title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: The match was played at the Stadion Gdańsk in Gdańsk, Poland. At the meeting of the UEFA Executive Committee in Kyiv in May 2018, the stadium was initially selected to host the 2020 UEFA Europa League Final, but when the COVID-19 pandemic forced UEFA to move the latter stages of the 2019–20 competition to Germany, the UEFA Executive Committee delayed Stadion Gdańsk's hosting of the Europa League final to 2021. The original venues for the 2021 and 2022 finals were also delayed by a year.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: This was the first UEFA club match hosted at the stadium, which was one of the venues for UEFA Euro 2012. It was the second UEFA club competition final to be played in Poland, as the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final was played at the National Stadium in Warsaw. When the stadium was selected to host the 2020 final, it was known as Stadion Energa Gdańsk, so due to UEFA sponsorship regulations, marketing materials for the match referred to the venue as Gdańsk Stadium. Although the sponsorship deal with Energa was ended in November 2020, the stadium continued to be known as Gdańsk Stadium for the final.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: An open bidding process was launched on 22 September 2017 by UEFA to select the venues of the finals of the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, and UEFA Women's Champions League in 2020. Associations had until 31 October 2017 to express interest, and bid dossiers had to be submitted by 1 March 2018. Associations hosting matches at UEFA Euro 2020 were not allowed to bid for the 2020 UEFA Europa League final.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: UEFA announced on 3 November 2017 that two associations had expressed interest in hosting the 2020 UEFA Europa League final.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: The Stadion Gdańsk in Gdańsk was selected by the UEFA Executive Committee during their meeting in Kyiv on 24 May 2018.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: On 17 June 2020, the UEFA Executive Committee announced that due to the postponement and relocation of the 2020 final, Gdańsk would instead host the 2021 final.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: This was Villarreal's fourth ever final in an official knockout tournament, having played previously three in UEFA competitions, all in the UEFA Intertoto Cup, winning it in 2003 and 2004. On the other hand, this was head coach Unai Emery's fifth European final, all in the UEFA Europa League; he won three successive titles with Sevilla in 2014, 2015 and 2016, before losing in 2019 with Arsenal.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: This was Manchester United's second UEFA Cup/Europa League final, having won the only previous occasion in 2017. Overall, it was their eighth European major final between the European Cup/Champions League, Cup Winners' Cup, and the UEFA Cup/Europa League. Ole Gunnar Solskjær reached his first final as the club's manager, having scored the winning goal in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final playing for them, exactly 22 years prior.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: The clubs previously met four times, in the 2005–06 and 2008–09 UEFA Champions League group stages. All games ended in goalless draws.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: On 12 May 2021, UEFA named Frenchman Clément Turpin as the referee for the final. Turpin had been a FIFA referee since 2010, and was previously the fourth official in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final. He officiated six matches in the 2020–21 Champions League season, and one leg in the 2020–21 Europa League round of 32. He served as a referee at UEFA Euro 2016 in France and the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, and was selected as an official for UEFA Euro 2020. Turpin also was a video assistant referee at the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup in Russia (including in the final), the 2017 FIFA Club World Cup in the United Arab Emirates and the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup in France. He was joined by five of his fellow countrymen, with Nicolas Danos and Cyril Gringore as assistant referees, François Letexier as the video assistant referee, and Jérôme Brisard and Benjamin Pagès as two of the assistant VAR officials. Slavko Vinčić of Slovenia was the fourth official, while Dutchman Pol van Boekel served as the remaining assistant VAR.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: Villarreal opened the scoring in the 29th minute with a goal from Gerard Moreno, diverting the ball into the net with his right leg from six yards out after a free-kick from the left side delivered by Dani Parejo. Edinson Cavani equalized in the 55th minute after a shot by Marcus Rashford from 20 yards deflected off of Scott McTominay to Cavani, who scored with a low shot from five yards out.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: There were no more goals in normal time or in extra time with the match going to a penalty shoot-out. The first ten penalties from both teams were converted, leaving the goalkeepers to take a penalty. Villarreal keeper Gerónimo Rulli converted his penalty, and then saved David de Gea's attempt to his left, winning his side the trophy.


title: 2021 UEFA Europa League Final

text: The "home" team (for administrative purposes) was determined by an additional draw to be held after the quarter-final and semi-final draws.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Josh (; ) is a 2000 Indian Hindi-language romantic action film directed and co-written by Mansoor Khan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan, Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Chandrachur Singh and Sharad Kapoor. The film, which is primarily in Hindi with occasional Konkani, was set and filmed in Goa. The film has some plot points inspired by the 1961 musical "West Side Story". The film is set in the year 1980, amidst the backdrop of real estate deals and communal violence in Goa.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: "Josh" released on 9 June 2000, and emerged as a commercial success at the box office, grossing worldwide. It received mixed reviews from critics upon release, with praise for its soundtrack and cast performances, but criticism for its story and screenplay.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: At the 46th Filmfare Awards, "Josh" received 5 nominations, including Best Film and Best Director (Mansoor).


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: In the town of Vasco in Goa, there exist two rival street gangs - the Bichhoos ("Scorpions"), who are Hindu immigrants, and the Eagles, who are local Christians. The leader of the Bichhoos is Prakash Sharma (Sharad Kapoor), while the Eagles are led by Max Dias (Shah Rukh Khan).


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Prakash is a local enforcer, who uses his gang to engage in underhanded activities within the Vasco real estate market. Max, along with his educated twin sister Shirley (Aishwarya Rai Bachchan), are orphans who belong to a rowdy motorcycle crew, together with the other members of the Eagles.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: The gangs are sworn enemies and have demarcated the town in order to avoid altercations. They are usually stopped from fights by Father Jacob or the town Police Inspector (Sharat Saxena).


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Prakash's brother Rahul (Chandrachur Singh) is a well-educated Masterchef working in Mumbai. He comes to visit Vasco after two years, intending to take his family back to Mumbai with him. Rahul decides to tour Vasco and rediscovers his love for the city. While in the territory of the Eagle Gang, he spots Shirley and becomes fascinated by her heavenly beauty and elegance at first sight. He eventually develops a deep attraction for Shirley and decides to settle in Vasco and open a pastry shop. Meanwhile, he unknowingly becomes part of the Eagle - Bichchoo rivalry and gets closer to Shirley. However, Max and the Eagles, not approving of Rahul having moved in, destroy the shop and put Rahul in severe debt to the landlord who permitted him to use his shop for his business.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Prakash, in desperate need of money, plans to take over the village ground. The ground historically belonged to Alberto Vasco, the landlord of the entire village and the man after whom the town is named. Rahul finds out that the ground was passed from Alberto to a woman named Mary Anne Louise. Unaware of his brother's schemes, Rahul visits the address listed for Mr. Vasco, and it is revealed that Mary was a renter in the Rose villa at 13, Churchill Road which belonged to Lady D'Costa (Nadira), twenty-two years ago. Rahul learns from Mrs. D'costa that Mary is Max and Shirley's mother and the twins are the illegitimate children of Alberto Vasco, born in 1958.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Having developed a close relationship with Shirley, Rahul plans to reveal this information to her in the form of a letter, however, it falls into the hands of Prakash. Prakash plots to get Rahul married to Shirley, and in the meantime murder Max, in order to receive Alberto Vasco's valuable land worth Rs. 20 lakhs. When he tries to execute his plan, and kill Max, a bloody fight breaks out between the two, and Max accidentally shoots Prakash while defending himself. Max is arrested by the police, and his trial puts a rift between Shirley and Rahul, as he believes Prakash went to Max just to ask Shirley for him and Max murdered him for no real reason. Before Max receives his verdict, Rahul learns the truth and hence, defends Max in court. Max is released and asks Rahul for forgiveness and his hand in marriage with Shirley, thereby uniting the Eagles and Bichhoos with each other.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Director Mansoor Khan was initially considering Salman Khan for the role of Max Dias, but things didn't work out as he was dating the actress, and he signed on Shah Rukh Khan. Mansoor Khan has revealed he was keen on bringing Shah Rukh Khan and Aamir Khan together for his film "Josh", but the latter rejected the film. Aamir Khan was apparently offered the role of Rahul Sharma. "Aamir Khan wanted to change the image and he no longer wanted to play the lover boy or romantic hero Rahul Sharma," Mansoor Khan told reporters.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Actor Puneet Vashist, who played the role of Michael in the film, has since claimed that his screentime, as well as that of fellow co-actors Aishwarya Rai, Sharad Kapoor & Chandrachur Singh, was reduced in the editing room, with Vashist claiming that almost fifty per cent of his scenes were cut out. Filming began in March 1999.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: A. R. Rahman was signed in as the music composer first, but he opted out, due to scheduling conflicts with other films. After Rahman opted out, Mansoor Khan roped in Anu Malik to complete the music fast, and release the film on time. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India". The song "Hai Mera Dil" is based on "Sealed with a Kiss" written by Peter Udell and Gary Geld, and "Djobi Djoba" performed by Gipsy Kings.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: "Josh" grossed in India and $1.127 million (5.01 crore) in other countries, for a worldwide total of , against its budget. It had a worldwide opening weekend of , and grossed in its first week. It is the 6th-highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2000 worldwide.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: In India, the film opened on Friday, 9 June 2000, across 300 screens, and earned nett on its opening day. It grossed nett in its opening weekend, and had a first week of nett. The film earned a total of nett, and was declared "Average" by "Box Office India". It is the 5th-highest-grossing film of 2000 in India.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: Among overseas territories, "Josh" had an opening weekend of $575,000 (2.55 crore) and went on to gross $800,000 (3.56 crore) in its first week. The film earned a total of $1.127 million (5.01 crore) at the end of its theatrical run. Overseas, It is the 9th-highest-grossing film of 2000.


title: Josh (2000 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. "Planet Bollywood" gave the film 7.5/10 and wrote, "Mansoor [Khan] succeeds as a director in keeping the movie fast and interesting, though it is the characters who come out much stronger than the film". Taran Adarsh from "Bollywood Hungama" noted "On the whole, "Josh" is a well-made film with great performances and a hit musical score. But the Goan ambience will restrict its prospects in some states due to lack of identification. Also, an average second half and a weak climax are major limitations".


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Freeway is a 1996 American black comedy crime film written and directed by Matthew Bright and produced by Oliver Stone. It stars Kiefer Sutherland, Reese Witherspoon and Brooke Shields. The film's plot is a dark take on the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood".


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Vanessa Lutz is an illiterate teenager living south of Los Angeles. Her mother, Ramona, is arrested in a prostitution sting, and her stepfather, Larry, is taken in on drug and child abuse charges. Social worker Mrs. Sheets comes to take Vanessa away, but she handcuffs the social worker to a bed and runs away.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Taking Mrs. Sheets' run-down car, Vanessa plans to go live with her grandmother in Stockton. Along the way, she stops to see her boyfriend Chopper Wood, a local gang member, to tell him about her trip. He gives her a gun to sell upon arriving at her destination. Minutes after Vanessa leaves, he is killed in a drive-by shooting. Later, Bob Wolverton, a counselor at a school for boys with emotional problems, picks her up on the side of the highway when the car breaks down. He offers to take her as far as L.A., where he is headed.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Over the long drive, Vanessa comes to trust Bob, and confesses to him the details of her painfully dysfunctional life, including sexual abuse by her stepfather and foster parents. At one point, Vanessa shows Bob a photo she keeps in her wallet of her biological father (whose picture, unbeknownst to her, is of mass murderer Richard Speck).


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: That evening, Bob attacks Vanessa, revealing he is the "I-5 Killer". She turns the tables on him, however, and shoots him several times before escaping. Going to a local restaurant, her blood-stained appearance prompts the owners to call 9-1-1. As she leaves the restaurant, Vanessa is arrested and questioned by police detectives, Mike Breer and Garnet Wallace, who write her off as a carjacker, even though she insists Bob had tried to kill her and had told her about his crimes.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Bob survives, but the bullet wounds have left him severely handicapped and facially disfigured. Vanessa is put on trial; Bob is portrayed as an innocent victim with no criminal record, whereas Vanessa has a long string of prior offenses. Vanessa goes to prison, while Bob and his socialite wife Mimi, who knows nothing of his crimes, are treated like heroes.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Initially scared, Vanessa makes friends in prison that include heroin-addicted lesbian Rhonda and Mesquita, a brutal Hispanic gang leader. Vanessa plots to escape to her grandmother's house and fashions a shiv from a toothbrush, a skill she had learned from her stepfather. During their transport to a new maximum security prison, Vanessa and Mesquita escape after killing a security guard, and they go their separate ways.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Re-examining evidence, the detectives realize Vanessa was telling the truth. They search Bob's home and find violent child pornography and human remains in a storage shed. Horrified, Mimi commits suicide. Evading the police at his home, Bob travels to Vanessa's grandmother's trailer, using the address written on a picture Vanessa had showed him.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Posing as a prostitute, Vanessa steals a car from a prospective john, driving to the trailer. She finds Bob in bed wearing her grandmother's nightgown and nightcap with the covers pulled up to his nose. He reveals himself and Vanessa sees her grandmother's dead body on the floor. A struggle ensues, culminating in her strangling him. Breer and Wallace arrive, finding the bodies of Bob and Vanessa's grandmother. Outside, Vanessa sits in a chair in a daze, then asks the detectives if they have a cigarette. They all smile and laugh.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: "Freeway" premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 26, 1996 where it was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize.


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 77% based on 43 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "A modern update on the tale of Little Red Riding Hood, "Freeway" is an audacious black comedy with a star-making performance from the young Reese Witherspoon." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film had a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Freeway (1996 film)

text: Critics lauded the film's hard-edged satire and performances. Film critic Roger Ebert gave "Freeway" three and a half stars out of four and stated, "like it or hate it (or both), you have to admire its skill, and the over-the-top virtuosity of Reese Witherspoon and Kiefer Sutherland." It received "Two Thumbs Up" on "Siskel and Ebert At the Movies". Joe Baltake of "The Sacramento Bee" gave "Freeway" four stars out of four and called it "a wild, audacious drive-in attraction that takes the 'high' from 'highbrow' and the 'low' from 'lowdown' and shakes them up". Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" gave "Freeway" four stars out of four and said that it was "rude in the way the truth is rude—only funnier". Margaret A. McGurk wrote for "The Cincinnati Enquirer" that "I didn't particularly want to like Freeway, but I couldn't help myself. Reese Witherspoon made me."


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: The 1889–1890 pandemic, often referred to as the "Asiatic flu" or "Russian flu", was a worldwide respiratory viral pandemic. It was the last great pandemic of the 19th century, and is among the deadliest pandemics in history. The pandemic killed about 1 million people out of a world population of about 1.5 billion (0.067% of population). The most reported effects of the pandemic took place from October 1889 to December 1890, with recurrences in March to June 1891, November 1891 to June 1892, the northern winter of 1893–1894, and early 1895.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: Although contemporaries described the pandemic as influenza and 20th-century scholars identified several influenza strains as the possible pathogen, some more recent authors suggest that it may have been caused by human coronavirus OC43.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: Modern transport infrastructure assisted the spread of the 1889 pandemic. The 19 largest European countries, including the Russian Empire, had about 200,000 km of railroads, and transatlantic travel by sea took less than six days (not significantly different from current travel time by air, given the timescale of the global spread of a pandemic). It was the first pandemic to spread not just through a region such as Eurasia, but worldwide.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: The disease was first reported in the Central Asian city of Bukhara in the Russian Empire (modern Uzbekistan) in May 1889. The Trans-Caspian railway enabled it to spread farther into Samarkand by August, and Tomsk, 3,200 km away, by October. As the Trans-Siberian Railway had not yet been constructed, spread to the east was slower, but it reached the westernmost station of the Trans-Caspian, Krasnovodsk (now known as Türkmenbaşy), and from there the Volga trade routes, which carried it by November to Saint Petersburg (infecting 180,000 of the city's under one million inhabitants) and Moscow. By mid-November Kiev was infected, and the next month the Lake Baikal region was as well, followed by the rest of Siberia and Sakhalin by the end of the year.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: From St. Petersburg, the infection spread via the Baltic shipping trade to Vaxholm in early November 1889, and then to Stockholm and the rest of Sweden, infecting 60% of the population within eight weeks. Norway, and then Denmark, followed soon after. The German Empire first received it in Posen in December, and on 12 November 600 workers were reported sick in Berlin and Spandau, with the cases in the city reaching 150,000 within a few days, and ultimately half of its 1.5 million inhabitants. Vienna was infected around the same time. Rome was reached by 17 December. The flu also arrived in Paris in December, and towards the end of the month had spread to Grenoble, Toulon, Toulouse and Lyon on the mainland, and Ajaccio on Corsica. At this point Spain was also infected, killing up to 300 a day in Madrid. It reached London at the same time, from where it spread quickly within Great Britain and Ireland to Birmingham, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dublin.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: The first case on American soil was reported on 18 December 1889. It then quickly spread throughout the East Coast and all the way to Chicago and Kansas in days. The first American death, Thomas Smith of Canton, Massachusetts, was reported on 25 December. San Francisco and other cities were also reached before the month was over, with the total US death toll at about 13,000. From there it spread to Mexico and to South America, reaching Buenos Aires by 2 February.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: India received it in February 1890, and Singapore and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) did by March. These were followed by Japan, Australia, and New Zealand by April, and then China in May; the infection continued to spread, reaching its original starting point in Central Asia.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: Cases in Africa began to appear in port cities in late December 1889 and in January 1890, although there may have been an early outbreak in Durban, South Africa, in November 1889.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: In four months it had spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Deaths peaked in Saint Petersburg on 1 December 1889, and in the United States during the week of 12 January 1890. The median time between the first reported case and peak mortality was five weeks. In Malta, the Asiatic flu took hold between January 1889 and March 1890, with a fatality rate of 4% (39 deaths), and a resurgence in January to May 1892 with 66 fatalities (3.3% case fatality rate). When this flu began, it was debated whether it was in fact a human-to-human contagious disease; its virulence and rapid spread across all climates and terrains demonstrated that it was.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: There was no standard treatment of flu; quinine and phenazone were used, as well as small doses of strychnine and larger ones of whisky and brandy, and as cheaper treatments linseed, salt and warm water, and glycerin. Many people also thought that fasting would 'starve' the fever, based on the belief that the body would not produce as much heat with less food; this was in fact poor medical advice. Furthermore, many doctors still believed in the miasma theory of disease rather than infectious spread; for example, notable professors of the University of Vienna, Hermann Nothnagel and Otto Kahler considered that the disease was not contagious.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: US public health departments did little prevention in advance, even though they knew through transoceanic telegraph cable reports, that the Russian influenza was on its way.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: A result of the Asiatic flu in Malta is that influenza became for the first time a compulsorily notifiable illness.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: Researchers have tried for many years to identify the subtypes of Influenza A responsible for the 1889–1890, 1898–1900 and 1918 epidemics. Initially, this work was primarily based on "seroarcheology"—the detection of antibodies to influenza infection in the sera of elderly people—and it was thought that the 1889–1890 pandemic was caused by Influenza A subtype H2, the 1898–1900 epidemic by subtype H3, and the 1918 pandemic by subtype H1. With the confirmation of H1N1 as the cause of the 1918 flu pandemic following identification of H1N1 antibodies in exhumed corpses, reanalysis of seroarcheological data suggested Influenza A subtype H3 (possibly the H3N8 subtype) as a more likely cause for the 1889–1890 pandemic.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: After the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, virologists started sequencing human and animal coronaviruses. A comparison of two virus strains in the "Betacoronavirus 1" species bovine coronavirus and human coronavirus OC43 indicated that the two had a most recent common ancestor in the late 19th century, with several methods yielding most probable dates around 1890. The authors speculated that an introduction of the former strain to the human population, rather than influenza, might have caused the 1889 epidemic.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: In 2020, two Danish bioinformatics researchers noted in an unpublished study that the clinical manifestations of the 1889 pandemic—runny nose, headache, high fever, severe chest inflammation, speeding up old respiratory diseases, and primarily killing elderly people—resembled COVID-19, a disease caused by a coronavirus, more than flu. Based on their calculations, they hypothesised that the human coronavirus OC43 had split from bovine coronavirus about 130 years prior, approximately coinciding with the pandemic of 1889–1890. Their calculation was based on genetic comparisons between bovine coronavirus and different strains of OC43. A Belgian team performed a similar analysis of OC43, identifying a crossover date in the late 1800s.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: In 2021, examination of contemporary medical reports noted that the pandemic's clinical manifestations resembled those of COVID-19 rather than influenza, with notable similarities including multisystem disease, loss of taste and smell perception, central nervous system symptoms and sequelae similar to long COVID. Other scientists have pointed to the fact the mortality curve for Russian Flu is J-shaped, as found in COVID-19, with little mortality in the very young and high mortality in the old, rather than the U-shaped mortality found in influenza infections, with high mortality in the very young and very old.


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: While a small sample of dental remains has been tested and lends weight to the hypothesis, there is still no scientific consensus that the 1889–1890 outbreak was caused by a coronavirus, with one analysis of the literature suggesting that the evidence for this causality is still "conjectural".


title: 1889–1890 pandemic

text: Unlike most influenza pandemics such as the 1918 flu, primarily elderly people died in 1889. Due to generally lower standards of living, worse hygiene, and poorer standard of medicine, the proportion of vulnerable people was higher than in the modern world.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The first film, , was released in Japanese theaters in January 2016. The second film, , was released in August 2016, and the third and the final film, , was released in January 2017.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Koyomi Araragi, a second year high school student at Naoetsu High School, befriends Tsubasa Hanekawa, the top honors student at his school. Tsubasa mentions a rumor about a "blonde vampire" that has been sighted around their town recently. Koyomi, who is usually anti-social, takes a liking to Tsubasa's down-to-earth personality. That evening, Koyomi encounters this rumored vampire: she is Kiss-Shot Acerola-Orion Heart-Under-Blade, also known as the "King of Apparitions." The blonde, golden-eyed vampire cries out for Koyomi to save her as she lies in a pool of her own blood, all four of her limbs having been cut off by three vampire hunters. Kiss-Shot asks Koyomi to give her his blood in order to save her life, and when he does, Koyomi finds himself reborn as her vampire subordinate, but Kiss-Shot is now in the form of a child. Koyomi truly wants to become a human again and not stay a vampire. He asks Kiss-Shot how he can revert himself and she answers that he has to find all of her limbs that were cut by her killers.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Now a vampire, Koyomi is charged with retrieving Kiss-shot's severed limbs from the vampire hunters who took them. Before he confronts the first hunter, the gigantic full-vampire Dramaturgy, he has a conversation with Tsubasa. He hides his vampire nature, but Tsubasa is still interested in the rumors about vampires being spread around. At the fight, Dramaturgy tears Koyomi's arms off in one blow, but Koyomi discovers his vampire power of rapid regeneration. Seeing the fight as lost, Dramaturgy surrenders Kiss-Shot's leg to Koyomi. At the time, Kiss-Shot has taken the form of a child. But she morphs into a young teenager after she consumes her adult leg.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Koyomi next fights the vampire-human half-breed Episode, who can transform into mist and wields a giant silver cross as a weapon. Tsubasa walks into the fight and is disemboweled by Episode. Before she dies, Tsubasa points out to Koyomi that he can defeat Episode by throwing sand into his mist form. Koyomi uses sand to overwhelm Episode and strangles him into unconsciousness. Meme Oshino, an ally of Kiss-Shot, gets Koyomi to calm down and, for a price of ¥3 million, informs Koyomi that he can use his own blood to heal Tsubasa. Koyomi then uses his own blood to save Tsubasa's life. Consumption of the second leg enables Kiss-Shot to morph into a young adult.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Koyomi now must face the fully human priest Guillotine Cutter for Kiss-Shot's arms. Before the fight, he desperately pleads with Tsubasa to leave for her own safety. Tsubasa ultimately agrees, leaving her panties with Koyomi as a promise that they will reunite later. Nonetheless, Guillotine Cutter kidnaps Tsubasa, and Meme advises that Koyomi must "forget about being human again" in order to rescue her. Koyomi uses a power to transform his arms into tree roots to defeat Guillotine Cutter and save Tsubasa, but appears to have abandoned his wish to become human again.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Koyomi and Meme finally succeed at fully restoring Kiss-Shot. Koyomi expects Kiss-Shot to then change him back to human. But before that, Kiss-Shot and Koyomi spend an evening on a rooftop, where Kiss-Shot reminisces about her previous subordinate, a Samurai who chose to commit suicide when Kiss-Shot was not able to restore his humanity. Koyomi goes off to buy food, but when he returns he finds Kiss-Shot eating the eviscerated corpse of Guillotine Cutter. He is horrified at the realization that Kiss-Shot will now hunt humans again, and that he himself will want to hunt as well.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The realization leaves Koyomi despondent enough to want to die. But then Tsubasa appears and persuades Koyomi to stay alive. She also points out that Koyomi himself has the power to stop Kiss-Shot. Tsubasa's comforting words, as well as a clumsy attempt to fondle her breasts, bring Koyomi's spirits up enough to face Kiss-Shot in a fight.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Kiss-Shot and Koyomi face off in the Tokyo Olympic stadium. They repeatedly tear each other's limbs and heads off, but then regenerate their appendages back. Finally, Koyomi weakens Kiss-Shot by sucking out her blood. But Tsubasa suddenly realizes that Kiss-Shot wants to die. Kiss-Shot admits that she was going to throw the fight, and explains that she has to die to restore a subordinate's humanity, but couldn't do so for her previous subordinate because she was too scared of death. Kiss-Shot demands that Koyomi kill her, but Koyomi instead yells for Meme's help. Meme proposes a solution that will "make everyone miserable": Koyomi will suck out Kiss-Shot's blood only to the point that she is too weak to hunt humans, leaving them both quasi-versions of vampire and human. Over Kiss-Shot's protestations, Koyomi chooses this path. The next day, Koyomi explains to Tsubasa that he is mostly human but does have some vampire traits. Kiss-Shot now has the form of a child, and can only eat by regularly sucking Koyomi's blood.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The anime adaptation of "Kizumonogatari" was announced in July 2010 and in March 2011 it was announced that the adaptation would be a film. In October 2015 it was announced that there would be three films: "Kizumonogatari I: Tekketsu-hen", "Kizumonogatari II: Nekketsu-hen" and "Kizumonogatari III: Reiketsu-hen"; the cast and crew for "Tekketsu" were also announced.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: As of September 2011, the film was scheduled for release in 2012 but it was announced in April 2012 that the release date had been pushed back. In October 2015 the release date for the first film was announced for January 2016. The first film, , was released in Japanese theaters on January 8, 2016. The second film, , was released on August 19, 2016, and the third and the final film, , was released on January 6, 2017.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: It was released in the United States by Aniplex of America on February 26, 2016. The third film was premiered on United States on April 7, 2017. Neofilms later premiered the third anime film on May 18, 2017 in Hong Kong.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: On its opening weekend in Japan, "Tekketsu" placed third, grossing from 243,702 admissions. On its second weekend, it was in the sixth place by admissions and in fifth place by gross, with . On the third weekend, it was in the ninth place by admissions and in the eighth place by gross, with . The film reached more than 450,000 admissions by January 26. As of February 7, Tekketsu had grossed . The Blu-ray Disc edition of the first film sold 36,018 in its first week, placing first in the chart.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The second film, "Nekketsu" grossed on its opening weekend in Japan and was eighth placed by number of admissions, with 148,200. The film grossed US$3,442,498 overall in Japan box office. On November 22, ODEX announced that it will screen the second film in Singapore from November 25, to November 27. The Blu-ray Disc edition sold 30,670 in its first week, placing again first in the chart, with DVD selling over 2,000.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The third film, "Reiketsu" was ninth placed on its opening weekend, grossing (). It earned ¥170,000,000 in 4 days.


title: Kizumonogatari

text: Nick Creamer of "Anime News Network" gave the first film an overall grade of A−, saying that the film "might be the first third of a masterpiece. It is already a breathtaking experience."


title: Kizumonogatari

text: He also gave the second film an "A" grade, praising its story, animation, and sound design. He noted as a negative that the film's sexuality seemed to "trip into indulgent excess" at times, however ended the review by stating "It's ugly, incomplete, and ostentatiously beautiful. It is one of a kind."


title: Kizumonogatari

text: The first film was the runner-up in the "Best Picture (film)" category at the 2016 Newtype Anime Awards.


title: Kurma

text: Kurma (; , 'Turtle', 'Tortoise'), is the second avatar of the Hindu preserver deity, Vishnu. Originating in Vedic literature such as the Yajurveda as being synonymous with the Saptarishi called Kashyapa, Kurma is most commonly associated in post-Vedic literature such as the Puranas. He prominently appears in the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, referred to as the Samudra Manthana. Along with being synonymous with Akupara, the World-Turtle supporting the Earth, Kurma is listed as the second of the Dashavatara, which are the ten principal incarnations of Vishnu.


title: Kurma

text: The Sanskrit word 'Kurma' (Devanagari: कूर्म) means 'Tortoise' and 'Turtle'. The tortoise incarnation of Vishnu is also referred to in post-Vedic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana as 'Kacchapam' (कच्छप), 'Kamaṭha' (कमठ), 'Akupara' (अकूपार), and 'Ambucara-Atmana' (अम्बुचर-आत्मना), all of which mean 'tortoise' or 'form of a tortoise'.


title: Kurma

text: Written by the grammarian Yaska, the Nirukta is one of the six Vedangas or 'limbs of the Vedas', concerned with correct etymology and interpretation of the Vedas. The entry for the Tortoise states (square brackets '[ ]' are as per the original author):


title: Kurma

text: As illustrated below, Vedic literature such as the Samaveda and Yajurveda explicitly state Akupara/Kurma and the sage Kashyapa are Synonymous. Kashyapa - also meaning 'Tortoise' - is considered the Progenitor of all living beings with his thirteen wives, including vegetation, as related by H.R. Zimmer:


title: Kurma

text: The legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk (Samudra Manthana) developed in post-Vedic literature is itself inextricably linked with Kurma (as the base of the churning rod) and involves other sons of Kashyapa: the devas/adityas (born from Aditi) and the asuras/Danavas/Daityas (born from Danu and Diti) use one of the Naga (born from Kadru) as a churning rope to obtain Amrita. Garuda, the king of birds and mount of Vishnu, is another son of Kashyapa (born from Vinata) often mentioned in this legend. In another, Garuda seeks the Amrita produced (eating a warring Elephant And Tortoise in the process) to free his mother and himself from enslavement from Kadru.


title: Kurma

text: Kurmasana (Tortoise Posture) is a Yoga posture. 'Panikacchapika' (Sanskrit पाणिकच्छपिका), meaning 'Hand Tortoise', is a special positioning of the fingers during worship rituals to symbolise Kurma. The Kurmacakra is a Yantra, a mystical diagram for worship, in the shape of a tortoise. These are all mentioned in the Upanishads and Puranas (see below).


title: Kurma

text: The Dashavataras are compared to evolution; Kurma - the amphibian - is regarded the next stage after Matysa, the fish.


title: Kurma

text: Firmness / Steadiness: W. Caland notes that in relation to 'Akupara Kashyapa' in the Pancavimsa Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana, the tortoise is equal to 'a firm standing... and Kashyapa (The Tortoise) is able to convey (them) across the sea [of material existence]'. P.N. Sinha seems to support this view, adding 'Kurma was a great Avatara as He prepared the way for the spiritual regeneration of the universe, by the Churning of the Ocean Of Milk'.


title: Kurma

text: Deity Yajna-Purusha: N. Aiyangar states that as the tortoise was 'used as the very basis of the fire Altar, the hidden invisible tortoise, taken together with the altar and the sacred fire, seems to have been regarded as symbolizing the Deity Yajna-Purusha who is an invisible spiritual god extending from the fire altar up to heaven and everywhere... this seems to be the reason why the tortoise is identified with the sun'.


title: Kurma

text: Meditation / Churning the Mind: Aiyangar also surmises that the legend of the Samudra Manthana symbolises churning the mind through Meditation to achieve liberation (Moksha). Based on the mention of "Vatarasanaḥ" ('Girdled By The Wind') Munis in the Taittirtya Aranyaka - also referred to as "urdhvamanthin", meaning 'those who churn upwards' - and the explanation provided in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Aiyangar believes this would 'appear to be the hidden pivot on which the gist of the riddle of the Puranic legend about the Churning For Nectar turns'. R. Jarow seems to agree, stating the churning of the Ocean of Milk represents the 'Churning Of The Dualistic Mind'.


title: Kurma

text: Ascetic Penance: H.H. Wilson notes that 'the account [of the Samudra Manthana] in the Hari Vamsa... is explained, by the commentator, as an Allegory, in which the churning of the ocean typifies ascetic penance, and the Ambrosia is final Liberation' (Linking With The Idea Of 'Steadiness' And 'Firmness'), but personally dismisses this interpretation as 'Mere Mystification' (Note 1, pp. 146).


title: Kurma

text: Astronomy: B.G. Sidharth states that the legend of the Samudra Manthana symbolises astronomic phenomena, for example that 'Mandara represents the polar regions of Earth [and the] Churning Rope, Vasuki, symbolizes the slow annual motion of Earth... Vishnu, or the Sun himself rests upon a coiled snake... which represents the rotation of the Sun on its own axis'. In regards to the tortoise supporting the Earth, Sidharth adds that the 'Twelve Pillars... are evidently the twelve months of the year, and... The four elephants on which Earth rests are the Dikarin, the sentinels of the four directions.. [Kurma] symbolizes the fact that Earth is supported in space in its annual orbit around the Sun'.


title: Kurma

text: Extension and Withdrawal: As illustrated throughout this article, the tortoise extending and retracting its limbs is often mentioned Allegorically in the Itihāsa (Epics) and Puranas in regards to various subjects, particularly self-control and detachment.


title: Kurma

text: A.A. Macdonell, A.B. Keith, J. Roy, J. Dowson, and W.J. Wilkins all state that the origin of Kurma is in the Vedas, specifically the Shatapatha Brahmana (related to the YajurVeda), where the name is also synonymous with Kashyapa, one of the Saptarishi (seven sages).


title: Kurma

text: The "Shatapatha Brahmana" is the earliest extant text to mention Kurma, the tortoise. The "Shatapatha Brahmana" equates the tortoise - Kurma to the creator of all creatures. The god Prajapati assumes the form of Kurma to create all creatures ("praja"). Since he "made" ("kar") all, Prajapati's form was called "Kurma". Kurma is equated with Kashyapa (literally "tortoise"), thus all creatures are called "children of Kashyapa". Kurma is also called Aditya (the sun).


title: Kurma

text: The "Shatapatha Brahmana" also has the origins of Matsya, the Fish. Like Kurma, Matsya is also associated as the avatar of Vishnu later in the Puranas.


title: Kurma

text: The "Taittiriya Samhita" suggests a ritual of burying a live tortoise at the base of the sacrificial fire altar ("uttar-vedi"). By this act, the sacrificer earns the merit of reaching heaven. Aiyangar suggests that the tortoise symbolizes Yajna-Purusha, the all-pervading god of Sacrifice. In another instance in the "Taittiriya Samhita" where Prajapati assigns sacrifices for the gods and places the oblation within himself, "the Sacrificial Cake" ("Purodasa") is said to become a tortoise.


title: Kurma

text: The "Taittiriya Aranyaka" describes a similar practice in a ritual called "Arunaketuka-kayana" where the tortoise is buried under the altar. Here, Prajapati or his "juice" ("rasa") the tortoise is called Arunaketu ("one who has red rays"). Prajapati performs austerities ("tapas"). From his "rasa" springs a tortoise swimming in the water. Prajapati declares to the tortoise to be his creation; in response the tortoise says that he has existed from "before" and manifests as "Purusha" - the primordial being and creates various deities including the sun, Agni (the fire), Indra, Vayu (the wind) and various beings. The tortoise is again treated as the divine Creator of the universe.


title: Kurma

text: R.T.H. Griffith states that tortoises were buried in construction of the Ahavaniya Fire-Altar. In this context, the "Vajasaneyi Samhita" of the white "Yajurveda" describes the tortoise as the "lord of the waters". The selection of the tortoise may stream from the belief that it supports the world.


title: Kurma

text: Though Kurma is not found in the oldest Hindu scripture "Rigveda", the seer Kashyapa (who is equated with Kurma) appears in hymns in the scripture. The "Atharvaveda" regards Kashyapa, who is mentioned along with or identified with Prajapati, as "svayambhu" ("self-manifested"). In later Hindu scriptures like the epics and the Puranas, Kashyapa is described as the grandfather of Manu, the progenitor of mankind. Apart from described as one of Saptarishi (seven great sages), he is described as one of the "Prajapati"s ("agents of creation") and marries 13 daughters of Daksha, fathering gods, demons, animals, birds and various living beings. The seer Kashyapa, tortoise, being referred in various later Vedic literature as the progenitor of beings, is inferred by A.A. Macdonell along with other animal-based tribal names in the "Rigveda" to suggest totemism; however E.W. Hopkins disagrees.


title: Kurma

text: The "Rigveda" also refers in a hymn that Vayu churned for the sages ("muni"s) and Rudra drinks from a cup of "visha", which can be mean water or poison. John Muir suggests that "visha" in the "Rigveda" refers to Rudra drinking water, however it may have led to, in the Puranas, the legend of Shiva (who is closely linked to the Vedic Rudra) drinking poison in the Samudra Manthana (churning of the ocean) episode.


title: Kurma

text: The sage Kashyapa - stated in the Vedas, Itihāsa (Epics), and Puranas to be the progenitor of all living beings (see relevant sections, below) - is also stated to be synonymous with Akupara, the name of the 'World-Turtle' in the Mahabharata. Caland explains in his footnote to verse 30 the significance of this name by quoting from the Jaiminiya Brahmana:


title: Kurma

text: The Jaiminiya Brahmana explicitly links Akupara, Kashyapa, and the tortoise in regards to providing a 'Firm Standing' to cross over the sea of material existence. As illustrated below, in the Yajurveda, Kashyapa is also stated to be Synonymous with Prajapati (i.e. the Creator-God Brahma) and with Kurma. In the Puranas, Kashyapa is frequently referred to as 'Prajapati' as well.


title: Kurma

text: Swami Achuthananda states that although varied like other legends, Vishnu's role is "limited" as Kurma, compared his other avatars.


title: Kurma

text: The epics present the earliest known versions of the popular Samudra Manthana narrative. In the "Adi Parva" Book of the epic "Mahabharata", the god Narayana (identified with Vishnu) suggests the gods ("devas") and the demons ("asuras") churn the ocean to obtain "amrita" (ambrosia) as both of them seek immortality. The gods select Mount Mandara as the churning rod and the serpent Vasuki-Ananta as the rope. Then they approach Kurma-raja, the king of tortoises to support the mount on its back, which it consented. The gods churn from the tail side of the serpent, while asuras on the head side. Various trees and herbs are cast into the ocean. The churned water takes into milk. Ultimately, various precious items like Soma (the moon), the goddess Sri (Lakshmi), Sura (liquor), the white horse Uchchaihshravas, the white elephant Airavata, the gem Kaustubha and finally the god Dhanvantari with the vessel of "amrita" emerge from the ocean. The poison "kalakuta" springs from the ocean and is drunk by Shiva, whose throat becomes blue earning him the epithet "Nila-kantha". The devas and asuras battle for the "amrita". Narayana becomes an enchanting woman (called Mohini in later scriptures) and snatch the pot of "amrita" from the asuras. Narayana along with Nara battle the asuras, while the enchantress distributes the "amrita" only to the gods. Rahu, an asura, disguises himself as a god and tries to drink some Amrita himself. Surya (the sun-god) and Chandra (the moon-god) quickly inform Vishnu, and he uses the Chakra (the divine discus) to decapitate Rahu, leaving the head immortal. Eventually, the gods defeat the asuras with Indra retaining the "amrita" and appointing Nara as its guardian.


title: Kurma

text: In this narrative, Kurma is not related with Vishnu. Though the critical edition of the epic does not refer to Kurma as an avatar of Vishnu, some latter insertions in manuscripts of the epic associate Kurma as a "pradurbhava" (manifestation) of Vishnu.


title: Kurma

text: The "Ramayana" briefly mentions the Samudra Manthana episode, however does not mention Kurma in it. The epic mentions the ocean churned being the ocean of milk, the "Kshirasagara". An passage, generally believed to be interpolated and not part of the critical edition, refers to Kurma as well as the drinking of the poison by Shiva. The mount Mandara sinks to Patala (the underworld) during the churning. On the beseeching of the gods, Vishnu takes the form of the tortoise and raises the mount on his back. Vishnu also supports the mount as holding its peak in a form and another form joins the gods in churning the ocean. Later versions of the "Ramayana" like the "Adhyatma Ramayana" associate Kurma with Rama, the male protaginist of the "Ramayana" who is also regarded as an avatar of Vishnu.


title: Kurma

text: J.W. Wilkins states that the 'probable' origin of Kurma is as an incarnation of Prajapati (i.e. Brahma) in the Shatapatha Brahmana (7:5:1:5-7), but as 'the worship of Brahma became less popular, whilst that of Vishnu increased in its attraction, the names, attributes, and works of one deity seem to have been transferred to the other'.


title: Kurma

text: Kurma as well as Varaha, the boar avatar of Vishnu, was both associated with the Creator Prajapati. Hermann Jacobi suggests that Prajapati may have worshipped in these animal forms. With Vishnu gaining the status of the Supreme God, the actions of Prajapati were transferred to Vishnu.


title: Kurma

text: In post-Vedic literature, including the Puranas, Kurma is inextricably linked with the legend of the churning of the Ocean Of Milk, known as the Samudra Manthana. Kurma is also directly linked with Akupara, the so-called 'world-turtle' that supports the Earth, usually with Sesa.


title: Kurma

text: The tale of Vishnu appearing as Kurma to support the sinking Mandara mountain is narrated in a chapter in the "Agni Purana" dedicated to Samudra Manthana. The narrative starts with the curse of sage Durvasa to the gods (devas), who lose to the asuras in battle and seek refuge in Vishnu. The asuras and the devas unite to churn the milk ocean, with Mount Mandara as the churning rod and Vasuki as the rope. Kurma appears to support the mountain. The poison Halahala appears from the ocean, which is drank by Shiva to save the world. After which, various divine objects emerge from the churning of the ocean, ending with the god Dhanavantri carrying the vessel of Amrita. When the asuras steal the pot, Vishnu assumes the form of the seductress Mohini and grabs it from the asuras and distributes it to the gods. Rahu assumes a form of a deva and drinks the amrita and is decapitated by Vishnu.


title: Kurma

text: A similar narrative is also given in the "Vishnu Purana"; Vishnu is described to participate in the churning in many forms - Kurma as the base of the mount, in one form he sits on top of Mandara and in other forms, helps the gods and the demons pull the serpentine rope. The "Brahmanda Purana" states that Vishnu in the form of Brahma supports the mount; while as Narayana invigorated the gods. The "Vayu Purana", the "Padma Purana" have similar narratives; the "Bhagavata Purana" also narrates the tale.


title: Kurma

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" describes the form of Vishnu as Ajita, the son of Vairaja and Sambhuti, who assumed the form of the tortoise to rescue Mandara from drowning. He is further called the first tortoise. In another instance, it states that the ocean tides are a result of the breathing of Kurma, who had become drowsy due to the scratching of Mandara on his back.


title: Kurma

text: Samudra Manthana is alluded briefly in the "Kurma Purana", the "Linga Purana", the "Brahma Vaivarta Purana" and the "Shiva Purana".


title: Kurma

text: Variations in these narratives alter the number and order of the divine articles appearing from the churning of the ocean. The number ranges from 9 to the popular list of 14. The common list includes the poison Halahala (Kalakuta), Varuni (Sura) - goddess of liquor, the divine horse Uchhaishravas, the gem Kaustubha, the goddess Lakshmi (Sri), the Apsaras, the cow of plenty Surabhi, the white elephant Airavata and Dhanavantri with the pot of "amrita" (sometimes enumerated as two objects). Other objects include the umbrella of Varuna, earrings taken by Indra for his mother Aditi, the bow of Vishnu Sharanga, the conch of Vishnu (Shankha), Nidra - the goddess of sloth, Alakshmi or Jyestha - the goddess of misfortune and the Tulasi plant.


title: Kurma

text: In the "Matsya Purana", Vishnu states that his form the world turtle Kurma, which supports all the worlds on his back, be requested by the gods to aid in the Samudra Manthana. Kurma is placed in Patala as the base of Mount Mandara. The "Shiva Purana" explicitly praises Vishnu as the world turtle who supports the Earth. The "Brahma Vaivarta Purana" states the serpent Shesha who supports the universe over his hoods, sits on Kurma, who lies in the wind or the waters.


title: Kurma

text: The "Vishnu Purana" narrative of Vishnu's boar avatar Varaha alludes to the Matysa and Kurma avatars, saying that Brahma (identified with Narayana, an epithet transferred to Vishnu) took these forms in previous "kalpa"s.


title: Kurma

text: In the tale of the battle of the demon Bhandasura and the goddess Lalita in the "Brahmanda Purana", Lalita creates Kurma to shelter her goddess army who was drowning in the ocean, created by a weapon used by the demon.


title: Kurma

text: In the "Agni Purana", the Shaligram stone for Kurma is described as black in colour with circular lines and an elevated hinder part.


title: Kurma

text: Kurma is invoked in worship of Vishnu in various scriptures. The "Brahma Purana" salutes Kurma in a hymn as the "great tortoise", who "lifted the Earth and kept the mountain aloft". The "Linga Purana", the "Garuda Purana" and the "Shiva Purana" similarly praises Vishnu as the one who kept the Mandara mountain aloft or the one who supported Mandara during the churning of the ocean as a tortoise.


title: Kurma

text: The "Agni Purana", the "Markendeya Purana", the "Vishnu Purana" and the "Brahma Purana" state that Vishnu resides in Bharata (the Indian subcontinent) in the form of Kurma. The"Markendeya Purana" gives a detailed description of various lands of the region and constellations and zodiac stars corresponding to nine parts of the tortoise - mouth, four feet, tail, centre and two sides of its belly. The "Bhagavata Purana" states Vishnu stays as Kurma in the Himalayan continent ("Hiraṇmaya-varsa").


title: Kurma

text: The "Kurma Purana" is one of four Puranas that bear the names of Vishnu's avatars. The Purana is narrated by Kurma to the king Indradyumna and later to the sages and the gods at the time of Samudra Manthana. The detailed tale of the Samudra Manthana is absent from the Purana and alludes to Kurma as the one who supported Mount Mandara. The "Kurma Purana" is stated to be narrated by Kurma and is prescribed to be gifted with a golden statue of a tortoise in the "Agni Purana".


title: Kurma

text: In the narrative of the battle between Shiva's manifestation Virabhadra and Vishnu's avatar Narasimha of the "Linga Purana" and the "Shiva Purana", Virabhadra mocks Narasimha-Vishnu stating that Kurma's skull adorns the necklace of Shiva.


title: Kurma

text: In a passing reference in the "Vishnu Purana" and the "Markendeya Purana" narrative of Varaha, Brahma - identified with Narayana - decides to take the form of the boar Varaha, similar to the forms of the fish (Matsya) and tortoise (Kurma), he took in previous "kalpa"s.


title: Kurma

text: The "Linga Purana", the "Varaha Purana" and the "Shiva Purana" mention Kurma as second in its Dashavatara listing.


title: Kurma

text: The "Varaha Purana" recommends a "vrata" (vow) with fasting and worshipping Kurma-Vishnu in a three lunar-day festival culminating on the twelfth lunar day in the bright half of the Pausha month. The first day of the "vrata" is said to be the day when Vishnu assumed the Kurma form in Samundra manthan.


title: Kurma

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" lists Kurma the eleventh avatar of Vishnu in the list of 22 avatars. The "Garuda Purana" lists him as the eleventh of 20 avatars, elsewhere he is mentioned as the second of the Dashavatara.


title: Kurma

text: The "Vishnu Sahasranama" version from the "Garuda Purana" mentions "Kurma" as an epithet of Vishnu. The "Garuda Purana" addresses Kurma in hymns to Vishnu. He is associated with the south-western direction.


title: Kurma

text: In the Narada Purana, a brief synopsis of the Samudra Manthana is given by Brahma to Mohini, as quoted above (Part 4: 8.7-11). There are two other notable mentions of this legend. The first is by Saunaka who said 'When there was an impediment at the time of churning the ocean for the sake of nectar, he [Kurma] held the mount Mandara on his back, for the welfare of the gods. I seek refuge in that Tortoise' (Part 1: 2.37). In the second, it is stated 'it was when the milk-ocean was churning that Kamoda was born among the four jewels of Virgins' (Part 5: Uttara Bhaga: 68.4). Other details include:


title: Kurma

text: In the Padma Purana three accounts of the Samudra Manthana are given, all beginning with Indra being cursed by Durvasas for arrogance. In the first, narrated by Pulastya, as a result of the curse the 'three worlds, along with Indra, were void of affluence... [and] the Daityas (sons of Diti) and Danavas (sons of Danu) started military operations against [the] gods', forcing them to seek refuge with Vishnu. Vasuki is used as a rope to churn the ocean. Notably, during the churning, Varuni (Goddess of Wine) is upon emerging rejected by the gods and accepted by the asuras, the opposite of the account given in the Brahmanda Purana (to explain the meaning of 'Asura'). Unnamed poison also emerges which is drunk by Shiva, before the emergence of Dhanvantari with the nectar of immortality (Amrita) as well as Lakshmi. Although the asuras take the nectar, Vishnu assumes the form of Mohini to trick them and give it to the gods. The asuras are destroyed, with the Danavas since then becoming 'eager for (the company of) ladies' (Part 1: 4).


title: Kurma

text: In the second account, narrated by Suta, as a result of the curse the 'mother of the worlds' (Lakshmi) disappears, and the world is ruined by drought and famine, forcing the gods - oppressed by hunger and thirst - to seek refuge with Vishnu at the shore of the Milky Ocean (Part 5: 8). Ananta (Vasuki in the first account) is used as a churning rope. On Ekadashi day, the poison Kalakuta emerges, which is swallowed by Shiva 'meditating upon Vishnu in his heart'. An evil being called Alaksmi (i.e. a-Laksmi or 'not Laksmi') them emerges and is told to reside in places such as where there is quarrel, gambling, adultery, theft, and so forth (Part 5: 9). The churning continues and auspicious beings and items emerge, including 'the brother of Laksmi, [who] sprang up with nectar. (So also) Tulasi [i.e. Lakshmi], Visnu's wife'. On this occasion, Vishnu assumes the form of Mohini merely to distribute the nectar amongst the gods, without mention of tricking the asuras (Part 5: 10).


title: Kurma

text: The third account, narrated by Shiva, is very similar to the others except with a far greater emphasis on Lakshmi, and although the poison Kalakuta emerges and is swallowed by Shiva, there is no mention of Alaksmi or the Mohini avatar (Part 9: 231–232). The Naga used as a rope for churning is referred to as 'the Lord of the Serpents' (likely Ananta). Other details include:


title: Kurma

text: In the Skanda Purana four accounts of the Samudra Manthana are given. In the first, the churning of the ocean of Milk takes place after Indra is cursed by the sage Brhaspati, resulting in the disappearance of Lakshmi, misery to all, and ruin of the devas, defeated in battle by the asuras who take their precious items such as gems to Patala. On the advice of Brahma, Indra and the devas make a pact with Bali, leader of asuras, to recover the gems from the Ocean of Milk. Unable to move the Mandara mountain to use as a churning rod, Vishnu is asked for help, who arrives on Garuda, takes the mountain to the ocean, and incarnates as Kurma. Vasuki is used as the churning rope. The Kalakuta poison generated envelopes the devas and Daityas - causing ignorance and lust - before enveloping all existence (including Vaikuntha) and reducing the cosmic egg to ash (Part 1: 9). Shiva is approached for refuge, and the origin and need to worship Ganesha to 'achieve success in undertaking' is explained before Shiva drinks the poison (Part 1: 10). More information on Ganesha-worship is given before the churning resumes, producing many auspicious items and beings, including Lakshmi (Part 1: 11). Dhanvantari emerges with the nectar of immortality (Amrita), which is taken by the asuras. Vishnu incarnates as Mohini, and despite warning Bali that 'Women should never be trusted by a wise man' is still given the nectar which She gives to the devas (Part 1: 12).


title: Kurma

text: In the second account, Indra is again cursed by the sage Brhaspati (Part 7: 8), resulting in the disappearance of Laksmi, and with her, an absence of 'Penance, Purity, Mercy, Truth... True Dharma, Prosperity... Strength [and] Sattva (quality of goodness)'. Hunger, poverty, anger, lust, flesh-eating, and perverse-thinking abound, including belief that adharma is dharma, and perverse interpretations of the Vedas to justify killing animals (Part 7: 9). Vishnu is approached for refuge by the devas and instructs them to churn the Ocean of Milk (Part 7: 10). Indra forms a pact with the asuras, Sesa is used as a churning rope with the Mandara Mountain, and Vishnu incarnates as Kurma as the base. After a thousand years of churning the poison Halahala is generated and swallowed by Shiva; the drops that fell are taken by serpents, scorpions, and some medicinal plants (Part 7: 11). The churning continues for another thousand years, producing auspicious items and beings, including Laksmi (Part 7: 12). Dhanvantari emerges with the pitcher of Amrita which is taken by the asuras, and Vishnu assumes 'a marvellously beautiful feminine form that enchanted all the world' (Mohini). Despite warning the asuras not to trust her, Mohini is given the Amrita which is handed to the devas before the asuras are destroyed in battle (Part 7: 13).


title: Kurma

text: In the third brief account, the churning takes place after 'a great loss of gems due to wicked souls' and the loss of righteousness. Vasuki is used as the churning cord as the devas and asuras 'placed the main plant of activity on the back of the (divine) tortoise and churned out the precious gems'. Many auspicious items and beings are generated, including Sura (alcohol; in other accounts Varuni) and Dhanvantari. Quarreling ensues between the devas and asuras, and Vishnu incarnates as 'the fascinating form of a woman' (Mohini) to beguile the demons as Indra gives them the Sura and via 'sleight of hand' takes the Amrita. Halahala poison is also generated which is consumed by Shiva (Part 12: 44).


title: Kurma

text: In the fourth account, the legend is briefly retold by Visvamitra. The details are much the same as the previous accounts, with Vasuki as the cord as the 'Kacchapa (Tortoise incarnation of Visnu) held up (the mountain)', including the Kalakuta poison drunk by Shiva and the incarnation of Mohini to trick the asuras. The notable exception is that the churning first produces a 'hideous' family of three of Ratnas (jewels); rejected by both the devas and Danavas, they are accepted by Ka (i.e. Brahma; Part 18: 210).


title: Kurma

text: Notably, reminiscent the account of Prajapati and the Tortoise in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (see above), there is also an account, during the time of the universal dissolution, when Brahma 'assumed the form of a "Khadyota" (Firefly, Glow-worm)' and moved about for a thousand divine years before finding 'the Lord [Vishnu] asleep in the form of a tortoise'. Woken by Brahma, Vishnu 'got up ejecting the three worlds that had been swallowed at the time of the close of the [previous] Kalpa' with all creation - including the devas, Danavas, moon, sun, and planets - being generated from and by Him. Vishnu also sees the Earth 'was in the great ocean perched on the back of the tortoise' (Part 14: Reva Khanda: 7). Other details include:


title: Kurma

text: The Samudra Manthana is popular in iconography and even found in South East Asia. Notable depictions include the relief at Angkor Wat with Vishnu and Kurma in the centre and the gods and demons on either side churning the ocean. The earth below the temple represents Kurma in Khymer iconography, the earth goddess being Vishnu's consort. The Vishnu on the top of Mandara symbolizes him as the shining midday Sun.


title: Kurma

text: In the anthropomorphic form, the upper half is that of the four-armed man and the lower half is a fish. The upper half resembles Vishnu and wears the traditional ornaments and the "kirita-mukuta" (tall conical crown) as worn by Vishnu. He holds in two of his hands the "Sudarshana chakra" (discus) and a "shankha" (conch), the usual weapons of Vishnu. The other two hands make the gestures of "varadamudra", which grants boons to the devotee, and "abhayamudra", which reassures the devotee of protection. The depiction is similar to Matsya, where the lower half is a fish.


title: Kurma

text: Srikurmam was initially a Shiva temple, which was converted into a Vaishnava one by the Vaishnava saint Ramanuja. The sanctum has an icon of Vishnu, as well as of Kurma with the tail and back to the devotee and face to the west. This is in contradiction to scriptural mandate that the central icon should face the east. According to a legend, the Kurma icon turned to the west back wall in honour of a tribal Bhil king who worshipped him from the back of the temple. Nanditha Krishna suggests that a tribal tortoise god could have been assimilated in the Hindu fold by identifying him with Kurma.


title: Kurma

text: The name of the village mentioned above originates from the historical temple of Kurma called "Varadarajaswamy" (Kurma avatara of Vishnu), regarding the deity of this village.


title: Kurma

text: M. Vettam notes that there are ten Vayus (Winds) in the body, one of which is called 'Kurma' in regards to opening and closing the eyes.


title: Kurma

text: The 'kurma-Nadi' (or Kūrmanāḍī, Sanskrit कूर्मनाडी), meaning 'Tortoise-Nerve' or 'Canal Of The Tortoise', is in relation to steadying the mind (slowing down thoughts) in Yogic practice. 'Nadi' itself means 'Vein', 'Artery', 'River', or 'Any Tubular Organ Of The Body' (as well as 'Flute'). Although the Kurmanaḍi is generally stated to be located in the upper chest below the throat, S. Lele believes this refers to the Muladhara Chakra, located near the Tailbone, based on the root-word 'Nal' (Sanskrit नल्), meaning 'to Bind'.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The values, ideals and concept of republicanism have been discussed and celebrated throughout the history of the United States. As the United States has no formal hereditary ruling class, "republicanism" in this context does not refer to a political movement to abolish such a class, as it does in countries such as the UK, Australia, and Netherlands. Instead, it refers to the core values that citizenry in a republic have, or ought to have.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Political scientists and historians have described these central values as "liberty" and "inalienable individual rights"; recognizing the sovereignty of the people as the source of all authority in law; rejecting monarchy, aristocracy, and hereditary political power; virtue and faithfulness in the performance of civic duties; and vilification of corruption. These values are based on those of Ancient Greco-Roman, Renaissance, and English models and ideas. Articulated in the writings of the Founding Fathers (particularly Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and John Adams), they formed the intellectual basis for the American Revolution — the Declaration of Independence (1776), the Constitution (1787), and the Bill of Rights (1791), as well as the Gettysburg Address (1863).


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Politicians and scholars have debated the connection of these values with issues like honest government, democracy, individualism, property rights, military service; or their compatibility with slavery, inequitable distribution of wealth, economic self-interest, limits on the rights of minorities, and national debt.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: In the United States Constitution, republic is mentioned once, in section four of Article Four, where it is stated: "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government ...".


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Two major political parties in American history have used the term in their name — the Democratic-Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson (1793–1824; also known as the Jeffersonian Republican Party) and the Republican Party, (founded in 1854 and named after the Jeffersonian party).


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The colonial intellectual and political leaders in the 1760s and 1770s closely read history to compare governments and their effectiveness of rule. The Revolutionists were especially concerned with the history of liberty in England and were primarily influenced by the "country party" (which opposed the "court party" that held power). Country party philosophy relied heavily on the classical republicanism of Roman heritage; it celebrated the ideals of duty and virtuous citizenship in a republic. It drew heavily on ancient Greek city-state and Roman republican examples. The country party shared some of the political philosophy of Whiggism as well as Tory critics in England which roundly denounced the corruption surrounding the "court party" in London centering on the royal court. This approach produced a political ideology Americans called "republicanism", which was widespread in colonial America by 1775. "Republicanism was the distinctive political consciousness of the entire Revolutionary generation." J.G.A. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: American republicanism was centered on limiting corruption and greed. Virtue was of the utmost importance for citizens and representatives. Revolutionaries took a lesson from ancient Rome; they knew it was necessary to avoid the luxury that had destroyed the empire. A virtuous citizen was one who ignored monetary compensation and made a commitment to resist and eradicate corruption. The republic was sacred; therefore, it was necessary to serve the state in a truly representative way, ignoring self-interest and individual will. Republicanism required the service of those who were willing to give up their own interests for a common good. According to Bernard Bailyn, "The preservation of liberty rested on the ability of the people to maintain effective checks on wielders of power and hence in the last analysis rested on the vigilance and moral stamina of the people. ... " Virtuous citizens needed to be strong defenders of liberty and challenge the corruption and greed in government. The duty of the virtuous citizen became a foundation for the American Revolution.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The commitment of Patriots to republican values was a key intellectual foundation of the American Revolution. In particular, the key was Patriots' intense fear of political corruption and the threat it posed to liberty. Bernard Bailyn states, "The fact that the ministerial conspiracy against liberty had risen from corruption was of the utmost importance to the colonists." In 1768 to 1773 newspaper exposés such as John Dickinson's series of "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" (1767–68) were widely reprinted and spread American disgust with British corruption. The patriot press provided emphasized British corruption, mismanagement, and tyranny. Britain was increasingly portrayed as corrupt and hostile and that of a threat to the very idea of democracy; a threat to the established liberties that colonists enjoyed and to colonial property rights. The greatest threat to liberty was thought by many to be corruption – not just in London but at home as well. The colonists associated it with luxury and, especially, inherited aristocracy, which they condemned. Historian J.G.A. Pocock argues that Republicanism explains the American Revolution in terms of virtuous Republican resistance to British imperial corruption.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Historian Sarah Purcell studied the sermons preached by the New England patriot clergy in 1774–1776. They stirred up a martial spirit justified war against England. The preachers cited New England's Puritan history in defense of freedom, blamed Britain's depravity and corruption for the necessity of armed conflict. The sermons called on soldiers to behave morally and in a "manly" disciplined fashion. The rhetoric not only encouraged heavy enlistment, but helped create the intellectual climate the Patriots needed to fight a civil war. Historian Thomas Kidd argues that during the Revolution active Christians linked their religion to republicanism. He states, "With the onset of the revolutionary crisis, a major conceptual shift convinced Americans across the theological spectrum that God was raising up America for some special purpose." Kidd further argues that "new blend of Christian and republican ideology led religious traditionalists to embrace wholesale the concept of republican virtue."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Historian Gordon Wood has tied the founding ideas to American exceptionalism: "Our beliefs in liberty, equality, constitutionalism, and the well-being of ordinary people came out of the Revolutionary era. So too did our idea that we Americans are a special people with a special destiny to lead the world toward liberty and democracy." Americans were the protectors of liberty, they had a greater obligation and destiny to assert republican virtue. In "Discourse of 1759" Jonathan Mayhew states "An absolute submission to our prince, or whether disobedience and resistance may not be justified able in some cases ... to all those who bear the title of rulers in common but only to those who actually perform the duty of rulers by exercising a reasonable and just authority for the good of human society." The notion that British rulers were not virtuous, nor exercising their authority for the "good of human society" prompted the colonial desire to protect and reestablish republican values in government. This need to protect virtue was a philosophical underpinning of the American Revolution.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The "Founding Fathers" were strong advocates of republican values, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The Founding Fathers discoursed endlessly on the meaning of "republicanism." John Adams in 1787 defined it as "a government, in which all men, rich and poor, magistrates and subjects, officers and people, masters and servants, the first citizen and the last, are equally subject to the laws."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The open question, as Pocock suggested, of the conflict between personal economic interest (grounded in Lockean liberalism) and classical republicanism, troubled Americans. Jefferson and Madison roundly denounced the Federalists for creating a national bank as tending to corruption and monarchism; Alexander Hamilton staunchly defended his program, arguing that national economic strength was necessary for the protection of liberty. Jefferson never relented but by 1815 Madison switched and announced in favor of a national bank, which he set up in 1816.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: John Adams often pondered the issue of civic virtue. Writing Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, he agreed with the Greeks and the Romans, that, "Public Virtue cannot exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics." Adams insisted, "There must be a positive Passion for the public good, the public Interest, Honor, Power, and Glory, established in the Minds of the People, or there can be no Republican Government, nor any real Liberty. And this public Passion must be Superior to all private Passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private Pleasures, Passions, and Interests, nay their private Friendships and dearest connections, when they Stand in Competition with the Rights of society."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Adams worried that a businessman might have financial interests that conflicted with republican duty; indeed, he was especially suspicious of banks. He decided that history taught that "the Spirit of Commerce ... is incompatible with that purity of Heart, and Greatness of soul which is necessary for a happy Republic." But so much of that spirit of commerce had infected America. In New England, Adams noted, "even the Farmers and Tradesmen are addicted to Commerce." As a result, there was "a great Danger that a Republican Government would be very factious and turbulent there."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: A second stream of thought growing in significance was the classical liberalism of John Locke, including his theory of the "social contract". This had a great influence on the revolution as it implied the inborn right of the people to overthrow their leaders should those leaders betray the agreements implicit in the sovereign-follower relationship. Historians find little trace of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's influence in America. In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans used Montesquieu's analysis of the ideally "balanced" British Constitution. But first and last came a commitment to republicanism, as shown by many historians such as Bernard Bailyn and Gordon S. Wood.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: For a century, historians have debated how important republicanism was to the Founding Fathers. The interpretation before 1960, following Progressive School historians such as Charles A. Beard, Vernon L. Parrington and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr., downplayed rhetoric as superficial and looked for economic motivations. Louis Hartz refined the position in the 1950s, arguing John Locke was the most important source because his property-oriented liberalism supported the materialistic goals of Americans.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, two new schools emerged that emphasized the primacy of ideas as motivating forces in history (rather than material self-interest). Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood from Harvard formed the "Cambridge School"; at Washington University the "St. Louis School" was led by J.G.A. Pocock. They emphasized slightly different approaches to republicanism. However, some scholars, especially Isaac Kramnick and the late Joyce Appleby, continue to emphasize Locke, arguing that Americans are fundamentally individualistic and not devoted to civic virtue. The relative importance of republicanism and liberalism remains a topic of strong debate among historians, as well as the politically active of the present day.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: In 1792–93 Jefferson and Madison created a new "Democratic-Republican party" in order to promote their version of the doctrine. They wanted to suggest that Hamilton's version was illegitimate. According to Federalist Noah Webster, a political activist bitter at the defeat of the Federalist party in the White House and Congress, the choice of the name "Democratic-Republican" was "a powerful instrument in the process of making proselytes to the party. ... The influence of names on the mass of mankind, was never more distinctly exhibited, than in the increase of the democratic party in the United States. The popularity of the denomination of the Republican Party, was more than a match for the popularity of Washington's character and services, and contributed to overthrow his administration." The party, which historians later called the Democratic-Republican Party, split into separate factions in the 1820s, one of which became the Democratic Party. After 1832, the Democrats were opposed by another faction that named themselves "Whigs" after the Patriots of the 1770s who started the American Revolution. Both of these parties proclaimed their devotion to republicanism in the era of the Second Party System.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Under the new government after the revolution, "republican motherhood" became an ideal, as exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren. The first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children, and to avoid luxury and ostentation.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Two generations later, the daughters and granddaughters of these "Republican mothers" appropriated republican values into their lives as they sought independence and equality in the workforce. During the 1830s, thousands of female mill workers went on strike to battle for their right to fair wages and independence, as there had been major pay cuts. Many of these women were daughters of independent land owners and descendants of men who had fought in the Revolutionary War; they identified as "daughters of freemen". In their fight for independence at the mills, women would incorporate rhetoric from the revolution to convey the importance and strength of their purpose to their corporate employers, as well as to other women. If the Revolutionary War was fought to secure independence from Great Britain, then these "daughters of freemen" could fight for the same republican values that (through striking) would give them fair pay and independence, just as the men had.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story (1779–1845), made the protection of property rights by the courts a major component of American republicanism. A precocious legal scholar, Story was appointed to the Court by James Madison in 1811. He and Chief Justice John Marshall made the Court a bastion of nationalism (along the lines of Marshall's Federalist Party) and a protector of the rights of property against runaway democracy. Story opposed Jacksonian democracy because it was inclined to repudiate lawful debts and was too often guilty of what he called "oppression" of property rights by republican governments. Story held that, "the right of the citizens to the free enjoyment of their property legally acquired" was "a great and fundamental principle of a republican government." Newmyer (1985) presents Story as a "Statesman of the Old Republic" who tried to rise above democratic politics and to shape the law in accordance with the republicanism of Story's heroes, Alexander Hamilton and John Marshall, as well as the New England Whigs of the 1820s and 1830s, such as Daniel Webster. Historians agree that Justice Story – as much or more than Marshall or anyone else – did indeed reshape American law in a conservative direction that protected property rights.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: According to journalist Jamelle Bouie, "among the oldest and most potent strains of American thinking" about self-government is the belief that it cannot coexist "with mass immiseration and gross disparities of wealth and status".


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The balance of power in a society accompanies the balance of property in land. The only possible way, then, of preserving the balance of power on the side of equal liberty and public virtue is to make the acquisition of land easy to every member of society, to make a division of land into small quantities, so that the multitude may be possessed of landed estates. If the multitude is possessed of the balance of real estate, the multitude will take care of the liberty, virtue and interest of the multitude, in all acts of government.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Political scientists Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson quote a warning by Greek-Roman historian Plutarch: "An imbalance between rich and poor is the oldest and most fatal ailment of all republics." Some academic researchers allege that the US political system risks drifting towards oligarchy, through the influence of corporations, the wealthy and other special interest groups.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: A study by political scientists Martin Gilens (Princeton University) and Benjamin Page (Northwestern University) released in April 2014, concluded that the U.S. government doesn't represent the interests of the majority of its citizens but instead is "ruled by those of the rich and powerful". The researchers, after analyzing nearly 1,800 U.S. policies between 1981 and 2002, stated that government policies tend to favor special interests and lobbying organizations, and that whenever a majority of citizens disagrees with the economic elites, the elites tend to prevail in getting their way. While not characterizing the United States as an "oligarchy" or "plutocracy" outright, Gilens and Page give weight to the idea of a "civil oligarchy" as used by Jeffrey A. Winters, saying, "Winters has posited a comparative theory of 'Oligarchy,' in which the wealthiest citizens – even in a 'civil oligarchy' like the United States – dominate policy concerning crucial issues of wealth- and income-protection." In their study, Gilens and Page reached these conclusions:


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Jefferson and Albert Gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt, unless it was paid off, would be a threat to republican values. They were appalled that Hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his Federalist base. Gallatin was the Republican Party's chief expert on fiscal issues and as Treasury Secretary under Jefferson and Madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt, while at the same time paying cash for the Louisiana Purchase and funding the War of 1812. Burrows says of Gallatin:


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835. Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation's future.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Civic virtue required men to put civic goals ahead of their personal desires, and to volunteer to fight for their country. Military service thus was an integral duty of the citizen. As John Randolph of Roanoke put it, "When citizen and soldier shall be synonymous terms, then you will be safe." Scott (1984) notes that in both the American and French revolutions, distrust of foreign mercenaries led to the concept of a national, citizen army, and the definition of military service was changed from a choice of careers to a civic duty. Herrera (2001) explains that an appreciation of self-governance is essential to any understanding of the American military character before the Civil War. Military service was considered an important demonstration of patriotism and an essential component of citizenship. To soldiers, military service was a voluntary, negotiated, and temporary abeyance of self-governance by which they signaled their responsibility as citizens. In practice self-governance in military affairs came to include personal independence, enlistment negotiations, petitions to superior officials, militia constitutions, and negotiations regarding discipline. Together these affected all aspects of military order, discipline, and life.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The Founding Fathers wanted republicanism because its principles guaranteed liberty, with opposing, limited powers offsetting one another. They thought change should occur slowly, as many were afraid that a "democracy" – by which they meant a direct democracy – would allow a majority of voters at any time to trample rights and liberties. They believed the most formidable of these potential majorities was that of the poor against the rich. They thought democracy could take the form of mob rule that could be shaped on the spot by a demagogue. Therefore, they devised a written Constitution that could be amended only by a super majority, preserved competing sovereignties in the constituent states, gave the control of the upper house (Senate) to the states, and created an Electoral College, comprising a small number of elites, to select the president. They set up a House of Representatives to represent the people. In practice the electoral college soon gave way to control by political parties. In 1776, most states required property ownership to vote, but most white male citizens owned farms in the 90% rural nation, so it was limiting to women, Native Americans and slaves. As the country urbanized and people took on different work, the property ownership requirement was gradually dropped by many states. Property requirements were gradually dismantled in state after state, so that all had been eliminated by 1850, so that few if any economic barriers remained to prevent white, adult males from voting.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The term "republic" does not appear in the Declaration of Independence, but does appear (once) in the constitution in Article IV which "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government." What exactly the writers of the constitution felt this should mean is uncertain. The Supreme Court, in "Luther v. Borden" (1849), declared that the definition of "republic" was a "political question" in which it would not intervene. During Reconstruction the Constitutional clause was the legal foundation for the extensive Congressional control over the eleven former Confederate states; there was no such oversight over the border slave states that had remained in the Union.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: In two later cases, the Supreme Court did establish a basic definition. In "United States v. Cruikshank" (1875), the court ruled that the "equal rights of citizens" were inherent to the idea of republic. The opinion of the court from "In re Duncan" (1891) held that the "right of the people to choose their government" is also part of the definition. It is also generally assumed that the clause prevents any state from being a monarchy – or a dictatorship. Due to the 1875 and 1891 court decisions establishing basic definition, in the first version (1892) of the Pledge of Allegiance, which included the word "republic", and like Article IV which refers to a Republican form of government, the basic definition of "republic" is implied and continues to be so in all subsequent versions, including the present edition, by virtue of its consistent inclusion.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Both democratic Ancient Greece and the ancient Roman Republic permitted slavery, but many early Americans questioned slavery's compatibility with Republican values. In 1850, Sen. William H. Seward declared on the Senate floor that slavery was incompatible with the "security, welfare and greatness of nations", and that when slavery "prevails and controls in any republican state, just to that extent it subverts the principle of democracy and converts the state into an aristocracy or a despotism.”


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: The Republican Party was formed by antislavery forces across the North in reaction to the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 that promoted democracy (or "popular sovereignty") by saying new settlers could decide themselves whether or not to have slavery. The party officially designated itself "Republican" because the name resonated with the struggle of 1776. "In view of the necessity of battling for the first principles of republican government," resolved the Michigan state convention, "and against the schemes of aristocracy the most revolting and oppressive with which the earth was ever cursed, or man debased, we will co-operate and be known as Republicans." The antebellum South took the reverse view, interpreting Northern policies against slavery as a threat to their republican values (in particular the system of checks and balances), according to J. Mills Thornton.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: After the war, the Republicans believed that the Constitutional guarantee of republicanism enabled Congress to Reconstruct the political system of the former Confederate states. The main legislation was explicitly designed to promote republicanism. Radical Republicans pushed forward to secure not only citizenship for freedmen through the 14th Amendment, but also to give them the vote through the 15th Amendment. They held that the concept of republicanism meant that true political knowledge was to be gained in exercising the right to vote and organizing for elections. Susan B. Anthony and other advocates of woman suffrage said republicanism covered them too, as they demanded the vote.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: A central theme of the progressive era was fear of corruption, one of the core ideas of republicanism since the 1770s. The Progressives restructured the political system to combat entrenched interests (for example, through the direct election of Senators), to ban influences such as alcohol that were viewed as corrupting, and to extend the vote to women, who were seen as being morally pure and less corruptible.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Questions of performing civic duty were brought up in presidential campaigns and World War I. In the presidential election of 1888, Republicans emphasized that the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland had purchased a substitute to fight for him in the Civil War, while his opponent General Benjamin Harrison had fought in numerous battles. In 1917, a great debate took place over Woodrow Wilson's proposal to draft men into the U.S. Army after war broke out in Europe. Many said it violated the republican notion of freely given civic duty to force people to serve. In the end, Wilson was successful and the Selective Service Act of 1917 was passed.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Historians such as Richard Ellis and Michael Nelson argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities." Madison, in particular, worried that a small localized majority might threaten inalienable rights, and in Federalist No. 10 he argued that the larger the population of the republic, the more diverse it would be and the less liable to this threat. More broadly, in Federalist No. 10, Madison distinguished a "democracy" from a "republic". Jefferson warned that "an elective despotism is not the government we fought for."


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: As late as 1800, the word "democrat" was mostly used to attack an opponent of the Federalist party. Thus, George Washington in 1798 complained, "that you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country." The Federalist Papers are pervaded by the idea that pure democracy is actually quite dangerous, because it allows a majority to infringe upon the rights of a minority. Thus, in encouraging the states to participate in a strong centralized government under a new constitution and replace the relatively weak Articles of Confederation, Madison argued in Federalist No. 10 that a special interest may take control of a small area, e.g. a state, but it could not easily take over a large nation. Therefore, the larger the nation, the safer is republicanism.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: By 1805, the "Old Republicans" or "Quids", a minority faction among Southern Republicans, led by Johan Randolph, John Taylor of Caroline and Nathaniel Macon, opposed Jefferson and Madison on the grounds that they had abandoned the true republican commitment to a weak central government.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: In the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville warned about the "tyranny of the majority" in a democracy, and suggested the courts should try to reverse the efforts of the majority of terminating the rights of an unpopular minority. John Phillip Reid writes that Republicanism includes guarantees of rights that cannot be repealed by a majority vote.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Others argue that "the historical evidence suggests that the founders believed that majority will — defined as the prevailing view of enfranchised citizens — should generally dictate national policy". James Madison equated “a coalition of a majority of the whole society” with “justice and the general good,” in the Federalist Papers; and Alexander Hamilton described “representative democracy” as “happy, regular and durable.”


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: ... a representative democracy, where the right of election is well secured and regulated & the exercise of the legislative, executive and judiciary authorities, is vested in select persons, chosen really and not nominally by the people, will in my opinion be most likely to be happy, regular and durable.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: Over time, the pejorative connotations of "democracy" faded. By the 1830s, democracy was seen as an unmitigated positive and the term "Democratic" was assumed by the Democratic Party and the term "Democrat" was adopted by its members. A common term for the party in the 19th century was "The Democracy." In debates on Reconstruction, Radical Republicans, such as Senator Charles Sumner, argued that the republican "guarantee clause" in Article IV supported the introduction by force of law of democratic suffrage in the defeated South.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: After 1800 the limitations on democracy were systematically removed; property qualifications for state voters were largely eliminated in the 1820s. The initiative, referendum, recall, and other devices of direct democracy became widely accepted at the state and local level in the 1910s; and senators were made directly electable by the people in 1913. The last restrictions on black voting were made illegal in 1965.


title: Republicanism in the United States

text: President Abraham Lincoln, used constitutional republic and democracy synonymously, casting the American experiment as government of the people, by the people, and for the people.