title: Transatlantic flight

text: In 2016 Dr. Paul Williams of the University of Reading published a scientific study showing that transatlantic flight times are expected to change as the North Atlantic jet stream responds to global warming, with eastbound flights speeding up and westbound flights slowing down.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: In February 2017, Norwegian Air International announced it would start transatlantic flights to the United States from the United Kingdom and Ireland in summer 2017 on behalf of its parent company using the parent's new Boeing 737 MAX aircraft expected to be delivered from May 2017.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: Norwegian Air performed its first transatlantic flight with a Boeing 737-800 on 16 June 2017 between Edinburgh Airport and Stewart Airport, New York.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: The first transatlantic flight with a 737 MAX was performed on 15 July 2017, with a MAX 8 named "Sir Freddie Laker", between Edinburgh Airport in Scotland and Hartford International Airport in the US state of Connecticut, followed by a second rotation from Edinburgh to Stewart Airport, New York.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: Long-haul low-cost carriers are emerging on the transatlantic market with 545,000 seats offered over 60 city pairs in September 2017 (a 66% growth over one year), compared to 652,000 seats over 96 pairs for leisure airlines and 8,798,000 seats over 357 pairs for mainline carriers.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: LCC seat grew to 7.7% of North Atlantic seats in 2018 from 3.0% in 2016, led by Norwegian with 4.8% then WOW air with 1.6% and WestJet with 0.6%, while the three airline alliances dedicated joint ventures seat share is 72.3%, down from 79.8% in 2015.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: By July 2018, Norwegian became the largest European airline for New York, carrying 1.67 million passengers over a year, beating British Airways's 1.63 million, while the U.S. major carriers combined transported 26.1 million transatlantic passengers.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: Unlike over land, transatlantic flights use standardized aircraft routes called North Atlantic Tracks (NATs). These change daily in position (although altitudes are standardized) to compensate for weather—particularly the jet stream tailwinds and headwinds, which may be substantial at cruising altitudes and have a strong influence on trip duration and fuel economy. Eastbound flights generally operate during night-time hours, while westbound flights generally operate during daytime hours, for passenger convenience. The eastbound flow, as it is called, generally makes European landfall from about 0600UT to 0900UT. The westbound flow generally operates within a 1200–1500UT time slot. Restrictions on how far a given aircraft may be from an airport also play a part in determining its route; in the past, airliners with three or more engines were not restricted, but a twin-engine airliner was required to stay within a certain distance of airports that could accommodate it (since a single engine failure in a four-engine aircraft is less crippling than a single engine failure in a twin). Modern aircraft with two engines flying transatlantic (the most common models used for transatlantic service being the Airbus A330, Boeing 767, Boeing 777 and Boeing 787) have to be ETOPS certified.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: Gaps in air traffic control and radar coverage over large stretches of the Earth's oceans, as well as an absence of most types of radio navigation aids, impose a requirement for a high level of autonomy in navigation upon transatlantic flights. Aircraft must include reliable systems that can determine the aircraft's course and position with great accuracy over long distances. In addition to the traditional compass, inertials and satellite navigation systems such as GPS all have their place in transatlantic navigation. Land-based systems such as VOR and DME, because they operate "line of sight", are mostly useless for ocean crossings, except in initial and final legs within about of those facilities. In the late 1950s and early 1960s an important facility for low-flying aircraft was the Radio Range. Inertial navigation systems became prominent in the 1970s.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: The twenty busiest commercial routes between North America and Europe (traffic traveling in both directions) in 2010 were:


title: Transatlantic flight

text: In September 2013, Jonathan Trappe lifted off from Caribou, Maine, United States in an attempt to make the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by cluster balloon. The craft was essentially a small yellow lifeboat attached to 370 balloons filled with helium. A short time later, due to difficulty controlling the balloons, Trappe was forced to land near the town of York Harbour, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Trappe had expected to arrive in Europe sometime between three and six days after liftoff.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: The craft ascended by the dropping of ballast, and was to drift at an altitude of up to 25,000 ft (7.6 km). It was intended to follow wind currents toward Europe, the intended destination, however, unpredictable wind currents could have forced the craft to North Africa or Norway. To descend, Trappe would have popped or released some of the balloons.


title: Transatlantic flight

text: The fastest transatlantic flight was done by a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird from New York to London in 1 hour 55 minutes in 1974. The fastest time for an airliner is 2 hours 53 minutes for JFK–London Heathrow by the Concorde in 1996. The fastest JFK-LHR time for a subsonic airliner is 4 hours 56 minutes by a British Airways Boeing 747-400 in February 2020. The distance JFK-LHR is .


title: Emun Elliott

text: Emun Elliott is a Scottish actor, known for portraying Dr. Christian King in "Paradox", Richie in "Threesome", John Moray in "The Paradise", and Kenny in "Guilt".


title: Emun Elliott

text: Elliott was born in Edinburgh, Scotland as Emun John Mohammadi. His father is of Persian descent; his mother is Scottish. He was raised in Duddingston, Portobello, Edinburgh, and attended George Heriot's School before beginning a degree in English literature and French at the University of Aberdeen. Dropping out of university after a year, he went on to train at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama.


title: Emun Elliott

text: Elliott's television credits include "Monarch of the Glen", "Feel the Force", "Afterlife" and "Paradox", in which he played the lead role of Dr Christian King. He also plays Jay Adams in the BBC Three drama "Lip Service", an episode of "Inspector George Gently", and the crime drama "Vera".


title: Emun Elliott

text: Elliott made his film debut in "The Clan" (2009). He appeared in "Black Death" (2010) and "Strawberry Fields" (2011). He has lent his voice to the radio dramas "Places in Between" and "Black Watch".


title: Emun Elliott

text: On stage, Elliott has appeared in "Black Watch" as Private Fraser, a role he played for two-and-a-half years with the National Theatre of Scotland. In 2010 he played Claudio in a production of "Measure for Measure" at the Almeida Theatre.


title: Emun Elliott

text: Elliott starred as Richie, a gay man who gets his friend pregnant, in the Comedy Central sitcom "Threesome".. He appeared as charismatic 19th-century department store owner John Moray in the BBC One series "The Paradise" and played Andrew Brenner in the BBC One drama "Trust Me". In 2019, he played Kenny Burns in the BBC Scotland drama "Guilt".


title: Dekalog

text: Dekalog (, also known as Dekalog: The Ten Commandments and The Decalogue) is a 1988 Polish drama television miniseries directed by Krzysztof Kieślowski and co-written by Kieślowski with Krzysztof Piesiewicz, with music by Zbigniew Preisner. It consists of ten one-hour films, inspired by the decalogue of the Ten Commandments. Each short film explores characters facing one or several moral or ethical dilemmas as they live in an austere housing project in 1980s Poland.


title: Dekalog

text: The series, Kieślowski's most acclaimed work, was said in 2002 to be "the best dramatic work ever done specifically for television" and has won numerous international awards, though it was not widely released outside Europe until the late 1990s. It is one of fifteen films listed in the category "Values" on the Vatican film list. In 1991, filmmaker Stanley Kubrick wrote an admiring foreword to the published screenplay. According to him, "Dekalog" is the only masterpiece he could ever think of.


title: Dekalog

text: The series was conceived when screenwriter Krzysztof Piesiewicz, who had seen a 15th-century artwork illustrating the Commandments in scenes from that time period, suggested the idea of a modern equivalent. Filmmaker Krzysztof Kieślowski was interested in the philosophical challenge, and also wanted to use the series as a portrait of the hardships of Polish society, while deliberately avoiding the political issues he had depicted in earlier films. He originally meant to hire ten different directors, but decided to direct the films himself. He used a different cinematographer for each episode except III and IX, in both of which Piotr Sobociński was director of photography.


title: Dekalog

text: The large cast includes both famous and unknown actors, many of whom Kieślowski also used in his other films. Typically for Kieślowski, the tone of most of the films is melancholic, except for the final one, which is a black comedy, featuring two of the same actors, Jerzy Stuhr and Zbigniew Zamachowski, as in "".


title: Dekalog

text: The ten films are titled simply by number, e.g. "Dekalog: One". According to film critic Roger Ebert's introduction to the DVD set, Kieślowski said that the films did not correspond exactly to the commandments, and never used their names himself. Though each film is independent, most of them share the same setting in Warsaw, and some of the characters are acquainted with each other. Each short film explores characters facing one or several moral or ethical dilemmas as they live in a large housing project in 1980s Poland. The themes can be interpreted in many different ways; however, each film has its own literality:


title: Dekalog

text: A nameless character played by Polish actor Artur Barciś appears in all but episodes 7 and 10. He observes the main characters at key moments, and never intervenes.


title: Dekalog

text: "Dekalog" was assigned a rating of 97% at review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 53 critic reviews, with an average rating of 8.95/10. The website's consensus reads, "With awe-inspiring ambition to match its powerful assemblage of acting talent, "The Decalogue" stands as a singular achievement in writer-director Krzysztof Kieslowski's filmography -- as well as the history of Polish cinema." It also received an average score of 100 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 13 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". It won the 1991 BAFTA TV Award for Best International Programme and the Bodil Award for Best European Film. The film also won the "Best Foreign Film" award from French Syndicate of Cinema Critics.


title: Dekalog

text: The series was praised by renowned film critics including Roger Ebert and Robert Fulford, as well as important figures from the film industry, such as Stanley Kubrick.


title: Dekalog

text: In the 2002 "Sight & Sound" poll to determine the greatest films of all time, "Dekalog" and "A Short Film About Killing" received votes from 4 critics and 3 directors, including Ebert, New Yorker critic David Denby, and director Mira Nair. Additionally, in the "Sight & Sound" poll held the same year to determine the top 10 films of the previous 25 years, Kieslowski was named #2 on the list of Top Directors, with votes for his films being split between "Dekalog," "Three Colors Red/Blue", and "The Double Life of Veronique".


title: Dekalog

text: In the 2012 polls "Dekalog" received six votes from critics including Kenneth Turan and one vote from director Milcho Manchevski as the "Greatest Film of All Time".


title: Dekalog

text: "The Village Voice" ranked "The Decalogue" at No. 112 in its Top 250 "Best Films of the Century" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics. In January 2002, the film was listed among the Top 100 "Essential Films" of all time by the National Society of Film Critics. The film ranked #36 in "Empire" magazine's "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema" in 2010.


title: Dekalog

text: According to online film resource "They Shoot Pictures, Don't They?", "Dekalog" is the most acclaimed film of 1988.


title: Dekalog

text: Kieślowski expanded "Five" and "Six" into longer feature films ("A Short Film About Killing" and "A Short Film About Love"), using the same cast and changing the stories slightly. This was part of a contractual obligation with the producers, since feature films were easier to distribute outside Poland. In 2000, the series was released on five DVDs, each containing two parts of about 2 hours.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a network protocol for delivering audio and video over IP networks. RTP is used in communication and entertainment systems that involve streaming media, such as telephony, video teleconference applications including WebRTC, television services and web-based push-to-talk features.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP typically runs over User Datagram Protocol (UDP). RTP is used in conjunction with the RTP Control Protocol (RTCP). While RTP carries the media streams (e.g., audio and video), RTCP is used to monitor transmission statistics and quality of service (QoS) and aids synchronization of multiple streams. RTP is one of the technical foundations of Voice over IP and in this context is often used in conjunction with a signaling protocol such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) which establishes connections across the network.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP was developed by the Audio-Video Transport Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and first published in 1996 as which was then superseded by in 2003.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) began developing RTP starting in 1992, along with the Session Announcement Protocol (SAP), the Session Description Protocol (SDP), and the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP is designed for end-to-end, real-time transfer of streaming media. The protocol provides facilities for jitter compensation and detection of packet loss and out-of-order delivery, which are common especially during UDP transmissions on an IP network. RTP allows data transfer to multiple destinations through IP multicast. RTP is regarded as the primary standard for audio/video transport in IP networks and is used with an associated profile and payload format. The design of RTP is based on the architectural principle known as application-layer framing where protocol functions are implemented in the application as opposed to the operating system's protocol stack.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: Real-time multimedia streaming applications require timely delivery of information and often can tolerate some packet loss to achieve this goal. For example, loss of a packet in audio application may result in loss of a fraction of a second of audio data, which can be made unnoticeable with suitable error concealment algorithms. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), although standardized for RTP use, is not normally used in RTP applications because TCP favors reliability over timeliness. Instead the majority of the RTP implementations are built on the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Other transport protocols specifically designed for multimedia sessions are SCTP and DCCP, although, , they are not in widespread use.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP was developed by the Audio/Video Transport working group of the IETF standards organization. RTP is used in conjunction with other protocols such as H.323 and RTSP. The RTP specification describes two protocols: RTP and RTCP. RTP is used for the transfer of multimedia data, and the RTCP is used to periodically send control information and QoS parameters.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: The data transfer protocol, RTP, carries real-time data. Information provided by this protocol includes timestamps (for synchronization), sequence numbers (for packet loss and reordering detection) and the payload format which indicates the encoded format of the data. The control protocol, RTCP, is used for quality of service (QoS) feedback and synchronization between the media streams. The bandwidth of RTCP traffic compared to RTP is small, typically around 5%.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP sessions are typically initiated between communicating peers using a signaling protocol, such as H.323, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), RTSP, or Jingle (XMPP). These protocols may use the Session Description Protocol to specify the parameters for the sessions.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: An RTP session is established for each multimedia stream. Audio and video streams may use separate RTP sessions, enabling a receiver to selectively receive components of a particular stream. The RTP and RTCP design is independent of the transport protocol. Applications most typically use UDP with port numbers in the unprivileged range (1024 to 65535). The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) and the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) may be used when a reliable transport protocol is desired. The RTP specification recommends even port numbers for RTP, and the use of the next odd port number for the associated RTCP session. A single port can be used for RTP and RTCP in applications that multiplex the protocols.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP is used by real-time multimedia applications such as voice over IP, audio over IP, WebRTC and Internet Protocol television.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP is designed to carry a multitude of multimedia formats, which permits the development of new formats without revising the RTP standard. To this end, the information required by a specific application of the protocol is not included in the generic RTP header. For each class of application (e.g., audio, video), RTP defines a "profile" and associated "payload formats". Every instantiation of RTP in a particular application requires a profile and payload format specifications.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: The profile defines the codecs used to encode the payload data and their mapping to payload format codes in the protocol field "Payload Type" (PT) of the RTP header. Each profile is accompanied by several payload format specifications, each of which describes the transport of particular encoded data. Examples of audio payload formats are G.711, G.723, G.726, G.729, GSM, QCELP, MP3, and DTMF, and examples of video payloads are H.261, H.263, H.264, H.265 and MPEG-1/MPEG-2. The mapping of MPEG-4 audio/video streams to RTP packets is specified in , and H.263 video payloads are described in .


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: RTP packets are created at the application layer and handed to the transport layer for delivery. Each unit of RTP media data created by an application begins with the RTP packet header.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: The RTP header has a minimum size of 12 bytes. After the header, optional header extensions may be present. This is followed by the RTP payload, the format of which is determined by the particular class of application. The fields in the header are as follows:


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: A functional multimedia application requires other protocols and standards used in conjunction with RTP. Protocols such as SIP, Jingle, RTSP, H.225 and H.245 are used for session initiation, control and termination. Other standards, such as H.264, MPEG and H.263, are used for encoding the payload data as specified by the applicable RTP profile.


title: Real-time Transport Protocol

text: An RTP sender captures the multimedia data, then encodes, frames and transmits it as RTP packets with appropriate timestamps and increasing timestamps and sequence numbers. The sender sets the "payload type" field in accordance with connection negotiation and the RTP profile in use. The RTP receiver detects missing packets and may reorder packets. It decodes the media data in the packets according to the payload type and presents the stream to its user.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a "mineral" for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Nutrient minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms. Plants get minerals from soil. Most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, "minerals" are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids. The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the remaining elements in the human body are called "trace elements". The trace elements that have a specific biochemical function in the human body are iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, and selenium.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: At least twenty chemical elements are known to be "required" to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight. Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight. The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ~18 ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article on chemical composition of the human body


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Different opinions exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, there is no scientific consensus on whether chromium is an essential trace element in humans. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient, but the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively low atomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean:


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI= Adequate intake; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31–50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Minerals are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the chemical elements discussed in this article, from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some are in upper part of the picture, while others are in the lower part. The figure includes the relative values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components. Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day. The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S. Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU. In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function. One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce. Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.


title: Mineral (nutrient)

text: Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation. Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide. Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms. Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life. In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.


title: Memphis rap

text: Memphis rap, also known as Memphis hip hop or Memphis horrorcore, is a regional subgenre of hip hop music that originated in Memphis, Tennessee in the mid-late 1980s.


title: Memphis rap

text: It has been characterized as being low budget, using repetitive vocal hooks and a "distorted", lo-fi soundscape that utilizes the Roland TR-808 drum machine and minimal synth melodies. The genre commonly features double time flows with triplet flows, and routinely uses samples ranging from soul and funk to horror film scores and classical music, as well as hooks from songs by related rappers in the same genre, although DIY production without sampling is common as well. Because of the lack of resources, bedroom studios were often pushed to the extreme. Usually, the lyrics are quite dark and depict graphic subject matter.


title: Memphis rap

text: DJ Spanish Fly had introduced the synthetic drum-kit sound with the TR-808, splitting the Memphis scene in two between those who preferred the live versus the digital sound. Alongside a strong drum beat were, "cowbell, syncopated rhythms, powerful sub-bass, and sharp digital snares", these elements becoming the hallmarks of the Memphis rap sound. Looping is also a signature with no steadfast rule, although looping is used over chopped edits.


title: Memphis rap

text: Memphis artists released recordings on independent labels. The dominance of New York and Los Angeles's hip hop scenes forced southern artists to form an underground style and sound to compete with the other regions. Artists used a grassroots approach through word-of-mouth in the club scene and mixtapes to promote their music.


title: Memphis rap

text: DJ Spanish Fly is commonly cited as one of the pioneers of the genre, being the bridge between 1980s electro-funk and the heavier gangster rap of the following decade.


title: Memphis rap

text: Other early artists and groups associated with Memphis rap include T-Rock, C-Rock, Gangsta Pat, La Chat, Skimask Troopaz, Gimisum Family, Project Pat, Tommy Wright III, Princess Loko, Baby OG, II Tone, DJ Squeeky, DJ Zirk, DJ Sound, Blackout, Playa Fly, Gangsta Boo, Al Kapone, Mental Ward Click,MC Mack, Lil Noid, 8Ball & MJG and Three 6 Mafia, with the latter two achieving relative commercial success. Three 6 Mafia's "Mystic Stylez" and other releases by members of the group such as "Come with Me 2 Hell" by DJ Paul and Lord Infamous and Lil Noid's "Paranoid Funk" were particularly influential in the genre's development.


title: Memphis rap

text: Despite largely staying underground, it has attained a cult following on the internet from MP3 blogs, influencing rappers such as Lil Ugly Mane, Freddie Dredd, Denzel Curry, and SpaceGhostPurrp, as well as the rise of crunk, trap music, and phonk.


title: Nereids

text: In Greek mythology, the Nereids or Nereides ( ; ; , also Νημερτές) are sea nymphs (female spirits of sea waters), the 50 daughters of the 'Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanid Doris, sisters to their brother Nerites. They often accompany Poseidon, the god of the sea, and can be friendly and helpful to sailors (such as the Argonauts in their search for the Golden Fleece).


title: Nereids

text: The synonyms Νηρηΐδες and Νημερτές are etymologically unrelated. Νηρηΐδες is a patronymic, describing them as the daughters of Nereus. Νημερτές means literally 'not-mistaking', and there is an adjective of the same form meaning 'clear', 'unmistakable', or 'true'.


title: Nereids

text: The Nereids symbolized everything that is beautiful and kind about the sea. Their melodious voices sang as they danced around their father. They are represented as beautiful women, crowned with branches of red coral and dressed in white silk robes trimmed with gold.


title: Nereids

text: These nymphs are particularly associated with the Aegean Sea, where they dwelt with their father Nereus in the depths within a golden palace. The most notable of them are Thetis, wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles; Amphitrite, wife of Poseidon and mother of Triton; Galatea, the vain love interest of the Cyclops Polyphemus, and lastly, Psamathe who became the mother of Phocus by King Aeacus of Aegina, and Theoclymenus and Theonoe by Proteus, a sea-god or king of Egypt.


title: Nereids

text: In Homer's "Iliad" XVIII, when Thetis cries out in sympathy for the grief of Achilles for the slain Patroclus, her sisters appear. Four of her siblings, Cymodoce, Thalia, Nesaea and Spio were also among the nymphs in the train of Cyrene. Later on, these four together with their other sisters Thetis, Melite and Panopea, were able to help the hero Aeneas and his crew during a storm.


title: Nereids

text: In one account, Cassiopeia boasted that her daughter Andromeda was more beautiful than the Nereides, who were enraged by the claim. Poseidon, in sympathy for them, sent a flood and a sea monster to the land of the Ethiopians, demanding as well the sacrifice of the princess. These sea goddesses also were said to reveal to men the mysteries of Dionysus and Persephone.


title: Nereids

text: This list is correlated from four sources: Homer's "Iliad", Hesiod's "Theogony", the "Bibliotheca" of Pseudo-Apollodorus and the "Fabulae" of Hyginus. Because of this, the total number of names goes beyond fifty.


title: Nereids

text: In ancient art the Nereides appear in the retinue of Poseidon, Amphitrite, Thetis and other sea-divinities. On black-figure Greek vases they appear fully clothed, such as on a Corinthian hydra (sixth century BCE; Paris) where they stand near the bier of Achilles. Later vase-paintings depict them nude or partially nude, mounted on dolphins, sea-horses or other marine creatures, and often grouped together with Tritons. They appear as such on Roman frescoes and sarcophagi. An Etruscan bronze cista from Palestrina depicts winged Nereides.


title: Nereids

text: Famous is the Nereid Monument, a marble tomb from Xanthos (Lycia, Asia Minor), partially in the collection of the British Museum. At the top is a small temple surrounded by pillars between which Nereides stood. They were depicted in motion and with billowing, transparent clothes. The style is Attic-Ionian and dates to ca. 400 BCE.


title: Nereids

text: In the Renaissance and baroque periods the Nereid was frequently used to decorate fountains and garden monuments.


title: Nereids

text: Nereides were worshiped in several parts of Greece, but more especially in sea-port towns, such as Cardamyle, and on the Isthmus of Corinth. The epithets given them by the poets refer partly to their beauty and partly to their place of abode.


title: Nereids

text: In modern Greek folklore, the term "nereid" (, "neráida") has come to be used for all nymphs, fairies, or mermaids, not merely nymphs of the sea.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: HM Revenue and Customs (His Majesty's Revenue and Customs, or HMRC) is a non-ministerial department of the UK Government responsible for the collection of taxes, the payment of some forms of state support, the administration of other regulatory regimes including the national minimum wage and the issuance of national insurance numbers. HMRC was formed by the merger of the Inland Revenue and HM Customs and Excise, which took effect on 18 April 2005. The department's logo is the St Edward's Crown enclosed within a circle. Prior to the Queen's death on 8 September 2022, the department was known as "Her" Majesty's Revenue and Customs and has since been amended to reflect the change of monarch.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The department is responsible for the administration and collection of direct taxes including Income Tax, Corporation Tax, Capital Gains Tax (CGT) and Inheritance Tax (IHT), indirect taxes including Value Added Tax (VAT), excise duties and Stamp Duty Land Tax (SDLT), and environmental taxes such as Air Passenger Duty and the Climate Change Levy. Other aspects of the department's responsibilities include National Insurance Contributions (NIC), the distribution of Child Benefit and some other forms of state support including the Child Trust Fund, payments of Tax Credits, enforcement of the National Minimum Wage, administering anti-money laundering registrations for Money Service Businesses and collection and publication of the trade-in-goods statistics. Responsibility for the protection of the UK's borders passed to the UK Border Agency within the Home Office on 1 April 2008 and then to UK Border Force and the National Crime Agency in 2013.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: HMRC is a law enforcement agency which has a strong cadre of criminal investigators responsible for investigating Serious Organised Fiscal Crime. This includes all of the previous HMCE criminal work (other than drug trafficking but used to include this up until 2008) such as tobacco, alcohol, and oils smuggling. They have aligned their previous Customs and Excise powers to tackle previous Inland Revenue criminal offences. They are responsible for seizing (or preventing the loss of) billions of stolen pounds of HMG's revenue. Their skills and resources include the full range of intrusive and covert surveillance and they are a senior partner in the Organised Crime Partnership Board.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: HMRC criminal investigation officers have wide-ranging powers of arrest, entry, search and detention. HMRC have the power to apply for orders requiring information to be produced; apply for and execute search warrants; make arrests; search suspects and premises following arrest; and recover criminal assets through the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The main power, under section 138 of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (as amended by section 114 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984) is to arrest anyone who has committed, or whom the officer has reasonable grounds to suspect has committed, any offence under the Customs and Excise Acts as well as related fraud offences.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: On 30 June 2006, under the authority of the new Labour home secretary, John Reid, extensive new powers were given to HMRC. Under chairman Sir David Varney, a new Criminal Taxes Unit of senior tax investigators was created to target suspected fraudsters and criminal gangs. To disrupt and clamp down on criminal activity. This HMRC/CTU would pursue suspects in the same way the US Internal Revenue Service caught out Al Capone on tax evasion. These new powers included the ability to impose penalties without needing to prove the guilt of suspected criminals; extra powers to use sophisticated surveillance techniques, and for the first time, to have the same ability as customs officers to monitor suspects and arrest them. On 19 July 2006, the executive chairman of HMRC, Sir David Varney resigned.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: HMRC is also listed under parts of the British government which contribute to intelligence collection, analysis and assessment. Their prosecution cases may be coordinated with the police or the Crown Prosecution Service.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The merger of the Inland Revenue and HM Customs & Excise was announced by then chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown in the budget on 17 March 2004. The name for the new department and its first executive chairman, David Varney, were announced on 9 May 2004. Varney joined the nascent department in September 2004, and staff started moving from Somerset House and New Kings Beam House into HMRC's new headquarters building at 100 Parliament Street in Whitehall on 21 November 2004.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The planned new department was announced formally in the Queen's Speech of 2004 and a bill, the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Bill, was introduced into the House of Commons on 24 September 2004, and received royal assent as the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005 on 7 April 2005. The Act also creates a Revenue and Customs Prosecutions Office (RCPO) responsible for the prosecution of all Revenue and Customs cases.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The old Inland Revenue and Customs & Excise departments had very different historical bases, internal cultures and legal powers. The merger was described by the "Financial Times" on 9 July 2004, as "mating the C&E terrier with the IR retriever". For an interim period officers of HMRC are empowered to use existing Inland Revenue powers in relation to matters within the remit of the old Inland Revenue (such as income tax, stamp duty and tax credits) and existing Customs powers in relation to matters within the remit of the old Customs & Excise (such as value added tax and excise duties). However, a major review of the powers required by HMRC was announced at the time of the 2004 pre-budget report on 9 December 2004, covering the suitability of existing powers, new powers that might be required, and consolidating the existing compliance regimes for surcharges, interest, penalties and appeal, which may lead to a single, consolidated enforcement regime for all UK taxes, and a consultation document was published after the 2005 budget on 24 March 2005. Legislation to introduce new information and inspection powers was included in the Finance Act 2008 (Schedule 36). The new consolidated penalty regime was introduced via the Finance Act 2007 (Schedule 24).


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: As part of the spending review on 12 July 2004, Gordon Brown estimated that 12,500 jobs would be lost as result of the merger by March 2008, around 14% of the combined headcount of Customs (then around 23,000) and Inland Revenue (then around 68,000). In addition, 2,500 staff would be redeployed to "front-line" activities. Estimates suggested this may save around £300 million in staff costs, out of a total annual budget of £4 billion.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The total number of job losses included policy functions within the former Inland Revenue and Customs which moved into the Treasury, so that the Treasury became responsible for "strategy and tax policy development" and HMRC took responsibility for "policy maintenance". In addition, certain investigatory functions moved to the new Serious Organised Crime Agency, as well as prosecutions moving to the new Revenue and Customs Prosecution Office.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: A further programme of job cuts and office closures was announced on 16 November 2006. Whilst some of the offices closed were in bigger cities where other offices already exist, many were in local, rural areas, where there is no other HMRC presence. Initial proposals indicated that up to 200 offices would close and a further 12,500 jobs lost from 2008 to 2011. In May 2009, staff morale in HMRC was the lowest of 11 government departments surveyed.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In 2013, HMRC began to introduce an update to the PAYE system, which meant it would receive information on tax and employee earnings from employers each month, rather than at the end of a tax year. A trial of the new system began in April 2012, and all employers switched by October 2013.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In 2012, Revenue Scotland was formed and on 1 April 2015 it took HMRC responsibility to collect devolved taxes in Scotland. In 2015 Welsh Revenue Authority was formed and on 1 April 2018 it took HMRC responsibility to collect devolved taxes in Wales.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The board is composed of members of the executive committee and non-executive directors. Its main role is to develop and approve HMRC’s overall strategy, approve final business plans and advise the chief executive on key appointments. It also performs an assurance role and advises on best practice.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The Treasury minister responsible for HMRC is the economic secretary to the Treasury, Richard Fuller MP


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The chairman of HMRC was an executive role until 2008. Mike Clasper served as a non-executive chairman. From August 2012, the post was abolished with a 'lead non-executive director' chairing board meetings instead.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: HMRC collected £660 billion for the Treasury in 2018/19. It estimated that total theoretical tax liabilities in that year were £629 billion, but £31 billion was not collected due to the "tax gap", made up of money lost to tax evasion, tax avoidance, error and unpaid tax debts. This equates to a collection rate of 95.3% (up from 92.7% in 2005-6). At the end of March 2009, HMRC was managing 20 million 'open' cases (where the department’s systems identify discrepancies in taxpayer records or are unable to match a return to a record) which could affect around 4.5 million individuals who may have overpaid in total some £1.6 billion of tax and a further 1.5 million individuals who may have underpaid in total some £400 million of tax.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In 2007–08 HMRC overpaid tax credits to the value of £1 billion; at the end of March 2009, HMRC had £4.4 billion of overpayments to be recovered.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: On 20 November 2007, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Darling, announced that two discs that held the personal details of all families in the United Kingdom claiming child benefit had gone missing. This is thought to affect approximately 25 million individuals and 7.5 million families in the UK. The missing discs include personal details such as name, date of birth, National Insurance number, and bank details.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The then chancellor stated that there was no indication that the details had fallen into criminal hands; however, he urged people to monitor their bank accounts.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: from 1994 to 2004. In 2003, the launch of a new tax credit system led to over-payments of £2 billion to over two million people. EDS later paid £71.25 million in compensation for the disaster. In 2004, the contract was awarded to Capgemini. This contract, also with Fujitsu and BT, was one of the biggest ever IT outsourcing contracts, at a value of £2.6 billion.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In February 2010, HMRC encountered problems following the implementation of their taxes modernisation program called Modernising Pay-as-you-Earn Processes for Customers (MPPC). The IT system was launched in June 2009 and its first real test came in a period known as annual coding. Annual coding issues certain codes to tax payers on a yearly basis. The annual coding process sent out incorrect tax coding notices to some taxpayers and their employers meaning that they would pay too much tax the following year.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In August 2010, seven HMRC staff were sacked for deliberately underpaying benefits to ethnic-minority claimants. Dave Hartnett, permanent secretary for tax at HMRC, said the department operates a zero-tolerance policy on racial discrimination.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: The whistleblower Osita Mba revealed to "The Guardian" that HMRC entered a deal with Goldman Sachs which allowed Goldman Sachs to escape paying £10 million interest on unpaid tax. Following this HMRC used powers under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) "to examine the belongings, emails, internet search records and phone calls of their own solicitor, Osita Mba, and the phone records of his then wife" to find if he had spoken to the investigations editor of "The Guardian", David Leigh.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: MPs in the House of Commons public accounts committee praised Osita Mba and called for scrutiny into HMRC's use of RIPA powers in a report. The report said: "We are deeply disappointed by HMRC's handling of whistleblowers. We consider that HMRC's use of powers reserved for tackling serious criminals against Mr Osita Mba was indefensible. HMRC told us that it had changed how it deals with whistleblowers and that it now provides information to its audit and risk committee who can use this to challenge how HMRC handles whistleblowers."


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: In September 2015, a report from Citizens Advice highlighted frustration amongst callers to HMRC over long holding times. The report claimed that "thousands" of callers were waiting on average 47 minutes to have their call answered, often at considerable expense to the caller. HMRC alleged that the "unscientific and out-of-date survey of tweets" did "not represent the real picture" but said that 3000 extra staff had been taken on to respond to calls. A June 2015 report from the National Audit Office indicated that the total number of calls answered by HMRC fell from 79% in 2013–14, to 72.5% in 2014–15, however a subsequent report in May 2016 suggested that performance improved following the recruitment drive.


title: HM Revenue and Customs

text: Revenue and Customs Digital Technology Services (RCDTS) is a subsidiary of HMRC established in 2015 to provide technical and digital services. The company works exclusively for HMRC and its employees are not civil servants. On 17 January 2022, HMRC announced its intention to wind up the company.


title: Nominalism

text: In metaphysics, nominalism is the view that universals and abstract objects do not actually exist other than being merely names or labels. There are at least two main versions of nominalism. One version denies the existence of universalsthings that can be instantiated or exemplified by many particular things (e.g., strength, humanity). The other version specifically denies the existence of abstract objectsobjects that do not exist in space and time.


title: Nominalism

text: Most nominalists have held that only physical particulars in space and time are real, and that universals exist only "post res", that is, subsequent to particular things. However, some versions of nominalism hold that some particulars are abstract entities (e.g., numbers), while others are concrete entities – entities that do exist in space and time (e.g., pillars, snakes, bananas).


title: Nominalism

text: Nominalism is primarily a position on the problem of universals. It is opposed to realist philosophies, such as Platonic realism, which assert that universals do exist over and above particulars, and to the hylomorphic substance theory of Aristotle, which asserts that universals are immanently real within them. However, the name "nominalism" emerged from debates in medieval philosophy with Roscellinus.


title: Nominalism

text: The term "nominalism" stems from the Latin "nomen", "name". John Stuart Mill summarised nominalism in the apothegm "there is nothing general except names".


title: Nominalism

text: Plato was perhaps the first writer in Western philosophy to clearly state a realist, i.e. non-nominalist, position:


title: Nominalism

text: ... We customarily hypothesize a single form in connection with each of the many things to which we apply the same name. ... For example, there are many beds and tables. ... But there are only two forms of such furniture, one of the bed and one of the table. ("Republic" 596a–b, trans. Grube)


title: Nominalism

text: What about someone who believes in beautiful things, but doesn't believe in the beautiful itself ...? Don't you think he is living in a dream rather than a wakened state? ("Republic" 476c)


title: Nominalism

text: The Platonic universals corresponding to the names "bed" and "beautiful" were the Form of the Bed and the Form of the Beautiful, or the "Bed Itself" and the "Beautiful Itself". Platonic Forms were the first universals posited as such in philosophy.


title: Nominalism

text: Our term "universal" is due to the English translation of Aristotle's technical term "katholou" which he coined specially for the purpose of discussing the problem of universals. "Katholou" is a contraction of the phrase "kata holou", meaning "on the whole".


title: Nominalism

text: Aristotle famously rejected certain aspects of Plato's Theory of Forms, but he clearly rejected nominalism as well:


title: Nominalism

text: ... 'Man', and indeed every general predicate, signifies not an individual, but some quality, or quantity or relation, or something of that sort. ("Sophistical Refutations" xxii, 178b37, trans. Pickard-Cambridge)


title: Nominalism

text: The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus.


title: Nominalism

text: In medieval philosophy, the French philosopher and theologian Roscellinus (c. 1050 – c. 1125) was an early, prominent proponent of nominalism. Nominalist ideas can be found in the work of Peter Abelard and reached their flowering in William of Ockham, who was the most influential and thorough nominalist. Abelard's and Ockham's version of nominalism is sometimes called conceptualism, which presents itself as a middle way between nominalism and realism, asserting that there "is" something in common among like individuals, but that it is a concept in the mind, rather than a real entity existing independently of the mind. Ockham argued that only individuals existed and that universals were only mental ways of referring to sets of individuals. "I maintain", he wrote, "that a universal is not something real that exists in a subject ... but that it has a being only as a thought-object in the mind [objectivum in anima]". As a general rule, Ockham argued against assuming any entities that were not necessary for explanations. Accordingly, he wrote, there is no reason to believe that there is an entity called "humanity" that resides inside, say, Socrates, and nothing further is explained by making this claim. This is in accord with the analytical method that has since come to be called Ockham's razor, the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. Critics argue that conceptualist approaches answer only the psychological question of universals. If the same concept is "correctly" and non-arbitrarily applied to two individuals, there must be some resemblance or shared property between the two individuals that justifies their falling under the same concept and that is just the metaphysical problem that universals were brought in to address, the starting-point of the whole problem (MacLeod & Rubenstein, 2006, §3d). If resemblances between individuals are asserted, conceptualism becomes moderate realism; if they are denied, it collapses into nominalism.


title: Nominalism

text: In contemporary analytic philosophy, it has been defended by Rudolf Carnap, Nelson Goodman, H. H. Price, and D. C. Williams.


title: Nominalism

text: Lately, some scholars have been questioning what kind of influences nominalism might have had in the conception of modernity and contemporaneity. According to Michael Allen Gilllespie, nominalism profoundly influences these two periods. Even though modernity and contemporaneity are secular eras, their roots are firmly established in the sacred. Furthermore, "Nominalism turned this world on its head," he argues. "For the nominalists, all real being was individual or particular and universals were thus mere fictions."


title: Nominalism

text: Another scholar, Victor Bruno, follows the same line. According to Bruno, nominalism is one of the first signs of rupture in the medieval system. "The dismembering of the particulars, the dangerous attribution to individuals to a status of totalization of possibilities in themselves, all this will unfold in an existential fissure that is both objective and material. The result of this fissure fissure will be the essays to establish the nation state."


title: Nominalism

text: Indian philosophy encompasses various realist and nominalist traditions. Certain orthodox Hindu schools defend the realist position, notably Purva Mimamsa, Nyaya and Vaisheshika, maintaining that the referent of the word is both the individual object perceived by the subject of knowledge and the universal class to which the thing belongs. According to Indian realism, both the individual and the universal exist objectively, with the second underlying the former.


title: Nominalism

text: Buddhists take the nominalist position, especially those of the Sautrāntika and Yogācāra schools; they were of the opinion that words have as referent not true objects, but only concepts produced in the intellect. These concepts are not real since they do not have efficient existence, that is, causal powers. Words, as linguistic conventions, are useful to thought and discourse, but even so, it should not be accepted that words apprehend reality as it is.


title: Nominalism

text: Dignāga formulated a nominalist theory of meaning called "apohavada", or "theory of exclusions". The theory seeks to explain how it is possible for words to refer to classes of objects even if no such class has an objective existence. Dignāga's thesis is that classes do not refer to positive qualities that their members share in common. On the contrary, universal classes are exclusions ("apoha"). As such, the "cow" class, for example, is composed of all exclusions common to individual cows: they are all non-horse, non-elephant, etc.


title: Nominalism

text: Nominalism arose in reaction to the problem of universals, specifically accounting for the fact that some things are of the same type. For example, Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats, or, the fact that certain properties are repeatable, such as: the grass, the shirt, and Kermit the Frog are green. One wants to know by virtue of "what" are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats, and "what" makes the grass, the shirt, and Kermit green.


title: Nominalism

text: The Platonist answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the existence of a universal: a single abstract thing that, in this case, is a part of all the green things. With respect to the color of the grass, the shirt and Kermit, one of their parts is identical. In this respect, the three parts are literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing that manifests itself wherever there are green things.


title: Nominalism

text: Nominalism denies the existence of universals. The motivation for this flows from several concerns, the first one being where they might exist. Plato famously held, on one interpretation, that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the physical world (see theory of the forms). Particular physical objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal. But this raises the question: Where is this universal realm? One possibility is that it is outside space and time. A view sympathetic with this possibility holds that, precisely because some form is immanent in several physical objects, it must also transcend each of those physical objects; in this way, the forms are "transcendent" only insofar as they are "immanent" in many physical objects. In other words, immanence implies transcendence; they are not opposed to one another. (Nor, in this view, would there be a separate "world" or "realm" of forms that is distinct from the physical world, thus shirking much of the worry about where to locate a "universal realm".) However, naturalists assert that nothing is outside of space and time. Some Neoplatonists, such as the pagan philosopher Plotinus and the Christian philosopher Augustine, imply (anticipating conceptualism) that universals are contained within the "mind" of God. To complicate things, what is the nature of the instantiation or exemplification relation?


title: Nominalism

text: Conceptualists hold a position intermediate between nominalism and realism, saying that universals exist only within the mind and have no external or substantial reality.


title: Nominalism

text: Moderate realists hold that there is no realm in which universals exist, but rather universals are located in space and time wherever they are manifest. Now, recall that a universal, like greenness, is supposed to be a single thing. Nominalists consider it unusual that there could be a single thing that exists in multiple places simultaneously. The realist maintains that all the instances of greenness are held together by the exemplification relation, but this relation cannot be explained. Additionally, in lexicology as an argument against color realism; there is the subject of blue-green distinction; where in some languages the equivalent words for blue and green may be colexified) (and there may not be a straightforward translation either, in Japanese 青 (usually translated as "blue")); is sometimes used for words which in English may be considered as "green" (such as apples)


title: Nominalism

text: Finally, many philosophers prefer simpler ontologies populated with only the bare minimum of types of entities, or as W. V. O. Quine said "They have a taste for 'desert landscapes.'" They try to express everything that they want to explain without using universals such as "catness" or "greenness."


title: Nominalism

text: There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. One extreme is predicate nominalism, which states that Fluffy and Kitzler, for example, are both cats simply because the predicate 'is a cat' applies to both of them. And this is the case for all similarity of attribute among objects. The main criticism of this view is that it does not provide a sufficient solution to the problem of universals. It fails to provide an account of what makes it the case that a group of things warrant having the same predicate applied to them.


title: Nominalism

text: Proponents of resemblance nominalism believe that 'cat' applies to both cats because Fluffy and Kitzler resemble an exemplar cat closely enough to be classed together with it as members of its kind, or that they differ from each other (and other cats) quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only universal necessary. Others argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many argue that it is not vicious.


title: Nominalism

text: Class nominalism argues that class membership forms the metaphysical backing for property relationships: two particular red balls share a property in that they are both members of classes corresponding to their propertiesthat of being red and being balls. A version of class nominalism that sees some classes as "natural classes" is held by Anthony Quinton.


title: Nominalism

text: Conceptualism is a philosophical theory that explains universality of particulars as conceptualized frameworks situated within the thinking mind. The conceptualist view approaches the metaphysical concept of universals from a perspective that denies their presence in particulars outside of the mind's perception of them.


title: Nominalism

text: Another form of nominalism is trope nominalism. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of a shirt. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if substituting one for the other would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. David Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporary realist, argues that such a trope-based variant of nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can.


title: Nominalism

text: Ian Hacking has also argued that much of what is called social constructionism of science in contemporary times is actually motivated by an unstated nominalist metaphysical view. For this reason, he claims, scientists and constructionists tend to "shout past each other".


title: Nominalism

text: A notion that philosophy, especially ontology and the philosophy of mathematics, should abstain from set theory owes much to the writings of Nelson Goodman (see especially Goodman 1940 and 1977), who argued that concrete and abstract entities having no parts, called "individuals", exist. Collections of individuals likewise exist, but two collections having the same individuals are the same collection. Goodman was himself drawing heavily on the work of Stanisław Leśniewski, especially his mereology, which was itself a reaction to the paradoxes associated with Cantorian set theory. Leśniewski denied the existence of the empty set and held that any singleton was identical to the individual inside it. Classes corresponding to what are held to be species or genera are concrete sums of their concrete constituting individuals. For example, the class of philosophers is nothing but the sum of all concrete, individual philosophers.


title: Nominalism

text: The principle of extensionality in set theory assures us that any matching pair of curly braces enclosing one or more instances of the same individuals denote the same set. Hence {"a", "b"}, {"b", "a"}, {"a", "b", "a", "b"} are all the same set. For Goodman and other proponents of mathematical nominalism, {"a", "b"} is also identical to {"a", {"b"} }, {"b", {"a", "b"} }, and any combination of matching curly braces and one or more instances of "a" and "b", as long as "a" and "b" are names of individuals and not of collections of individuals. Goodman, Richard Milton Martin, and Willard Quine all advocated reasoning about collectivities by means of a theory of "virtual sets" (see especially Quine 1969), one making possible all elementary operations on sets except that the universe of a quantified variable cannot contain any virtual sets.


title: Nominalism

text: In the foundations of mathematics, nominalism has come to mean doing mathematics without assuming that sets in the mathematical sense exist. In practice, this means that quantified variables may range over universes of numbers, points, primitive ordered pairs, and other abstract ontological primitives, but not over sets whose members are such individuals. To date, only a small fraction of the corpus of modern mathematics can be rederived in a nominalistic fashion.


title: Nominalism

text: As a category of late medieval thought, the concept of 'nominalism' has been increasingly queried. Traditionally, the fourteenth century has been regarded as the heyday of nominalism, with figures such as John Buridan and William of Ockham viewed as founding figures. However, the concept of 'nominalism' as a movement (generally contrasted with 'realism'), first emerged only in the late fourteenth century, and only gradually became widespread during the fifteenth century. The notion of two distinct ways, a "via antiqua", associated with realism, and a "via moderna", associated with nominalism, became widespread only in the later fifteenth century – a dispute which eventually dried up in the sixteenth century.


title: Nominalism

text: A critique of nominalist reconstructions in mathematics was undertaken by Burgess (1983) and Burgess and Rosen (1997). Burgess distinguished two types of nominalist reconstructions. Thus, "hermeneutic nominalism" is the hypothesis that science, properly interpreted, already dispenses with mathematical objects (entities) such as numbers and sets. Meanwhile, "revolutionary nominalism" is the project of replacing current scientific theories by alternatives dispensing with mathematical objects (see Burgess, 1983, p. 96). A recent study extends the Burgessian critique to three nominalistic reconstructions: the reconstruction of analysis by Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind, and Karl Weierstrass that dispensed with infinitesimals; the constructivist re-reconstruction of Weierstrassian analysis by Errett Bishop that dispensed with the law of excluded middle; and the hermeneutic reconstruction, by Carl Boyer, Judith Grabiner, and others, of Cauchy's foundational contribution to analysis that dispensed with Cauchy's infinitesimals.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: Independence Day (; also known as "Araw ng Kalayaan", "Day of Freedom") is an annual national holiday in the Philippines observed on June 12, commemorating the declaration of Philippine independence from Spain in 1898.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The earliest recorded event related to the holiday was when Andres Bonifacio, along with Emilio Jacinto, Restituto Javier, Guillermo Masangkay, Aurelio Tolentino, Faustino Manalak, Pedro Zabala and few other Katipuneros went to Pamitinan Cave in Montalban, Rizal to initiate new members of the Katipunan. Bonifacio wrote "Viva la independencia Filipina!" or "Long Live Philippine independence" on walls of the cave to express the goal of their secret society. Bonifacio also led the Cry of Pugad Lawin, which signals the beginning of the Philippine Revolution. Members of the Katipunan, led by Bonifacio, tore their community tax certificates ("cedulas personales") in protest of Spanish conquest.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed on December 14, 1897, established a truce between the Spanish colonial government and the Filipino revolutionaries. Under its terms, Emilio Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders went into exile in Hong Kong after receiving 400,000 pesos from the Spanish Government.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the U.S. Navy Asiatic Squadron. On May 1, 1898, Dewey defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay, which effectively put the U.S. in control of the Spanish colonial government. Later that month, the U.S. Navy transported Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898 in Cavite.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: On June 5, 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree at his house located in what was then known as Cavite El Viejo proclaiming June 12, 1898 as the day of independence. The "Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo Filipino" was solemnly read by its author, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Aguinaldo's war counselor and special delegate. The 21-page declaration was signed by 98 Filipinos, appointed by Aguinaldo, and one retired American artillery officer, Colonel L. M. Johnson. The Philippine flag was officially unfurled for the first time at about 4:30 p.m, as the Marcha Nacional Filipina was played by the band of San Francisco de Malabon.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The proclamation was promulgated by 190 municipal presidents from the 16 provinces controlled by the revolutionary army on August 1, 1898 at Bacoor, and was officially ratified on September 29, 1898 by the Malolos Congress.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The Philippines failed to win international recognition of its independence, specifically including the United States of America and Spain. The Spanish government later ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Philippines Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty and the two sides subsequently fought what was known as the Philippine–American War.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The United States of America granted independence to the Philippines on July 4, 1946. In accordance with the Philippine Independence Act (more popularly known as the "Tydings–McDuffie Act"), President Harry S. Truman issued Proclamation 2695 of July 4, 1946 officially recognizing the independence of the Philippines. On the same day, the Treaty of Manila was signed.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: July 4 was chosen as the date by the United States because it corresponds to the United States' Independence Day, and that day was observed in the Philippines as "Independence Day" until 1962. On May 12, 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, which declared June 12 a special public holiday throughout the Philippines, "... in commemoration of our people's declaration of their inherent and inalienable right to freedom and independence." On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 renamed July 4 holiday as "Philippine Republic Day", proclaimed June 12 as "Philippine Independence Day", and enjoined all citizens of the Philippines to observe the latter with befitting rites.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: Prior to 1964, June 12 was observed as Flag Day in the country. In 1965, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Proclamation No. 374, which moved National Flag Day to May 28 (the date the Philippine Flag was first flown in the patriot victory in the Battle of Alapan located in Imus, Cavite in 1898). In 1994, President Fidel V. Ramos issued Executive Order No. 179, extending the celebration period from May 28 to Philippine Independence Day on June 12, ordering government departments, agencies, offices, government owned and controlled corporations, state agencies, and local government units, and even private establishments, to prominently display the National Flag in all public buildings, government institutions, and official residences during this period; ordering the Department of Education, in coordination with the private sector, non-government organizations, and socio-civic groups, to enjoin the prominent display of the National Flag in all public squares and, whenever practicable, in all private buildings and homes in celebration of national independence.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: Most government offices are closed on that day as this is a national holiday and so also are most educational institutions, either public or private. Since 2020-2021, June marks the formal end of the academic year for most schools and educational institutions.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: As required by law, the Flag of the Philippines, first flown on that day in 1898, is displayed in homes and establishments from as early as May 28, Flag Day, or on a selected date of May by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, which serves as the organizer of the celebrations, to the 30th of the month. Kawit, Cavite holds a yearly commemorative act with the flag raising at the Aguinaldo Shrine and the reading of the Philippine Declaration of Independence. Worldwide, Filipinos gather on June 12 or a date close to it to publicly celebrate, sometimes with a parade. There are also local celebrations as well, as well as a national celebration in Manila, the national capital, which in past years included a civil-military parade of uniformed organizations and public and private entitles, the last major parade was held in 2018 to mark the 120th year of nationhood.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: In the afternoon after the holiday toast ceremony or in the hours after the morning ceremonies in Manila, the commemorations continue with the civil-military parade at the historic Quirino Grandstand. For many years the civil-military parade in the capital was part of the national celebrations and was a key highlight.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: The parade begins with the arrival of the President, Vice President and other guests in attendance. On the moment of the President's arrival, together with the AFP Chief of Staff, full arrival honors are given by a company of cadets of the Philippine Military Academy and members of the Presidential Security Group with the PSG Band or PMA Band in attendance. As the band plays the honors music "Marangal na Parangal" and the combined honor guard presents arms, a 21-gun salute is performed by a select battery from the Philippine Army Artillery Regiment in the same time. As the march ends, the honor guard commander orders the parade to order arms and informs the President and the CSAFP of the readiness of the honor guard to be reviewed. The guard is then reviewed as the band plays a inspectiob march and the two salute the colour guard. As the review ends the honor guard presents arms again and afterwards, after the guard orders arms, the commander informs the President of the end of the inspection of the guards. They march off as the President and the CSAFP walk towards the grandstand area to meet the other dignitaries present.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: It is followed by the National Anthem, a joint holiday ecumenical prayer, and later by the opening remarks and the Presidential address if needed.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: Before the parade would start, performances by dance groups and choirs celebrating the anniversary of the nation's independence follow the Presidential address. The traditional cultural performance is a retelling in theatrical form of the Revolutionary period leading up to the formal declaration of independence and the proclamation of the First Republic.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: As the military parade portion commences, the AFP Combined Band plays "AFP on the March" as it marches past the grandstand and takes post to give way to the AFP parade, led by a general officer and his staff (either on foot or motorized) and followed by the color guard carrying and escorting the National Flag, the Armed Forces Flag and the component flags of the AFP and the combined color guard of the Philippine Marine Corps carrying the colors of the different units, commands and institutions of the Armed Forces. The parade commander in this segment is usually a Major General or Rear Admiral. Following the AFP contingents are units of the Philippine National Police, Bureau of Fire Protection and the Philippine Coast Guard. Joining them is a flypast of aircraft belonging to the AFP, PNP and PCG, and drive pasts of different vehicles of the uniformed services.


title: Independence Day (Philippines)

text: A civil parade segment follows at the end of the military parade. It is composed of contingents from the government and the private sector marching past the dignitaries. Floats celebrating the national holiday and marching bands take centerstage passing by the dignitaries in this segment. A civilian mobile column is also part of this segment. A common saying during the parade is "Viva la independencia Filipina!".


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: In the sport of bouldering, problems are assigned technical grades according to several established systems, which are often distinct from those used in roped climbing. Bouldering grade systems vary widely in use and include the Hueco "V" grades (known as the V-scale), Fontainebleau technical grades, route colors, Peak District grades, and British technical grades. Historically, the three-level "B" system and even the Yosemite Decimal System (sometimes with a "B" prepended, as in "B5.12") were also used.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: The B system conceived by John Gill in the 1950s was a universal rating scheme for bouldering, having three categories: "B1" was defined as "... the highest level of difficulty in traditional roped climbing", "B2" was harder than B1, or "bouldering level", and the grade "B3" designated a route ascended only once, although tried by others on several occasions. When a B3 was ascended a second time, it was reclassified as a B2, or B1. Gill's idea was to attract climbers to the "new" sport of bouldering, but discourage turning that sport into a numbers race. His system depended heavily on traditional climbing standards, long before sport climbing came into existence. It was assumed that the scale would shift as traditional difficulty levels rose. Thus, e.g., a B1(1958) would be easier than a B1(1968).


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: The system – designed in the early days of "modern bouldering" (i.e., bouldering interpreted as a legitimate form of rock climbing to be practiced "anywhere" the terrain is suitable, and not simply as training or as a minor, playful divertissement) – has never been in worldwide use. Occasionally climbers visiting bouldering destinations in North America encounter boulder problems with B ratings. The difficulty of these problems are now commonly quantified by John Sherman's V scale. The Gill B system is of historical interest, but has limitations in modern, competitive bouldering involving many climbers. Gill, citing the fragmentation of his categories into "B1-", "B1+", etc., blames the decline in popularity of his B-System upon its being "against the grain of normal competitive structures, where a simple open progression of numbers or letters indicates progress."


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: In Europe the Fontainebleau grading is the most widely used. The open-ended numerical system ranges from to 9A, and has been directly linked to a colour coded system since 1960. The colours have changed several times over the years and continue to develop, with the introduction of apple green in 2018 for the Facile grade of between children and adults. These grades are particular to Fontainebleau for the specific reason that foot technique and friction are critical. Most climbing walls require very little footwork and the V grading system works well since it relates directly to upper body strength. Indeed the majority of bouldering areas that are steep and overhanging suit the V grade perfectly, hence it is commonly adopted worldwide. In Fontainebleau, a full overall body technique is required and therefore gives reason for the development of its own particular grading system. In the very upper grades it is very easy to make comparisons, however in the lower grades (Font 6C and below) it is impossible to make a fair comparison.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: Since the year 2000, the colours and grades have become well established with the following used to base the grades (but there are always exceptions): 1A-1C is reserved for slabs that can be climbed without the use of hands. 2A-2C is generally yellow or green, and signify good holds and the problems that are easy enough to be done in training/approach shoes. 3A-3C (orange), are designated where technique is needed but nothing much for the arms. 4A-4C (blue), is for problems that require either specific arm or fingertip strength - and very often core strength since the footholds are often poor or sloping. 5A-5C (red), is given for problems that have a combination of fingertip and arm strength. 6A-6C (black or white), are simply desperate and mostly involve techniques particular to Fontainebleau. 7A-8C (purple), these problems are not marked on the rock but feature in the Jingowobbly guidebooks series as purple. The circuits that run through the forest and which follow painted thumb-sized numbers, will average at the grade for the colour, but may often include a few harder or easier problems than the colour suggests - especially if there are a limited number of circuits in an area and a whole circuit of one colour isn't painted.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: The "V" scale, devised by John 'Vermin' Sherman at Hueco Tanks State Historic Site in the 1990s, is the most widely used system in North America. Although open-ended, the "V" system covers a range from V0 to V17. At the easier end of the scale, some use the designation "VB" (sometimes said to designate "basic" or "beginner") for problems easier than a V0. Particularly at the lower end of the scale, the grades are sometimes postfixed with "+" (harder) or "−" (easier) to further distinguish the difficulty range within a single grade. Next-wave ascents harder than the current set of top-end problems will hypothetically continue to increase numbers in the scale.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: The scale is similar to many other systems in that it does not take danger or fear into account. Problems are rated based solely on the physical challenge involved. This implies that problems have the same grade on the V-scale on toprope as they would have when bouldered. Due to this limitation, guidebooks will often separately indicate when problems are dangerous for various reasons, for example, using the term 'highball' to indicate unusually tall boulders. If the terrain underneath the problem is especially sketchy (rocky, unusually steep, or for any other reason), the 'landing' of the problem will frequently be noted. Some world-class climbers encourage the use of the British E scale in cases where these dangers affect the difficulty of problems.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: Conceptually, the "V" scale is the bouldering equivalent of the earlier Australian (Ewbank) grading system for climbing - both have the advantages of not predefining an upper limit on difficulty measurement (as happened with the original Yosemite Decimal System), nor of having artificial divisions within the range of grades (as is the case with most other grading systems that use designations such as "a", "b", "c", "d", "+", "-" etc. within a single "grade").


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: In the UK, the system known as UK technical grades is occasionally used to rate a boulder problem. These run from 4a to 7b with steps of a, b and c before changing the initial number. This system is applied because these technical grades are used in the UK grading system for trad routes to represent the absolute difficulty of the hardest move. UK technical grades were only designed to describe the difficulty of a single move making them unsuitable for grading boulders and V or Font grades are generally used instead.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: Japan also has developed its own grading system widely used by the local climbers of the country, adopting the Dankyu (Dan and Kyu) system which resembles that of martial arts. It is also called the Soroban system, meaning grading system used in Japanese abacus schools. Like in martial arts, 1-Kyu is the hardest Kyu and it gets easier as the number ascends. 1-Kyu is the baseline grade represented by Captain Ahab in Ogawayama or Ninjagaeshi in Mitake, and is roughly equal to 6C+/7A in Fontainebleau grades or V5/V6 in Hueco scale. Kyu is open-ended on the easier side but practically the easiest problem could be around 10-Kyu. Dan starts from where kyu ends, Shodan (or 1-Dan) being the next grade higher than 1-Kyu, making it about 7A+/7B in Fontainebleau, V7/V8 in Hueco. Climbing a shodan problem means the climber has reached the advanced level. Dan gets harder as the number ascends, and is open-ended on the harder side. The Wheel of Life (V15/8C) is graded at 6-Dan. A comparison between Fontainebleau and Dankyu bouldering grades suggests that 6 kyu is equivalent to 4A/4C Fontainebleau.


title: Grade (bouldering)

text: Many attempts have been made to correlate the various grading systems, comparing not only grades in different bouldering systems, but also bouldering grades with traditional or sport climbing grades as well. Sometimes, there will be lack of agreement among boulderers on the difficulty of a particular problem using a single system, due to differences in size, reach, and other factors. That makes a consensus about equivalences among the various systems even less likely.


title: Head gasket

text: In an internal combustion engine, a head gasket provides the seal between the engine block and cylinder head(s).


title: Head gasket

text: Its purpose is to seal the combustion gases within the cylinders and to avoid coolant or engine oil leaking into the cylinders. Leaks in the head gasket can cause poor engine running and/or overheating.


title: Head gasket

text: Within a water-cooled internal combustion engine, there are three fluids which travel between the engine block and the cylinder head:


title: Head gasket

text: Correct operation of the engine requires that each of these circuits do not leak or lose pressure at the junction of the engine block and the cylinder head. The head gasket is the seal that prevents these leaks and pressure losses.


title: Head gasket

text: A leak in the head gasket - often called a "blown head gasket" - can result in a leak of coolant, the combustion gasses, or both.


title: Head gasket

text: Blue smoke from the exhaust suggests that excess oil is entering the combustion chambers (although there are other possible causes than a head gasket leak). White smoke from the exhaust suggests that coolant is entering the combustion chamber.


title: Head gasket

text: Head gasket leaks are classified as either external or internal. External leaks are visible as oil or coolant on the outside of the engine (typically underneath). Internal leaks are when the fluids enter another circuit and may result in changes to the coolant or oil. The former may be the presence of foam (caused by hydrocarbons) in the coolant expansion tank. Coolant leaking into the oil system may result in a mayonnaise, or milkshake-like, substance in the oil, often to be seen on the dipstick, or oil filler cap. However, the presence of this substance is not conclusive proof of head gasket failure, since oil could mix with the coolant via other routes. Likewise, it is entirely possible for a head gasket to fail in such a way that oil never comes in contact with coolant. Therefore it is not possible to conclusively determine the head gasket condition by inspecting the oil.


title: Head gasket

text: If coolant enters a cylinder, the burning of the air/fuel mixture is compromised, reducing the engine's performance and often causing steam (white smoke) to be visible from the exhaust. This steam can damage the catalytic converter. If a very large amount of coolant leaks into the cylinders, then the engine can suffer from hydrolock, which can cause extensive engine damage.


title: Head gasket

text: When the combustion gasses leak out of a cylinder, this causes a loss of compression, leading to power reduction or rough running. If the combustion gases are leaking into the cooling system, this reduces the effectiveness of the cooling system and can cause the engine to overheat. In other occurrences the gases can leak into small spaces between the gasket and either the cylinder head or engine block traps those gases, and then released when the engine is turned off. These gases then escape into the coolant and create air pockets. Sometimes these air pockets can get trapped in the engine's coolant thermostat, causing it to stay closed and cause further overheating, thereby creating more voids between the gasket and the engine. Other times these air pockets can also cause the engine to expel coolant into the overflow or expansion tank, thereby reducing the amount of coolant available for cooling.


title: Head gasket

text: Common test methods for head gasket leaks are a compression test (using a pressure gauge), a leak-down test or a chemical test that identifies hydrocarbons in the coolant fluid.


title: Head gasket

text: The cost of the replacement component (i.e. the head gasket itself) is usually relatively low, however there are significant labor costs involved in the replacement process. This is because the process of removing and replacing the cylinder head is a time-consuming task.


title: Head gasket

text: Engine knocking (detonation) can be caused by poor quality fuel, an engine fault or if inappropriate fuel and/or ignition settings are trialled chosen while engine tuning is taking place. If the detonation is severe, the cylinder pressure can be increase to eight times above normal pressures, which can cause the cylinder head to lift away from the engine block, disrupting the seal between the two. Most gaskets used in standard production engines can be critically damaged by severe detonation.


title: Grey Damon

text: Grey Damon (born September 24, 1987) is an American actor, known for his roles in "Friday Night Lights", "The Nine Lives of Chloe King" and "Station 19". He resides in Los Angeles. Beginning with its premiere on May 28, 2015, Damon co-starred with David Duchovny on the NBC series "Aquarius".


title: Grey Damon

text: Damon was born in Bloomington, Indiana. When Damon was young, he was raised in Boulder, Colorado. He discovered his passion for acting at the Denver Center for the Performing Arts when he landed his first professional job in a production of "A Christmas Carol".


title: Grey Damon

text: He made his acting debut in the February 3, 2009 episode of The CW's "90210", before getting minor roles in other television series such as "Greek" and "10 Things I Hate About You", and a recurring role in "True Blood". In 2010, he landed a regular role as Hastings Ruckle in the final season of "Friday Night Lights". The following year, he starred as Brian in "The Nine Lives of Chloe King", which was cancelled after one season, and in 2012, he appeared in a recurring role in "The Secret Circle". Damon had a recurring role as Archie in Freeform's "Twisted".


title: Grey Damon

text: Damon played the main love interest of Destinee & Paris in their 2011 music video for "True Love". On February 25, 2013, he was cast as Grayson in The CW's drama series "Star-Crossed" (originally titled "Oxygen"). In early August 2013, it was reported that Damon would join the cast for "". In 2016, Damon was announced as Mirror Master for "The Flash" season 3. He was later cast in the spinoff of "Grey's Anatomy" called "Station 19" as Jack Gibson.


title: Russian nobility

text: The Russian nobility ( "dvoryanstvo") originated in the 14th century. In 1914 it consisted of approximately 1,900,000 members (about 1.1% of the population) in the Russian Empire.


title: Russian nobility

text: Up until the February Revolution of 1917, the noble estates staffed most of the Russian government and possessed a Gentry assembly.


title: Russian nobility

text: The Russian word for nobility, "dvoryanstvo" (), derives from Slavonic "dvor" (двор), meaning the court of a prince or duke ("kniaz"), and later, of the tsar or emperor. Here, "dvor" originally referred to servants at the estate of an aristocrat. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the system of hierarchy was a system of seniority known as "mestnichestvo". The word "dvoryane" described the highest rank of gentry, who performed duties at the royal court, lived in it ("Moskovskie zhiltsy"), or were candidates to it, as for many boyar scions ("dvorovye deti boyarskie", "vybornye deti boyarskie"). A nobleman is called a "dvoryanin" (plural: "dvoryane"). Pre-Soviet Russia shared with other countries the concept that nobility connotes a status or social category rather than a title. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the title of the nobleman in Russia gradually became a formal status, rather than a reference to a member of the aristocracy, due to a massive influx of commoners via the Table of ranks. Many descendants of the former ancient Russian aristocracy, including royalty, saw their formal standing change to merchants, burghers, or even peasants, while people descended from serfs (like Vladimir Lenin's father) or clergy (like in the ancestry of actress Lyubov Orlova) gained formal nobility.


title: Russian nobility

text: The nobility arose in the 12th and 13th centuries as the lowest part of the feudal military class, which comprised the court of a prince or an important boyar. From the 14th century land ownership by nobles increased, and by the 17th century, the bulk of feudal lords and the majority of landowners were nobles. The nobles were granted estates out of State lands in return for their service to the Tsar, either for as long as they performed service or for their lifetime. By the 18th century, these estates had become private property. They made up the Landed army ()—the basic military force of Russia. Peter the Great finalized the status of the nobility, while abolishing the boyar title.


title: Russian nobility

text: The adoption of the fashions, mannerisms, and ideals of Western Europe by the Russian nobility was a gradual process rooted in the strict guidelines of Peter the Great and the educational reforms of Catherine the Great. While cultural westernization was mostly superficial and restricted to court, it coincided with the efforts of Russian autocrats to link Russia to Western Europe in more fundamental ways – socially, economically and politically. However, Russia's existing economic system, which lacked a sizable middle class and which relied heavily on forced labor, proved an insurmountable obstacle to the development of a free market economy. Furthermore, the lower classes (an overwhelming majority of the Russian population) lived virtually isolated from the upper classes and the imperial court. Thus, most of the nobility's “western” tendencies were largely aesthetic and confined to a tiny proportion of the populace.


title: Russian nobility

text: As different rulers ascended the throne in the 19th century, each figure brought a different attitude and approach to ruling the nobility. Yet, the cultural impact of Peter I and Catherine II was set in stone. Ironically, by introducing the nobility to political literature from Western Europe, Catherine exposed Russia's autocracy to them as archaic and illiberal. While the nobility was conservative as a whole, a liberal and radical minority remained constant throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, resorting to violence on multiple occasions in order to challenge Russia's traditional political system (see Decembrist Revolt, Narodnaya Volya).