title: John H. Sununu

text: He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1990 for exceptionally significant creativity in energy systems development, in engineering education, and in integration of technological advances with public policy.


title: John H. Sununu

text: Sununu is married to the former Nancy Hayes, and they have eight children, including former U.S. Senator John E. Sununu and Chris Sununu, formerly a member of the New Hampshire Executive Council and currently the Governor of New Hampshire. In recent years, he moved from Salem, New Hampshire to Hampton Falls, New Hampshire to be closer to relatives. He and his wife were subsequently elected as the town's honorary hog reeves and poundkeepers. The title is usually given to an unsuspecting newcomer each year.


title: John H. Sununu

text: Sununu's daughter Cathy is the president of the Portsmouth Museum of Art in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.


title: John H. Sununu

text: In January 1995, John Sununu made a cameo appearance on the first episode of the Delta Burke CBS sitcom, "Women of the House", titled "Miss Sugarbaker Goes to Washington". In the episode, Suzanne Sugarbaker is a guest on the CNN political program, "Crossfire". Michael Kinsley also appears.


title: John H. Sununu

text: In the 1996 film "", a clip (from "This Island Earth") of a jet plane prompts Tom Servo to quip, "John Sununu goes for a haircut." The joke was a recurring one on the original series, as well.


title: John H. Sununu

text: After the first presidential debate, on September 26, 2016, Sununu endorsed Donald Trump for President of the United States.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: Kevin Warren Sumlin (born August 3, 1964) is an American football coach who is the head coach and general manager for the Houston Gamblers of the United States Football League (USFL). Sumlin served as the head football coach at the University of Houston from 2008 to 2011, Texas A&M University from 2012 to 2017, and at the University of Arizona from 2018 to 2020.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: Sumlin was born in Brewton, Alabama, on August 3, 1964. He later attended Brebeuf Jesuit Preparatory School in Indianapolis, where he played football, basketball, and ice hockey.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: Following his prep career, Sumlin attended Purdue University and was a starting linebacker throughout his entire college career. He was a member of the 1984 Peach Bowl team and finished in the top 10 in total tackles with 375 (191 solo, 184 assisted) and in the top 20 in solo tackles with 191. He led the team in tackles during his freshman season of 1983 with 91 total tackles, (50 solo, 41 assisted). He was a teammate of players such as Jim Everett, Hall of Famer Rod Woodson, fellow linebacker Fred Strickland, and long-time NFL players Mel Gray and Cris Dishman.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: Sumlin served as an assistant coach at Washington State, Wyoming, Minnesota, and Purdue (all, except for Minnesota, alongside Joe Tiller); served as assistant head coach at Texas A&M for two years under R.C. Slocum; and for five years at Oklahoma under Bob Stoops, serving the last two years as co-offensive coordinator. In addition to Stoops and Slocum, he has served as an assistant coach under Mike Price at Washington State and Joe Tiller at Purdue. While at Purdue, offensive coordinator Jim Chaney and he aided Tiller in implementing the then-uncommonly used spread offense, and the Boilermakers, with Drew Brees as starting quarterback, broke a string of Big Ten passing records and made a surprise run to the 2001 Rose Bowl, Purdue's first Rose Bowl in three decades. He left for Texas A&M to serve as the offensive coordinator and assistant head coach for two seasons before joining the University of Oklahoma.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: In his final year with the Oklahoma Sooners, Sumlin's offense was one of the best in the country, averaging 44 points per game.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: In December 2007, Sumlin was hired as the head coach of the University of Houston. In December 2009, Sumlin was announced as a finalist for the Paul "Bear" Bryant Award. In 2011, Sumlin coached Houston to a 12–0 start before losing the Conference USA Championship Game to the Southern Miss Golden Eagles.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: On December 10, 2011, Sumlin told his players he was leaving Houston, effective immediately, to accept a job at another school. KRIV in Houston and ESPN's Joe Schad both reported that Sumlin was to become the new coach at Texas A&M University. Special-teams coordinator Tony Levine coached Houston in the 2012 TicketCity Bowl.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: In 2012, Sumlin named quarterback Johnny Manziel his starter. Manziel went on to win the Heisman Trophy and Sumlin took Texas A&M, in their first year in the Southeastern Conference, to an 11–2 record, including victories over then No. 1 Alabama in Tuscaloosa, and No. 11 Oklahoma in the AT&T Cotton Bowl. The Aggies finished the 2012 season ranked in the top five of both the Coaches Poll and the AP Poll for the first time since 1956. Texas A&M also led the SEC in total offense, total scoring offense, and total rushing yards, and led the nation in third down conversion percentage. Sumlin and the Aggies became the first SEC team in history to amass over 7,000 yards in total offense. Coach Sumlin was the first head coach to win more than eight games in his first season as head coach.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: On November 30, 2013, Sumlin agreed to a new six-year contract as head coach at Texas A&M. The contract, valued at $30 million over six years, was guaranteed. If Texas A&M had fired him after the 2015 and 2016 seasons, the buyout amounts ($20 million and $15 million, respectively) would have had to be paid out within 60 days of termination.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: On November 21, 2017, news outlets reported that Sumlin would be fired following the 2017 season finale against LSU. On November 26, 2017, Sumlin was fired after six seasons. He compiled a 51–26 record during his tenure. Despite never posting a losing record as the coach of A&M, he only won more than nine games once, and only had one winning record in SEC play. Sumlin received a $10.4 million buyout under the terms of his contract, and was replaced by Jimbo Fisher for the 2018 season.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: On January 14, 2018, Sumlin was hired as the University of Arizona's head coach. Sumlin suffered perhaps the worst defeat of his coaching career when his University of Arizona team lost to their traditional in-state rival Arizona State on December 11, 2020, by a score of 70–7. The following day, Sumlin was fired.


title: Kevin Sumlin

text: On January 6, 2022, Sumlin was named the head coach and general manager for the Houston Gamblers of the United States Football League.


title: Province of New York

text: The Province of New York (1664–1776) was a British proprietary colony and later royal colony on the northeast coast of North America. As one of the Middle Colonies, New York achieved independence and worked with the others to found the United States.


title: Province of New York

text: In 1664, the Dutch Province of New Netherland in America was awarded by Charles II of England to his brother James, Duke of York. James raised a fleet to take it from the Dutch and the Governor surrendered to the English fleet without recognition from the Dutch West Indies Company that had authority over it. The province was renamed for the Duke of York, as its proprietor. England seized "de facto" control of the colony from the Dutch in 1664, and was given "de jure" sovereign control in 1667 in the Treaty of Breda and again in the Treaty of Westminster (1674). It was not until 1674 that English common law was applied in the colony. The colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. When the Duke of York ascended to the throne of England as James II, the province became a royal colony.


title: Province of New York

text: When the English arrived, the Dutch colony somewhat vaguely included claims to all of the present U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware and Vermont, along with inland portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Maine in addition to eastern Pennsylvania. Much of this land was soon reassigned by the crown, leaving the territory of the modern State of New York, including the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and future Vermont. The territory of western New York was disputed with the indigenous Iroquois Confederacy, and also disputed between the English and the French from their northern colonial province of New France (modern eastern Canada). The province remained an important military and economic link to Canada throughout its history. Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire to the east.


title: Province of New York

text: The revolutionary New York Provincial Congress of local representatives assumed the government on May 22, 1775, declared the province the State of New York in 1776, and ratified the first New York Constitution in 1777. During the ensuing American Revolutionary War the British regained and occupied the strategic port and harbor of New York Town in September 1776, using it as its military and political base of operations in British North America; though a British governor was technically in office, much of the remainder of the upper part of the colony was held by the rebel Patriots. British claims in New York were ended by the Treaty of Paris of 1783, with New York establishing its independence from the crown. The final evacuation of all of New York by the British Army was followed by the return of General George Washington's Continental Army on November 25, 1783, in a grand parade and celebration.


title: Province of New York

text: This British crown colony was established upon the former Dutch colony of New Netherland, with its core being York Shire, in what today is typically known as Downstate New York.


title: Province of New York

text: The Province of New York was divided into twelve counties on November 1, 1683, by New York Governor Thomas Dongan:


title: Province of New York

text: In 1617 officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, and in 1624 founded New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island. New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27, 1664; he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, which he called Albany, after another of the Duke of York's titles. The capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667.


title: Province of New York

text: Easing the transition to British rule, the Articles of Capitulation guaranteed certain rights to the Dutch; among these were: liberty of conscience in divine worship and church discipline, the continuation of their own customs concerning inheritances, and the application of Dutch law to bargains and contracts made prior to the capitulation.


title: Province of New York

text: In 1664, James, Duke of York, was granted a proprietary colony which included New Netherland and present-day Maine. The New Netherland claim included western parts of present-day Massachusetts (to an extent that varied depending on whether the reference was the States General of the Netherlands States General claim of all lands as far east as Narragansett Bay or the Treaty of Hartford negotiated by the English and Dutch colonies in 1650 but not recognized by either the Dutch or English governments) putting the new province in conflict with the Massachusetts charter. In general terms, the charter was equivalent to a conveyance of land conferring on him the right of possession, control, and government, subject only to the limitation that the government must be consistent with the laws of England. The Duke of York never visited his colony and exercised little direct control of it. He elected to administer his government through governors, councils, and other officers appointed by himself. No provision was made for an elected assembly.


title: Province of New York

text: Also in 1664, the Duke of York gave the part of his new possessions between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to Sir George Carteret in exchange for settlement of a debt. The territory was named after the Jersey Island of Jersey, Carteret's ancestral home. The other section of New Jersey was sold to John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton Lord Berkeley of Stratton, who was a close friend of the duke. As a result, Carteret and Berkeley became the two Lords Proprietor English Lords Proprietors of New Jersey. The Province of New Jersey was created, but the border was not finalized until 1765 (see New York-New Jersey Line War). In 1667, territories between the Byram River and Connecticut River were split off to become the western half of Connecticut.


title: Province of New York

text: The first governor Richard Nicolls was known for writing "The Duke's Laws" which served as the first compilation of English laws in colonial New York. Nicholls returned to England after an administration of three years, much of which was taken up in confirming the ancient Dutch land grants. Francis Lovelace was next appointed Governor and held the position from May 1667 until the return of the Dutch in July 1673. A Dutch fleet recaptured New York and held it until it was traded to the English by the Treaty of Westminster. A second grant was obtained by the Duke of York in July 1674 to perfect his title.


title: Province of New York

text: Upon conclusion of the peace in 1674, the Duke of York appointed Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of his territories in America. Governor Edmund Andros in 1674 said "permit all persons of what religion soever, quietly to inhabit within the precincts of your jurisdiction" Nonetheless, he made the Quakers of West Jersey pay toll on the Delaware, but they applied to England and were redressed. He was followed by Colonel Thomas Dongan in 1682. Dongan was empowered, on the advice of William Penn, to summon "...a general assembly of all the freeholders, by such persons they should choose to represent them to consult with you and said council what laws are fit and necessary to be made..."


title: Province of New York

text: A colonial Assembly was created in October 1683. New York was the last of the English colonies to have an assembly. The assembly passed the Province of New York constitution on October 30, the first of its kind in the colonies. This constitution gave New Yorkers more rights than any other group of colonists including the protection from taxation without representation. On November 1, 1683, the government was reorganized, and the state was divided into twelve counties, each of which was subdivided into towns. Ten of those counties still exist (see above), but two (Cornwall and Dukes) were in territory purchased by the Duke of York from the Earl of Stirling, and are no longer within the territory of the State of New York, having been transferred by treaty to Massachusetts. While the number of counties has been increased to 62, the pattern still remains that a town in New York State is a subdivision of a county, similar to New England.


title: Province of New York

text: An act of the assembly in 1683 naturalized all those of foreign nations then in the colony professing Christianity. To encourage immigration, it also provided that foreigners professing Christianity may, after their arrival, be naturalized if they took the oath of allegiance as required.


title: Province of New York

text: The British replaced the Dutch in their alliance with the Iroquois against New France, with an agreement called the Covenant Chain.


title: Province of New York

text: In 1664, after the Dutch ceded New Netherland to England, it became a proprietary colony under James, Duke of York. When James ascended the throne in February 1685 and became King James II, his personally owned colony became a royal province.


title: Province of New York

text: In May 1688 the province was made part of the Dominion of New England. However, in April 1689, when news arrived that King James had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution, Bostonians overthrew their government and imprisoned Dominion Governor Edmund Andros. The province of New York rebelled in May in what is known as Leisler's Rebellion. King William's War with France began during which the French attacked Schenectady. In July, New York participated in an abortive attack on Montreal and Quebec. A new governor Henry Sloughter arrived in March 1691. He had Jacob Leisler arrested, tried, and executed.


title: Province of New York

text: New York's charter was re-enacted in 1691 and was the constitution of the province until the creation of the State of New York.


title: Province of New York

text: The first newspaper to appear in New York was the "New-York Gazette", started November 8, 1725, by William Bradford. It was printed on a single sheet, published weekly.


title: Province of New York

text: During Queen Anne's War with France from 1702 to 1713, the province had little involvement with the military operations, but benefited from being a supplier to the British fleet. New York militia participated in two abortive attacks on Quebec in 1709 and 1711.


title: Province of New York

text: When the British took over, the great majority of Dutch families remained, with the exception of government officials and soldiers. However, new Dutch arrivals became very few. While the Netherlands was a small country, the Dutch Empire was quite large, meaning that emigrants leaving the mother country had a wide variety of choices under full Dutch control. The major Dutch cities were centers of high culture, but they sent few immigrants. Most Dutch arrivals to the New World in the 17th century had been farmers from villages who on arrival in New Netherland scattered into widely separated villages that had little cross contact with each other. Even inside a settlement, different Dutch groups had minimal interaction. With very few new arrivals, the result was an increasingly traditional system cut off from the forces for change. The folk maintained their popular culture, revolving around their language and their Calvinist religion. The Dutch brought along their own folklore, most famously "Sinterklaas" (which evolved into the modern day Santa Claus). They maintained their distinctive clothing and food preferences. They introduced some new foods to America, including beets, endive, spinach, parsley, and cookies. After the British takeover, the rich Dutch families in Albany and New York City emulated the English elite. They purchased English furniture, silverware, crystal, and jewelry. They were proud of the Dutch language, which was strongly reinforced through the church, but they were much slower than the Yankees in setting up schools for their children. They finally did set up Queens College (now Rutgers University) in New Jersey. They published no newspapers, and published no books and only a handful of religious tracts annually.


title: Province of New York

text: Nearly 2,800 Palatine German emigrants were transported to New York by Queen Anne's government in ten ships in 1710, the largest single group of immigrants before the Revolutionary War. By comparison, Manhattan then had only 6,000 people. Initially, the Germans were employed in the production of naval stores and tar along the Hudson River near Peekskill. In 1723 they were allowed to settle in the central Mohawk Valley west of Schenectady as a buffer against the Native Americans and the French. They also settled in areas such as Schoharie and Cherry Valley. Many became tenant farmers or squatters. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities.


title: Province of New York

text: The first slaves were introduced to the colonies by the Dutch, and thereafter by the British, largely bought from African tribal chiefs who exploited prisoners taken during the numerous tribal wars of that period. In the 1690s, New York was the largest importer of the colonies of slaves and a supply port for pirates. The black population became a major element in New York City, and on large upstate farms.


title: Province of New York

text: With its shipping and trades, New York had use for skilled Africans as artisans and domestic servants. Two notable slave revolts occurred in New York in 1712 and 1741.


title: Province of New York

text: The numbers of slaves imported to New York increased dramatically from the 1720s through 1740s. By the 17th century, they established the African burial ground in Lower Manhattan, which was used through 1812. It was discovered nearly two centuries later during excavation before the construction of the Ted Weiss Federal Building at 290 Broadway. Historians estimated 15,000–20,000 Africans and African Americans had been buried in the approximately 8 acres surrounding there. Because of the extraordinary find, the government commissioned a memorial at the site, where the National Park Service has an interpretive center. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and National Monument. Excavation and study of the remains has been described as the "most important historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States."


title: Province of New York

text: This province, as a British colony, fought against the French during King George's War. The assembly was determined to control expenditures for this war and only weak support was given. When the call came for New York to help raise an expeditionary force against Louisburg, the New York assembly refused to raise troops and only appropriated a token £3,000. The assembly was opposed to a significant war effort because it would interrupt trade with Quebec and would result in higher taxes. The French raid on Saratoga in 1745 destroyed that settlement, killing and capturing more than one hundred people. After this attack the assembly was more generous and raised 1,600 men and £40,000.


title: Province of New York

text: Upstate New York was the scene of fighting during the French and Indian War, with British and French forces contesting control of Lake Champlain in association with Native American allies. Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, and other agents in upstate New York brought about the participation of the Iroquois. The French and their Indian allies laid siege to Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George in 1757. The British forces surrendered to the French, but many prisoners were then massacred by the Indians. Some prisoners had smallpox, and when Indians took the scalps to their home villages, they spread a disease that killed large numbers. In the end the British won the war and took over all of Canada, thereby ending French-sponsored Indian attacks.


title: Province of New York

text: One of the largest impressment operations occurred in New York in the spring of 1757 when three thousand British troops cordoned off the city and impressed nearly eight hundred persons they found in taverns and other gathering places of sailors. New York was the centre for privateering. Forty New York ships were commissioned as privateers in 1756 and in the spring of 1757 it was estimated the value of French prizes brought into New York was two hundred thousand pounds. By 1759, the seas had been cleaned of French vessels and the privateers were diverted into trading with the enemy. The ending of the war caused a severe recession in New York.


title: Province of New York

text: Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, negotiated an end to Pontiac's Rebellion. He promoted the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix to protect the Indians from further English settlement in their lands. The treaty established a boundary line along the West Branch Delaware River and the Unadilla River, with Iroquois lands to the west and colonial lands to the east.


title: Province of New York

text: During the middle years of the 18th century, politics in New York revolved around the rivalry of two great families, the Livingstons and the De Lanceys. Both of these families had amassed considerable fortunes. New York City had an inordinate influence on New York province politics because several of the assembly members lived in New York City rather than in their district. In the 1752 election, De Lanceys' relatives and close friends controlled 12 of the 27 seats in the assembly. The De Lanceys lost control of the assembly in the election of 1761. Governor Cadwallader Colden tried to organize a popular party to oppose the great families, thus earning the hatred of the city elite of both parties. The Livingstons looked to the imperial ties as a means of controlling the influence of James De Lancey. The De Lanceys regarded imperial ties to be a tool for personal advantage.


title: Province of New York

text: Parliament passed the Stamp Act 1765 to raise money from the colonies. New York had previously passed its own stamp act from 1756 to 1760 to raise money for the French and Indian war. The extraordinary response to the Stamp Act can only be explained by the build-up of antagonisms on local issues. New York was experiencing a severe recession from the effects of the end of the French and Indian war. The colonies were experiencing the effects of a very tight monetary policy caused by the trade deficit with Britain, a fiscal crisis in Britain restricting credit, and the Currency Act, which prevented the issuing of paper currency to provide liquidity.


title: Province of New York

text: From the outset, New York led the protests in the colonies. Both New York political factions opposed the Stamp Act of 1765. In October, at what became Federal Hall in New York, representatives of several colonies met in the Stamp Act Congress to discuss their response. The New York assembly petitioned the British House of Commons on December 11, 1765, for the Americans' right of self taxation. In August, the intimidation and beating of stamp agents was widely reported. The New York stamp commissioner resigned his job.


title: Province of New York

text: The act went into effect on November 1. The day before, James De Lancey organized a meeting at Burns Tavern of New York merchants, where they agreed to boycott all British imports until the Stamp Act was repealed. A leading moderate group opposing the Stamp Act were the local Sons of Liberty headed by Isaac Sears, John Lamb and Alexander McDougall. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote of what was called the "General Terror of November 1–4":


title: Province of New York

text: Historian Fred Anderson contrasted the mob actions in New York with those in Boston. In Boston, after the initial unrest, local leaders such as the Loyal Nine (a precursor to the Sons of Liberty) were able to take control of the mob. In New York, however, the "mob was largely made up of seamen, most of whom lacked deep community ties and felt little need to submit to the authority of the city's shorebound radical leaders." The New York Sons of Liberty did not take control of the opposition until after November 1.


title: Province of New York

text: On November 1, the crowd destroyed a warehouse and the house of Thomas James, commander at Fort George. A few days later the stamps stored at Fort George were surrendered to the mob. Nash notes that, "whether the Sons of Liberty could control the mariners, lower artisans, and laborers remained in doubt," and "they came to fear the awful power of the assembled lower-class artisans and their maritime compatriots."


title: Province of New York

text: On January 7, 1766, the merchant ship "Polly" carrying stamps for Connecticut was boarded in New York Harbor and the stamps destroyed. Up to the end of 1765 the Stamp Act disturbances had largely been confined to New York City, but in January the Sons of Liberty also stopped the distribution of stamps in Albany.


title: Province of New York

text: In May 1766, when news arrived of the repeal of the Stamp Act the Sons of Liberty celebrated by the erection of a Liberty Pole. It became a rallying point for mass meetings and an emblem of the American cause. In June, two regiments of British regulars arrived in New York and were quartered in the upper barracks. These troops cut down the liberty pole on August 10. A second and third pole were erected and also cut down. A fourth pole was erected and encased in iron to prevent similar action.


title: Province of New York

text: In 1766, widespread tenant uprisings occurred in the countryside north of New York City centered on the Livingston estates. They marched on New York expecting the Sons of Liberty to support them. Instead, the Sons of Liberty blocked the roads and the leader of the tenants was convicted of treason.


title: Province of New York

text: In the last years of the French and Indian War London approved a policy of keeping twenty regiments in the colonies to police and defend the back country. The enabling legislation took the form of the Quartering Act which required colonial legislatures to provide quarters and supplies for the troops. The Quartering Act stirred little controversy and New Yorkers were ambivalent about the presence of the troops. The assembly had provided barracks and provisions every year since 1761. The tenant riots of 1766 showed the need for a police force in the colony. The Livingston-controlled New York assembly passed a quartering bill in 1766 to provide barracks and provisions in New York City and Albany which satisfied most, but not all of the requirements of the Quartering Act. London suspended the assembly for failure to comply fully, and Governor Moore dissolved the House of Assembly, February 6, 1768. The next month New Yorkers went to the polls for a new assembly. In this election, with the Sons of Liberty support, the De Lancey faction gained seats, but not enough for a majority.


title: Province of New York

text: In 1768, a letter issued by the Massachusetts assembly called for the universal boycott of British imports in opposition to the Townshend Acts. In October, the merchants of New York agreed on the condition that the merchants of Boston and Philadelphia also agreed. In December, the assembly passed a resolution which stated the colonies were entitled to self-taxation. Governor Moore declared the resolution repugnant to the laws of England and dissolved the assembly. The De Lancey faction, again with Sons of Liberty support, won a majority in the assembly.


title: Province of New York

text: In the spring of 1769, New York was in a depression from the recall of paper boycott and the British boycott. By the Currency Act New York was required to recall all paper money. London allowed the issuance of additional paper money, but the attached conditions were unsatisfactory. While New York was boycotting British imports, other colonies including Boston and Philadelphia were not. The De Lanceys tried to reach a compromise by passing a bill which allowed for the issuing of paper currency, of which half was for provisioning of the troops. Alexander McDougall, signed a 'Son of Liberty', issued a broadside entitled "To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York" which was an excellent piece of political propaganda denouncing the De Lanceys for betraying the liberties of the people by acknowledging the British power of taxation. The Sons of Liberty switched their allegiance from the De Lanceys to the Livingstons. Alexander McDougall was arrested for libel.


title: Province of New York

text: Conflict between the Sons of Liberty and the troops in New York erupted with the Battle of Golden Hill on January 19, 1770, where troops cut down the fourth Liberty Pole which had been erected in 1767.


title: Province of New York

text: In July 1770, the merchants of New York decided to resume trade with Britain when news arrived of Parliament's plan to repeal the Townshend Duties and to give permission for New York to issue some paper currency. The Sons of Liberty were strongly opposed to the resumption of trade. The merchants twice polled their members and went door to door polling residents of New York and all polls were overwhelming in support of resumption of trade. This was perhaps the first public opinion poll in American history.


title: Province of New York

text: New York was peaceful after the repeal of the Townshend Act, but the economy of New York was still in a slump. In May 1773 the Parliament passed the Tea Act cutting the duty on tea and enabling the East India company to sell tea in the colonies cheaper than the smugglers could. This act primarily hurt the New York merchants and smugglers. The Sons of Liberty were the organizers of the opposition and in November 1773 they published "Association of the Sons of Liberty of New York" in which anyone who assisted in support of the act would be an "enemy to the liberties of America". As a result, the New York East India agents resigned. The New York assembly took no action in regard to the Sons of Liberty assumption of extra-legal powers.


title: Province of New York

text: The New York City Sons of Liberty learned of Boston's plan to stop the unloading of any tea and resolved to also follow this policy. Since the "Association" had not obtained the support they had expected, the Sons of Liberty were afraid that if the tea was landed the population would demand its distribution for retail.


title: Province of New York

text: In December, news arrived of the Boston Tea Party strengthened opposition. In April 1774, The boat "Nancy" arrived in New York harbor for repairs. The captain admitted that he had 18 chests of tea on board and he agreed that he would not attempt to have the tea landed, but the Sons of Liberty boarded the ship regardless and destroyed the tea.


title: Province of New York

text: In January 1774, the Assembly created a Committee of Correspondence to correspond with other colonies in regard to the Intolerable Acts.


title: Province of New York

text: In May 1774 news arrived of the Boston Port Act which closed the port of Boston. The Sons of Liberty were in favor of resumption of a trade boycott with Britain, but there was strong resistance from the large importers. In May, a meeting in New York was called in which members were selected for a Committee of Correspondence. The Committee of Fifty was formed which was dominated with moderates, the Sons of Liberty only obtained 15 members. Isaac Low was the chairman. Francis Lewis was added to create the Committee of Fifty-One. The group adopted a resolution which said Boston was "suffering in the defence of the rights of America" and proposed the formation of a Continental Congress. In July, the committee select five of their members as delegates to this congress. Some of the other counties also sent delegates to the First Continental Congress which was held in September. The New York delegates were unable to stop the adoption at the congress of the Continental Association. The association was generally ignored in New York.


title: Province of New York

text: In January and February 1775, of the New York Assembly voted down successive resolutions approving the proceedings of the First Continental Congress and refused to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. New York was the only colonial assembly which did not approve the proceeds of the First Continental Congress. Opposition to the Congress revolved around the opinion that the provincial houses of assembly were the proper agencies to solicit redress for grievances. In March, the Assembly broke with the rest of the colonies and wrote a petition to London, but London rejected the petition because it contained claims about a lack of authority of the "parent state" to tax colonists, "which made it impossible" to accept. The Assembly last met on April 3, 1775.


title: Province of New York

text: In April 1775, the rebels formed the New York Provincial Congress as a replacement for the New York Assembly. News of the battle of Lexington and Concord reached New York on April 23, which stunned the city since there was a widely believed rumor that Parliament was to grant the colonies self-taxation. The Sons of Liberty led by Marinus Willett broke into the Arsenal at City Hall and removed 1,000 stand of arms. The armed citizens formed a voluntary corps to govern the city with Isaac Sears's house the de facto seat of government and militia headquarters. The crown-appointed New York executive council met on April 24 and concluded that "we were unanimously of the opinion that we had no power to do anything." The British troops in New York never left their barracks.


title: Province of New York

text: On October 19, 1775, Governor William Tryon was forced to leave New York for a British warship offshore, ending any appearances of British rule of the colony as the Continental Congress ordered the arrest of anyone endangering the safety of the colony. In April 1776 Tryon officially dissolved the New York assembly.


title: Province of New York

text: New York was located in the Northern theatre of the American Revolutionary War. New York served as the launching point for the failed Invasion of Canada in 1775, the first major military operation of the newly formed Continental Army. General George Washington took the Continental Army from Boston after the British withdrew following the Fortification of Dorchester Heights, and brought it to New York in 1776, correctly anticipating the British would return there. The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a turning point in the war. West Point on the Hudson was a strategic asset. And New York played a central role for the British in their attempt to divide New England from the rest of the colonies.


title: Province of New York

text: The Fourth Provincial Congress convened in White Plains on July 9, 1776, and became known as the "New York First Constitutional Convention". New York endorsed the Declaration of Independence the same day, and declared the independent state of New York. New York celebrated by tearing down the statue of George III in Bowling Green. On July 10, 1776, the Fourth Provincial Congress changed its name to the "Convention of Representatives of the State of New York", and "acts as legislature without an executive." While adjourned it left a Committee of Safety in charge. The New York state constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains on July 10, 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of venue, it concluded in Kingston, New York on Sunday evening, April 20, 1777, when the new constitution was adopted with one dissenting vote. It had been drafted by John Jay and was not submitted to the people for ratification. Under its provisions, the governor would be elected not appointed, voting restrictions were reduced, secret ballots were introduced, and civil rights were guaranteed. On July 30, 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston. On July 9, 1778, the State of New York signed the Articles of Confederation and officially became a part of the government of the United States of America, though it had been a part of the nation since it was declared in 1776 with signatories from New York.


title: Province of New York

text: The province was the scene of the largest battle of the entire war, and the first after the Declaration of Independence was signed. The British recaptured the city in September 1776 in the New York and New Jersey campaign, cut down the Liberty Pole in the common, and placed the province under martial law under the command of James Robertson, though his effective authority did not extend far beyond the southern tip of Manhattan (then the extent of New York City). Tryon retained his title of governor, but with little power. David Mathews was Mayor for the duration of British occupation of New York until Evacuation Day in 1783. After its reoccupation, New York became the headquarters for the British army in America, and the British political center of operations in North America. Loyalist refugees flooded into the city raising its population to 33,000. Prison ships in Wallabout Bay held a large proportion of American soldiers and sailors being held prisoner by the British, and was where more Americans died than in all of the battles of the war, combined. The British retained control of New York until Evacuation Day in November 1783, which was commemorated long afterward.


title: Province of New York

text: The governor of New York was royally appointed. The governor selected his Executive Council which served as the upper house. The governor and king had veto power over the assembly's bills. However, all bills were effective until royal disapproval had occurred which could take up to a year. During King George's War, the governor approved two assembly initiatives; that the colony's revenue be approved annually rather than every five years and that the assembly must approve the purpose of each allocation. Elections to the house of assembly were initially held whenever the governor pleased, but eventually a law was passed requiring an election at least once every seven years. The city of New York was the seat of government and where the New York provincial assembly met.


title: Province of New York

text: Between 1692 and 1694 the governor of New York was also the governor of Pennsylvania. From 1698 to 1701 the governor was also the governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. From 1702 to 1738 he was also the governor of New Jersey.


title: Province of New York

text: Representation in the assembly in 1683 was six for Long Island, four for New York City, two for Kingston, two for Albany, one for each of Staten Island, Schenectady, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket and one for Pemequid on the Maine coast. In 1737, the assembly was expanded to 27 and in 1773 to 31.


title: Province of New York

text: Voters were required to have a £40 freehold, in addition to requirements related to age, sex, and religion. The £40 freehold requirement was often ignored. Jews were not allowed to vote between 1737 and 1747. In rural counties slightly more than half the males could vote. No secret ballot safeguarded the independence of the voters. The elections were held at the county town, under the supervision of the sheriff and sometimes at such short notice that many of the voting population could not get to the polls. The candidates were usually at the polls and the vote was taken by a show of hands unless this vote did not result in a clear winner.


title: Province of New York

text: The election for an open seat in the New York assembly, held on the Village Green in Eastchester, Westchester County on October 29, 1733, is one of the better known political events in colonial America. Two hundred and seventy-five years after the contest, historians continue to cite the election to advance various arguments about colonial life. One recent student used the election to argue for the persistent importance of monarchy in the outlook of colonists, while another scholar treated the voting as an important point in the development of political awareness among New York artisans. Many writers address the election, held at what is today St. Paul's Church National Historic Site, in Mt. Vernon, as part of the story of the printer John Peter Zenger, whose acquittal in a seditious libel case in 1735 is seen as a foundation of the free press in America. The first issue of Zenger's "New York Weekly Journal" carried a lengthy report on the famous election, producing one of the few complete accounts of a colonial election available to historians."


title: Province of New York

text: The British governors were upper class aristocrats not trained in the law, and felt unduly constrained by the legalistic demands of the Americans. In the period from the 1680s to about 1715 numerous efforts were made to strengthen Royal control and diminish legal constraints on the power of the governors. Colonial lawyers fought back successfully. An important technique that developed especially in Boston, Philadelphia and New York in the 1720s and 1730s was to mobilize public opinion by using the new availability of weekly newspapers and print shops that produced inexpensive pamphlets. The lawyers used the publicity medium to disseminate ideas about American legal rights as Englishmen. By the 1750s and 1760s, however, there was a counterattack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers. Their image and influence declined.


title: Province of New York

text: The lawyers of colonial New York organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, in New York state to build an effective organization of lawyers. The American Revolution saw the departure of many leading lawyers who were Loyalists; their clientele was often tied to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada after losing the war. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.


title: Province of New York

text: The Supreme Court of Judicature of the Province of New York was established by the New York Assembly on 6 May 1691. Jurisdiction was based on the English Courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer but excluded cases of equity which were dealt with by the Court of Chancery. The Supreme Court continued in being under the Constitution of 1777, becoming the New York Supreme Court under the 1846 Constitution.


title: Province of New York

text: Upstate New York (as well as parts of present Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania and Ohio) were occupied by the Five Nations (after 1720 becoming Six Nations, when joined by Tuscarora) of the Iroquois Confederacy for at least a half millennium before the Europeans came.


title: Province of New York

text: The fur trade established under Dutch rule continued to grow. As the merchant port of New York became more important, the economy expanded and diversified, and the agricultural areas of Long Island and the regions further up the Hudson River developed. Fishermen also made a decent living because New York was next to the ocean, making it a port/fishing state. Inland, farming crops made farmers a lot of money in the colony. Tradesmen made a fortune selling their wares.


title: Euler characteristic

text: In mathematics, and more specifically in algebraic topology and polyhedral combinatorics, the Euler characteristic (or Euler number, or Euler–Poincaré characteristic) is a topological invariant, a number that describes a topological space's shape or structure regardless of the way it is bent. It is commonly denoted by formula_1 (Greek lower-case letter chi).


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic was originally defined for polyhedra and used to prove various theorems about them, including the classification of the Platonic solids. It was stated for Platonic solids in 1537 in an unpublished manuscript by Francesco Maurolico. Leonhard Euler, for whom the concept is named, introduced it for convex polyhedra more generally but failed to rigorously prove that it is an invariant. In modern mathematics, the Euler characteristic arises from homology and, more abstractly, homological algebra.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic formula_2 was classically defined for the surfaces of polyhedra, according to the formula


title: Euler characteristic

text: where "V", "E", and "F" are respectively the numbers of vertices (corners), edges and faces in the given polyhedron. Any convex polyhedron's surface has Euler characteristic


title: Euler characteristic

text: This equation, stated by Leonhard Euler in 1758, is known as Euler's polyhedron formula. It corresponds to the Euler characteristic of the sphere (i.e. χ = 2), and applies identically to spherical polyhedra. An illustration of the formula on all Platonic polyhedra is given below.


title: Euler characteristic

text: For regular polyhedra, Arthur Cayley derived a modified form of Euler's formula using the density "D", vertex figure density "d", and face density formula_5:


title: Euler characteristic

text: This version holds both for convex polyhedra (where the densities are all 1) and the non-convex Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Projective polyhedra all have Euler characteristic 1, like the real projective plane, while the surfaces of toroidal polyhedra all have Euler characteristic 0, like the torus.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic can be defined for connected plane graphs by the same formula_7 formula as for polyhedral surfaces, where "F" is the number of faces in the graph, including the exterior face.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic of any plane connected graph G is 2. This is easily proved by induction on the number of faces determined by G, starting with a tree as the base case. For trees, formula_8 and formula_9. If G has C components (disconnected graphs), the same argument by induction on F shows that formula_10. One of the few graph theory papers of Cauchy also proves this result.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Via stereographic projection the plane maps to the 2-sphere, such that a connected graph maps to a polygonal decomposition of the sphere, which has Euler characteristic 2. This viewpoint is implicit in Cauchy's proof of Euler's formula given below.


title: Euler characteristic

text: There are many proofs of Euler's formula. One was given by Cauchy in 1811, as follows. It applies to any convex polyhedron, and more generally to any polyhedron whose boundary is topologically equivalent to a sphere and whose faces are topologically equivalent to disks.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Remove one face of the polyhedral surface. By pulling the edges of the missing face away from each other, deform all the rest into a planar graph of points and curves, in such a way that the perimeter of the missing face is placed externally, surrounding the graph obtained, as illustrated by the first of the three graphs for the special case of the cube. (The assumption that the polyhedral surface is homeomorphic to the sphere at the beginning is what makes this possible.) After this deformation, the regular faces are generally not regular anymore. The number of vertices and edges has remained the same, but the number of faces has been reduced by 1. Therefore, proving Euler's formula for the polyhedron reduces to proving "V" − "E" + "F" =1 for this deformed, planar object.


title: Euler characteristic

text: If there is a face with more than three sides, draw a diagonal—that is, a curve through the face connecting two vertices that are not yet connected. This adds one edge and one face and does not change the number of vertices, so it does not change the quantity "V" − "E" + "F". (The assumption that all faces are disks is needed here, to show via the Jordan curve theorem that this operation increases the number of faces by one.) Continue adding edges in this manner until all of the faces are triangular.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Apply repeatedly either of the following two transformations, maintaining the invariant that the exterior boundary is always a simple cycle:


title: Euler characteristic

text: These transformations eventually reduce the planar graph to a single triangle. (Without the simple-cycle invariant, removing a triangle might disconnect the remaining triangles, invalidating the rest of the argument. A valid removal order is an elementary example of a shelling.)


title: Euler characteristic

text: At this point the lone triangle has "V" = 3, "E" = 3, and "F" = 1, so that "V" − "E" + "F" = 1. Since each of the two above transformation steps preserved this quantity, we have shown "V" − "E" + "F" = 1 for the deformed, planar object thus demonstrating "V" − "E" + "F" = 2 for the polyhedron. This proves the theorem.


title: Euler characteristic

text: For additional proofs, see "Twenty-one Proofs of Euler's Formula" by David Eppstein. Multiple proofs, including their flaws and limitations, are used as examples in "Proofs and Refutations" by Imre Lakatos.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The polyhedral surfaces discussed above are, in modern language, two-dimensional finite CW-complexes. (When only triangular faces are used, they are two-dimensional finite simplicial complexes.) In general, for any finite CW-complex, the Euler characteristic can be defined as the alternating sum


title: Euler characteristic

text: More generally still, for any topological space, we can define the "n"th Betti number "b" as the rank of the "n"-th singular homology group. The Euler characteristic can then be defined as the alternating sum


title: Euler characteristic

text: This quantity is well-defined if the Betti numbers are all finite and if they are zero beyond a certain index "n". For simplicial complexes, this is not the same definition as in the previous paragraph but a homology computation shows that the two definitions will give the same value for formula_2.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic behaves well with respect to many basic operations on topological spaces, as follows.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Homology is a topological invariant, and moreover a homotopy invariant: Two topological spaces that are homotopy equivalent have isomorphic homology groups. It follows that the Euler characteristic is also a homotopy invariant.


title: Euler characteristic

text: For example, any contractible space (that is, one homotopy equivalent to a point) has trivial homology, meaning that the 0th Betti number is 1 and the others 0. Therefore, its Euler characteristic is 1. This case includes Euclidean space formula_15 of any dimension, as well as the solid unit ball in any Euclidean space — the one-dimensional interval, the two-dimensional disk, the three-dimensional ball, etc.


title: Euler characteristic

text: For another example, any convex polyhedron is homeomorphic to the three-dimensional ball, so its surface is homeomorphic (hence homotopy equivalent) to the two-dimensional sphere, which has Euler characteristic 2. This explains why convex polyhedra have Euler characteristic 2.


title: Euler characteristic

text: If "M" and "N" are any two topological spaces, then the Euler characteristic of their disjoint union is the sum of their Euler characteristics, since homology is additive under disjoint union:


title: Euler characteristic

text: More generally, if "M" and "N" are subspaces of a larger space "X", then so are their union and intersection. In some cases, the Euler characteristic obeys a version of the inclusion–exclusion principle:


title: Euler characteristic

text: In general, the inclusion–exclusion principle is false. A counterexample is given by taking "X" to be the real line, "M" a subset consisting of one point and "N" the complement of "M".


title: Euler characteristic

text: These addition and multiplication properties are also enjoyed by cardinality of sets. In this way, the Euler characteristic can be viewed as a generalisation of cardinality; see .


title: Euler characteristic

text: More generally, for a ramified covering space, the Euler characteristic of the cover can be computed from the above, with a correction factor for the ramification points, which yields the Riemann–Hurwitz formula.


title: Euler characteristic

text: If formula_24 is a fibration with fiber "F," with the base "B" path-connected, and the fibration is orientable over a field "K," then the Euler characteristic with coefficients in the field "K" satisfies the product property:


title: Euler characteristic

text: For fiber bundles, this can also be understood in terms of a transfer map formula_26 – note that this is a lifting and goes "the wrong way" – whose composition with the projection map formula_27 is multiplication by the Euler class of the fiber:


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic can be calculated easily for general surfaces by finding a polygonization of the surface (that is, a description as a CW-complex) and using the above definitions.


title: Euler characteristic

text: It is common to construct soccer balls by stitching together pentagonal and hexagonal pieces, with three pieces meeting at each vertex (see for example the Adidas Telstar). If "P" pentagons and "H" hexagons are used, then there are "F" = "P" + "H" faces, "V" = (5 "P" + 6 "H") / 3 vertices, and "E" = (5 "P" + 6 "H") / 2 edges. The Euler characteristic is thus


title: Euler characteristic

text: Because the sphere has Euler characteristic 2, it follows that "P" = 12. That is, a soccer ball constructed in this way always has 12 pentagons. In principle, the number of hexagons is unconstrained. This result is applicable to fullerenes and Goldberg polyhedra.


title: Euler characteristic

text: hence has Betti number 1 in dimensions 0 and "n", and all other Betti numbers are 0. Its Euler characteristic is then 1 + (−1) — that is, either 0 or 2.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The "n"-dimensional real projective space is the quotient of the "n"-sphere by the antipodal map. It follows that its Euler characteristic is exactly half that of the corresponding sphere — either 0 or 1.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The "n"-dimensional torus is the product space of "n" circles. Its Euler characteristic is 0, by the product property. More generally, any compact parallelizable manifold, including any compact Lie group, has Euler characteristic 0.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic of any closed odd-dimensional manifold is also 0. The case for orientable examples is a corollary of Poincaré duality. This property applies more generally to any compact stratified space all of whose strata have odd dimension. It also applies to closed odd-dimensional non-orientable manifolds, via the two-to-one orientable double cover.


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic of a closed orientable surface can be calculated from its genus "g" (the number of tori in a connected sum decomposition of the surface; intuitively, the number of "handles") as


title: Euler characteristic

text: The Euler characteristic of a closed non-orientable surface can be calculated from its non-orientable genus "k" (the number of real projective planes in a connected sum decomposition of the surface) as


title: Euler characteristic

text: For closed smooth manifolds, the Euler characteristic coincides with the Euler number, i.e., the Euler class of its tangent bundle evaluated on the fundamental class of a manifold. The Euler class, in turn, relates to all other characteristic classes of vector bundles.


title: Euler characteristic

text: For closed Riemannian manifolds, the Euler characteristic can also be found by integrating the curvature; see the Gauss–Bonnet theorem for the two-dimensional case and the generalized Gauss–Bonnet theorem for the general case.


title: Euler characteristic

text: A discrete analog of the Gauss–Bonnet theorem is Descartes' theorem that the "total defect" of a polyhedron, measured in full circles, is the Euler characteristic of the polyhedron; see defect (geometry).


title: Euler characteristic

text: Hadwiger's theorem characterizes the Euler characteristic as the "unique" (up to scalar multiplication) translation-invariant, finitely additive, not-necessarily-nonnegative set function defined on finite unions of compact convex sets in R that is "homogeneous of degree 0".


title: Euler characteristic

text: For every combinatorial cell complex, one defines the Euler characteristic as the number of 0-cells, minus the number of 1-cells, plus the number of 2-cells, etc., if this alternating sum is finite. In particular, the Euler characteristic of a finite set is simply its cardinality, and the Euler characteristic of a graph is the number of vertices minus the number of edges.


title: Euler characteristic

text: More generally, one can define the Euler characteristic of any chain complex to be the alternating sum of the ranks of the homology groups of the chain complex, assuming that all these ranks are finite.


title: Euler characteristic

text: A version of Euler characteristic used in algebraic geometry is as follows. For any coherent sheaf formula_33 on a proper scheme "X", one defines its Euler characteristic to be


title: Euler characteristic

text: where formula_35 is the dimension of the "i"-th sheaf cohomology group of formula_33. In this case, the dimensions are all finite by Grothendieck's finiteness theorem. This is an instance of the Euler characteristic of a chain complex, where the chain complex is a finite resolution of formula_33 by acyclic sheaves.


title: Euler characteristic

text: Another generalization of the concept of Euler characteristic on manifolds comes from orbifolds (see Euler characteristic of an orbifold). While every manifold has an integer Euler characteristic, an orbifold can have a fractional Euler characteristic. For example, the teardrop orbifold has Euler characteristic 1 + 1/"p", where "p" is a prime number corresponding to the cone angle 2"" / "p".


title: Euler characteristic

text: The concept of Euler characteristic of the reduced homology of a bounded finite poset is another generalization, important in combinatorics. A poset is "bounded" if it has smallest and largest elements; call them 0 and 1. The Euler characteristic of such a poset is defined as the integer "μ"(0,1), where "μ" is the Möbius function in that poset's incidence algebra.


title: Euler characteristic

text: This can be further generalized by defining a Q-valued Euler characteristic for certain finite categories, a notion compatible with the Euler characteristics of graphs, orbifolds and posets mentioned above. In this setting, the Euler characteristic of a finite group or monoid "G" is 1/|"G"|, and the Euler characteristic of a finite groupoid is the sum of 1/|"G"|, where we picked one representative group "G" for each connected component of the groupoid.


title: Hattusa

text: Hattusa (also Ḫattuša or Hattusas ; Hittite: "Ḫa-at-tu-ša",Turkish: Hattuşaş ,Hattic: Hattush) was the capital of the Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey, within the great loop of the Kızılırmak River (Hittite: "Marashantiya"; Greek: "Halys").


title: Hattusa

text: The landscape surrounding the city included rich agricultural fields and hill lands for pasture as well as woods. Smaller woods are still found outside the city, but in ancient times, they were far more widespread. This meant the inhabitants had an excellent supply of timber when building their houses and other structures. The fields provided the people with a subsistence crop of wheat, barley and lentils. Flax was also harvested, but their primary source for clothing was sheep wool. They also hunted deer in the forest, but this was probably only a luxury reserved for the nobility. Domestic animals provided meat.


title: Hattusa

text: There were several other settlements in the vicinity, such as the rock shrine at Yazılıkaya and the town at Alacahöyük. Since the rivers in the area are unsuitable for major ships, all transport to and from Hattusa had to go by land.


title: Hattusa

text: Before 2000 BC, the apparently indigenous Hattian people established a settlement on sites that had been occupied even earlier and referred to the site as Hattush. The Hattians built their initial settlement on the high ridge of Büyükkale. The earliest traces of settlement on the site are from the sixth millennium BC. In the 19th and 18th centuries BC, merchants from Assur in Assyria established a trading post there, setting up in their own separate quarter of the city. The center of their trade network was located in Kanesh (Neša) (modern Kültepe). Business dealings required record-keeping: the trade network from Assur introduced writing to Hattusa, in the form of cuneiform.


title: Hattusa

text: A carbonized layer apparent in excavations attests to the burning and ruin of the city of Hattusa around 1700 BC. The responsible party appears to have been King Anitta from Kussara, who took credit for the act and erected an inscribed curse for good measure:


title: Hattusa

text: Only a generation later, a Hittite-speaking king chose the site as his residence and capital. The Hittite language had been gaining speakers at the expense of Hattic for some time. The Hattic "Hattush" now became the Hittite "Hattusa", and the king took the name of Hattusili, the "one from Hattusa". Hattusili marked the beginning of a non-Hattic-speaking "Hittite" state and of a royal line of Hittite Great Kings, 27 of whom are now known by name.


title: Hattusa

text: After the Kaskians arrived to the kingdom's north, they twice attacked the city to the point where the kings had to move the royal seat to another city. Under Tudhaliya I, the Hittites moved north to Sapinuwa, returning later. Under Muwatalli II, they moved south to Tarhuntassa but assigned Hattusili III as governor over Hattusa. Mursili III returned the seat to Hattusa, where the kings remained until the end of the Hittite kingdom in the 12th century BC.


title: Hattusa

text: At its peak, the city covered 1.8 km² and comprised an inner and outer portion, both surrounded by a massive and still visible course of walls erected during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (circa 1344–1322 BC (short chronology)). The inner city covered an area of some 0.8 km² and was occupied by a citadel with large administrative buildings and temples. The royal residence, or acropolis, was built on a high ridge now known as Büyükkale (Great Fortress). The city displayed over 6 km of walls, with inner and outer skins around 3 m of thick and 2 m of space between them, adding 8 m of the total thickness.


title: Hattusa

text: To the south lay an outer city of about 1 km, with elaborate gateways decorated with reliefs showing warriors, lions, and sphinxes. Four temples were located here, each set around a porticoed courtyard, together with secular buildings and residential structures. Outside the walls are cemeteries, most of which contain cremation burials. Modern estimates put the population of the city between 40,000 and 50,000 at the peak; in the early period, the inner city housed a third of that number. The dwelling houses that were built with timber and mud bricks have vanished from the site, leaving only the stone-built walls of temples and palaces.


title: Hattusa

text: The city was destroyed, together with the Hittite state itself, around 1200 BC, as part of the Bronze Age collapse. Excavations suggest that Hattusa was gradually abandoned over a period of several decades as the Hittite empire disintegrated. The site was subsequently abandoned until 800 BC, when a modest Phrygian settlement appeared in the area.


title: Hattusa

text: In 1833, the French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–1871) was sent on an exploratory mission to Turkey, where in 1834 he discovered ruins of the ancient Hittite capital of Hattusa. Ernest Chantre opened some trial trenches at the village then called Boğazköy, in 1893–94. Since 1906, the German Oriental Society has been excavating at Hattusa (with breaks during the two World Wars and the Depression, 1913–31 and 1940–51). Archaeological work is still carried out by the German Archaeological Institute (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut). Hugo Winckler and Theodore Makridi Bey conducted the first excavations in 1906, 1907, and 1911–13, which were resumed in 1931 under Kurt Bittel, followed by Peter Neve (site director 1963, general director 1978–94).


title: Hattusa

text: One of the most important discoveries at the site has been the cuneiform royal archives of clay tablets, known as the Bogazköy Archive, consisting of official correspondence and contracts, as well as legal codes, procedures for cult ceremony, oracular prophecies and literature of the ancient Near East. One particularly important tablet, currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, details the terms of a peace settlement reached years after the Battle of Kadesh between the Hittites and the Egyptians under Ramesses II, in 1259 or 1258 BC. A copy is on display in the United Nations in New York City as an example of the earliest known international peace treaties.


title: Hattusa

text: Although the 30,000 or so clay tablets recovered from Hattusa form the main corpus of Hittite literature, archives have since appeared at other centers in Anatolia, such as Tabigga (Maşat Höyük) and Sapinuwa (Ortaköy). They are now divided between the archaeological museums of Ankara and Istanbul.


title: Hattusa

text: A pair of sphinxes found at the southern gate in Hattusa were taken for restoration to Germany in 1917. The better-preserved was returned to Turkey in 1924 and placed on display in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, but the other remained in Germany where it was on display at the Pergamon Museum from 1934, despite numerous requests for its return.


title: Hattusa

text: In 2011, threats by Turkish Ministry of Culture to impose restrictions on German archaeologists working in Turkey finally persuaded Germany to return the sphinx, and it was moved to the Boğazköy Museum outside the Hattusa ruins, along with the Istanbul sphinx – reuniting the pair near their original location.


title: English breakfast tea

text: English breakfast tea or simply breakfast tea is a traditional blend of black teas originating from Assam, Ceylon and Kenya. It is one of the most popular blended teas, common in British and Irish tea culture.


title: English breakfast tea

text: English breakfast tea is a black tea blend usually described as full-bodied, robust, rich and blended to go well with milk and sugar, in a style traditionally associated with a hearty English breakfast.


title: English breakfast tea

text: The black teas included in the blend vary, with Assam, Ceylon and Kenyan teas predominating, and Keemun sometimes included in more expensive blends.


title: English breakfast tea

text: Accounts of its origins vary. Drinking a blend of black teas for breakfast is a longstanding British and Irish custom. The term "breakfast tea" has been applied by vendors since at least the late 18th century.


title: English breakfast tea

text: The current naming practice is claimed to have originated not in England but America, as far back as Colonial times. An additional account (referencing a period-era Journal of Commerce article) dates the blend to 1843 and a tea merchant named Richard Davies in New York City. Davies, an English immigrant, started with a base of Congou and added a bit of Pekoe and Pouchong. It sold for 50 cents per pound () (equivalent to $ per pound in ), and its success led to imitators, helping to popularize the name. An investigation to find the original Journal of Commerce article failed to locate it but did come upon an earlier reference to the same story in an 1876 edition of the Daily Alta California, citing "a New York commercial journal" and dating the tea's origin to 1844. In an 1884 American publication it was noted that "Bohea teas (are) known to trade in this country as "English Breakfast" tea, from its forming the staple shipment to England".


title: English breakfast tea

text: In the UK, the popularisation of breakfast tea has been attributed in part to Queen Victoria. At Balmoral in 1892 she tasted and enjoyed a blend so-named and returned to London with a supply. Despite this particular tea's Scottish origin, the generic blend subsequently acquired the prefix "English".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: The Rugrats Movie is a 1998 American animated comedy film based on the Nickelodeon animated television series "Rugrats". It was directed by Igor Kovalyov and Norton Virgien and was written by David N. Weiss & J. David Stem. The film introduced Tommy Pickles' baby brother Dil Pickles, who appeared on the series the next year. The film features the voices of E. G. Daily, Tara Charendoff, Christine Cavanaugh, Kath Soucie, Cheryl Chase, Cree Summer, and Charlie Adler, along with guest stars David Spade, Whoopi Goldberg, Margaret Cho, Busta Rhymes, and Tim Curry. The events of the film take place between the series' fifth and sixth seasons, and is the first film to be based on a Nicktoon.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Plans for a "Rugrats" film adaptation, along with "Ren and Stimpy" and "Doug", began when Nickelodeon made a contract with 20th Century Fox to produce films between 1993 and 1995. However, the contract expired with no films into production. Around the same year when the contract expired, development of the film restarted with Paramount Pictures since Nickelodeon's parent company, Viacom, purchased the studio in 1994 and production had restarted on the television series after a small hiatus.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "The Rugrats Movie" was released by Paramount Pictures in the United States on November 20, 1998. The film received mixed reviews from critics and opened at #1 in the United States box-office. Grossing a total of $141 million worldwide, it became the first non-Disney animated film to gross over $100 million in the United States. The film is followed by two sequels: "" in 2000 and "Rugrats Go Wild" in 2003.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Didi Pickles is pregnant with her second baby, which makes her son Tommy worry how that will change the family dynamic. When the baby comes unexpectedly early, despite being told it will be a girl, Didi gives birth to a boy she and her husband Stu name Dil. When they bring him home, they find themselves struggling to cope with Dil's constant outbursts and Tommy finds his new brother hard to get along with. After Stu assures him one day they will be happy to have Dil in the family, Tommy accepts his newfound responsibility as an older brother.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: With Dil still causing problems at the Pickles' home, Phil and Lil suggest using the Reptar Wagon Stu has built for a toy contest in Japan to take him back to the hospital. As Tommy and Chuckie argue with Phil and Lil, Angelica walks in telling the babies to be quiet. In the process Dil snatches her Cynthia doll from her and she fights Dil to get her back, unaware that she failed to get Cynthia back she kicks the Reptar wagon which begins to drive away the babies on board. They speed recklessly through the streets and land in the back of a mattress van which after avoiding a collision later crashes in the woods, it's here they realize that they are lost. At first, Angelica shows no concern until she realizes the babies have her Cynthia doll, which prompts her to take the family dog, Spike, to find them and retrieve Cynthia.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Tommy leads the babies toward a ranger's cabin, believing it to be the home of a magic "lizard" (a mispronunciation of wizard) who can grant their wish to go home. Unbeknownst to them, they are being pursued by a lone wolf. On the way, they encounter monkeys who hijacked their circus' train and crashed it in the woods. When they kidnap Dil, Tommy's friends refuse to help rescue him, believing they are better off without him and Tommy sets off after his brother alone. Meanwhile, Stu discovers that the babies are missing and he plus Grandpa race to the airport believing that they were accidentally inside the crate when it was picked up to be flown to Japan, after Didi discovers that the babies are missing they set out to find them in the face of the media sensation that has suddenly generated around their children's disappearance.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Tommy eventually finds Dil during a storm, but as he tries to take care of him, Dil continues acting selfishly. Tommy finally snaps and prepares to give Dil back to the monkeys, but Tommy's rage scares Dil into ending his behavior. At the same time, Dil's remorseful tears cause Tommy to come to his senses and the brothers finally begin to bond. After the storm, they are found by Phil, Lil and Chuckie who stop the monkeys from trying to snatch Tommy and Dil. Angelica finally finds her Cynthia doll after one of the monkeys dropped it and then reunites with the babies. As they begin to cross a damaged bridge Angelica falls out of the Reptar wagon and hangs dangerously through the gap in the bridge above a raging river. They are then confronted by the wolf but Spike races over and saves the babies by fighting the wolf and drags it off the bridge through the hole into the river. They all become sad when it seems that Spike is gone.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Stu, looking for the babies in a pterodactyl-like glider, sees them from above and crash lands into the ranger's cabin. Believing he is the "lizard," the babies ask him to bring Spike back instead of going home. Stu falls through the bridge and reveals Spike, who survived the fall by landing in the struts of the bridge. The children are all reunited with their parents and return home, where they accept Dil as one of the group in the woods.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Talks about making "Rugrats" into a feature film existed since the beginning of the series. The first attempt was in 1993, when Nickelodeon made a two-year contract deal with 20th Century Fox to produce new material, but an unnamed Nickelodeon executive did not rule out the possibility to make films based on their existing properties, one of those that was proposed was "Rugrats", alongside "Doug" and "The Ren & Stimpy Show". However, in 1994, Nickelodeon's parent company Viacom acquired Paramount Pictures, and Paramount would distribute the films instead. As a result, the contract from Fox expired, with no films produced (although "Doug" would eventually get a theatrical film from Walt Disney Pictures in 1999). Production on "The Rugrats Movie" started a year later in 1995.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Two months before the release of the movie, an episode prequel titled "The Family Tree" was aired as the final episode of the fifth season. The film's beginning and ending parody Paramount and Lucasfilm's "Indiana Jones" film series. This later inspired the second segment of the episode "A Tale of Two Puppies / Okey-Dokey Jones and the Ring of the Sunbeams", that aired during the show's eighth season in 2002.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: This film was the first "Rugrats" production to use digital ink and paint, rather than the traditional cel animation used in the show.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Two songs were cut from the film during production. The first revolves around Stu and Didi in a nightmare sequence where Dr. Lipschitz criticizes their parenting through a song. The second depicts the Rugrats pushing the Reptar Wagon through the woods, debating what to do about Dil in an army chant style song. These two scenes were cut from the theatrical, VHS, DVD, and Laserdisc releases. However, these scenes are shown on CBS and Nickelodeon television airings of the film. These scenes were also present in the print novelization.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: The film was released in theaters with a "CatDog" short titled "Fetch". This short was later broadcast in "CatDog" Episode 21. However, the VHS, DVD, Laserdisc, and Blu-ray (through The Rugrats Trilogy Movie Collection) release contains a different "CatDog" short from Episode 28 titled "Winslow's Home Videos".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "The Rugrats Movie" was released on VHS and DVD on March 30, 1999 by Paramount Home Video. The film was also released on Laserdisc on the same day by Pioneer Entertainment. On March 15, 2011, the film was re-released in a three-disc trilogy DVD set alongside its sequels, in honor of "Rugrats"' 20th anniversary. In addition, it was re-released in some movie sets by Paramount, in 2016 with all the non-sequel Nickelodeon-animated movies up to "Barnyard", as well as a separate 2-disc set with "". The film was released on Blu-ray on March 8, 2022 in a trilogy set alongside its sequels.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "The Rugrats Movie: Music from the Motion Picture" was released by Interscope Records on November 3, 1998. The enhanced soundtrack contained thirteen tracks, bonus CD-ROM demos and commercials. Amazon.com's Richard Gehr praised the CD for "[bridging] demographics as nimbly as the [original] show itself [did]" and for songs "fans of all ages will love".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Browne noted that, while the soundtrack is enjoyable for children and does "[make] concessions" for parents, adults may dislike the amount of rap. Allmusic's William Ruhlmann reviewed the soundtrack positively, saying "the result" of the singers and songs "is a romp in keeping with the tone of the show and the film".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "The Rugrats Movie: Music from the Motion Picture" spent twenty six weeks on "Billboard" 200, peaking at #19.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: One song written for the film's soundtrack that was ultimately removed was "(Safe in This) Sky Life", a new track by English rock musician David Bowie; the song marked a reunion with longtime collaborator Tony Visconti, who would go on to produce all of Bowie's material from 2002 up until his death in 2016. The track would later be re-recorded as a B-side for Bowie's 2002 single "Everyone Says 'Hi'", under the shortened title of "Safe". The original 1998 recording remains unreleased and has never been circulated.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: In honor of its twentieth anniversary, the film's soundtrack was released on vinyl on November 30, 2018.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: A side-scrolling video game titled "The Rugrats Movie" was released for Game Boy and Game Boy Color in 1998 and 1999 respectively. It was developed by Software Creations and released by THQ. Broderbund also developed and published a video game based on the film: "The Rugrats Movie: Activity Challenge". It was released in September 1998, as part of the film's marketing campaign.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Several books were released by Simon & Schuster's Simon Spotlight branch and Nickelodeon inspired by "The Rugrats Movie". "Tommy's New Playmate" and "The Rugrats Versus the Monkeys" were also released on October 1, 1998, authored by Luke David and illustrated by John Kurtz and Sandrina Kurtz.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "The Rugrats Movie Storybook", released on the same date and using the same illustrators and publishers, was written by Sarah Wilson. The same date saw the release of "The Rugrats Movie: Hang On To Your Diapies, Babies, We're Going In!: Trivia from the Hit Movie!", a trivia book written by Kitty Richards.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: A novelization of the film written by Cathy East Dubowski was published on October 1, 1998, by Tandem Library. The following month, a 144-page guidebook, "The Making of The Rugrats Movie: Behind the Scenes at Klasky Csupo", was released on November 1, 1998, by MSG. In May 1999, Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation released a book titled "The Rugrats Movie".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: The film was released on November 20, 1998, and made $27.3 million in its opening weekend, from 2,782 theaters, averaging about $9,821 per venue and ranking number one that weekend, beating out "Enemy of the State". In total, "The Rugrats Movie" made $140.9 million; $100.5 million from the domestic market and $40.4 million from its foreign release.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: The film was released in the United Kingdom on March 26, 1999, and topped the country's box office for the next three weekends, before being dethroned by "The Faculty".


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "The Rugrats Movie" holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: "Charming characters; loads of fun for kids and adults." Metacritic gave the film 62% based on the 20 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Roger Ebert gave the film two stars out of four. Ebert wrote that the film's target audience was primarily younger children, and that, while he as an adult disliked it, he "might have" liked it if he were younger and would recommend it for children. "The New York Times"s Anita Gates reviewed "The Rugrats Movie" positively, calling it a "delight". Neil Jeffries of "Empire" gave the film three out of five stars, saying, "Fun for kids, but, despite some adult references, appeal for the over 10s is limited."


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" graded the film with a B. Schwarzbaum praised the movie for its appeal to both adult and child audiences, "juxtaposing the blithely self-absorbed parallel universes of small, diapered children and their large, Dockered parents". However, other "Entertainment Weekly" reviewer Ty Burr gave "The Rugrats Movie" a B−, criticizing that the film's issues sprung from it being "bigger" than the original series, thus it having more cultural references, out-of-place CGI scenes, and "[going] into scary territory". Burr did praise the "escaped circus monkeys" for being "scary in a good way", as well as a joke that was accessible to younger audiences.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: "Rugrats" co-creator and co-writer Paul Germain (who left the series in 1993, along with the other original writers) has stated that he disliked the film's story. Germain felt that the writers of the movie did not understand what the series was about, and thought that the scene in which Stu gives a watch to Tommy did not work as the adults were not supposed to recognize the babies' intelligence. In addition, he felt that by giving Tommy a baby brother, Tommy was no longer the baby, which changed the story of the series from what Germain intended it to be.


title: The Rugrats Movie

text: Two sequels have been released: "", which was released on November 17, 2000, and "Rugrats Go Wild", which was released on June 13, 2003.


title: Entrée

text: An entrée (, ; ) in modern French table service and that of much of the English-speaking world (apart from the United States and parts of Canada) is a dish served before the main course of a meal. Outside North America, it is generally synonymous with the terms "hors d'oeuvre", appetizer, or starter. It may be the first dish served, or it may follow a soup or other small dish or dishes. In the United States and parts of Canada, the term "entrée" refers to the main dish or the only dish of a meal.


title: Entrée

text: The word "entrée" as a culinary term first appears in print around 1536, in the "Petit traicté auquel verrez la maniere de faire cuisine", in a collection of menus at the end of the book. There, the first stage of each meal is called the "entree de table" (entrance to the table); the second stage consists of "potaiges" (foods boiled or simmered "in pots"); the third consists of one or more "services de rost" (meat or fowl "roasted" in dry heat); and the last is the "issue de table" (departure from the table). These four stages of the meal appear consistently in this order in all the books that derive from the "Petit traicté".


title: Entrée

text: The terms "entree de table" and "issue de table" are organizing words, "describing the structure of a meal rather than the food itself". The terms "potaiges" and "rost" indicate cooking methods but not ingredients. The menus, though, give some idea of both the ingredients and the cooking methods that were characteristic of each stage of the meal.


title: Entrée

text: Sausages, offal, and raw "watery" fruits (oranges, plums, peaches, apricots, and grapes) were apparently considered uniquely appropriate for starting the meal, as those foods appear only in the "entree de table". Other dishes considered appropriate for the entree stage may also appear in later stages of the meal, such as venison cooked in various ways (in the "entree", "potaiges", and "rost" services) and savory pies and sauced meats (in the "entree" and "rost" services). The distribution of dishes is very similar to that of the menus in the "Ménagier de Paris", written 150 years before the "Petit traicté".


title: Entrée

text: The stages of the meal underwent several significant changes between the mid-16th and mid-17th century. Notably, the entrée became the second stage of the meal and potage became the first. At this point, the term "entrée" had lost its literal meaning and had come to refer to a certain type of dish, unrelated to its place in the meal. The cookbooks and dictionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries rarely discuss directly the composition of the dishes for each stage of the meal, but they routinely designate recipes or include lists of dishes appropriate to each stage. Nevertheless, entrées and the dishes of the other stages of the meal can be distinguished from each other by certain characteristics, such as their ingredients, cooking methods, and serving temperatures. The distinct characteristics of the entrée were at first loosely observed, or perhaps more accurately, the "rules" were in a formative stage for several decades. By the early 18th century, though, certain ingredients and cooking methods were increasingly confined to the entrée stage of the meal.


title: Entrée

text: In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, entrées, on meat days, included most butchers’ meats (but not ham), suckling pig, fowl, furred and feathered game, and offal. Eggs, on meat days, were never served as entrées; they were served only as entremets. Vegetables often made up part of the sauce or garnish, but entrées were always meat dishes; vegetable dishes were served only as entremets.


title: Entrée

text: On lean days, fish replaced meat and fowl in every stage of the meal. Even on lean days, few entrées were composed only of vegetables. During Lent, though, vegetable entrées (""entrées en racines"", encompassing all vegetables, not just "roots") were sometimes served.


title: Entrée

text: Moist cooking methods were characteristic of the entrée stage of the meal, typical preparations being sautés, ragoûts, and fricassées. Meat or fowl (but not fish) might be roasted, but it was first wrapped in paper, or stuffed with a forcemeat, or barded with herbs or anchovies, or finished in a sauce, or prepared in some other way to keep the dish from browning and crisping like a true roast. Savory pies and pastries were baked in dry heat, but the enclosed meat cooked in its own steam and juices.


title: Entrée

text: In the mid-18th century, entrées were increasingly divided into new categories based on the content and preparation of the dish. "Hors d'œuvres", which, in the late 17th century, were served at several points during the meal, were considered a type of entrée in the 18th century, but by the 19th century, they had become a distinct stage of the meal. Large, whole joints of meat (usually beef or veal) and very large fowl (turkey and geese) were categorized as "grandes" or "grosses entrées". When roasted, those whole joints and fowl were called "spit-roasted entrées" ("entrées de broche"); they were always served with a sauce to distinguish them from true roasts. When boiled, a joint of beef was called the "le bouilli"; this was generally the first of the entrées consumed in the meal, after the potages and hors d’œuvres. In the late 18th century, the practice arose of removing the empty soup tureens and replacing them with additional "grosses entrées" or "entrées de broche"; these replacement dishes were commonly called "relevés"; they were last of the entrées consumed at the meal, though they often appear on menus right after the potages. Taken together, all these bulky dishes were called "substantial entrées" ("fortes entrées").


title: Entrée

text: The most numerous of the entrées at any meal were the "ordinary entrées" ("entrées ordinaires"), consumed between the bouilli and the relevés. In composition, they were distinguished from the "fortes entrées" by the relatively small size of their ingredients. Small fowl could be served whole; but large fowl and large joints of meat were cut into pieces or fillets. Despite the designation "ordinary", these entrées were much more elaborate and refined than "fortes entrées".


title: Entrée

text: In the 19th century, due at least in part to the collapse of the church's authority in France, rules governing meat and lean days were followed irregularly. In particular, fish was commonly served on meat days, providing even more variety to the meal. Fish came to be considered a classic relevé, and in some cases was served as a separate "fish course". After the 1820s, the bouilli was no longer routinely served at fine dinners. In addition, cold entrées became increasingly common over the course of the 19th century, a marked change from earlier practices.


title: Entrée

text: Following the widespread adoption of service à la russe in the 1860s, dishes were presented one after another rather than being placed on the table for guests to select what they wanted. In this new type of service, the ordinary entrées were often served "after" the relevés, particularly in France; in England, the ordinary entrées more commonly preceded the relevés, as they had in the 18th century. At this point, the two terms had completely lost their literal meanings. "Entrée" referred to those entrées served in slices, fillets, or small pieces; "relevé" referred to those entrées served as large joints, whole birds, or whole fish.


title: Entrée

text: Distinctions between the various types of entrées ("grosses", "grandes", "de broche", "relevé") had fallen out of use by the end of the 19th century. The entrée as a stage of a multi-course meal persisted in some circles after the Great War; but with the broad cultural transformations of the 20th century, the word lost its connection to its traditional meaning.


title: Entrée

text: In France, the modern meaning of "entrée" on a restaurant menu is the small course that precedes the main course in a three-course meal, i.e., the course which in British usage is often called the "starter" and in American usage the "appetizer". Thus a typical modern French three-course meal in a restaurant consists of "entrée" (first course or starter (UK); appetizer (U.S.)), followed by the ""plat"" or ""plat principal"" (the main course), and then dessert or cheese. This sequence is commonly found in "prix fixe" menus.


The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was a pluricontinental monarchy formed by the elevation of the Portuguese colony named State of Brazil to the status of a kingdom and by the simultaneous union of that Kingdom of Brazil with the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of the Algarves, constituting a single state consisting of three kingdoms.


The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed in 1815, following the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal, and it continued to exist for about one year after the return of the Court to Europe, being "de facto" dissolved in 1822, when Brazil proclaimed its independence. The dissolution of the United Kingdom was accepted by Portugal and formalized "de jure" in 1825, when Portugal recognized the independent Empire of Brazil.


During its period of existence the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves did not correspond to the whole of the Portuguese Empire: rather, the United Kingdom was the transatlantic metropolis that controlled the Portuguese colonial empire, with its overseas possessions in Africa and Asia.


title: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves

text: Thus, from the point of view of Brazil, the elevation to the rank of a kingdom and the creation of the United Kingdom represented a change in status, from that of a colony to that of an equal member of a political union. In the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, attempts to compromise the autonomy and even the unity of Brazil, led to the breakdown of the union.


text: The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves came into being in the wake of Portugal's war with Napoleonic France. The Portuguese Prince Regent (the future King John VI), with his incapacitated mother (Queen Maria I of Portugal) and the Royal Court, fled to the colony of Brazil in 1808.


text: With the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there were calls for the return of the Portuguese Monarch to Lisbon; the Portuguese Prince Regent enjoyed life in Rio de Janeiro, where the monarchy was at the time more popular and where he enjoyed more freedom, and he was thus unwilling to return to Europe. However, those advocating the return of the Court to Lisbon argued that Brazil was only a colony and that it was not right for Portugal to be governed from a colony. On the other hand, leading Brazilian courtiers pressed for the elevation of Brazil from the rank of a colony, so that they could enjoy the full status of being nationals of the mother-country. Brazilian nationalists also supported the move, because it indicated that Brazil would no longer be submissive to the interests of Portugal, but would be of equal status within a transatlantic monarchy.


text: By a law issued by the Prince Regent on 16 December 1815, the colony of Brazil was thus elevated to the rank of a Kingdom and by the same law the separate kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single State under the title of "The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves".


text: This united kingdom included the historical Kingdom of the Algarves, which is the present-day Portuguese region of Algarve.


text: The titles of the Portuguese royalty were changed to reflect the creation of this transatlantic united kingdom. The styles of the Queen and of the Prince Regent were changed accordingly to Queen and Prince Regent of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves." The title "Prince of Brazil", a title that used to pertain to the heir apparent of the Portuguese Crown, was dropped shortly afterwards, in 1817, being replaced by the title of "Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves", or Prince Royal for short. A new flag and coat of arms were also adopted for the new State.


text: On 20 March 1816 Queen Maria I died in Rio de Janeiro. Prince John, the Prince Regent, then became King John VI, the second monarch of the United Kingdom, retaining the numbering of Portuguese Sovereigns. After a period of mourning and several delays, the festivities of the acclamation of the new King were held in Rio de Janeiro on 6 February 1818.