title: History of penicillin

text: The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a speculation for several decades. Fleming himself suggested in 1945 that the fungal spores came through the window facing Praed Street. This story was regarded as a fact and was popularised in literature, starting with George Lacken's 1945 book "The Story of Penicillin". But it was later disputed by his co-workers including Pryce, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut all the time. Ronald Hare also agreed in 1970 that the window was most often locked because it was difficult to reach due to a large table with apparatuses placed in front of it. In 1966, La Touche told Hare that he had given Fleming 13 specimens of fungi (10 from his lab) and only one from his lab was showing penicillin-like antibacterial activity. It was from this point a consensus was made that Fleming's mould came from La Touche's lab, which was a floor below in the building, the spores being drifted in the air through the open doors.


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming's discovery was not regarded initially as an important discovery. Even as he showed his culture plates to his colleagues, all he received was an indifferent response. He described the discovery on 13 February 1929 before the Medical Research Club. His presentation titled "A medium for the isolation of Pfeiffer's bacillus" did not receive any particular attention.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1929, Fleming reported his findings to the "British Journal of Experimental Pathology" on 10 May 1929, and was published in the next month issue. It failed to attract any serious attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application and was more concerned on the application for bacterial isolation, as he concluded:


title: History of penicillin

text: In addition to its possible use in the treatment of bacterial infections penicillin is certainly useful to the bacteriologist for its power of inhibiting unwanted microbes in bacterial cultures so that penicillin insensitive bacteria can readily be isolated. A notable instance of this is the very easy, isolation of Pfeiffers bacillus of influenza when penicillin is used...It is suggested that it may be an efficient antiseptic for application to, or injection into, areas infected with penicillin-sensitive microbes.


title: History of penicillin

text: G. E. Breen, a fellow member of the Chelsea Arts Club, once asked Fleming, "I just wanted you to tell me whether you think it will ever be possible to make practical use of the stuff [penicillin]. For instance, could I use it?" Fleming gazed vacantly for a moment and then replied, "I don't know. It's too unstable. It will have to be purified, and I can't do that by myself." Even as late as in 1941, the "British Medical Journal" reported that "the main facts emerging from a very comprehensive study [of penicillin] in which a large team of workers is engaged... does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view."


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1939, Ernst Boris Chain, a German (later naturalised British) chemist, joined the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the University of Oxford to investigate on antibiotics. He was immediately impressed by Fleming's 1929 paper, and informed his supervisor, the Australian scientist Howard Florey (later Baron Florey), of the potential drug. By then Florey had acquired a research grant of $25,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation for studying antibiotics. He assembled a research team including Mary Ethel Florey, Edward Abraham, Arthur Duncan Gardner, Norman Heatley, Margaret Jennings, J. Orr-Ewing and G. Sanders in addition to Chain.


title: History of penicillin

text: The Oxford team prepared a concentrated extract of "P. rubens" as "a brown powder" that "has been obtained which is freely soluble in water". They found that the powder was not only effective "in vitro" against bacterial cultures but also and "in vivo" against bacterial infection in mice. On 5 May 1939, they injected a group of eight mice with a virulent strain of "S. aureus", and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. After one day, all the untreated mice died while the penicillin-treated mice survived. Chain remarked it as "a miracle." They published their findings in "The Lancet" in 1940.


title: History of penicillin

text: The team reported details of the isolation method in 1941 with a scheme for large-scale extraction. They also found that penicillin was most abundant as yellow concentrate from the mould extract. But they were able to produce only small quantities. By early 1942, they could prepare highly purified compound, and worked out the chemical formula as CHONBa. In mid-1942, Chain, Abraham and E. R. Holiday reported the production of the pure compound.


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming performed the first clinical trial with penicillin on Craddock. Craddock had developed severe infection of the nasal antrum (sinusitis) and had undergone surgery. Fleming made use of the surgical opening of the nasal passage and started injecting penicillin on 9 January 1929 but without any effect. It probably was due to the fact that the infection was with influenza bacillus ("Haemophilus influenzae"), the bacterium which he had found unsusceptible to penicillin. Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928. Although Wright reportedly said that it "seemed to work satisfactorily," there are no records of its specific use.


title: History of penicillin

text: Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield, was the first to successfully use penicillin for medical treatment. He was a former student of Fleming and when he learned of the discovery, asked the penicillin sample from Fleming. He initially attempted to treat sycosis (eruptions in beard follicles) with penicillin but was unsuccessful, probably because the drug did not penetrate deep enough. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in babies, he achieved the first cure on 25 November 1930, four patients (one adult, the others infants) with eye infections.


title: History of penicillin

text: Florey's team at Oxford showed that "Penicillium" extract killed different bacteria ("Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus," and "Clostridium septique") in culture and effectively cured "Streptococcus" infection in mice. They reported in the 24 August 1940 issue of "The Lancet" as "Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent" with a conclusion:


title: History of penicillin

text: The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active in vivo against at least three of the organisms inhibited in vitro. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution in vitro will be found to be dealt with in vivo. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with gas gangrene.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1941, the Oxford team treated a policeman, Albert Alexander, with a severe face infection; his condition improved, but then supplies of penicillin ran out and he died. Subsequently, several other patients were treated successfully. In December 1942, survivors of the Cocoanut Grove fire in Boston were the first burn patients to be successfully treated with penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: The most important clinical test was in August 1942 when Fleming cured Harry Lambert of an otherwise-fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal meningitis). Lambert was a work associate of Robert, Fleming's brother, who had requested Fleming for medical treatment. Fleming asked Florey for the purified penicillin sample, which Fleming immediately used to inject into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the very next day, and completely recovered within a week. Fleming reported his clinical trial in "The Lancet" in 1943. It was upon this medical evidence that the British War Cabinet set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943. The committee consisted of Cecil Weir, Director General of Equipment, as Chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir Percival Hartley, Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members. This led to mass production of penicillin by the next year.


title: History of penicillin

text: Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a confined laboratory, the Oxford team tried to convince war-torn British government and private companies for mass production but in vain. Florey and Heatley travelled to the US in June 1941 to persuade US government and pharmaceutical companies there. Knowing that keeping the mould sample in vials could be easily lost, they instead smeared their coat pockets with the mould. They arrived in Washington D.C. in early July to discuss with Ross Granville Harrison, chairman of the National Research Council (NRC), and Charles Thom and Percy Wells of the United States Department of Agriculture. They were directed to approach the USDA Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL, now the National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research) where large-scale fermentations were done. They reached Peoria, Illinois, on 14 July to meet Andrew Jackson Moyer and Robert D. Coghill at the NRRL. The Americans quickly worked on the mould and were able to make culture by the end of July. But they realised that Fleming's mould was not efficient enough to produce large quantities of penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: NRRL mycologist Kenneth Bryan Raper got the help of US Army Transport Command to search for similar mould in different parts of the world and the best moulds were found to be those from Chungkin (China), Bombay (Mumbai, India) and Cape Town (South Africa). But the single-best sample was from cantaloupe (a type of melon) sold in a Peoria fruit market in 1943. The mould was identified as "P. chrysogenum" and designated as NRRL 1951 or cantaloupe strain. There is a popular story that Mary K. Hunt (or Mary Hunt Stevens), a staff member of Raper, collected the mould; for which she had been popularised as "Mouldy Mary." But Raper remarked this story as a "folklore" and that the fruit was delivered to the lab by a woman from the Peoria fruit market.


title: History of penicillin

text: Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Kenneth Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the "Penicillium" fungus. Simultaneous research by Jasper H. Kane and other Pfizer scientists in Brooklyn developed the practical, deep-tank fermentation method for production of large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: When production first began, one-liter containers had a yield of less than 1%, but improved to a yield of 80–90% in 10,000 gallon containers. This increase in efficiency happened between 1939 and 1945 as the result of continuous process innovation. Orvill May, the director of the Agricultural Research Service, had Robert Coghill, who was the chief of the fermentation division, use his experience with fermentation to increase the efficiency of extracting penicillin from the mould. Shortly after beginning, Moyer replaced sucrose with lactose in the growth media, which resulted in an increased yield. An even larger increase occurred when Moyer added corn steep liquor.


title: History of penicillin

text: One major issue with the process that scientists faced was the inefficiency of growing the mould on the surface of their nutrient baths, rather than having it submerged. Even though a submerged process of growing the mould would be more efficient, the strain used was not suitable for the conditions it would require. This led NRRL to a search for a strain that had already been adapted to work, and one was found in a mouldy cantaloupe acquired from a Peoria farmers' market. To improve upon that strain, researchers subjected it to X-rays to facilitate mutations in its genome and managed to increase production capabilities even more.


title: History of penicillin

text: Now that scientists had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin, the next challenge was to provide the required air to the mould for it to grow. This was solved using an aerator, but aeration caused severe foaming as a result of the corn steep. The foaming problem was solved by the introduction of an anti-foaming agent known as glyceryl monoricinoleate.


title: History of penicillin

text: The chemical structure of penicillin was first proposed by Edward Abraham in 1942. Dorothy Hodgkin determined the correct chemical structure of penicillin using X-ray crystallography at Oxford in 1945. In 1945, the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council jointly published in "Science" a chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds which all shared the same structural component called β-lactam. The penicillins were given various names such as using Roman numerals in UK (such as penicillin I, II, III) in order their discoveries and letters (such as F, G, K, and X) referring to their origins or sources, as below:


title: History of penicillin

text: The chemical names were based on the side chains of the compounds. To avoid the controversial names, Chain introduced in 1948 the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking as: "To make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous it was decided to replace the system of numbers or letters by prefixes indicating the chemical nature of the side chain R."


title: History of penicillin

text: In Kundl, Tyrol, Austria, in 1952, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie (now Sandoz) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, penicillin V. American chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) completed the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957. Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of peptides, as well as new protecting groups—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups. Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in Sheehan's synthesis was 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: An important development was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at the Beecham Research Laboratories (now the Beechem Group) in Surrey isolated 6-APA from the culture media of "P. chrysogenum". 6-APA was found to constitute the core 'nucleus' of penicillin (in fact, all β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions. The discovery was published "Nature" in 1959). This paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semi-synthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA.


title: History of penicillin

text: The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic methicillin, designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. Methicillin-resistant forms of "Staphylococcus aureus" likely already existed at the time.


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming, Florey and Chain equally shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases."


title: History of penicillin

text: Methods for production and isolation of penicillin were patented by Andrew Jackson Moyer in the US in 1945. Chain had wanted to file a patent, Florey and his teammates objected to it arguing that it should be a benefit for all. Sir Henry Dale specifically advised that doing so would be unethical. When Fleming learned of the American patents on penicillin production, he was infuriated and commented:


title: History of penicillin

text: I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?


title: History of penicillin

text: Dorothy Hodgkin received the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances."


title: History of penicillin

text: The narrow range of treatable diseases or "spectrum of activity" of the penicillins, along with the poor activity of the orally active phenoxymethylpenicillin, led to the search for derivatives of penicillin that could treat a wider range of infections. The isolation of 6-APA, the nucleus of penicillin, allowed for the preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements over benzylpenicillin (bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance). The first major development was ampicillin in 1961. It was produced by Beecham Research Laboratories in London. It was more advantageous than the original penicillin as it offered a broader spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Further development yielded β-lactamase-resistant penicillins, including flucloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and methicillin. These were significant for their activity against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but were ineffective against the methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) strains that subsequently emerged.


title: History of penicillin

text: Another development of the line of true penicillins was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as carbenicillin, ticarcillin, and piperacillin, useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. However, the usefulness of the β-lactam ring was such that related antibiotics, including the mecillinams, the carbapenems and, most important, the cephalosporins, still retain it at the center of their structures.


title: History of penicillin

text: The penicillins related β-lactams have become the most widely used antibiotics in the world. Amoxicillin, a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970, is the most commonly used of all.


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming warned the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions in his Nobel Lecture, and said:


title: History of penicillin

text: The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1940, Ernst Chain and Edward Abraham reported the first indication of antibiotic resistance to penicillin, an "E. coli" strain that produced the penicillinase enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect. Chain and Abraham worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in "Nature" as:


title: History of penicillin

text: The conclusion that the active substance is an enzyme is drawn from the fact that it is destroyed by heating at 90° for 5 minutes and by incubation with papain activated with potassium cyanide at pH 6, and that it is non-dialysable through 'Cellophane' membranes.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1942, strains of "Staphylococcus aureus" had been documented to have developed a strong resistance to penicillin. Most of the strains were resistant to penicillin by the 1960s. In 1967, "Streptococcus pneumoniae" was also reported to be penicillin resistant. Many strains of bacteria have eventually developed a resistance to penicillin.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: Subedar Major and Honorary Captain Yogendra Singh Yadav PVC is a retired commissioned officer in the Indian Army, who was awarded the highest Indian military honour decoration, the Param Vir Chakra, for his action during the Kargil War. Aged 19 when he received the decoration, he is the youngest person to be awarded the medal (PVC).


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: Yogendra Singh Yadav was born in a yadav family on 10 May 1980 in Village Aurangabad Ahir, Bulandshahr District, of Uttar Pradesh. His father Karan Singh Yadav served in the Kumaon Regiment, participating in the 1965 and 1971 Indo-Pakistan wars. Yadav joined Indian Army at age 16 years and five months.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: Yadav enlisted with the 18 Grenadiers, and part of the Ghatak Force commando platoon, tasked to capture three strategic bunkers on Tiger Hill in the early morning hours of 4 July 1999. The bunkers were situated at the top of a vertical, snow-covered, cliff face. Yadav volunteered to lead the assault, climbed the cliff face, and installed ropes that would allow further assaults on the feature. Halfway up, machine gun and rocket fire came from an enemy bunker, killing the platoon commander and two others. In spite of being hit by multiple bullets in his groin and shoulder, Yadav climbed the remaining and reached the top. Though severely injured, he crawled to the first bunker and lobbed a grenade, killing four Pakistani soldiers and neutralizing enemy fire. This gave the rest of the platoon the opportunity to climb up the cliff face bunker along with two of his fellow soldiers and engaged in hand-to-hand combat, killing four Pakistani soldiers. The platoon subsequently succeeded in capturing Tiger Hill. Though Yadav was hit by 12 bullets he played a major role in its capture.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: The Param Vir Chakra was announced for Yadav posthumously, but it was soon discovered that he was recuperating in a hospital, and it was his namesake who had been slain in the mission.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: Yadav was conferred the honorary rank of Captain by the President of India on Independence Day of 2021. Lieutenant General Rajeev Sirohi, Military Secretary and Colonel of the Grenadiers, presented the rank badges. He retired from army on 31 December, 2021 in the Honorary Captain rank with a traditional send-off.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: Subedar Major and Honorary Captain Yogendra Singh Yadav, PVC post-retirement joined the advisory board of udChalo, A consumer technology company working for armed forces personnel.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: In the Bollywood film "Lakshya" about Tiger Hill, the actions of the fictional war hero Karan Shergill played by Hrithik Roshan is a screen adaptation depicting the heroic deeds of Yadav's platoon, among others. It provides a detailed description of their arduous journey to capture the strategically placed bunkers on Tiger Hill.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: The assault led by another Ghatak platoon from the same regiment on Tololing was adapted as one of the prominent battle scenes in the Hindi film "LOC Kargil". Bollywood actor Manoj Bajpai portrayed the role of Yadav in the film.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: He joined the show Kaun Banega Crorepati in 2020 on a special invitation from Amitabh Bachchan along with his fellow Param Vir Chakra winner subedar Sanjay Kumar and donated the entire amount (₹2.5 millions) won to the Army Welfare Fund.


title: Yogendra Singh Yadav

text: In the year 2015, he was awarded the state's highest award Yash Bharti by Uttar Pradesh Government for service to the country.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The Stadium of Light is an all-seater football stadium in Sunderland, England, and the eighth and current home to Sunderland A.F.C. With space for 49,000 spectators, the Stadium of Light is the ninth largest football stadium in England. The stadium primarily hosts Sunderland A.F.C. home matches. The stadium was named by chairman Bob Murray to reflect the coal mining heritage of the North East and the former Monkwearmouth Colliery site on which it stands. A Davy lamp monument stands at the entrance to reflect the coal mining industry that brought prosperity to the town.


title: Stadium of Light

text: As well as hosting Sunderland games, the stadium has hosted three matches for the England national football team, as well as an England under-20, an England under-21 and an England women's team match. With an original capacity of 42,000, it was expanded in 2000 to seat 49,000. Its simple design is apparently to allow for redevelopments up to a capacity of 63,000. The attendance record at the Stadium of Light is 48,353 set on 13 April 2002, when Sunderland played Liverpool with the visitors running out 1–0 winners. Along with hosting football matches, the stadium has played host to performers such as Beyoncé, Rihanna, Oasis, Take That, Kings of Leon, Coldplay, Spice Girls and Elton John. The ground also holds conference and banqueting suites, the "Black Cats Bar", and a club shop selling Sunderland merchandise.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Following the release of the Taylor Report in January 1990, Sunderland was obliged to make plans to turn their Roker Park home into an all-seater stadium. Roker Park was a ground that mainly consisted of standing terraces, and if converted into all-seater it would have held far fewer spectators than before. Enclosed by residential streets on all sides, expansion was practically impossible. So, by 1991, Sunderland chairman Bob Murray had started to scour the local area for possible sites to build a new all-seater stadium.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The front-runner that emerged was a proposed stadium located on an area of land adjacent to the Nissan car plant. The 49,000 all-seater ground was labelled "the Wembley of the North" by Sunderland fans and would boast a capacity that not even Manchester United's Old Trafford exceeded until 1996. The plans did not come to fruition. Shortly after the plans were announced in 1992, Nissan launched an official objection, ultimately forcing Sunderland to abandon the idea. By 1995, the site of the Wearmouth Colliery, which had closed in December 1993, was identified as the club's preferred location for a new stadium. The area, on the north bank of the River Wear in the Sheepfolds district of Sunderland, was only a few hundred yards from Roker Park, and close to the centre of the city.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In 1993, Sunderland's planned new stadium was on the shortlist for Euro 96 venues, as England had been named as hosts of the competition in May 1992. However, it soon become clear that a new stadium in Sunderland would not be ready in time for the tournament.


title: Stadium of Light

text: On 13 November 1995, the Sunderland chairman Bob Murray announced that the Tyne and Wear Development Corporation had approved plans for Sunderland to build a 34,000-seater stadium on the Monkwearmouth site.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Ballast Wiltshier plc, a contracting company that had built the Amsterdam Arena, was contracted to build the stadium at an initial cost of £15 million. In June 1996, as the planned capacity rose to more than 40,000, construction work began. The capacity was revised again in early 1997, and the stadium was completed on time, with a capacity of 42,000. The stadium's design allows possible expansion of a further tier; completed expansion of the whole upper tier would produce a capacity of 63,000, although it is believed by some that the stadium can expand to a maximum capacity of 84,000, this would seem unlikely ever to be exercised.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The stadium was opened on 30 July 1997 by Prince Andrew, Duke of York, with bands such as Status Quo, Upside Down and Kavana playing. To celebrate the opening of the stadium, Sunderland played a friendly against the Dutch side Ajax, which was drawn 0–0.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The move did not happen without criticism. Famous actor and Sunderland supporter, often named in the media "Sunderland's most famous supporter", Peter O'Toole, said he wasn't as much a fan as he used to be since the team left Roker Park. Playwright Tom Kelly and actor Paul Dunn created a one-man play called "I Left My Heart at Roker Park" about a fan struggling with the move and what Roker Park meant for him - the play originally ran in 1997, and had a few revivals since.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The North Stand was extended in 2000 to bring the capacity to 49,000, costing the club a further £7 million, making the final cost of the stadium £23 million. On 18 July 2006, a statue of 1973 FA Cup Final winning manager Bob Stokoe was unveiled outside the stadium. At the end of season Football League awards, the Stadium of Light was named the "Best Away Ground", with other contenders including Crewe Alexandra's Alexandra Stadium and Plymouth Argyle's Home Park. Sunderland celebrated the tenth anniversary of the stadium with a pre-season friendly against Juventus on 6 August 2007; the game was drawn 1–1.


title: Stadium of Light

text: During construction, the stadium had not adopted an official name, and had been known colloquially as the "Wearside Stadium" and "New Roker Park".


title: Stadium of Light

text: The name was eventually revealed as the Stadium of Light at a naming ceremony on 30 July 1997, hours before the opening game against Ajax. Speaking at the naming event, Bob Murray explained the inspiration for the name came from the Coal mining heritage of the region and the stadium's Monkwearmouth Colliery site:""For many years, miners at Wearmouth Colliery carried with them a Davy lamp as part of their working lives. Reflecting this tradition, the name allows the image of this light to shine forever.""


title: Stadium of Light

text: To emphasise the fact, a statue of a miner's Davy lamp was located in front of the stadium's ticket office, adjacent to the stadium.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The name initially drew mixed reactions from Sunderland fans many unhappy that the name was already associated with the home ground of S.L. Benfica. A film crew for the Premier Passions documentary series recorded the moment that Bob Murray faced Sunderland fans immediately after the naming with many expressing their disappointment. The similarity to the name of Benfica's home, Estádio da Luz, often anglicised to "The Stadium of Light", has led to some visiting fans and reporters to erroneously assume that Sunderland's home was named after the Portuguese stadium. Murray responded directly to this in a 2017 interview with the Evening Chronicle, in which he said


title: Stadium of Light

text: ""The Estadio de Luz in Portugal isn’t the Stadium of Light, it is named after the area – Luz. It’s like, say, Elland Road or Old Trafford. We are the only club whose stadium has that name, and it was because of the history of the region that I named it"".In the same interview, Murray revealed that shortly after the stadium opened he was approached by a representative of the Labour government asking if he would consider renaming the stadium after Diana, Princess of Wales, who died in September 1997. Murray refused the request as he believed the stadium should be named in honour of those in the region who had worked in darkness.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The 'Of Light' suffix became a recognisable part of the Sunderland A.F.C. brand, and was used in a number of other areas related to the club; the Academy of Light is the club's training facility and youth academy, the Foundation of Light is a registered charity affiliated with the club and the Beacon of Light is a sports and education centre, owned by the Foundation, which is adjacent to the stadium. The club's official magazine was called "Legion of Light" before it was discontinued in January 2017.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In March 2010, Sunderland Chairman Niall Quinn announced the club were considering plans to sell naming rights to the stadium as a new way to boost income. The plans were shelved shortly after. The possibility of selling the naming rights was floated again by chief executive Margaret Byrne in 2013. Discussing the options of selling the stadium name in October 2018, chairman Stewart Donald said:""I think the fans should have a say on whether they are comfortable with it. My gut feel is that even if we didn't consult with them, the vibe I get is that they aren't particularly attached to the name of the stadium. It's not a sacred thing like some of the other grounds.""


title: Stadium of Light

text: The stadium is in the shape of a square bowl, and is separated into the West Stand, North Stand, East Stand and the Roker End (South Stand). The stands have all formerly had commercial names as part of sponsorship deals, e.g. the Vaux Stand (West), the Carling Stand (North), Fosters Stand (East) and the Metro FM Stand (South). The South Stand was renamed to the Roker End in December 2018, following a poll organised by the Red & White Army supporters club. The Roker End was the name of the stand behind the goal at the southern end of the ground at Roker Park.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The West Stand includes the Premier Concourse which is the name of the upper tier and a number of executive boxes. The North Stand also includes an upper tier, formerly branded the Strongbow Upper, which contained the exterior seating for the Black Cats Bar, an enhanced match-day experience with padded seating and an exclusive catering facilities and bar. When the away fans were relocated in 2012, the Black Cats Bar seating was relocated to the rear of the North Stand lower tier.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Within the stadium is a concourse, housing the turnstiles, emergency exits, food kiosks, bars and toilet facilities. The concourse allows uninterrupted spectator access throughout the inner stadium bowl, with the exception being a gap between the South Stand and the South West corner. The concourse is linked to the seating bowl via a series of access ramps. The South East corner of the stadium is designated as the Family Zone, and has family-oriented branding within the concourse, as well as entertainment such as PlayStation 4 consoles.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Away fans were seated in the west half of the South Stand when the ground opened in 1997, but in November 2011, the club announced that the away supporters' section would be moved from the South Stand to the North Stand Upper from the beginning of the 2012–13 season.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The pitch is several metres below the level of the ground outside the stadium. The pitch uses a lighting system from Stadium Grow Lighting to ensure the grass can grow at any time of year. The device controls various aspects of the pitch, including exposure to light, temperature, water, and air, to make the grass able to grow in any conditions.


title: Stadium of Light

text: To the North East of the stadium stands the Black Cat House, a separate building which is the location of the Box office and club administrative offices. There is a large car park behind the West Stand and two car parks behind the East Stand, but match-day parking is permit only. Fragments of the iconic Archibald Leitch latticework, taken from the Main Stand at Roker Park, is used to separate parts of the Western Car Park. Wooden boards mimicking the Leitch lattice work were also added to the Roker End in 2019 as part of an initiative by the Red & White Army supporters group to bring a sense of identity to renamed stand.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The perimeter walls of the stadium incorporate a "Wall of Fame" feature, where names can be engraved into the bricks of the walls. The interior of the stadium holds a banqueting suite, which can seat from 460 to 600 people. The stadium also contains several conferencing suites, that can be hired for events. Quinn's Bar, housed in the West Stand, was named after former player and chairman Niall Quinn and includes memorabilia from the club's history. Originally it was available for non-match-day visitors, but has since become exclusive for match-day hospitality and event packages.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In 2004,The "Centre for Light" was opened by the SAFC Foundation within the Stadium. The £1.6m learning facility, built over multiple floors, included five learning areas supporting up to 120 visiting children per day. In 2015, Sunderland became the first football club in the world to open a sensory room within the Stadium - thereby allowing people on the Autism spectrum to watch matches in a sound-proofed environment. It was named the "Nathan Shippey Sensory Room" after Nathan's parents petitioned the club to set the room up. The sensory room provided a huge success, with the model being adopted at other clubs around the world. Sunderland opened their second sensory room in 2018.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In March 2018 it was announced that after the relegation to EFL League One, the Premier Concourse would be closed during the 2018–19 season, although it was temporarily reopened to accommodate a large crowd for the Boxing Day game against Bradford City and again on the final home league game against Portsmouth.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The stadium was originally kitted predominately with red seats, the exception being a Sunderland emblem and the words "SUNDERLAND A.F.C" in white lettering on the East Stand, and the slogan "HA'WAY THE LADS" ("Ha'way" is a Mackem dialect equivalent of the Geordie word "Howay", meaning "Come on") in white lettering on the North Stand. A thin band of white seats also circled the top of the East and South stand.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Over time, sections of red seats become bleached by the Sun, turning them pink - which became a source of mockery from opposing fans. Sunderland fans petitioned the club to replace the seats, even noting on the inclusion of the faded pink seats in the digital replica of the Stadium of Light in the FIFA video game. In 2016, the club announced that a programme of seat changes would take place as part of a face-lift for the stadium's 20th anniversary. Sections of the East Stand were replaced, but further work stalled.


title: Stadium of Light

text: When Stewart Donald purchased the club in the summer of 2018, frustration over the pink seats (and the general state of the Stadium) came up frequently in his early engagements with fans. In June, Donald announced that he had purchased 31,500 seats and requested Sunderland fans to volunteer to help change them. The seat change took place in phases, with hundreds of volunteering fans joined occasionally by club officials and players. Phase I was the South East corner and was completed on 19 July 2018, Phase II was the North East corner and North Stand on was completed on 15 September 2018, and Phase III the South West corner completed in October 2018. The fourth and final phase, replacing 10,000 seats in the South and West stands, began on 29 October 2018. The corners were replaced with white seats, while the sides and ends were left red. The emblem and lettering remained. The club were nominated as a finalist in 'Best Club Marketing Initiative' category at the 2018 Business Football Awards for the seat change activity.


title: Stadium of Light

text: A 6,000 capacity Fan Zone, modeled on similar schemes at Manchester City and those at NFL games in the United States, was approved by Sunderland City Council in July 2015. It followed a successful trial prior to a game against West Ham United in January 2013.


title: Stadium of Light

text: It was opened on the first home game of the 2015–16 season. The zone was located in the car park outside the East Stand and South East corner, and included live music, children's activities (including a Five-a-side football pitch), food and drink kiosks and on-stage interviews with club legends. The Fan Zone opened three hours before kick-off and for a few hours after the game, and was accessible to ticket-holding spectators, including away fans. Due to the temporary structures in use, the Fan Zone was closed for safety reasons during periods of high winds. An enhanced version of the Fan Zone was opened for the England senior international game vs Australia in 2016.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The Fan Zone re-opened for the 2016–17 season opener against Middlesbrough, but as the season progressed, poor performance on the field and financial troubles off the field led to the Fan Zone being cancelled.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In a Q&A with supporters association 'Red & White Army', new club owner Stewart Donald committed to bring back the Fan Zone. It returned for the opening game of the 2018–19 season against Charlton Athletic, although smaller than the 2015 version, it was open to anyone - not just ticket-holding spectators. The Fan Zone no longer re-opens after a game.


title: Stadium of Light

text: A 30 hectare site area around the Stadium, including the Sheepfolds Industrial estate, was designated as the 'Stadium Village' development zone by Sunderland City Council in 2007 - and a draft Supplementary planning document was released in 2009. The plan, adopted in 2010, described a framework for redeveloping the Stadium Village area into a mixture of commercial, residential and entertainment facilities with a focus on health and well-being. The plan was consistent with wider redevelopment plans across Sunderland, then under the umbrella of Sunderland Arc agency. In preparation for the redevelopment plans, the council began buying up plots in the area in 2008.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Initial redevelopment work focused on the Northern end of the site, adjacent to the stadium's North Stand and the Black Cat House ticket office. The buildings in this area have "Stadium Park" as their address. The Sunderland Aquatic Centre, including an Olympic-sized swimming pool and fitness centre, opened in April 2008. In December 2014 construction work began on a new 141-room Hilton Garden Inn which opened on 28 April 2016. The Beacon of Light, a sports, education and community centre, opened in the summer of 2018 alongside the Aquatic Centre.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In 2009, during a review of the Stadium Village plans, city councilors expressed ambitions to build an Indoor skiing facility on the site and an expression of interest was issued to potential developers.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In the spring of 2011, the Sunderland Arc redevelopment agency was shut down, after its funding was pulled due to austerity cuts. This put the long-term future of the Stadium Village plan in doubt. However the council partnered with IDPartnership Group to push ahead with the plan, and in September 2017, a 'masterplan' for Phase II of the Stadium Village area was approved by Sunderland council and released for public consultation. The Phase II area covers an area to the South and East of the stadium and proposals included facilities such as a Velodrome, an Ice rink, a Conference centre and a Climbing wall.


title: Stadium of Light

text: A key part of the new masterplan is "Stadium Way", a proposed tree-lined boulevard linking the St Peter's Metro station with a proposed Plaza at the South East corner of the stadium. The plaza would incorporate an enhanced Fan Zone, and is modelled on a similar space being developed as part of the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium in London.


title: Stadium of Light

text: As well as holding Sunderland games, the stadium has also hosted England matches. The stadium was one of several venues used as temporary home grounds for the England team while the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium took place. It hosted its first England game in 1999, when they played Belgium in a friendly match, which England won 2–1. It played host to its first competitive England match on 2 April 2003, when they played Turkey in a Euro 2004 qualifying match, which England won 2–0. The Stadium of Light also held an England under 20 match against Italy on 27 November 2002, Italy beat England 5–3. On 10 June 2003 it hosted an England's under-21s 2004 U21 European Championship qualifier match against Slovakia's under-21s. The hosts beat the visitors 2–0 through Peter Doležaj's fortieth minute own goal and Phil Jagielka's eighty third-minute goal with 11,223 in attendance.


title: Stadium of Light

text: On 4 March 2016 it was announced that the Stadium of Light would host England for a friendly against Australia on 27 May 2016 as part of their preparations for Euro 2016. The sold-out match finished in a 2–1 victory for England, with goals from Marcus Rashford (on his international debut), Wayne Rooney and an own goal from Eric Dier.


title: Stadium of Light

text: On 30 September 2021, it was announced that the Stadium would host its first women's football international; an England 2023 World Cup qualifier against Austria on 27 November 2021.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The Stadium of Light hosted the final of the Durham Challenge Cup in 2008 and again in 2019. and was due to host the 2020 final (which would have been contested by Sunderland U23s and Spennymoor Town) before it was cancelled due to COVID 19. The Stadium of Light has also played host to finals for youth football, including the U14 Premier League Cup Final in 2014.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In October 2008 it was announced that the stadium would hold a concert on 10 June 2009, featuring Oasis, with Kasabian, The Enemy and Reverend and the Makers as support acts.


title: Stadium of Light

text: On 5 and 6 June 2009 Take That started their at the Stadium of Light. Pink performed a sell out show at the stadium on 11 June 2010, with support from VV Brown, Butch Walker and City & Colour.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Take That returned to the stadium along with Robbie Williams on 27 May 2011, supported by Pet Shop Boys. On this occasion Take That began their Progress Live tour in Sunderland, making the Stadium of Light the first venue to hear Take That perform as a five since 1995. Originally only two dates were announced, however due to huge demand from fans two further dates were added at the Stadium of Light. Kings of Leon played at the stadium on 17 June 2011 as part of their nationwide tour across Britain. During the summer of 2012, Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Coldplay and the Red Hot Chili Peppers performed at the stadium. On 30 October 2012, it was announced that Bon Jovi would play at the stadium during the summer of 2013.


title: Stadium of Light

text: On 20 June 2013 Rihanna performed a sold-out show at the stadium as part of the European leg of her Diamonds World Tour. Rihanna was scheduled to return to the stadium during her Anti World Tour, but the concert was cancelled. 2013 also saw the stadium hold the first of two 'North East Live' concerts, a music festival featuring artists such as Little Mix and Jessie J.


title: Stadium of Light

text: After the 2016 concert by Beyoncé as part of her Formation World Tour there was a three-year hiatus for concerts at the Stadium of Light after Sunderland City Council withdrew their financial support. Following the takeover of the club in 2018, new Executive director Charlie Methven confirmed that concerts would return in the summer of 2019. On 5 November 2018, the Spice Girls announced their 2019 Spice World Tour, with Jess Glynne as a support act. The UK leg of the tour included a concert at the Stadium of Light on 6 June 2019.


title: Stadium of Light

text: There were no concerts planned for the summers of 2020 or 2021, as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted events across the world. In June 2021, Elton John announced that the Stadium of Light would be one of the UK venues in his Farewell Yellow Brick Road tour in June 2022. The concert was put in doubt in September 2021 when the singer was injured in a fall, causing him to cancel some of the planned shows, but it was later confirmed that the Stadium of Light date was not affected. In September 2021, Ed Sheeran announced three nights at the Stadium of Light in June 2022 as part of the +–=÷x tour., though one of the dates was later cancelled.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The exact capacity of the stadium for concerts varies depending on the profile of the act and the layout of the stage. Sunderland city council capped the original 2009 concerts to 51,528 for Take That and 52,933 for Oasis. The 2010 Pink concert had a lower capacity of 42,054. The 2015 Foo Fighters concert had a capacity of 56,351. The Beyonce concert in 2016 had a capacity capped at 55,000 and the 2019 Spice Girls concert had a cap of 50,835. Aided by an open stage in the centre of the arena, Ed Sheeran performed in front of a record 60,000 crowd on his +–=÷x Tour in June 2022. This was the largest ever crowd for a concert in the North East of England.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The Stadium of Light currently hosts the annual graduation ceremony for the students of the University of Sunderland. The stadium won the RSVP magazine's "Most creative use of a sporting venue" award in 2007 for its usage as the university's graduation site.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The highest football attendance at the Stadium of Light is 48,353 set on 13 April 2002 for a Premier League game between Sunderland and Liverpool. The Stadium attendance record for non-football is 60,000 on 3 June 2022 for an Ed Sheeran concert.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The lowest league attendance at the stadium was 22,167 against Wigan Athletic on 2 December 2003. The lowest recorded attendance for a first-team competitive game at the Stadium of Light was 3,498 vs Oldham Athletic in the EFL Trophy Second Round on 1 December 2021. A dead rubber game vs. Bradford City in the same tournament on 9 November 2021 did not have an officially recorded attendance.


title: Stadium of Light

text: The highest seasonal average at the stadium since it was opened was 46,790 in the 2000–01 season while Sunderland were playing in the Premier League. The lowest average attendance at the Stadium of Light was 27,119 in the 2003–04 season in Division One. The highest total seasonal attendance was recorded during the 1998–99 season when the aggregate was 890,660 in a season where Sunderland were First Division champions, and League Cup semi-finalists. The lowest seasonal aggregate at the Stadium of Light was 572,241 in the 2019–20 season, as Sunderland played only 19 of a planned 23 games due to the season's curtailment because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The following season saw all games played behind closed doors due to the pandemic.


title: Stadium of Light

text: In the 2018-19 season, Sunderland averaged a home league crowd of 32,156, setting a new record for the third tier, while the Boxing Day game against Bradford City attracted 46,039, both a League One record, and the highest attended league game outside of the Premier League that season.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Sunderland's largest margin of victory at the stadium was a 7–0 win over Oxford United in Division 1 during the 1998–99 promotion season.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Sunderland's biggest defeat at the Stadium of Light was 5–0 in a preseason friendly (marking the 20th anniversary of the stadium) against Celtic on 29 July 2017. Sunderland's biggest league defeat at the Stadium of Light is 4–0 which has happened on four occasions (all in the Premier League): vs. Arsenal (11 May 2003), vs. Manchester United (26 December 2007), vs. Aston Villa (14 March 2015) and vs. Southampton (11 February 2017).


title: Stadium of Light

text: The highest scoring matches at the Stadium of Light with nine goals are a 6–3 Sunderland victory over Exeter City in Round 2 of the EFL Cup on 25 August 2015, and a 5–4 Sunderland defeat to Coventry City in League One on 13 April 2019.


title: Stadium of Light

text: Sunderland railway station, which is connected to London King's Cross by infrequent services run by the Open Access operator Grand Central or by main line services run by London North Eastern Railway connecting via Newcastle or Darlington, is located nearby to the stadium. The St Peter's and Stadium of Light Metro stations were built as part of the Sunderland extension, both are quite near the stadium, though ironically St. Peter's is a closer station to the ground than the Stadium of Light station. The Metro was extended into Sunderland in 2002. A park and ride system is available on match days to allow spectators to park away from the stadium, and a new footbridge proposal has been put forward to link the stadium to the south bank of the river as part of the stadium park regeneration project.


title: Numerical integration

text: In analysis, numerical integration comprises a broad family of algorithms for calculating the numerical value of a definite integral, and by extension, the term is also sometimes used to describe the numerical solution of differential equations. This article focuses on calculation of definite integrals.


title: Numerical integration

text: The term numerical quadrature (often abbreviated to "quadrature") is more or less a synonym for "numerical integration", especially as applied to one-dimensional integrals. Some authors refer to numerical integration over more than one dimension as cubature; others take "quadrature" to include higher-dimensional integration.


title: Numerical integration

text: The basic problem in numerical integration is to compute an approximate solution to a definite integral


title: Numerical integration

text: to a given degree of accuracy. If is a smooth function integrated over a small number of dimensions, and the domain of integration is bounded, there are many methods for approximating the integral to the desired precision.


title: Numerical integration

text: There are several reasons for carrying out numerical integration, as opposed to analytical integration by finding the antiderivative:


title: Numerical integration

text: The term "numerical integration" first appears in 1915 in the publication "A Course in Interpolation and Numeric Integration for the Mathematical Laboratory" by David Gibb.


title: Numerical integration

text: Quadrature is a historical mathematical term that means calculating area. Quadrature problems have served as one of the main sources of mathematical analysis. Mathematicians of Ancient Greece, according to the Pythagorean doctrine, understood calculation of area as the process of constructing geometrically a square having the same area ("squaring"). That is why the process was named quadrature. For example, a quadrature of the circle, Lune of Hippocrates, The Quadrature of the Parabola. This construction must be performed only by means of compass and straightedge.


title: Numerical integration

text: The ancient Babylonians used the trapezoidal rule to integrate the motion of Jupiter along the ecliptic.


title: Numerical integration

text: For a quadrature of a rectangle with the sides "a" and "b" it is necessary to construct a square with the side formula_2 (the Geometric mean of "a" and "b"). For this purpose it is possible to use the following fact: if we draw the circle with the sum of "a" and "b" as the diameter, then the height BH (from a point of their connection to crossing with a circle) equals their geometric mean. The similar geometrical construction solves a problem of a quadrature for a parallelogram and a triangle.


title: Numerical integration

text: Problems of quadrature for curvilinear figures are much more difficult. The quadrature of the circle with compass and straightedge had been proved in the 19th century to be impossible. Nevertheless, for some figures (for example the Lune of Hippocrates) a quadrature can be performed. The quadratures of a sphere surface and a parabola segment done by Archimedes became the highest achievement of the antique analysis.


title: Numerical integration

text: In medieval Europe the quadrature meant calculation of area by any method. More often the Method of indivisibles was used; it was less rigorous, but more simple and powerful. With its help Galileo Galilei and Gilles de Roberval found the area of a cycloid arch, Grégoire de Saint-Vincent investigated the area under a hyperbola ("Opus Geometricum", 1647), and Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, de Saint-Vincent's pupil and commentator, noted the relation of this area to logarithms.


title: Numerical integration

text: John Wallis algebrised this method: he wrote in his "Arithmetica Infinitorum" (1656) series that we now call the definite integral, and he calculated their values. Isaac Barrow and James Gregory made further progress: quadratures for some algebraic curves and spirals. Christiaan Huygens successfully performed a quadrature of some Solids of revolution.


title: Numerical integration

text: The quadrature of the hyperbola by Saint-Vincent and de Sarasa provided a new function, the natural logarithm, of critical importance.


title: Numerical integration

text: With the invention of integral calculus came a universal method for area calculation. In response, the term quadrature has become traditional, and instead the modern phrase ""computation of a univariate definite integral"" is more common.


title: Numerical integration

text: Numerical integration methods can generally be described as combining evaluations of the integrand to get an approximation to the integral. The integrand is evaluated at a finite set of points called integration points and a weighted sum of these values is used to approximate the integral. The integration points and weights depend on the specific method used and the accuracy required from the approximation.


title: Numerical integration

text: An important part of the analysis of any numerical integration method is to study the behavior of the approximation error as a function of the number of integrand evaluations. A method that yields a small error for a small number of evaluations is usually considered superior. Reducing the number of evaluations of the integrand reduces the number of arithmetic operations involved, and therefore reduces the total round-off error. Also, each evaluation takes time, and the integrand may be arbitrarily complicated.


title: Numerical integration

text: A 'brute force' kind of numerical integration can be done, if the integrand is reasonably well-behaved (i.e. piecewise continuous and of bounded variation), by evaluating the integrand with very small increments.


title: Numerical integration

text: A large class of quadrature rules can be derived by constructing interpolating functions that are easy to integrate. Typically these interpolating functions are polynomials. In practice, since polynomials of very high degree tend to oscillate wildly, only polynomials of low degree are used, typically linear and quadratic.


title: Numerical integration

text: The simplest method of this type is to let the interpolating function be a constant function (a polynomial of degree zero) that passes through the point formula_3. This is called the "midpoint rule" or "rectangle rule"


title: Numerical integration

text: The interpolating function may be a straight line (an affine function, i.e. a polynomial of degree 1)


title: Numerical integration

text: For either one of these rules, we can make a more accurate approximation by breaking up the interval formula_8 into some number formula_9 of subintervals, computing an approximation for each subinterval, then adding up all the results. This is called a "composite rule", "extended rule", or "iterated rule". For example, the composite trapezoidal rule can be stated as


title: Numerical integration

text: where the subintervals have the form formula_11 with formula_12 and formula_13 Here we used subintervals of the same length formula_14 but one could also use intervals of varying length formula_15.


title: Numerical integration

text: Interpolation with polynomials evaluated at equally spaced points in formula_8 yields the Newton–Cotes formulas, of which the rectangle rule and the trapezoidal rule are examples. Simpson's rule, which is based on a polynomial of order 2, is also a Newton–Cotes formula.


title: Numerical integration

text: Quadrature rules with equally spaced points have the very convenient property of "nesting". The corresponding rule with each interval subdivided includes all the current points, so those integrand values can be re-used.


title: Numerical integration

text: If we allow the intervals between interpolation points to vary, we find another group of quadrature formulas, such as the Gaussian quadrature formulas. A Gaussian quadrature rule is typically more accurate than a Newton–Cotes rule that uses the same number of function evaluations, if the integrand is smooth (i.e., if it is sufficiently differentiable). Other quadrature methods with varying intervals include Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature (also called Fejér quadrature) methods, which do nest.


title: Numerical integration

text: Since at each odd formula_9 the numerator of the integrand becomes formula_27, the generalized midpoint rule formula can be reorganized as


title: Numerical integration

text: The following example of Mathematica code generates the plot showing difference between inverse tangent and its approximation truncated at formula_29 and formula_30:


title: Numerical integration

text: Therefore, we can apply the generalized midpoint integration formula above by assuming that formula_34.


title: Numerical integration

text: If "f"("x") does not have many derivatives at all points, or if the derivatives become large, then Gaussian quadrature is often insufficient. In this case, an algorithm similar to the following will perform better:


title: Numerical integration

text: Some details of the algorithm require careful thought. For many cases, estimating the error from quadrature over an interval for a function "f"("x") isn't obvious. One popular solution is to use two different rules of quadrature, and use their difference as an estimate of the error from quadrature. The other problem is deciding what "too large" or "very small" signify. A "local" criterion for "too large" is that the quadrature error should not be larger than "t" ⋅ "h" where "t", a real number, is the tolerance we wish to set for global error. Then again, if "h" is already tiny, it may not be worthwhile to make it even smaller even if the quadrature error is apparently large. A "global" criterion is that the sum of errors on all the intervals should be less than "t". This type of error analysis is usually called "a posteriori" since we compute the error after having computed the approximation.


title: Numerical integration

text: The accuracy of a quadrature rule of the Newton–Cotes type is generally a function of the number of evaluation points. The result is usually more accurate as the number of evaluation points increases, or, equivalently, as the width of the step size between the points decreases. It is natural to ask what the result would be if the step size were allowed to approach zero. This can be answered by extrapolating the result from two or more nonzero step sizes, using series acceleration methods such as Richardson extrapolation. The extrapolation function may be a polynomial or rational function. Extrapolation methods are described in more detail by Stoer and Bulirsch (Section 3.4) and are implemented in many of the routines in the QUADPACK library.


title: Numerical integration

text: Let formula_35 have a bounded first derivative over formula_36 i.e. formula_37 The mean value theorem for formula_38 where formula_39 gives


title: Numerical integration

text: If we integrate in formula_42 from formula_44 to formula_45 on both sides and take the absolute values, we obtain


title: Numerical integration

text: We can further approximate the integral on the right-hand side by bringing the absolute value into the integrand, and replacing the term in formula_47 by an upper bound


title: Numerical integration

text: Hence, if we approximate the integral formula_48 by the quadrature rule formula_49 our error is no greater than the right hand side of . We can convert this into an error analysis for the Riemann sum, giving an upper bound of


title: Numerical integration

text: for the error term of that particular approximation. (Note that this is precisely the error we calculated for the example formula_51.) Using more derivatives, and by tweaking the quadrature, we can do a similar error analysis using a Taylor series (using a partial sum with remainder term) for "f". This error analysis gives a strict upper bound on the error, if the derivatives of "f" are available.


title: Numerical integration

text: This integration method can be combined with interval arithmetic to produce computer proofs and "verified" calculations.


title: Numerical integration

text: Several methods exist for approximate integration over unbounded intervals. The standard technique involves specially derived quadrature rules, such as Gauss-Hermite quadrature for integrals on the whole real line and Gauss-Laguerre quadrature for integrals on the positive reals. Monte Carlo methods can also be used, or a change of variables to a finite interval; e.g., for the whole line one could use


title: Numerical integration

text: The quadrature rules discussed so far are all designed to compute one-dimensional integrals. To compute integrals in multiple dimensions, one approach is to phrase the multiple integral as repeated one-dimensional integrals by applying Fubini's theorem (the tensor product rule). This approach requires the function evaluations to grow exponentially as the number of dimensions increases. Three methods are known to overcome this so-called "curse of dimensionality".


title: Numerical integration

text: A great many additional techniques for forming multidimensional cubature integration rules for a variety of weighting functions are given in the monograph by Stroud.


title: Numerical integration

text: Monte Carlo methods and quasi-Monte Carlo methods are easy to apply to multi-dimensional integrals. They may yield greater accuracy for the same number of function evaluations than repeated integrations using one-dimensional methods.


title: Numerical integration

text: A large class of useful Monte Carlo methods are the so-called Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms, which include the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm and Gibbs sampling.


title: Numerical integration

text: Sparse grids were originally developed by Smolyak for the quadrature of high-dimensional functions. The method is always based on a one-dimensional quadrature rule, but performs a more sophisticated combination of univariate results. However, whereas the tensor product rule guarantees that the weights of all of the cubature points will be positive if the weights of the quadrature points were positive, Smolyak's rule does not guarantee that the weights will all be positive.


title: Numerical integration

text: Bayesian quadrature is a statistical approach to the numerical problem of computing integrals and falls under the field of probabilistic numerics. It can provide a full handling of the uncertainty over the solution of the integral expressed as a Gaussian process posterior variance.


title: Numerical integration

text: can be reduced to an initial value problem for an ordinary differential equation by applying the first part of the fundamental theorem of calculus. By differentiating both sides of the above with respect to the argument "x", it is seen that the function "F" satisfies


title: Numerical integration

text: Methods developed for ordinary differential equations, such as Runge–Kutta methods, can be applied to the restated problem and thus be used to evaluate the integral. For instance, the standard fourth-order Runge–Kutta method applied to the differential equation yields Simpson's rule from above.


title: Numerical integration

text: The differential equation formula_56 has a special form: the right-hand side contains only the independent variable (here formula_57) and not the dependent variable (here formula_58). This simplifies the theory and algorithms considerably. The problem of evaluating integrals is thus best studied in its own right.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic Contemporary Cognitive Ability Test (formerly Wonderlic Personnel Test) is an assessment used to measure the cognitive ability and problem-solving aptitude of prospective employees for a range of occupations. It is a proprietary assessment created and distributed by Wonderlic. It consists of 50 multiple choice questions to be answered in 12 minutes. The test was created in 1939 by Eldon F. Wonderlic (19091980), while he was a graduate student at Northwestern University. The score is calculated as the number of correct answers given in the allotted time. A score of 20 is intended to indicate average intelligence.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The most recent version of the test is WonScore, a cloud-based assessment providing a score to potential employers. The Wonderlic test was based on the Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability with the goal of creating a short form measurement of cognitive ability. It may be termed as a quick IQ test.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Created in 1936 by E. F. Wonderlic, the Wonderlic Personnel Test was the first short-form cognitive abilities test. It was developed to measure general cognitive ability in the areas of math, vocabulary, and reasoning. Wonderlic created and distributed the test as a graduate student in the psychology department at Northwestern University. Regarding the time allotted to take the test, Wonderlic, in an article released in 1939, stated that "the length of the test was made such that only about two to five per cent of average groups complete the test in the twelve-minute time limit."


title: Wonderlic test

text: Originally designed to aid in employee selection at companies such as AT&T and Oscar Meyer in the 1940s, the Wonderlic Personnel Test has been used by both the United States Armed Forces and the National Football League. During World War II, the Navy began using the Wonderlic Personnel Test to select candidates for pilot training and navigation. From 1940–1960 the test was supplied for free as the data was valuable to E. F. Wonderlic. In the 1970s Tom Landry, coach of the Dallas Cowboys, was the first to use the Wonderlic Personnel Test to predict player performance. It is still used in the annual NFL Combine as a form of pre-draft assessment.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic test is continually being updated with repeated evaluations of questions. Also, beginning in the 1970s, Wonderlic began to develop other forms of the Wonderlic Personnel, some of which include: Wonderlic Perceptual Ability Tests, Wonderlic Scholastic Level Exam, or the Wonderlic Contemporary Cognitive Ability Test.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Released in the 1990s, the Wonderlic Personnel Test measures an individual's capability of solving problems and learning. The Wonderlic Personnel Test has two different forms: the Wonderlic Personnel Test--Quicktest (30 questions in 8 minutes) and the Wonderlic Personnel Test (50 questions, 12 minutes). The Wonderlic Personnel Test--Quicktest differs from the Wonderlic Personnel Test in that it is not proctored. The Wonderlic Personnel Test is a much more comprehensive test.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic SLE is the scholastic version of the Wonderlic Personnel Test and is commonly administered to nursing school and medical program applicants.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic Personality tests measure personal characteristics that are widely accepted as being predictive of a candidate's expected job performance. Wonderlic claims that using the Wonderlic Personality Test to select individuals whose traits are aligned with the demands of the position, employers can improve employee productivity, employee satisfaction and customer service while reducing recruitment costs and employee turnover.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Added during the 1990s, the Wonderlic Personality Test contains two sections. The Wonderlic Five-Factor Personality Profile and the Wonderlic Seven-Factor Personality Profile. The Wonderlic Five-Factor Personality Profile tests individuals on five primary dimensions of the individual's personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability/neuroticism, and openness to experience. These are essentially the same constructs as the Big Five personality traits, also known as the Five Factor Model.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Averaging 10–15 minutes, the 58-item assessment is based on the Holland/RIASEC workplace motivation model. It evaluates a candidate’s interests, which helps predict how motivated they will be by the actual responsibilities of the job. The more motivated they are by those responsibilities, the likelier they will succeed in that position.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Similar to other standardized tests, the Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test presents its questions in an open response. The types of questions that have appeared in the oldest versions of the Wonderlic test include: analogies, analysis of geometric figures, arithmetic, direction following, disarranged sentences, judgment, logic, proverb matching, similarities, and word definitions. However, the questions may take different angles depending upon the ‘intelligence’ of the question setters.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic test, as a vocational and intelligence test, falls under the field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. As a personnel test the Wonderlic is used to gauge an applicant's job potential, educational potential, and training potential. Six forms of this test are made available (A, B, C, D, E, and F) in which Wonderlic suggests that when two of these versions are to be used, the best combinations are A and B or D and F. However, a study conducted by psychologists Kazmier and Browne (1959) shows that neither of these forms can be regarded as directly equivalent. While there is no lack of tests that could be used in place of the Wonderlic, such as the IQ or the Mechanical Aptitude Test, it is a quick and simple vocational test for personnel recruitment and selection. The Wonderlic test has been peer reviewed by the American Psychological Association and has been deemed worthy of field applications to the industrial use of personnel testing. Other sources can be found on the database APA PsycNET.


title: Wonderlic test

text: In 1956, Weaver and Boneau reported in the "Journal of Applied Psychology" that two of the five forms, A and B, that were published at the time were harder than the others which caused scores on those forms to be significantly lower than scores obtained on forms C–F. Concerning these observed differences, Weaver and Boneau state: "This accords with the history of the development of the test. Forms D, E, and F are made up of items selected from the Otis Higher, while A and B were developed later and include types of items not found in the Otis." Those findings, seemingly, invalidate the claim that those forms were equivalent or consistent. E. N. Hay made a similar observation as well. Hay found that form F was significantly easier than Form D. Furthermore, Kazmier found Form B to be the most difficult of the five forms and, thus, recommended that it "not be regarded as directly equivalent to any of the forms." Kazmier also found Forms D and F to be significantly different from each other and recommended that these forms be regarded as inequivalent. In a study of the Wonderlic's test-retest reliability, conducted in 1992, Stuart McKelvie "concluded that conscious repetition of specific responses did not seriously inflate the estimate of test-retest reliability." To put it simply, one's memory of some of the answers does not significantly affect one's score on the Wonderlic.


title: Wonderlic test

text: In 1982, Carl Dodrill conducted a study in which 57 adults were administered the Wonderlic twice over a five-year period. In the "Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology", Dodrill reported that the test-retest reliability for the Wonderlic was .94. According to a 1989 article in "Psychological Reports", the Wonderlic scored a r=.87 on the reliability scale compared along with the Pearson test score of r=.21.


title: Wonderlic test

text: In an article written in "Psychological Reports", T. Matthews and Kerry Lassiter report that the Wonderlic test "was most strongly associated with overall intellectual functioning," which is what it is purported to measure. However, Matthews and Lassiter did not find the Wonderlic to be a successful measure of fluid and crystallized intelligence, and they stated that "the Wonderlic test scores did not clearly show convergent or divergent validity evidence across these two broad domains of cognitive ability." In academic testing, the Wonderlic test has shown high correlations with aptitude tests such as the General Aptitude Test Battery.


title: Wonderlic test

text: A more recent study by Hicks and colleagues from the Georgia Institute of Technology similarly argued that evidence concerning the test's validity was limited. Their research showed "that Wonderlic has no direct relationship to fluid intelligence once its commonality to working memory capacity is accounted for", and that the Wonderlic "was a significant predictor of working memory capacity for subjects with low fluid intelligence, but failed to discriminate as well among subjects with high fluid intelligence". These findings suggest that the Wonderlic is less informative when administered to higher-than-average ability individuals or groups, meaning there is more measurement error and less practical utility in giving the test to individuals higher in cognitive ability. Partially on this basis, they argued that organizations interested in personnel selection should consider administering measures of established constructs that are grounded in a more theoretical framework, such as fluid intelligence or working memory capacity.


title: Wonderlic test

text: In May 1997, Robert Jordan filed a lawsuit against the city of New London, Connecticut, alleging violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the United States and Connecticut constitutions, in a case that was referred to by several media outlets as "Too Smart To Be A Cop", based on the city's application of scores generated by the Wonderlic test.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Jordan was born and raised in New London, and had previous experience in law enforcement, working as a part-time officer in near-by Groton Long Point, and as a seasonal officer for the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. In fall 1996, Jordan requested an interview with Keith Harrigan, New London's Assistant City Manager in charge of personnel. Harrigan informed Jordan that he was ineligible because he scored too high on the written portion of the Wonderlic test intended to evaluate cognitive ability. New London had decided to consider only applicants who scored between 20 and 27 on the written examination. Jordan scored a 33 on the exam, the equivalent of having an IQ of 125.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Jordan filed suit in the United States District Court for the District of Connecticut, where his case was dismissed by Judge Peter C. Dorsey, who noted: "The guarantee of equal protection under the Fifth Amendment is not a source of substantive rights or liberties, but rather a right to be free from invidious discrimination in statutory classifications and other governmental activity. It is well settled that where a statutory classification does not itself impinge on a right or liberty protected by the Constitution, the validity of the classification must be sustained unless the classification rests on grounds wholly irrelevant to the achievement of [any legitimate government] objective...[Jordan] may have been disqualified unwisely but he was not denied equal protection." The dismissal was upheld on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.


title: Wonderlic test

text: Serving as a quantitative measure for employers, scores are collected by the employers and the applicant's score may be compared to a professional standard, as is the case with security guards or, simply, compared to the scores of other applicants who happen to be applying for the same or similar positions at that time. Each profession has its own, unique, average; therefore, different professions require different standards. Wonderlic, Inc. claims a minimum score of 10 points suggests a person is literate.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Wonderlic test is used in the NFL Scouting Combine. Paul Brown introduced the test to the league in the late 1960s. According to Paul Zimmerman's "The New Thinking Man's Guide to Pro Football," the average score of an NFL player by position was:


title: Wonderlic test

text: An average football player usually scores around 20 points. Quarterbacks and offensive linemen usually have higher scores. Most teams want at least 21 for a quarterback.


title: Wonderlic test

text: John P. Lopez of "Sports Illustrated" proposed a 26–27–60 rule to predict a quarterback's success in the NFL (at least a 26 on the Wonderlic, at least 27 college starts, and at least 60% pass completion) and listed several examples of successes and failures based on the rule. A 2005 study by McDonald Mirabile found that there is no significant correlation between a quarterback's Wonderlic score and a quarterback's passer rating, and no significant correlation between a quarterback's Wonderlic score and a quarterback's salary. Similarly, a 2009 study by Brian D. Lyons, Brian J. Hoffman, and John W. Michel found that Wonderlic scores failed to positively and significantly predict future NFL performance, draft position, or the number of games started for any position. Lyons said that Wonderlic's "limited return on investment" for the NFL is contrary to general mental ability being a very strong predictor of job performance for most careers; "because it's so physically based, the results point to that [GMA] really doesn't matter". Donovan McNabb, whose score was the lowest of the five quarterbacks taken in the first round of the 1999 NFL Draft, had the longest and most successful career.


title: Wonderlic test

text: The Lyons study also found that the relationship between Wonderlic test scores and future NFL performance was negative for a few positions, indicating the higher a player scores on the Wonderlic test, the worse the player will perform in the NFL. According to Pat McInally, who was selected by the Cincinnati Bengals in the fifth round of the 1975 NFL Draft, George Young told him that his perfect score caused him to be selected later than he would have otherwise. NFL reporter Matt Verderame reported that New England Patriots offensive lineman Joe Thuney avoided answering Wonderlic questions so he would not score too high. McInally speculated that "coaches and front-office guys don't like extremes one way or the other, but particularly not on the high side. I think they think guys who are intelligent will challenge authority too much". Mike Florio of Profootballtalk.com agreed with McInally:


title: Wonderlic test

text: Job performance in the NFL also includes deviance. A 2016 study found that the Wonderlic significantly predicted future arrests, referred to as criminal off-duty deviance, with players testing below the league average being almost twice as likely to get arrested in the future as players who scored above the league average.


title: Wonderlic test

text: A simplified and condensed version of the Wonderlic test appeared in older editions of the "Madden NFL" video game series. The "Madden" version of the test is taken in "Superstar Mode" portion of the game, to make the game experience more realistic, although, it is now optional. The questions usually consist of basic math and English questions. For example, "If Adrian Peterson rushes for 125 yards in a game, how many yards will he have at the end of the season if he keeps up with this pace?". Players have four answers to choose from when taking this version of the test.


title: Bull Connor

text: Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor (July 11, 1897 – March 10, 1973) was an American politician who served as Commissioner of Public Safety for the city of Birmingham, Alabama, for more than two decades. A member of the Democratic Party, he strongly opposed the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. Under the city commission government, Connor had responsibility for administrative oversight of the Birmingham Fire Department and the Birmingham Police Department, which also had their own chiefs.


title: Bull Connor

text: As a white supremacist, Bull Connor enforced legal racial segregation and denied civil rights to black citizens, especially during 1963's Birmingham campaign led by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. He is well known for directing the use of fire hoses and police attack dogs against civil rights activists, including against children supporting the protests. National media broadcast these tactics on television, horrifying much of the world. The outrages served as catalysts for major social and legal change in the Southern United States and contributed to passage by the United States Congress of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.


title: Bull Connor

text: Connor was born in 1897 in Selma, Alabama, the son of Molly (Godwin) and Hugh King Connor, a train dispatcher and telegraph operator.


title: Bull Connor

text: He entered politics as a Democrat in 1934 winning a seat in the Alabama House of Representatives and maintained that party affiliation throughout his career. As a legislator, he supported populist measures and pro-union issues for white people. He voted for extending the poll tax, which served as a barrier to voter registration by poor blacks and whites, and against an anti-sedition bill intended to stifle union activity. He did not stand for a second term in 1936, instead running for Commissioner of Public Safety for the City of Birmingham. Concurrently during this period, Connor served as the radio play-by-play broadcaster of the minor league Birmingham Barons baseball club spanning the 1932 through 1936 seasons. Willie Mays remembered listening to him call games: "Pretty good announcer, too, although I think he used to get too excited."


title: Bull Connor

text: In 1936, Connor was elected to the office of commissioner of Public Safety of Birmingham, beginning the first of two stretches that spanned a total of 26 years. His first term ended in 1952, but he was re-elected in 1956, serving to 1963.


title: Bull Connor

text: In 1938, Connor ran as a candidate for Governor of Alabama. He announced he would be campaigning on a platform of "protecting employment practices, law enforcement, segregation and other problems that have been historically classified as states' rights by the Democratic party".


title: Bull Connor

text: In 1948, Connor's officers arrested the U.S. Senator from Idaho, Glen H. Taylor. He was the running mate of Progressive Party presidential candidate Henry Wallace, former Democratic vice president. Taylor, who had attempted to speak to the Southern Negro Youth Congress, was arrested for violating Birmingham's racial segregation laws. Connor's effort to enforce the law was caused by the group's reported communist philosophy, with Connor noting at the time, "There's not enough room in town for Bull and the Commies."


title: Bull Connor

text: During the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Connor led the Alabama delegation in a walkout when the national party included a civil rights plank in its platform. The offshoot States' Rights Democratic Party (Dixiecrats) nominated Strom Thurmond for president at its convention in Birmingham's Municipal Auditorium.


title: Bull Connor

text: Connor's second run for governor failed in 1954. He was the center of controversy that year by pushing through a city ordinance in Birmingham that outlawed "communism."


title: Bull Connor

text: Before returning to office in 1956, Connor quickly resumed his brutal approach to dealing with perceived threats to the social order. His forces raided a meeting which was being held at the house of African-American activist Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, where three Montgomery ministers were in attendance. He feared that the Montgomery bus boycott which was under way would spread to Birmingham, in an effort to integrate city buses. He had the ministers arrested on charges of vagrancy, which meant that they were not allowed to pay bail, nor were they allowed to receive any visitors during the first three days of their incarceration. A federal investigation followed, but Connor refused to cooperate.


title: Bull Connor

text: In 1960, Connor was elected Democratic National Committeeman for Alabama, soon after filing a civil lawsuit against "The New York Times" for $1.5 million. He objected to what he claimed was their insinuation that he had promoted racial hatred. He dropped his claim for damages to $400,000; the case dragged on for six years until Connor lost a $40,000 judgment on appeal.


title: Bull Connor

text: In the spring of 1961, integrated teams of civil rights activists mounted what they called "Freedom Rides" to highlight the illegal imposition of racial segregation on interstate buses, whose operations came under federal law and the constitution. They had teams ride Greyhound and Trailways buses traveling through southern capitals, with the final stop intended as New Orleans. The teams encountered increasing hostility and violence as they made their way deeper into the South.


title: Bull Connor

text: On May 2, 1961, Connor had won a landslide election for his sixth term as Commissioner of Public Safety in Birmingham. As Commissioner, he had administrative authority over the police and fire departments, schools, public health service, and libraries, all of which were segregated by state law. Tom King, a candidate running for mayor of Birmingham, met with Connor on May 8, 1961, to pay his respects. In addition, he asked him to refrain from announcing support for the other leading mayoral candidate, Art Hanes, so that King's chances would be greater. At the end of the meeting, Connor noted that he was expecting the Freedom Riders to reach Birmingham the following Sunday, Mother's Day. He stated, "We'll be ready for them, too," and King responded, "I bet you will, Commissioner," as he walked out.


title: Bull Connor

text: After a stop in Anniston, Alabama, the Greyhound bus of the Freedom Riders was attacked. They were offered no police protection. After they left town, they were forced to stop by a violent mob that firebombed and burned the bus, but no activists were fatally hurt. A new Greyhound bus was placed into service and departed for Birmingham. The activists on the earlier Trailways bus had been accosted by KKK members who boarded the bus in Atlanta and beat up the activists, pushing them all to the back of the bus.


title: Bull Connor

text: The Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham on May 14, 1961. As the Trailways bus reached the terminal in Birmingham, a large mob of Klansmen and news reporters was waiting for them. The Riders were viciously attacked soon after they disembarked from the bus and attempted to gain service at the whites-only lunch counter. Some were taken to the loading dock area, away from reporters, but some reporters were also beaten with metal bars, pipes, and bats and one's camera was destroyed. After 15 minutes, the police finally arrived, but by then most Klansmen had left.


title: Bull Connor

text: Connor intentionally let the Klansmen beat the Riders for 15 minutes with no police intervention. He publicly blamed the violence on many factors, saying that "No policemen were in sight as the buses arrived, because they were visiting their mothers on Mother's Day". He insisted that the violence came from out-of-town meddlers and that police had rushed to the scene "as quickly as possible." The violence was covered by national media.


title: Bull Connor

text: As I have said on numerous occasions, we are not going to stand for this in Birmingham. And if necessary we will fill the jail full and we don't care whose toes we step on. I am saying now to these meddlers from out of our city the best thing for them to do is stay out if they don't want to get slapped in jail. Our people of Birmingham are a peaceful people and we never have any trouble here unless some people come into our city looking for trouble. And I've never seen anyone yet look for trouble who wasn't able to find it.


title: Bull Connor

text: In 1962, Connor ordered the closing of 60 Birmingham parks rather than follow a federal court order to desegregate public facilities.


title: Bull Connor

text: In November 1962, in response to the extremely negative perception of the city—it was derisively nicknamed "Bombingham" by outsiders for the numerous attacks on the homes and churches of black civil rights activists—Birmingham voters changed the city's form of government. Rather than an at-large election of three commissioners, who had specific oversight of certain city departments, there would be a mayor-council form of government. Members of the city council were to be elected from nine single-member districts. Blacks were still largely disenfranchised. For instance, in 1961 when the president of the city's Chamber of Commerce was visiting Japan, he saw a newspaper photo of a bus engulfed in flames, which occurred during the Freedom Rides. Bull Connor had arranged for opponents to have time to attack civil rights activists when their bus reached Birmingham.


title: Bull Connor

text: Endorsed by Governor George C. Wallace, Connor attempted to run for mayor, but lost on April 2, 1963. Connor and his fellow commissioners filed suit to block the change in power, but on May 23, 1963, the Supreme Court of Alabama ruled against them. Connor ended his 23-year tenure in the post. Citing a general law, he had argued that the change could not take effect until the October 1 following the date of the election, but the Supreme Court of Alabama held that the general law was preempted by a special law applicable to only the City of Birmingham.


title: Bull Connor

text: Local civil rights activists had been unable to negotiate much change with the city or business leaders, in their efforts to gain integration of facilities and hiring of blacks by local businesses. They invited Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his team to help mount a more concerted campaign. The day after the April election, Dr. King and local civil rights leaders began "Project 'C'" (for "confrontation") against the Birmingham business community. They used economic boycotts and demonstrations to seek integration of stores and job opportunities. Throughout April 1963, King led smaller demonstrations, which resulted in his arrest along with many others.


title: Bull Connor

text: King wanted to have massive arrests to highlight the brutal police tactics used by Connor and his subordinates. (By extension, the campaign was intended to demonstrate the general suppression by other Southern police officials as well). After King was arrested and jailed, he wrote his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," which became noted as a moral argument for civil rights activism. The goal of the campaign was to gain mass arrests of non-violent protesters and overwhelm the judicial and penal systems. It would also demonstrate to national media and local residents the strong desire of African Americans to exercise their constitutional rights as citizens.


title: Bull Connor

text: In the final phase of Project C, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference's James Bevel introduced a controversial new tactic of using young people in the demonstrations. Most adults were working and could not afford to take time off. On May 2, 1963, the first youths and students walked out of the 16th Street Baptist Church and attempted to march to Birmingham's City Hall to talk to the Mayor. By the end of the day, 959 children, ranging from ages 6–18, had been arrested.


title: Bull Connor

text: The next day, even more students joined the marches, against whom Connor ordered the use of fire hoses and attack dogs. This did not stop the demonstrators, but generated bad publicity for Connor through the news media. The use of fire hoses continued and by May 7, Connor and the police department had detained more than 3,000 demonstrators.


title: Bull Connor

text: The Black Americans' economic boycott of businesses that refused to hire them and downtown stores that kept segregated facilities helped gain negotiation by the city's business leaders. The SCLC and the Senior Citizens Committee, who represented a majority of Birmingham businesses, came to an agreement. On May 10, they agreed on desegregation of lunch counters, restrooms, fitting rooms, and drinking fountains at department stores, the upgrading in position and hiring of blacks, cooperation with SCLC legal representatives in releasing all detainees, and the establishment of formal communication between black and whites through the Senior Citizens Committee.


title: Bull Connor

text: On June 3, 1964, Connor resumed a place in government when he was elected president of the Alabama Public Service Commission. He suffered a stroke on December 7, 1966, and used a wheelchair for the rest of his life. He was present on February 16, 1968, when the Haleyville, Alabama, police precinct made the first use of 9-1-1 as an emergency telephone number. Connor won another term in 1968, but was defeated in 1972.


title: Bull Connor

text: He suffered another stroke on February 26, 1973, which left him unconscious. He died a few weeks later, in March of that year. Survivors included his widow, Beara, a daughter, and a brother, Ed Connor.


title: Bull Connor

text: Connor's brutality and violence against civil rights activists contributed to Ku Klux Klan and other violence against blacks in the city of Birmingham. On a Sunday in September 1963, the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing destroyed a portion of the church basement causing the death of four African-American girls. The church was known as the center of civil rights activities in Birmingham. The city and movement leaders had just reached a negotiated agreement on integration of facilities and jobs. The deaths of the children prompted the Attorney General Robert Kennedy to call Governor George Wallace and threaten to send in federal troops to control violence and bombings in Birmingham.