), chemical engineering (77), and physics (77).


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM ranks 8th in the "Military Friendly" rating, which denotes institutions that excel in accommodating, aiding, and retaining students who are military veterans.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The University of New Mexico Model United Nations, known as World Affairs Delegation or WAD, team is one of the top ranked teams in the country, with multiple awards at several different competitions, most notably, the Harvard World Model United Competition in Geneva, Switzerland and Puebla, Mexico. Most recently, the team won the Diplomacy Award and The Resolution Fellowship, both in Panama City, Panama. They have also competed and won awards at the St. Mary's University Model Organization of American States Conference.


title: University of New Mexico

text: Admission to UNM is rated "selective" by "U.S. News & World Report," with an acceptance rate of 65% according to "The Princeton Review". For Fall 2019, the school received 12,181 freshmen applications, of which 5,973 were admitted (49.0%) and 2,594 enrolled. The average GPA of enrolled freshmen was 3.44, while the middle 50% range of SAT composite scores were 1000–1290, 520–640 for evidence-based reading and writing, and 520–630 for math. The middle 50% range of the ACT Composite score was 19–25.


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM's NCAA Division I program (FBS for football) offers 18 varsity sports. The teams are known as the Lobos, who compete in the Mountain West Conference. Two human mascots, referred to as Louie Lobo and Lucy Lobo, rouse crowds at New Mexico athletic events. The official school colors are cherry and silver.


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM maintains strong athletic rivalries with New Mexico State University. The UNM-NMSU rivalry is called the Rio Grande Rivalry, a competitive series based on points awarded to the winners of head-to-head competitions between the two universities in every sport. A rotating trophy is granted to the winning university for a period of one year, until the award presentation the following year. The rivalry is celebrated at UNM by the Red Rally, a large bonfire that takes place the Thursday before the UNM-NMSU football game.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The Lobo men's basketball team is famous for its venue, The Pit. It may be best known as the site of the 1983 NCAA basketball championship, in which North Carolina State University, coached by Jim Valvano, upset the University of Houston.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The UNM women's basketball team has won the Mountain West championship for four of the past five years, and have gone to the NCAA Tournament for the past six consecutive years.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The UNM women's cross-country team won the NCAA championship in 2015 and 2017. Lobo Ednah Kurgat also won the individual title in 2017, and UNM's Weini Kelati won in 2019.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The team has been to six bowl games since 1997 after a 35-year bowl drought. Placekicker Katie Hnida made history in the 2003 Las Vegas Bowl when she became the first woman to play in an NCAA Division I-A game, attempting but missing an extra point in the Lobos's 27–13 loss to UCLA. She later attempted and made two extra points in UNM's 72–8 victory over Texas State.


title: University of New Mexico

text: New Mexico also lost its 2003 and 2004 bowl games, making its record in bowl games 2–8–1. The football team went to the first year of the New Mexico Bowl in 2006 and lost to San Jose State University 20–12. In 2007 the Lobos finished the regular season 8–4 and were invited to the New Mexico Bowl for the second straight season. The Lobos shut out the favored Nevada Wolf Pack 23–0 to win their first bowl game since the 1961 Aviation Bowl.


title: University of New Mexico

text: New Mexico won the National title for Division I Skiing in 2004, defeating then No. 1 ranked University of Denver. In 2017, the team was eliminated and then reinstated. The men's and women's ski teams were eliminated effective fall 2019.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The men's soccer team was National Runner-up in Division I Soccer losing in extra time to the University of Maryland in 2005 as the No. 2 seed, the highest ranking for a UNM soccer team in school history. The men's soccer team was eliminated from the UNM sports programs in 2019.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The main university campus is located in the lower Heights of Albuquerque just east of Downtown Albuquerque and is the focal point for the neighborhoods surrounding it; the neighborhoods to the immediate south and west are home to a large population of students. However, the vast majority of UNM's student population live off-campus around the Albuquerque metropolitan area, with only just over 2,000 living in on-campus housing.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The Student Union Building (SUB) is a major activity center for students on-campus, with a food court, a movie theater, event facilities, student government and organization offices, student services, and recreation areas. Another major hotspot for students is the popular Frontier Restaurant, a late-night eatery located across Central Avenue from main campus and a popular meeting spot for students. The Duck Pond is a popular relaxation spot for students and local residents, particularly in the warmer months.


title: University of New Mexico

text: There are over 400 student-run organizations on campus, which include academic, athletic, ethnic, honorary, political, religious, and service groups, as well as fraternities and sororities.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The Associated Students of the University of New Mexico (ASUNM) is the undergraduate student government of UNM, with an elected student body president, vice-president, student court, and 20 senators. Senators are elected to two-semester terms. There are two elections each school year; in each, 10 senators are elected. Many candidates run in slates. There are different agencies within ASUNM, such as Lobo Spirit and Community Experience.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The Graduate and Professional Student Association (GPSA) is the graduate student government of UNM, led by an elected president and a representative council from the different schools of study on campus since 1969.


title: University of New Mexico

text: The University of New Mexico is home to several fraternities and sororities, around 5% of the UNM student body is involved in Greek life. Of the fraternity's on campus, Pi Kappa Alpha is the oldest fraternity on campus being founded in 1911. Sigma Chi was founded in 1916 being the second oldest fraternity on campus. The Sigma Chi house is the largest fraternity house in the state of New Mexico, as well being located on 1855 Sigma Chi road, the only Sigma Chi chapter in the country, with that address. Both Kappa Sigma and Phi Delta Theta are two of the older fraternity's on campus, as they were founded in 1925 and 1946 respectively. Both Kappa Kappa Gamma and Alpha Chi Omega were founded in 1918, being the two oldest Panhellenic Sororities at The University of New Mexico. Followed behind Chi Omega founded in 1925 and Pi Beta Phi in 1946.


title: University of New Mexico

text: UNM owns and operates KUNM-FM, one of two National Public Radio stations in Albuquerque. In 2008, KUNM-FM won 16 Associated Press awards, including Station of the Year. UNM also owns and operates the University of New Mexico Press, its publishing arm established in 1929. With Albuquerque Public Schools, UNM also operates New Mexico PBS, Albuquerque's public television station which currently broadcasts in High Definition Digital on two channels, English and Spanish. "The Daily Lobo" is UNM's student-run daily newspaper and is a publication serving the metro area.


title: Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life

text: The story focuses on the Koto club of the Tokise High School in Kanagawa Prefecture. Takezo Kurata, in his second year, is the only member left in the Koto club, after all the senior members have graduated. While he is trying his best to recruit more members into the club, Chika Kudo submits his application. But, since Kudo is known to be a delinquent, one who destroyed his own grandfather's koto shop, Takezo is apprehensive about him. Things change when he discovers the truth. Also joining the club is the Koto prodigy, Satowa Hozuki, who has her own agenda. More members join the club in time, holding their own reasons for joining. However, in the end, they all have the same goal - to play at the Koto Nationals competition.


title: Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life

text: Series is written and illustrated by Amyu and began publication in Shueisha's "Jump Square" magazine in August 2012. As of September 2022 It has been compiled into twenty-seven "tankōbon" volumes.


title: Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life

text: An anime television series adaptation aired in two parts from April 6 to June 29, 2019 and October 5 to December 28, 2019 on Tokyo MX, BS11, AT-X, GYT, Wowow, and HTB. The series is animated by Platinum Vision and was directed by Ryōma Mizuno, with Ayumu Hisao handling series composition, and Junko Yamanaka designing the characters. Shouta Aoi performed the series' opening theme song "Tone", while Yuma Uchida performed the series' ending theme song "Speechless". Aoi also performed the series' second opening theme song "Harmony", while Uchida also performed the series' ending theme song "Rainbow". Funimation has licensed the series, and released the dub as it aired.


title: Kono Oto Tomare! Sounds of Life

text: A stage play adaptation ran in 2019 in three locations: August 17–25 in Tokyo, September 7–8 in Fukuoka, and September 14–15 in Osaka. The play starred Takuma Zaiki as Kudo, Kazuki Furuta as Kurata, Hinako Tanaka as Satowa, Kouhei Shiota as Adachi, Kotori Kojima as Sakai, and Tatsuki Jōnin as Mizuhara. In preparation for the play, the cast members trained for four months to learn how to play the koto.


title: New Criticism

text: New Criticism was a formalist movement in literary theory that dominated American literary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book "The New Criticism".


title: New Criticism

text: The work of Cambridge scholar I. A. Richards, especially his "Practical Criticism" and "The Meaning of Meaning", which offered what was claimed to be an empirical scientific approach, were important to the development of New Critical methodology. Also very influential were the critical essays of T. S. Eliot, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems", in which Eliot developed his notions of the "theory of impersonality" and "objective correlative" respectively. Eliot's evaluative judgments, such as his condemnation of Milton and Dryden, his liking for the so-called metaphysical poets, and his insistence that poetry must be impersonal, greatly influenced the formation of the New Critical canon.


title: New Criticism

text: New Criticism developed as a reaction to the older philological and literary history schools of the US North, which focused on the history and meaning of individual words and their relation to foreign and ancient languages, comparative sources, and the biographical circumstances of the authors, taking this approach under the influence of nineteenth-century German scholarship. The New Critics felt that this approach tended to distract from the text and meaning of a poem and entirely neglect its aesthetic qualities in favor of teaching about external factors. On the other hand, the New Critics disparaged the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, as too subjective and emotional. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for a newer, systematic and objective method.


title: New Criticism

text: It was felt, especially by creative writers and by literary critics outside the academy, that the special aesthetic experience of poetry and literary language was lost in the welter of extraneous erudition and emotional effusions. Heather Dubrow notes that the prevailing focus of literary scholarship was on "the study of ethical values and philosophical issues through literature, the tracing of literary history, and ... political criticism". Literature was approached via its moral, historical and social background and literary scholarship did not focus on analysis of texts.


title: New Criticism

text: New Critics believed the structure and meaning of the text were intimately connected and should not be analyzed separately. In order to bring the focus of literary studies back to analysis of the texts, they aimed to exclude the reader's response, the author's intention, historical and cultural contexts, and moralistic bias from their analysis. These goals were articulated in Ransom's "Criticism, Inc." and Allen Tate's "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer".


title: New Criticism

text: Close reading (or "explication de texte") was a staple of French literary studies, but in the United States, aesthetic concerns and the study of modern poets were the province of non-academic essayists and book reviewers rather than serious scholars. The New Criticism changed this. Though their interest in textual study initially met with resistance from older scholars, the methods of the New Critics rapidly predominated in American universities until challenged by Feminism and structuralism in the 1970s. Other schools of critical theory, including, post-structuralism, and deconstructionist theory, the New Historicism, and Reception studies followed.


title: New Criticism

text: Although the New Critics were never a formal group, an important inspiration was the teaching of John Crowe Ransom of Kenyon College, whose students (all Southerners), Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, and Robert Penn Warren would go on to develop the aesthetics that came to be known as the New Criticism. Indeed, for Paul Lauter, a Professor of American Studies at Trinity College, New Criticism is a reemergence of the Southern Agrarians. In his essay, "The New Criticism", Cleanth Brooks notes that "The New Critic, like the Snark, is a very elusive beast", meaning that there was no clearly defined "New Critical" manifesto, school, or stance. Nevertheless, a number of writings outline inter-related New Critical ideas.


title: New Criticism

text: In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.


title: New Criticism

text: In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. One of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).


title: New Criticism

text: The hey-day of the New Criticism in American high schools and colleges was the Cold War decades between 1950 and the mid-seventies. Brooks and Warren's "Understanding Poetry" and "Understanding Fiction" both became staples during this era.


title: New Criticism

text: Studying a passage of prose or poetry in New Critical style required careful, exacting scrutiny of the passage itself. Formal elements such as rhyme, meter, setting, characterization, and plot were used to identify the theme of the text. In addition to the theme, the New Critics also looked for paradox, ambiguity, irony, and tension to help establish the single best and most unified interpretation of the text.


title: New Criticism

text: Although the New Criticism is no longer a dominant theoretical model in American universities, some of its methods (like close reading) are still fundamental tools of literary criticism, underpinning a number of subsequent theoretic approaches to literature including poststructuralism, deconstruction theory, New Testament narrative criticism, and reader-response theory.


title: New Criticism

text: It was frequently alleged that the New Criticism treated literary texts as autonomous and divorced from historical context, and that its practitioners were "uninterested in the human meaning, the social function and effect of literature."


title: New Criticism

text: Indicative of the reader-response school of theory, Terence Hawkes writes that the fundamental close reading technique is based on the assumption that "the subject and the object of study—the reader and the text—are stable and independent forms, rather than products of the unconscious process of signification," an assumption which he identifies as the "ideology of liberal humanism," which is attributed to the New Critics who are "accused of attempting to disguise the interests at work in their critical processes." For Hawkes, ideally, a critic ought to be considered to "[create] the finished work by his reading of it, and [not to] remain simply an inert consumer of a 'ready-made' product."


title: New Criticism

text: In response to critics like Hawkes, Cleanth Brooks, in his essay "The New Criticism" (1979), argued that the New Criticism was not diametrically opposed to the general principles of reader-response theory and that the two could complement one another. For instance, he stated, "If some of the New Critics have preferred to stress the writing rather than the writer, so have they given less stress to the reader—to the reader's response to the work. Yet no one in his right mind could forget the reader. He is essential for 'realizing' any poem or novel. ... Reader response is certainly worth studying." However, Brooks tempers his praise for the reader-response theory by noting its limitations, pointing out that, "to put meaning and valuation of a literary work at the mercy of any and every individual [reader] would reduce the study of literature to reader psychology and to the history of taste."


title: New Criticism

text: Another objection against New Criticism is that it misguidedly tries to turn literary criticism into an objective science, or at least aims at "bringing literary study to a condition rivaling that of science." One example of this is Ransom's essay "Criticism, Inc.", in which he advocated that "criticism must become more scientific, or precise and systematic". René Wellek, however, argued against this by noting that a number of the New Critics outlined their theoretical aesthetics in contrast to the "objectivity" of the sciences.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The barbarian kingdoms, also known as the post-Roman kingdoms, the western kingdoms or the early medieval kingdoms, were the states founded by various non-Roman, primarily Germanic, peoples in Western Europe and North Africa following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century. The formation of the barbarian kingdoms was a complicated, gradual and largely unintentional process, as the Roman state failed to handle barbarian migrants on the imperial borders, leading to both invasions and invitations into imperial territory, but simultaneously denied barbarians the ability to properly integrate into the imperial framework. The influence of barbarian rulers, at first local warlords and client kings without firm connections to any territories, increased as Roman emperors and usurpers used them as pawns in civil wars. It was only after the collapse of effective Western Roman central authority that the barbarian realms transitioned into proper territorial kingdoms.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The barbarian kings of the west drew on legitimacy through connecting themselves to the Roman Empire in order to strengthen their rule. Virtually all of them assumed the style "dominus noster" ("our lord"), previously used by the emperors, and many assumed the "praenomen" Flavius, borne by virtually all Roman emperors in late antiquity. The kings typically also assumed a subordinate position in diplomacy with the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. The barbarian kings also adopted many aspects of the late Roman administration, but the old Roman system gradually dissolved and disappeared over the centuries, accelerated by periods of political turmoil. The major difference between the administration of the old Western Roman Empire and the new royal administrations was their scale, as the barbarian governments, on accounts of controlling significantly less territory, were less deep and less complex. As a result, there was a considerable breakdown in living standards as well as social and economic complexity. For the most part, the barbarian kingdoms were highly fragile and ephemeral. By the time of the coronation of Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as emperor in 800, the event usually seen as marking the end of the age of the barbarian kingdoms, only the Frankish kingdom remained out of the once vast and diverse network of kingdoms.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The rise of the barbarian kingdoms in the territory previously governed by the Western Roman Empire was a gradual, complex and largely unintentional process. The starting point of the process that led to their formation were the migrations of large numbers of barbarian (i.e. non-Roman) peoples into the territory of the Roman Empire. The migrations were spurred by both invasions and invitations. Inviting peoples from beyond the imperial frontier to settle Roman territory was not a new policy, but something that had been done several times by emperors in the past, mostly for economic, agricultural or military purposes. The capacity for immigration in a state as large and powerful as the Roman Empire was nearly infinite, but several events and accidents in the fourth through fifth centuries complicated the situation.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the Danube river and settle in the Balkans by the government of the Eastern Roman Empire. Mistreatment of the Gothic refugees caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens (364–378) was also killed. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent "foederati" under their own leader. Roman civil wars in the late 4th century, as well as periods of cold war between the imperial courts of the Western and Eastern Roman empires allowed the Visigoths under their leader Alaric I (395–410) to become an active force in imperial politics, only tenuously linked to the imperial government itself. The arrival of the Visigoths in the Balkans was followed by the Alans, Vandals and Suebi migrating into Gaul between 405 and 407 in the crossing of the Rhine. Though the barbarians on the Rhine were effectively kept in check and managed by the usurper-emperor Constantine III (407–411), the end of his reign due to further internal Roman conflict led to the tribes being able to penetrate deep into Gaul and Hispania.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: With the barbarians settling within the imperial borders in large numbers, the second stage in the formation of the barbarian kingdoms was imperial acceptance of the "status quo". Though Romans did not see the existence of the barbarian realms as desirable, they began to be tolerated through the 420s and 430s. It was not the goal of either the Romans or the barbarians to found lasting territorial kingdoms in the sense of replacing the imperial government; their formation derived not from an interest by the barbarians in founding them but rather from failures in Roman governance and the failure to grant the barbarian rulers a place within the Roman imperial systems. The early barbarian kings were tolerated only on the terms of the empire. Early kingdoms, such as those of the Suebi and Vandals in Hispania, were relegated to the edges of less important provinces. In 418, Emperor Honorius (393–423) settled the Visigoths in Aquitania in southern Gaul, the beginning of the Visigothic Kingdom. The Romans envisioned the settlement as a provisional settlement of loyal clients of the imperial government, whose support could be relied on in internal struggles, and not a ceding of territory given that the imperial government was also envisioned as continuing in the granted lands. Though Roman generals in the time of Honorius had worked to curb the influence and power of the barbarian kings, the number of civil wars that followed Honorius's death made the status of the barbarians a secondary concern. Instead of suppressing the barbarian kings, emperors and usurpers in the 4th century viewed them as useful internal players.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The third stage was the imperial government of the Western Roman Empire recognizing that it could no longer effectively administer its territories. This led the empire to cede effective control of more lands to the barbarian kings, whose realms now formed a permanent part of the landscape, though this did not mean that the lands within the former imperial borders ceased to be part of the empire on a conceptual level. Treaties made with the Visigoths in 439 and the Vandals, who had conquered North Africa, in 442 effectively recognized the rulers of those peoples as territorial governors of parts of imperial territory, ceasing the pretension of active imperial administration. These treaties, though not seen as irrevocable, laid the foundations of true territorial kingdoms.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: Almost nowhere in the west were the kings firmly linked to territorial kingdoms until the very late fifth century or even later. The fourth and final stage in the formation of the barbarian kingdoms was the barbarian kings, left to their own devices, slowly losing the habit of waiting for the empire to again function properly and instead starting to take on the roles of the former emperors, becoming proper territorial kings. This process was only possible through the acceptance of the barbarian rulers by local Roman aristocrats, who in many cases supported the barbarian kings as they saw the possibility of restored Western Roman central control as an increasingly futile prospect. The exact process in which the barbarian kings took on certain functions and prerogatives previously ascribed to the Roman emperors is not entirely clear but it was a highly drawn-out process. Alaric I, the generally recognised first king of the Visigoths, is only seen as a king retroactively; contemporary sources call him only "dux" or at times "hegemon", and he did not rule a kingdom, but rather spent much of his career unsuccessfully trying to integrate himself into the Roman imperial system as a Roman military officer. The earliest Visigoth ruler to unambiguously call himself king, and to issue documents from something resembling an imperial chancery, was Alaric II (484–507), though contemporary writings allude to widespread acceptance and recognition of a Visigothic kingdom in Gaul by the 450s. The Visigoths did not establish a secure power-base as a consciously post-imperial kingdom until the 560s under Liuvigild, after slow and often brutal conquests in Hispania.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: Although power was dispersed from a single capital, such as Rome or Ravenna, to local kings and warlords, the apparatus of the former Roman imperial government fundamentally continued to function in the west as the new barbarian rulers adopted many aspects of the late Roman administration. Roman law continued to remain the predominant legal system in the west through the fifth and sixth centuries. Several barbarian kings showing interest in legal matters and issuing their own law codes, developed based on Roman law. Initially, towns and cities, the main building blocks of the Roman Empire, remained the building blocks of the barbarian kingdoms as well. The old Roman imperial administrative framework dissolved and disappeared only gradually in a slow process spanning centuries, at times accelerated due to political upheaval.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The major difference between the Roman imperial administration and the new royal administrations that meant to imitate and replicate it was their scale. Without a central imperial court, and officers that linked the governments of the different provinces together, the administration in the kingdoms was flattened. Compared to the Roman Empire, the governments of the barbarian kingdoms were as such significantly less deep and less complex. This breakdown in Roman order had the side effect of resulting in a marked decline in living standards, as well as a marked collapse in economic and social complexity.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: In the aftermath of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the various barbarian rulers in Western Europe made an effort to strengthen legitimacy by adopting certain elements of the former empire. The title most widely used by the kings was "rex", which formed a basis of authority that they could use in diplomacy with other kingdoms and the surviving imperial court in Constantinople. Although some Eastern Roman authors, such as Procopius, described "rex" as a 'barbarian term', it had at points in the past sometimes been used to describe Roman emperors and clearly indicated that the barbarian rulers were sovereign rulers, though not with authority eclipsing that of the emperor in Constantinople. Many, but not all, of the barbarian kings used ethnic qualifiers in their title, the Frankish kings for instance rendering their title as "rex Francorum" ("king of the Franks"). The rulers of Italy, where the pretense of Roman continuity was especially strong, are notable in that they only rarely used ethnic qualifiers.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: In addition to "rex", the barbarian rulers also assumed a selection of Roman imperial titles and honours. Virtually all of the barbarian kings assumed the style "dominus noster" ("our lord"), previously used only by Roman emperors, and nearly all of the Visigothic kings and the barbarian kings of Italy (up until the end of the Lombard kingdom) used the "praenomen" Flavius, borne by virtually all Roman emperors in late antiquity. The early barbarian rulers were careful to maintain a subordinate position to the emperors in Constantinople, and were in turn sometimes recognised with various honours by the emperors, in effect being highly autonomous client kings.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: In the early 6th century, the most powerful kings in Western Europe were Theodoric the Great of Italy and Clovis I of the Franks. Both rulers received honours and recognition by the imperial court in Constantinople, which granted them a certain degree of legitimacy and was used to justify territorial expansion. Theodoric was recognised as a patrician by Emperor Anastasius I, who also returned the western imperial regalia, in Constantinople since 476, to Italy. These regalia were worn by Theoderic on occasions, and some of his Roman subjects referred to him as an emperor, but he appears to himself only have used the title "rex", careful not to insult the emperor. After the Franks defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé in 507, Clovis was recognised by Anastasius as honorary consul, a patrician and a client king. Like Theoderic, some of the subjects of Clovis also referred to him as an emperor, rather than king, though he never adopted that title himself. If Theodoric and Clovis had gone to war against each other, something that appeared likely many times, it is conceivable that either would have re-established the Western Roman Empire under their own rule. Though no war happened, such developments worried the eastern emperors, who after seeing how their granted honours could be seen as imperial "stamps of approval" never granted them to the same extent again. Instead, the eastern empire began to emphasise its own exclusive Roman legitimacy, which it would continue to do for the rest of its history.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: In the 6th century, Eastern Roman historians began to describe the west as "lost" to barbarian invasions, rather than the barbarian kings having been settled by the Romans themselves, a development termed the "Justinianic ideological offensive" by modern historians. Though the rise of the barbarian kingdoms in the place of the western empire was far from an entirely peaceful process, the idea of "barbarian invasions" bringing a sudden and violent end to the world of antiquity, once the widely accepted narrative among modern historians, does not satisfactorily describe the period. Ascribing the end of the Western Roman Empire to "barbarian invasions" ignores the diversity of the new kingdoms in favor of a homogenous non-Roman barbarism and ignores any analysis in which the empire could be seen as complicit in its own collapse.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: Despite being divided into several smaller realms, the populace of the barbarian kingdoms maintained strong cultural and religious connections with each other, and continued to speak Latin. The barbarian kings adopted both Christianity (at this point firmly established as the Roman religion) and the Latin language themselves, thus inheriting and maintaining Rome's cultural heritage. At the same time, they also remained connected to their non-Roman identity and made efforts to establish their own distinct identities. The Eastern Roman Empire emphasizing its own unique Roman legitimacy, sometimes through waging war on the barbarian kingdoms, and the barbarian ruling class and Roman population merging ethnically, led to the gradual disappearance of Roman identity in the west. The fading connectivity to the Roman Empire and the political division of the west led to a gradual fragmentation of culture and language, eventually giving rise to the modern Romance peoples and Romance languages.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The barbarian kingdoms proved to be extremely fragile states. Even out of the most powerful and longest-lasting kingdoms, those of the Visigoths, Franks and Lombards, only that of the Franks survived the Early Middle Ages. The Visigothic realm collapsed already in the sixth century and had to be restored almost from scratch under Liuvigild in the 560s and 570s. It was finally destroyed when it was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century. In a series of wars in the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire under Justinian I (527–565) conquered and destroyed the kingdoms of the Vandals in Africa and that of the Ostrogoths in Italy. Most of the smaller kingdoms in Gaul were conquered and absorbed into the Frankish kingdom or disappear from historical sources entirely.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: The new realms that emerged in the seventh through ninth centuries represented a new order largely disconnected from the old Roman world. The Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered Hispania from the Visigoths and North Africa from the Eastern Romans, made no pretences of Roman continuity. The Lombard kingdom, though often counted among the other barbarian kingdoms, ruled an Italy destroyed by conflict between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. Their rule in Italy came to an end when their kingdom was conquered by the Franks in 774. The small successor kingdoms of the Visigoths in Hispania, the predecessors of medieval kingdoms such as León, Castile and Aragon, were fundamentally sub-Frankish, culturally and administratively closer to the Frankish kingdom than the fallen Visigothic realm.


title: Barbarian kingdoms

text: As the sole survivor of the old kingdoms, the Frankish realm provided the model of early medieval kingship that would later inspire medieval monarchs throughout the rest of the medieval period. Though the Frankish rulers remembered Roman ideals and often aspired to vague ideas of imperial restoration, the centuries of their rule had transformed the governance of their kingdom into something that resembled the Roman Empire very little. The new form of government was a personal one, based on powers of and relationships between individuals, rather than the heavily administrated, judicial and bureaucratic system of the Roman Empire. The time of the barbarian kingdoms came to an end with the coronation of Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as Roman emperor by Pope Leo III in 800, in opposition to the authority of the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire, a predecessor of France and Germany, was in reality more similar to a collection of kingdoms united only by Charlemagne's authority than a realm with a meaningful connection to the old Western Roman Empire.


title: James Morrison (singer)

text: James Morrison Catchpole (born 13 August 1984) is an English singer, songwriter and guitarist. In 2006, his debut single "You Give Me Something" became a hit in Europe, Australia, Japan and Iran, peaking in the top five in the UK and claiming the No. 1 spot in New Zealand. His debut album, "Undiscovered" (2006), debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart. In 2007, Morrison won the Brit Award for Best British Male.


title: James Morrison (singer)

text: In 2008, Morrison released his second album, "Songs for You, Truths for Me," which entered the top five in the UK as well as topping the Irish Albums Chart. "Songs for You, Truths for Me" featured the top 10 singles "You Make It Real" and his critically acclaimed collaboration with Nelly Furtado titled "Broken Strings". Morrison is also a songwriter for other artists, having written for of Demi Lovato, Olly Murs, Kelly Clarkson, and Clay Aiken. In 2010, he wrote a song for Italian singer Marco Carta entitled "", which debuted at number one in Italy's chart.


title: James Morrison (singer)

text: Morrison was born in the town of Rugby, Warwickshire, where he was surrounded by the influence of his parents' record collection; his mother was a fan of soul and his father enjoyed folk and country. He began playing guitar when his uncle Joe showed him how to play a blues riff. As a teenager he started busking when he lived in Porth, Newquay, Cornwall, in a local pub called the Phoenix, Watergate Bay. He used to practise playing his guitar on the promenade looking over Porth beach. He took GCSE music at Treviglas Community College. After some years of covering other musicians' songs, he eventually started to write his own. He attributes his distinctive voice to a severe bout of whooping cough that nearly killed him when he was a baby.