title: Human voice

text: Human spoken language makes use of the ability of almost all people in a given society to dynamically modulate certain parameters of the laryngeal voice source in a consistent manner. The most important communicative, or phonetic, parameters are the voice pitch (determined by the vibratory frequency of the vocal folds) and the degree of separation of the vocal folds, referred to as vocal fold adduction (coming together) or abduction (separating).


title: Human voice

text: The ability to vary the ab/adduction of the vocal folds quickly has a strong genetic component, since vocal fold adduction has a life-preserving function in keeping food from passing into the lungs, in addition to the covering action of the epiglottis. Consequently, the muscles that control this action are among the fastest in the body. Children can learn to use this action consistently during speech at an early age, as they learn to speak the difference between utterances such as "apa" (having an abductory-adductory gesture for the p) as "aba" (having no abductory-adductory gesture). Surprisingly enough, they can learn to do this well before the age of two by listening only to the voices of adults around them who have voices much different from their own, and even though the laryngeal movements causing these phonetic differentiations are deep in the throat and not visible to them.


title: Human voice

text: If an abductory movement or adductory movement is strong enough, the vibrations of the vocal folds will stop (or not start). If the gesture is abductory and is part of a speech sound, the sound will be called voiceless. However, voiceless speech sounds are sometimes better identified as containing an abductory gesture, even if the gesture was not strong enough to stop the vocal folds from vibrating. This anomalous feature of voiceless speech sounds is better understood if it is realized that it is the change in the spectral qualities of the voice as abduction proceeds that is the primary acoustic attribute that the listener attends to when identifying a voiceless speech sound, and not simply the presence or absence of voice (periodic energy).


title: Human voice

text: An adductory gesture is also identified by the change in voice spectral energy it produces. Thus, a speech sound having an adductory gesture may be referred to as a "glottal stop" even if the vocal fold vibrations do not entirely stop.


title: Human voice

text: Other aspects of the voice, such as variations in the regularity of vibration, are also used for communication, and are important for the trained voice user to master, but are more rarely used in the formal phonetic code of a spoken language.


title: Human voice

text: The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual.


title: Human voice

text: Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx, which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers. The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant, which has been shown to be a resonance added to the normal resonances of the vocal tract above the frequency range of most instruments and so enables the singer's voice to carry better over musical accompaniment.


title: Human voice

text: Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in "laryngeal" functioning. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular "Vocal range" of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds. The occurrence of registers has also been attributed to effects of the acoustic interaction between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract. The term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:


title: Human voice

text: In linguistics, a register language is a language that combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system.


title: Human voice

text: Within speech pathology, the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.


title: Human voice

text: Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation; although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.


title: Human voice

text: There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.


title: Human voice

text: The twelve-tone musical scale, upon which a large portion of all music (western popular music in particular) is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.


title: Human voice

text: There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking improperly for long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production. Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.


title: Human voice

text: Vocal nodules are caused over time by repeated abuse of the vocal cords which results in soft, swollen spots on each vocal cord. These spots develop into harder, callous-like growths called nodules. The longer the abuse occurs the larger and stiffer the nodules will become. Most polyps are larger than nodules and may be called by other names, such as polypoid degeneration or Reinke's edema. Polyps are caused by a single occurrence and may require surgical removal. Irritation after the removal may then lead to nodules if additional irritation persists. Speech-language therapy teaches the patient how to eliminate the irritations permanently through habit changes and vocal hygiene.


title: Human voice

text: Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying voice disorder such as nodes or polyps and should be investigated medically.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The Cuckoo's Calling is a 2013 crime fiction novel by J. K. Rowling, published under the pseudonym Robert Galbraith. It is the first novel in the "Cormoran Strike" series of detective novels and was followed by "The Silkworm" in 2014, "Career of Evil" in 2015, "Lethal White" in 2018, "Troubled Blood" in 2020 and "The Ink Black Heart" in 2022.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Disabled Afghan War veteran and struggling private investigator Cormoran Strike is approached by John Bristow, the adoptive brother of Strike's childhood schoolmate Charlie. Bristow believes his supermodel sister Lula Landry, whom his parents adopted after Charlie died, did not jump to her death three months earlier and wants Strike to investigate further. Although initially unconvinced, Strike takes on the case due to his need for money to repay a loan that he had been given by his biological father, rock star Johnny Rokeby, because Rokeby's lawyer is demanding repayment. As the investigation commences, Strike meets Robin Ellacott, who has been assigned by a temp agency to act as his secretary, and hires her for a week despite his lack of funds. Robin, who has just become engaged to long-time boyfriend Matthew, turns out to be much more competent than Strike expected, prompting him to extend her stay.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The two set about interviewing Lula's friends and family members, as well as her personal driver, the doorman at her Mayfair flat, and a fashion designer who affectionately called her "Cuckoo". With each recollection of Lula and the day of her death, Strike gradually suspects the circumstances of her death are murkier than he initially imagined. His suspicions are confirmed after interviewing Lula's downstairs neighbour Tansy Bestigui, who told police that she heard Lula fighting with a man shortly before her death. Although the police had dismissed Tansy's statement because she could not have heard a fight through her flat's triple glazed windows, Strike deduces that she had been locked out on the balcony by her husband following a heated argument over her cocaine use and, after telling him what she saw, had been threatened into lying that she was inside when she heard the argument.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Shortly afterward, Lula's friend Rochelle is found dead, in the Thames, drowned hours after leaving a meeting with Strike. He becomes convinced that she was in contact with the killer and later deduces that Lula, who took an interest in investigating her biological roots before her death, was murdered for the ten million pounds she stood to inherit upon her adoptive mother's death.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Strike later meets with Bristow in his office, accusing Bristow of killing Lula and Rochelle, as well as Charlie, whom everyone believed died after riding his bicycle into a quarry. Bristow was both enraged that Lula had tracked down her biological brother, Jonah, and jealous of her success. He murdered her for the same reason he murdered Charlie, which was to secure his own position, and then used Strike in an attempt to frame Jonah for the crime. Strike goes on to explain that Lula made a will that left her estate to Jonah and cut the Bristow family out entirely, which Bristow suspected. Bristow organised a plan to frame Jonah, which would make him unable to inherit, and used Strike's friendship with Charlie to achieve his endgame. Rochelle knew what had happened and was blackmailing Bristow over it, leading to her murder too. Realising he has been caught, Bristow tries to stab Strike, only to be subdued after Robin enters the office.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Some time later, Robin is preparing to leave for a new permanent job when Strike gives her a parting gift in the form of an expensive dress that she tried on during the investigation. Despite Strike being barely able to pay her and having difficulty in suppressing his romantic feelings for her, the two come to an arrangement for her to stay on.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Over the years, Rowling often spoke of writing a crime novel. In 2007, during the Edinburgh Book Festival, author Ian Rankin claimed that his wife spotted Rowling "scribbling away" at a detective novel in a cafe. Rankin later retracted the story, claiming it was a joke. The rumour persisted with "The Guardian"'s speculating in 2012 that Rowling's next book would be a crime novel.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The BBC reported that Rowling sent the manuscript to the publishers anonymously, and at least one publishing house declined it, including Orion Books. It was eventually accepted by Sphere Books, which is an imprint of Little, Brown & Company, with whom Rowling had collaborated on her previous novel, "The Casual Vacancy" (2012).


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Rowling's authorship was revealed by "The Sunday Times" on 13 July 2013 after it investigated how a first-time author "with a background in the army and the civilian security industry" could write such an assured debut novel. The "Sunday Times" enlisted the services of Oxford University's professor Peter Millican and Pittsburgh's Duquesne University professor Patrick Juola, whose software programs ran multiple analyses of the novel and other Rowling works, comparing them with the works of other authors. However, it was later reported that Rowling's authorship had been leaked to a "Sunday Times" reporter via Twitter by the friend of the wife of a lawyer at Russells Solicitors, who had worked for Rowling. The firm subsequently apologised and made a "substantial charitable donation" to the Soldiers' Charity as a result of legal action brought by Rowling.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: After being revealed as the author, Rowling said she would have liked to remain anonymous for a while longer, stating: "Being Robert Galbraith has been such a liberating experience... It has been wonderful to publish without hype and expectation and pure pleasure to get feedback under a different name."


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The first printing of the first UK edition ran to at least 1,500 copies, with a cover that features a quote from Val McDermid, while the back cover has quotes from Mark Billingham and Alex Gray. All three are fellow crime novelists, who deny having been told Galbraith's true identity. It was stated on the book's dust jacket that 'Robert Galbraith' was a pseudonym, but the adjoining biographical details provided about Galbraith's time with the Royal Military Police suggested that the pseudonym was employed simply to protect the identity of a government official, somewhat in the manner of John le Carré.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The copyright page does not have a number line but simply states, 'First published in Great Britain in 2013 by Sphere'. The copyright page of the second printings of the first UK edition does not have a number line either, but in addition to the 'first published' line quoted above has a second line stating 'Reprinted 2013 (twice)'. (Trade paperback editions and hardbacks share the same imprint page, and this page lists the number of reprints; it is updated each time there is a reprint. In this case, the trade paperback reprinted prior to the hardback.) The reprint also features an amended back cover with additional quotes, while the revised inside flaps now acknowledge Rowling's authorship.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Before Rowling's identity as the book's author was revealed, 1,500 copies of the printed book had been sold since its release in April 2013, plus another 7,000 copies of the ebook, audiobook, and library editions. The book surged from 4,709th to the best-selling novel on Amazon after it was revealed on 14 July 2013 that the book was written by Rowling under the pseudonym "Robert Galbraith". Signed copies of the first edition are selling for $US4,000–6,000.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The book received mostly positive reviews. Most of them came only after Rowling became known as the author, but the early reactions were generally complimentary as well. After the revelation of the author's identity, Declan Burke of "The Irish Times" gave a very positive review, particularly enjoying its "satisfyingly complex plot that winds through the labyrinth of London's vulgar rich" as well as its characterization, and deeming it to be "easily one of the most assured and fascinating debut crime novels of the year." Writing for "USA Today", Charles Finch echoed this sentiment, also writing: "In both its broad strokes and in dozens of flairs of perception like this one, The Cuckoo's Calling shows that all great fiction—even if it only concerns our workaday world—has its own kind of magic." "Slate"'s Katy Waldman also reacted favourably to the book, lauding its narration and characters and drawing parallels between the book and the "Harry Potter" series.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: In "The Plain Dealer", Laura DeMarco hailed Rowling for "fully flesh[ing] out her cast", elaborating: "It's a testament to Rowling's skillful way of imbuing humanity to her characters that although Lula is killed months before the story starts, she comes to life a flesh-and-blood woman in the way many fictional crime victims do not." "Publishers Weekly" and Michiko Kakutani of "The New York Times" concurred, with the latter opining: "Strike and his now-permanent assistant, Robin (playing Robin to his Batman, Nora to his Nick, Salander to his Blomkvist), have become a team—a team whose further adventures the reader cannot wait to read." Another positive review came from "The Huffington Post", whose David Kudler praised the book as a "taut, well-written mystery that does a wonderful job of reviving an all-but-dead genre" but considered the psychology behind the crime "a bit of a stretch." "The Hindustan Times" also enjoyed the book, calling it "an entertaining story with characters who hold the reader's interest" but one noted that the conclusions drawn seemed "a little too out-of-nowhere." Jake Kerridge, in his "The Daily Telegraph" review, awarded the book four stars out of five and summed up the novel as "a sharply contemporary novel full of old-fashioned virtues; there is room for improvement in terms of construction, but it is wonderfully fresh and funny."


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Thom Geier of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the book a "B+" and wrote: "Despite the contemporary milieu and sprinkling of F-words, "The Cuckoo's Calling" is decidedly old-fashioned. Rowling serves up a sushi platter of red herring, sprinkling clues along the way, before Strike draws a confession out of the killer in a climax straight out of Agatha Christie." "London Evening Standard" gave a mixed review, commending its satirical tone and classic plot, but criticising its "extraordinarily clunky, over-descriptive style that Rowling has made so much her own." A negative review came from NPR's Maureen Corrigen, who slammed the book for being a clichéd "'Mayhem Parva' school of British detective fiction" and its weak characters, writing: "the most intriguing unsolved mystery in The Cuckoo's Calling is why, in this post-Lisbeth Salander age, Rowling would choose to outfit her female lead with such meek and anachronistic feminine behavior."


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: Rowling confirmed in a statement published on her website that she "fully intends to keep writing the series", and would do so under the pseudonym. The title of the sequel, "The Silkworm", and its publication date, 19 June, were announced on 17 February 2014. It saw Strike and his assistant, Robin Ellacott, investigating the disappearance of Owen Quine, a writer in possession of a damaging manuscript. A second sequel, "Career of Evil", was published in 2015. The title of the third sequel, "Lethal White", was announced on 14 March 2017, the book being published on 18 September 2018.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: On 10 December 2014, it was announced that the novels would be adapted as "Strike", a television series for BBC One, starting with "The Cuckoo's Calling". Rowling will executive produce the series through her production company Brontë Film and Television, along with Neil Blair and Ruth Kenley-Letts. The three event dramas will be based on scripts by Ben Richards who will write "The Cuckoo's Calling", and Tom Edge who will write "The Silkworm" and "Career of Evil". Michael Keillor will direct "The Cuckoo's Calling", Kieron Hawkes will direct "The Silkworm" and Charles Sturridge will direct "Career of Evil". Jackie Larkin will produce.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: In September 2016, it was announced that Tom Burke was set to play Cormoran Strike in the adaptation. and in November 2016 it was announced that Holliday Grainger will star as Strike's assistant, Robin Ellacott.


title: The Cuckoo's Calling

text: The series also stars Leo Bill as John Bristow, Elarica Johnson as Lula Landry, Martin Shaw as Tony Landry, Tara Fitzgerald as Tansy Bestigui, Tezlym Senior-Sakutu as Rochelle Onifade, David Avery as Nico Kolovas-Jones, Brian Bovell as Derrick Wilson, Siân Phillips as Lady Yvette Bristow, Bronson Webb as Evan Duffield, Amber Anderson as Ciara Porter, Kadiff Kirwan as Guy Some, Kerr Logan as Matthew Cunliffe, and Killian Scott as DI Eric Wardle.


title: Christian socialism

text: Christian socialism is a religious and political philosophy that blends Christianity and socialism, endorsing left-wing politics and socialist economics on the basis of the Bible and the teachings of Jesus. Many Christian socialists believe capitalism to be idolatrous and rooted in the sin of greed. Christian socialists identify the cause of social inequality to be the greed that they associate with capitalism. Christian socialism became a major movement in the United Kingdom beginning in the 19th century. The Christian Socialist Movement, known as Christians on the Left since 2013, is one formal group, as well as a faction of the Labour Party.


title: Christian socialism

text: According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, socialism is a "social and economic doctrine that calls for public rather than private ownership or control of property and natural resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members. [...] Early Christian communities also practised the sharing of goods and labour, a simple form of socialism subsequently followed in certain forms of monasticism. Several monastic orders continue these practices today". The Christian socialist Hutterites believe in strict adherence to biblical principles, "church discipline" and practised a form of communism. The Hutterites "established in their communities a rigorous system of Ordnungen, which were codes of rules and regulations that governed all aspects of life and ensured a unified perspective. As an economic system, Christian communism was attractive to many of the peasants who supported social revolution in sixteenth century central Europe" such as the German Peasants' War and "Friedrich Engels thus came to view Anabaptists as proto-Communists".


title: Christian socialism

text: Other earlier figures are also viewed as Christian socialists, such as the 19th-century writers Frederick Denison Maurice ("The Kingdom of Christ", 1838), John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow ("The Christian Socialist", 1850), John Ruskin ("Unto This Last", 1862), Charles Kingsley ("The Water-Babies", 1863), Thomas Hughes ("Tom Brown's Schooldays", 1857), Frederick James Furnivall (co-creator of the "Oxford English Dictionary"), Adin Ballou ("Practical Christian Socialism", 1854), and Francis Bellamy (a Baptist minister and the author of the United States' Pledge of Allegiance).


title: Christian socialism

text: The Old Testament had divided perspectives on the issue of poverty. One part of the Biblical tradition held that poverty was judgment of God upon the wicked while viewing prosperity as a reward for the good, stating in the that "[t]he righteous have enough to satisfy their appetite, but the belly of the wicked is empty." However, there are other sections that instruct generosity to the "have nots" of society. Mosaic Law instructs followers to treat neighbours equally and to be generous to have nots such as stating:


title: Christian socialism

text: Amos emphasizes the need for "justice" and "righteousness" that is described as conduct that emphasizes love for those who are poor and to oppose oppression and injustice towards the poor. The prophet Isaiah, to whom is attributed the first thirty-nine chapters of the Book of Isaiah known as Proto-Isaiah, followed upon Amos' themes of justice and righteousness involving the poor as necessary for followers of God, denouncing those who do not do these things, stating:


title: Christian socialism

text: The Book of Sirach, one of the Deuterocanonical or Apocryphal books of the Old Testament, denounces the pursuit of wealth, stating:


title: Christian socialism

text: The teachings of Jesus are frequently described as socialist, especially by Christian socialists. records that in the early church in Jerusalem "[n]o one claimed that any of their possessions was their own", although the pattern would later disappear from church history except within monasticism. Christian socialism was one of the founding threads of the British Labour Party and is claimed to begin with the uprising of Wat Tyler and John Ball in the 14th century CE.


title: Christian socialism

text: In the New Testament, Jesus identifies himself with the hungry, the poor, the sick, and the prisoners. is a major component of Christianity and is considered the cornerstone of Christian socialism. Another key statement in the New Testament that is an important component of Christian socialism is Luke 10:25–37 that follows the statement "You shall love your neighbour as yourself" with the question "And who is my neighbour?" In the Parable of the Good Samaritan. Jesus gives the response that the neighbour includes anyone in need, even people we might be expected to shun. The Samaritans and Jews claim descension from different Tribes of Israel, which had faced a schism prior to the events described in the New Testament. This schism lead to inter-ethnic and inter-religious conflict between the two groups.


title: Christian socialism

text: Luke 6:20–21 shows Jesus narrating the Sermon on the Plain, stating: "Blessed are you poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you that hunger now, for you shall be satisfied." Christian socialists note that James the Just, the brother of Jesus, criticizes the rich intensely and in strong language in the Epistle of James:


title: Christian socialism

text: During the New Testament period and beyond, there is evidence that many Christian communities practised forms of sharing, redistribution and communism. Some of the Bible verses which inspired the communal economic arrangements of the Hutterites are found in the book of Acts:


title: Christian socialism

text: Basil of Caesarea, the Father of the Eastern monks who became Bishop of Caesarea, established a complex around the church and monastery that included hostels, almshouses, and hospitals for infectious diseases. During the great famine of 368, Basil denounced against profiteers and the indifferent rich. Basil wrote a sermon on the Parable of the Rich Fool in which he states:


title: Christian socialism

text: John Chrysostom declared his reasons for his attitude towards the rich and position of attitude towards wealth by stating:


title: Christian socialism

text: During the English Civil War and the period of the Commonwealth of England (1642-1660), the Diggers espoused a political and economic theory rooted in Christianity that bears a strong resemblance to modern socialism, particularly its anarchist and communist strains.


title: Christian socialism

text: In France Philippe Buchez began to characterize his philosophy as Christian socialism in the 1820s and 1830s. A variety of socialist perspectives emerged in 19th century Britain, beginning with John Ruskin.


title: Christian socialism

text: Edward R. Norman identifies three "immediate intellectual sources" for mid-century Christian socialism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Thomas Carlyle, and Thomas Arnold.


title: Christian socialism

text: The influential Victorian art critic John Ruskin expounded theories about social justice in "Unto This Last" (1860). In it, he stated four goals that might be called "socialist" although Ruskin did not use the term.


title: Christian socialism

text: Although Ruskin was not "an authentic Socialist in any of its various nineteenth-century meanings" as his only real contact with the Christian socialists came through the Working Men's College, he influenced later socialist thinking, especially William Morris.


title: Christian socialism

text: The painters of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood were influenced and sponsored by Ruskin. The artist William Morris was a leader of the Socialist League founded in December 1884.


title: Christian socialism

text: The Fabian Society was founded in 1884, with both Sydney and Beatrice Webb being among its leading members. The Fabians influenced members of the Bloomsbury Group and were important in the early history of the British Labour Party.


title: Christian socialism

text: Founded in 1911 by Vida Dutton Scudder, herself influenced by the Fabian Society, the Episcopal Church Socialist League and its successor the Church League for Industrial Democracy sought to ally Christian doctrine with the plight of the working class as a part of the larger social gospel movement that was taking hold of many urban churches across the United States in the early 20th century.


title: Christian socialism

text: In the November 1914 issue of "The Christian Socialist", Episcopal bishop Franklin Spencer Spalding of Utah stated:


title: Christian socialism

text: Although anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of or vehemently opposed to organized religion, some anarchists have provided religious interpretations and approaches to anarchism, including the idea that glorification of the state is a form of sinful idolatry.


title: Christian socialism

text: Christian anarchists claim anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels, that it is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable—the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. It therefore rejects the idea that human governments have ultimate authority over human societies. Christian anarchists denounce the state, believing it is violent, deceitful and, when glorified, idolatrous.


title: Christian socialism

text: The foundation of Christian anarchism is a rejection of violence, with Leo Tolstoy's "The Kingdom of God Is Within You" regarded as a key text. Tolstoy sought to separate Russian Orthodox Christianity—which was merged with the state—from what he believed was the true message of Jesus as contained in the Gospels, specifically in the Sermon on the Mount. Tolstoy takes the viewpoint that all governments who wage war, and churches who in turn support those governments, are an affront to the Christian principles of nonviolence and nonresistance. Although Tolstoy never actually used the term "Christian anarchism" in "The Kingdom of God Is Within You", reviews of this book following its publication in 1894 appear to have coined the term.


title: Christian socialism

text: Christian anarchists hold that the "Reign of God" is the proper expression of the relationship between God and humanity. Under the "Reign of God", human relationships would be characterized by divided authority, servant leadership, and universal compassion—not by the hierarchical, authoritarian structures that are normally attributed to religious social order. Most Christian anarchists are pacifists who reject war and the use of violence. More than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Leo Tolstoy's "The Kingdom of God Is Within You" is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism.


title: Christian socialism

text: Critics of Christian anarchism include both Christians and anarchists. Christians often cite Romans 13 as evidence that the state should be obeyed while secular anarchists do not believe in any authority including God as per the slogan "no gods, no masters". Christian anarchists often believe Romans 13 is taken out of context, emphasizing that Revelation 13 and Isaiah 13, among other passages, are needed to fully understand Romans 13 text.


title: Christian socialism

text: The political movement of Christian democracy espouses some values of Christian socialism in the form of "economic justice" and "social welfare". It opposes an "individualist worldview" and approves state intervention in the economy in defence of "human dignity". On the other hand, because of its "close association with Roman Catholicism", Christian democracy differs from Christian socialism by its emphasis on "traditional church and family values", its defence of "private property" and by its opposition to "excessive intervention of the state".


title: Christian socialism

text: Christian democratic parties under various names were formed in Europe and Latin America after World War II. Some became "a major political force".


title: Christian socialism

text: Christian communism is a form of religious communism based on Christianity and the view that the teachings of Jesus compel Christians to support communism as the ideal social system. While there is no universal agreement on the exact date when Christian communism was founded, Christian communists assert that evidence from the Bible (Acts of the Apostles) suggests that the first Christians, including the apostles, established their own communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection. Advocates of Christian communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and practised by the apostles themselves. Some independent historians confirm it.


title: Christian socialism

text: Liberation theology is a synthesis of Christian theology and socio-economic analyses, that emphasizes "social concern for the poor and political liberation for oppressed peoples." Beginning in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council, liberation theology became the political praxis of Latin American theologians such as Gustavo Gutiérrez, Leonardo Boff and the Jesuits Juan Luis Segundo and Jon Sobrino, who popularized the phrase "preferential option for the poor". This expression was used first by Jesuit Fr. General Pedro Arrupe in 1968 and soon after this the World Synod of Catholic Bishops in 1971 chose as its theme "Justice in the World".


title: Christian socialism

text: The Latin American context produced evangelical advocates of liberation theology such as Rubem Alves, José Míguez Bonino and C. René Padilla, who called for integral mission in the 1970s, emphasizing evangelism and social responsibility. Theologies of liberation have developed in other parts of the world such as black theology in the United States and South Africa, Palestinian liberation theology, Dalit theology in India and Minjung theology in South Korea.


title: Christian socialism

text: After 1848, utopian socialist ideas continued in new religious movements such as occultism and spiritualism. They were often marked by a heterodox Christian identity and a decidedly anti-materialist attitude.


title: Christian socialism

text: Communism and socialism have been condemned by Pope Pius IX, Pope Leo XIII, Pope Pius X, Pope Benedict XV, Pope Pius XI, Pope Pius XII, Pope John XXIII, Pope Paul VI, and Pope John Paul II. Pope Benedict XVI also condemned both ideologies, while distinguishing them from Democratic Socialism, which he praised. The views of Pope Francis on the issue have also been called into question, with some arguing he holds socialist or communist views, while others argue he does not. Pope Francis has denied accusations of him being a communist, calling them a "misinterpretation" of his views. Francis has both denounced "Marxist ideology" as "wrong" and praised communists for "[thinking] like Christians."


title: Christian socialism

text: Pope Pius IX criticized socialism in his works "Nostis et nobiscum" and "Quanta Cura". In his 1849 work "Nostis et nobiscum", he refers to communism and socialism as "wicked theories" which confuse people with "perverted teachings." In his 1864 work "Quanta Cura", he refers to communism and socialism as a "fatal error."


title: Christian socialism

text: Communism was later strongly criticized in the 1878 papal encyclical "Quod Apostolici Muneris" by Pope Leo XIII as he believed that it led to state domination over the freedom of the individual and quelled proper religious worship, inherently turning the top hierarchical power over to the state instead of God. Leo writes in this work that socialists steal "the very Gospel itself with a view to deceive more easily the unwary" and "distort it so as to suit their own purposes." In his 1891 encyclical "Rerum Novarum", Leo XIII strongly attacked socialism, stating that it acts against natural injustice and destroys the home. He writes that socialism "must be utterly rejected" by Catholics.


title: Christian socialism

text: However, the labour movement in Ireland and the United States nonetheless traces its origins back to Roman Catholicism and the 1891 encyclical "Rerum Novarum" and the various subsequent encyclicals it spawned. The Starry Plough, a symbol associated with socialism in Ireland, was designed with an explicit reference to Catholicism in mind. The right to association such as the creation of and involvement in trade unions and co-operatives are regarded as a core part of Roman Catholic social teaching. The Knights of Saint Columbanus too can trace its origins back to "Rerum novarum".


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1901, Leo XIII once again condemned socialism in his encyclical "Graves de communi re", referring to it as a "harvest of misery" ".


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1910, Pope Pius X attacked socialism in his Apostolic letter "Notre Charge Apostolique", predicting that the rise of socialism will be "a tumultuous agitation".


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1914, Pope Benedict XV wrote his encyclical "Ad Beatissimi Apostolorum", which reaffirmed the anti-socialist stance of the Catholic Church, calling on Catholics to remember "the errors of Socialism and of similar doctrines", as taught by his predecessors.


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1931, Pope Pius XI wrote his work "Quadragesimo anno", wherein Pius describes the major dangers for human freedom and dignity arising from unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism. Pius XI called upon true socialism to distance itself from totalitarian communism as a matter of clarity and also as a matter of principle. Communists were accused of attempting to overthrow all existing civil society. It was argued that Christian socialism, if allied to communism, was deemed to be an oxymoron because of this. Pius XI famously wrote at the time that "Religious socialism, Christian socialism, are contradictory terms; no one can be at the same time a good Catholic and a true socialist".


title: Christian socialism

text: Nonetheless, some prominent Catholic socialists did exist during Pope Pius XI's era such as Dorothy Day in the United States (who later abandoned these beliefs and advocated for distributism) and Father Michael O'Flanagan (who was suspended for his political beliefs) in Ireland. Pius XI also clarified that a Catholic was free to vote for the Labour Party, the British affiliate of the Socialist International. Later, in 1937, Pius XI rejected atheistic communism in an encyclical entitled Divini Redemptoris as "a system full of errors and sophisms", with a "pseudo-ideal of justice, equality, and fraternity" and "a certain false mysticism", and contrasted it with a humane society ("civitas humana").


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1949, Pope Pius XII issued the Decree against Communism, which declared Catholics who professed Communist doctrine to be excommunicated as apostates from the Christian faith. In 1952, when referring to socialism Pius XII stated that "The Church will fight this battle to the end, for it is a question of supreme values: the dignity of man and the salvation of souls."


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1959, on the question of whether Catholics could "associate themselves with the communists and support them with their course of action", a response from the Holy Office under Pope John XXIII replied "No". On May 15, 1961, John XXIII promulgated the encyclical "Mater et magistra", which reaffirmed the Church's anti-socialist stances. John XXIII wrote


title: Christian socialism

text: In 1971, Pope Paul VI wrote the Apostolic Letter Octogesima Adveniens, stating: "Too often Christians attracted by socialism tend to idealize it in terms which, apart from anything else, are very general: a will for justice, solidarity and equality. They refuse to recognize the limitations of the historical socialist movements, which remain conditioned by the ideologies from which they originated."


title: Christian socialism

text: The 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church, also promulgated by Pope John Paul II, condemns socialism in paragraph 2425, stating:


title: Christian socialism

text: In 2004, Pope Benedict XVI addressed the Italian Senate, declaring that "[i]n many respects democratic socialism was and is close to Catholic social doctrine; in any case, it contributed toward the formation of a social consciousness". In 2005, Benedict XVI attacked socialism in his encyclical Deus caritas est, stating, "We do not need a State which regulates and controls everything, but a State which, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, generously acknowledges and supports initiatives arising from the different social forces and combines spontaneity with closeness to those in need. The Church is one of those living forces...In the end, the claim that just social structures would make works of charity superfluous masks a materialist conception of man...a conviction that demeans man and ultimately disregards all that is specifically human." In 2007, Benedict XVI attacked Karl Marx in his encyclical Spe Salvi, stating that "[w]ith the victory of the revolution, though, Marx's fundamental error also became evident. He showed precisely how to overthrow the existing order, but he did not say how matters should proceed thereafter...He forgot that freedom always remains also freedom for evil. He thought that once the economy had been put right, everything would automatically be put right. His real error is materialism: man, in fact, is not merely the product of economic conditions, and it is not possible to redeem him purely from the outside by creating a favourable economic environment."


title: Christian socialism

text: Pope Francis has been viewed as having some sympathy to socialist causes, with his frequent criticism of neoliberalism. Francis claimed that the world economy is "[f]undamental terrorism, against all of Humanity" and that "[i]f anything, it is the communists who think like Christians. Christ spoke of a society where the poor, the weak and the marginalized have the right to decide." When later questioned on whether or not he is a communist, Francis responded "As for whether or not I’m a communist: I am sure that I have not said anything more than what the Church’s social doctrine teaches…maybe the impression of being a little more “of the left” has been given, but that would be a misinterpretation" and that "Marxist ideology is wrong."


title: Christian socialism

text: More recently, movements such as liberation theology have argued for the compatibility of socialism and Catholicism, though they have been rejected by Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI. António Guterres, a practicing Catholic and current Secretary-General of the United Nations is the immediate past President of the Socialist International.


title: Christian socialism

text: In France, the birthplace of Calvinism, the "Christianisme Social" (Social Christianity) movement emerged from the preaching of Tommy Fallot in the 1870s. Early on, the movement focused on such issues as illiteracy and alcoholism amongst the poor. After the First World War, Social Christianity moved in two directions: towards pacifism and towards ecumenism.


title: Christian socialism

text: Hence within the movement emerged conscientious objectors such as Jacques Martin, Philo Vernier and Henri Roser, economists pursuing policies that reflected cooperation and solidarity (such as Bernard Lavergne and Georges Lasserre), and theologians such as Paul Ricoeur. One of the pastors in the movement, Jacques Kaltenbach, was also to have a formative influence on André Trocmé.


title: Christian socialism

text: Under the Vichy regime which had seen the emergence of other forms of witness, particularly the support of internees in the camps and aiding Jews to escape, the movement was reborn to tackle the problems of a changing world. It expressed a Christian socialism, more or less in line with the beginning of a new political left. Political activism was very broad and included the denunciation of torture, East–West debate on European integration and taking a stance on the process of decolonization. It facilitated meetings between employers, managers and trade unionists to discern a new economic order.


title: Christian socialism

text: After the events of May 68, Calvinism in France became much more left-wing in its orientation. One doctrinal text produced in this period, "Church and Authorities", was described as Marxist in its orientation. Churches now seized for themselves the political and social issues to tackle, such as nuclear power and justice for the Third World.


title: Christian socialism

text: In the early 2000s, the Social Christianity movement temporarily discontinued and its journal "Other Times" ceased to be published. However, the movement was relaunched on 10 June 2010 with a petition signed by over 240 people and now maintains an active presence with its own website.


title: Christian socialism

text: Economically, Most Calvinists have supported capitalism and have been in the vanguard of promoting market capitalism and have produced many of France's leading entrepreneurs. With regard to politics and social issues however, they are very much socialists. Three of France's post-war prime ministers have been Calvinists, despite Protestants only making up two percent of the population. Two of these prime ministers have been socialists.


title: Christian socialism

text: In Australia, the academic Roland Boer has attempted to synthesize Calvinism and Marxism. He has stated that "it became clear to me that within Christianity there is a strong tradition of political and theological radicalism, which I continued to explore personally. Reformed or Calvinist theology did not seem to sit easily with that interest, so I spent many a long year rejecting that tradition, only to realise later that Calvin himself was torn between the radical potential of elements in the Bible and his own conservative preferences".


title: Christian socialism

text: In Wales, Calvinistic Methodism is the largest non-conformist religion. Its beginnings may be traced to Griffith Jones (1684–1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circulating charity schools for the education of children. However, until the nineteenth century, the prevailing thought amongst Welsh non-conformists was that "it would be wiser if the churches limited their activities to those of the altar and not to meddle at all with the state and social questions". This stemmed partly from the traditional nonconformist belief in the separation of church and state.


title: Christian socialism

text: In his influential sermon "Y Ddwy Alwedigaeth" ("The Two Vocations"), Emrys ap Iwan challenged this passive pietism: "We must not think, like the old Methodists, Puritans and some Catholics, that we can only seek Godliness outside our earthly vocation." He condemned those Christians who limited godliness to directly religious matters such as Sabbath observance and personal devotion. He declared that all earthly things, including language and culture, have some kind of divine origin.


title: Christian socialism

text: Many of the founders of the Welsh nationalist social-democratic party, Plaid Cymru were also devout Calvinists, including John Edward Daniel. Daniel was the theologian credited for bringing neo-orthodoxy to Wales. Daniel argued that God did not create man as an isolated individual but as a social being.


title: Christian socialism

text: The second generation of Plaid Cymru leaders included R. Tudur Jones. His political stance, combined with Calvinist doctrine, created an integrated vision that was significant to the religious life of Christian Wales in the later half of the 20th century. Jones argued that the "state should be a servant, to preserve order and to allow men to live the good life".


title: Christian socialism

text: Today, many Calvinist socialists in Wales support same-sex marriage on the grounds that it delivers marriage equality in the eyes of the state while still allowing churches to follow their own conscience, thus upholding the traditional Protestant belief in separation of church and state.


title: Christian socialism

text: The Calvinist tradition in Plaid Cymru has also influenced its non-violent approach. According to Rhys Llwyd, "[t]he ideal is no fist violence, no verbal violence, and no heart violence. [...] Christians [...] point to the New Testament example of Jesus Christ clearing the temple. Here there is no suggestion of violence against people; rather the tables are turned as a symbolic act. The life and teaching of Jesus Christ were seen as the foundations of nonviolent direct action [for Plaid Cymru members] [...] loving their enemies on the one hand, but not compromising on what they saw as an issue of moral rightness". Plaid Cymru continues to see itself as very much part of the Christian pacifist tradition.


title: Christian socialism

text: In "Rendering Unto Caesar", Lawrence Reed, president emeritus of the libertarian-leaning Foundation for Economic Education, writes that Jesus was not a socialist in that he promoted voluntary giving and charity rather than the mandatory taking by government (taxes). Conservative Evangelical Christian Johnnie Moore Jr., Professor of Religion at Liberty University, a "bastion of the Christian right" in American politics, writing on the homepage of Fox News Radio's Todd Starnes, claimed that Jesus was a capitalist. Traditionalist conservative Bryan Fischer of the American Family Association, a Christian fundamentalist organization in the United States, also claimed that Jesus was a capitalist who advocated "voluntary redistribution of wealth".


title: Christian socialism

text: Charles Haddon Spurgeon was critical of socialist doctrines, and warned that those who seek socialism "may soon have too much of it". Specifically, he regarded collectivist Christianity as inferior to faith on an individual level. He said that "I would not have you exchange the gold of individual Christianity for the base metal of Christian socialism".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: In the Wake of Poseidon is the second studio album by English progressive rock group King Crimson, released in May 1970 by Island Records in Europe, Atlantic Records in the United States, Philips Records in Australia, and Vertigo Records in New Zealand. To date the album is their highest-charting in the UK, reaching number 4.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The album was recorded during a period of instability within the band owing a fluctuating lineup. It follows a very similar musical style and track sequence to their first album, "In the Court of the Crimson King". The album was well-received by contemporary critics, who commended the overall execution and production quality as an improvement over that of the band's debut. However, later assessments have faulted its heavy reliance on the template established by its predecessor, and generally deem the album inferior.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: Ian McDonald and Michael Giles left the band following their first American tour in 1969. Greg Lake was the next member to leave, after being approached by Keith Emerson to join what would become Emerson, Lake & Palmer in early 1970. This left Robert Fripp as the only remaining musician in the band, taking on part of the keyboard-playing role in addition to guitar.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: Then-unknown Elton John was booked to sing on the recording sessions for "In the Wake of Poseidon", but Fripp had second thoughts and cancelled the booking. Lake then agreed to sing on the recordings, negotiating to receive King Crimson's PA equipment as payment. He ended up singing on the band's early 1970 single "Cat Food" (but not on its B-side, "Groon") and on all but one of the album's vocal tracks. The exception was "Cadence and Cascade", which was sung by Fripp's old schoolfriend and teenage bandmate Gordon Haskell. An early mix of the song with Lake singing a guide vocal was unearthed and featured on the DGM site as a download. Other former members and associates returned – as session players only – for the Poseidon recordings, with all bass parts being handled by Peter Giles and Michael Giles drumming. Other key performers were Mel Collins (formerly of the band Circus) on saxophones and flute and jazz pianist Keith Tippett.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: Fripp, Lake, Tippett, and the Giles brothers appeared on "Top of the Pops" miming "Cat Food". This would be King Crimson's only appearance on the show.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: With the album on sale, Fripp and Peter Sinfield remained in the awkward position of having King Crimson material and releases available, but no band to play it. Fripp persuaded Gordon Haskell to join as singer and bass player, and recruited drummer Andy McCulloch, another Dorset musician moving in the West London progressive rock circle, who had previously been a member of Shy Limbs (alongside Greg Lake, who recommended him to Fripp) and Manfred Mann's Earth Band.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The album opens with an a cappella piece called "Peace – A Beginning". An extended version of this piece, "Peace – A Theme", adds a middle eight and is performed on an unaccompanied acoustic guitar. This track appears at the beginning of side two, perhaps conceived as the mid-point of the album, and a third version, "Peace – An End" appears at the conclusion of the album. "Peace – An End" is to some extent a combination of the other two versions, containing both vocals and acoustic guitar as well as the middle eight, but the lyrics are entirely different from those of "Peace – A Beginning".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The strongly jazz fusion-influenced "Pictures of a City" was originally performed live, often extended to over ten minutes and was called "A Man, a City". An example of such a performance appears on the live compilation album "Epitaph".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The longest track on the album is a chaotic instrumental piece called "The Devil’s Triangle". This was adapted from the 1969 band's live arrangement of Gustav Holst's "Mars: Bringer of War" (from his "The Planets" suite), later released on "Epitaph" (where it is titled merely "Mars"). "The Devil's Triangle" employs a different staccato riff than the one from "Mars". In 1971, a brief excerpt from "The Devil’s Triangle" was featured in "The Mind of Evil", the second serial of the eighth season of the BBC television series "Doctor Who". The track includes part of the chorus from "The Court of the Crimson King", a track from the band's first album, using a studio technique known as xenochrony. Despite this, Ian McDonald, who composed "The Court of the Crimson King", is not given co-writing credit on this segment of "The Devil's Triangle", only on the opening section, "Merday Morn".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The work is called "The 12 Archetypes" or "The 12 Faces of Humankind". The colour pictures were painted by Tammo De Jongh in 1967.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: Released on 15 May 1970, "In the Wake of Poseidon" was King Crimson's highest-charting album to date in the UK, reaching number 4.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: The album was re-released in 2010 with a near-complete new stereo mix by Steven Wilson and Robert Fripp as part of the 40th Anniversary release sequence. As tape for one track, "The Devil's Triangle", could not be located, the original stereo was included instead. The CD also includes a new mix of "Groon" ("Cat Food"'s B-side), an alternate take of "Peace – An End", and Greg Lake's guide vocal take of "Cadence and Cascade". The DVD-A features a 5.1 mix by Steven Wilson, with "The Devil's Triangle" up-mixed to 5.1 by Simon Heyworth, hi-res stereo versions of the 30th anniversary stereo master, the 2010 album mixes and ten hi-res bonus tracks including the original single "Cat Food"/"Groon", the bonus tracks from the CD, and a number of other session takes, rehearsals and mixes.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: Robert Christgau rated the album higher than the debut, describing it as "more muddled conceptually than "In the Court of the Crimson King"" but commenting that "they're not afraid to be harsh, they command a range of styles, and their dynamics jolt rather than sledgehammer".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: In his retrospective review, AllMusic's Bruce Eder praised the album, saying that it was better produced than their debut, but he also said that it "doesn't tread enough new ground to precisely rival "In the Court of the Crimson King"". An editor's postscript praised a 24-bit digitally remastered edition released in March 2000. Paul Stump, in his "History of Progressive Rock", said the album "marks a decisive shift away from the Baroque pictorialism of "Court"; as [Robert Fripp biographer Eric] Tamm has observed, Fripp assumed more production duties and took it upon himself to distil the band's sound, introducing a raw, airless edge of asperity to it he would later gloss as 'audio vérité'." However, he criticized the band's adaptation of "Mars".


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: All European LPs issued by Island and Polydor have erroneously printed labels that leave off "Peace – A Theme" and list "The Devil's Triangle" and its three movements as four distinct tracks. Most US and Japanese Atlantic LPs use the correct track listing.


title: In the Wake of Poseidon

text: King Crimson had no cohesive band lineup during the recording, with only Robert Fripp and Peter Sinfield being firmly in place as band members during this time.


title: Timsort

text: Timsort is a hybrid, sorting algorithm, derived from merge sort and insertion sort, designed to perform well on many kinds of real-world data. It was implemented by Tim Peters in 2002 for use in the Python programming language. The algorithm finds subsequences of the data that are already ordered (runs) and uses them to sort the remainder more efficiently. This is done by merging runs until certain criteria are fulfilled. Timsort has been Python's standard sorting algorithm since version 2.3. It is also used to sort arrays of non-primitive type in Java SE 7, on the Android platform, in GNU Octave, on V8, Swift, and Rust.


title: Timsort

text: It uses techniques from Peter McIlroy's 1993 paper "Optimistic Sorting and Information Theoretic Complexity".


title: Timsort

text: Timsort was designed to take advantage of "runs" of consecutive ordered elements that already exist in most real-world data, "natural runs". It iterates over the data collecting elements into runs and simultaneously putting those runs in a stack. Whenever the runs on the top of the stack match a merge criterion, they are merged. This goes on until all data is traversed; then, all runs are merged two at a time and only one sorted run remains. The advantage of merging ordered runs instead of merging fixed size sub-lists (as done by traditional mergesort) is that it decreases the total number of comparisons needed to sort the entire list.


title: Timsort

text: Each run has a minimum size, which is based on the size of the input and it is defined at the start of the algorithm. If a run is smaller than this minimum run size, insertion sort is used to add more elements to the run until the minimum run size is reached.


title: Timsort

text: Timsort is a stable sorting algorithm (order of elements with same key is kept) and strives to perform balanced merges (a merge thus merges runs of similar sizes).


title: Timsort

text: In order to achieve sorting stability, only consecutive runs are merged. Between two non-consecutive runs, there can be an element with the same key inside the runs. Merging those two runs would change the order of equal keys. Example of this situation ([] are ordered runs): [1 2 2] 1 4 2 [0 1 2]


title: Timsort

text: In pursuit of balanced merges, Timsort considers three runs on the top of the stack, "X", "Y", "Z", and maintains the invariants:


title: Timsort

text: If any of these invariants is violated, "Y" is merged with the smaller of "X" or "Z" and the invariants are checked again. Once the invariants hold, the search for a new run in the data can start. These invariants maintain merges as being approximately balanced while maintaining a compromise between delaying merging for balance, exploiting fresh occurrence of runs in cache memory and making merge decisions relatively simple.


title: Timsort

text: The original merge sort implementation is not in-place and it has a space overhead of N (data size). In-place merge sort implementations exist, but have a high time overhead. In order to achieve a middle term, Timsort performs a merge sort with a small time overhead and smaller space overhead than N.


title: Timsort

text: First, Timsort performs a binary search to find the location where the first element of the second run would be inserted in the first ordered run, keeping it ordered. Then, it performs the same algorithm to find the location where the last element of the first run would be inserted in the second ordered run, keeping it ordered. Elements before and after these locations are already in their correct place and do not need to be merged. Then, the smaller of the remaining elements of the two runs is copied into temporary memory, and elements are merged with the larger run into the now free space. If the first run is smaller, the merge starts at the beginning; if the second is smaller, the merge starts at the end. This optimization reduces the number of required element movements, the running time and the temporary space overhead in the general case.


title: Timsort

text: Example: two runs [1, 2, 3, 6, 10] and [4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 17] must be merged. Note that both runs are already sorted individually. The smallest element of the second run is 4 and it would have to be added at the fourth position of the first run in order to preserve its order (assuming that the first position of a run is 1). The largest element of the first run is 10 and it would have to be added at the fifth position of the second run in order to preserve its order. Therefore, [1, 2, 3] and [12, 14, 17] are already in their final positions and the runs in which elements movements are required are [6, 10] and [4, 5, 7, 9]. With this knowledge, we only need to allocate a temporary buffer of size 2 instead of 4.


title: Timsort

text: Merging can be done in both directions: left-to-right, as in the traditional mergesort, or right-to-left.


title: Timsort

text: An individual merge of runs R1 and R2 keeps the count of consecutive elements selected from a run. When this number reaches the "minimum galloping threshold" ("min_gallop"), Timsort considers that it is likely that many consecutive elements may still be selected from that run and switches to the galloping mode. Let us assume that R1 is responsible for triggering it. In this mode, the algorithm performs an exponential search, also known as galloping search, for the next element x of the run R2 in the run R1. This is done in two stages: the first one finds the range (2 − 1, 2 - 1) where x is. The second stage performs a binary search for the element x in the range found in the first stage. The galloping mode is an attempt to adapt the merge algorithm to the pattern of intervals between elements in runs.


title: Timsort

text: Galloping is not always efficient. In some cases galloping mode requires more comparisons than a simple linear search. According to benchmarks done by the developer, galloping is beneficial only when the initial element of one run is not one of the first seven elements of the other run. This implies an initial threshold of 7. To avoid the drawbacks of galloping mode, two actions are taken: (1) When galloping is found to be less efficient than binary search, galloping mode is exited. (2)


title: Timsort

text: The success or failure of galloping is used to adjust "min_gallop". If the selected element is from the same array that returned an element previously, "min_gallop" is reduced by one, thus encouraging the return to galloping mode. Otherwise, the value is incremented by one, thus discouraging a return to galloping mode. In the case of random data, the value of "min_gallop" becomes so large that galloping mode never recurs.


title: Timsort

text: In order to also take advantage of data sorted in descending order, Timsort reverses strictly descending runs when it finds them and adds them to the stack of runs. Since descending runs are later blindly reversed, excluding runs with equal elements maintains the algorithm's stability; i.e., equal elements won't be reversed.


title: Timsort

text: Because merging is most efficient when the number of runs is equal to, or slightly less than, a power of two, and notably less efficient when the number of runs is slightly more than a power of two, Timsort chooses "minrun" to try to ensure the former condition.


title: Timsort

text: "Minrun" is chosen from the range 32 to 64 inclusive, such that the size of the data, divided by "minrun", is equal to, or slightly less than, a power of two. The final algorithm takes the six most significant bits of the size of the array, adds one if any of the remaining bits are set, and uses that result as the "minrun". This algorithm works for all arrays, including those smaller than 64; for arrays of size 63 or less, this sets "minrun" equal to the array size and Timsort reduces to an insertion sort.


title: Timsort

text: In the worst case, Timsort takes formula_1 comparisons to sort an array of elements. In the best case, which occurs when the input is already sorted, it runs in linear time, meaning that it is an adaptive sorting algorithm.


title: Timsort

text: It is superior to Quicksort for sorting object references or pointers because these require expensive memory indirection to access data and perform comparisons and Quicksort's cache coherence benefits are greatly reduced.


title: Timsort

text: In 2015, Dutch and German researchers in the EU FP7 ENVISAGE project found a bug in the standard implementation of Timsort. It was fixed in 2015 in Python, Java and Android.


title: Timsort

text: Specifically, the invariants on stacked run sizes ensure a tight upper bound on the maximum size of the required stack. The implementation preallocated a stack sufficient to sort 2 bytes of input, and avoided further overflow checks.


title: Timsort

text: However, the guarantee requires the invariants to apply to "every" group of three consecutive runs, but the implementation only checked it for the top three. Using the KeY tool for formal verification of Java software, the researchers found that this check is not sufficient, and they were able to find run lengths (and inputs which generated those run lengths) which would result in the invariants being violated deeper in the stack after the top of the stack was merged.


title: Timsort

text: As a consequence, for certain inputs the allocated size is not sufficient to hold all unmerged runs. In Java, this generates for those inputs an array-out-of-bound exception. The smallest input that triggers this exception in Java and Android v7 is of size (2). (Older Android versions already triggered this exception for certain inputs of size (2))


title: Timsort

text: The Java implementation was corrected by increasing the size of the preallocated stack based on an updated worst-case analysis. The article also showed by formal methods how to establish the intended invariant by checking that the "four" topmost runs in the stack satisfy the two rules above. This approach was adopted by Python and Android.


The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 (COPPA) is a United States federal law, located at ().


title: Children's Online Privacy Protection Act

text: The act, effective April 21, 2000, applies to the online collection of personal information by persons or entities under U.S. jurisdiction about children under 13 years of age, including children outside the U.S. if the website or service is U.S.-based. It details what a website operator must include in a privacy policy, when and how to seek verifiable consent from a parent or guardian, and what responsibilities an operator has to protect children's privacy and safety online, including restrictions on the marketing of those under 13.


text: Although children under 13 can legally give out personal information with their parents' permission, many websites—particularly social media sites, but also other sites that collect most personal info—disallow children under 13 from using their services altogether due to the cost and work involved in complying with the law.


text: In the 1990s, electronic commerce was on its rise of popularity, but various concerns were expressed about the data collection practices and the impact of Internet commerce on user privacy — especially for children under 13, because very few websites had their own privacy policies. The Center for Media Education petitioned the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate the data collection and use practices of the KidsCom website, and take legal action since the data practices violated Section 5 of FTC Act concerning "unfair/deceptive practices." With the passing of the Drivers Privacy Protection Act in 1997, new precedents had been set in regards to the ability for congress to regulate information held by state agencies. After the FTC completed its investigation, it issued the "KidsCom Letter" the report stated that the data collection and use practices were indeed subject to legal action. This resulted in the need to inform parents about the risks of children's online privacy, as well as to parental consent necessity. This ultimately resulted in the drafting of COPPA.


text: The new millennium ushered in an era of regulation that many were simply unaware of. The early years of the transition were fraught with confusion and a lot of animosity. One of the main concerns of the time was the eventual accessibility of child-based websites at the fear many were unwilling to change their business practices. Many were left with a series of loose guidelines that determined what was correct. The simplification of COPPA provided by the FTC was met with a follow-up of demands to law enforcement that the: "... Commission should continue law enforcement efforts by targeting significant violations and seeking increasingly larger civil penalties, when appropriate, to deter unlawful conduct". A mandatory review of the COPPA regulations were conducted in 2005 (resulting with no changes to the original guidelines), found that there were no adverse effects to the online landscape.


text: The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has the authority to issue regulations and enforce COPPA. Also, under the terms of COPPA, the FTC-designated "safe harbor" provisioning is designed to encourage increased industrial self-regulation. Under this provision, industry groups and others may request Commission approval of self-regulatory guidelines to govern participants' compliance, such that website operators in Commission-approved programs would first be subject to the disciplinary procedures of the safe harbor program in lieu of FTC enforcement. the FTC has approved seven safe harbor programs operated by TrustArc, ESRB, CARU, PRIVO, Aristotle, Inc., Samet Privacy (kidSAFE), and the Internet Keep Safe Coalition (iKeepSafe). In August 2021, Aristotle, Inc. withdrew from the safe harbor program after FTC staff expressed serious concerns about its enforcement of its safe harbor provisions and communicated their intent to recommend the revocation of Aristotle's approval to run a safe harbor program. The FTC also announced its intention to more closely scrutinize the practices of the other six present safe harbors.


text: In September 2011, the FTC announced proposed revisions to the COPPA rules, the first significant changes to the act since the issuance of the rules in 2000. The proposed rule changes expanded the definition of what it meant to "collect" data from children. The proposed rules presented a data retention and deletion requirement, which mandated that data obtained from children be retained only for the amount of time necessary to achieve the purpose that it was collected for. It also added the requirement that operators ensure that any third parties to whom a child's information is disclosed have reasonable procedures in place to protect the information.


text: The act applies to websites and online services operated for commercial purposes that are either directed towards children under 13 or have actual knowledge that children under 13 are providing information online. Most recognized non-profit organizations are exempt from most of the requirements of COPPA. However, the Supreme Court ruled that non-profits operated for the benefit of their members' commercial activities are subject to FTC regulation and consequently COPPA as well. The type of "verifiable parental consent" that is required before collecting and using information provided by children under 13 is based upon a "sliding scale" set forth in a Federal Trade Commission regulation that takes into account the manner in which the information is being collected and the uses to which the information will be put.


text: According to the FTC, courts may fine violators of COPPA up to $43,280 in civil penalties for each violation. The FTC has brought a number of actions against website operators for failing to comply with COPPA requirements, including actions against Google, TikTok, "Girls' Life", American Pop Corn Company, Lisa Frank, Inc., Mrs. Fields Cookies, and The Hershey Company.


text: In February 2004, UMG Recordings, Inc. was fined US$400,000 for COPPA violations in connection with a website that promoted the then 13-year-old rapper Lil' Romeo and hosted child-oriented games and activities, and Bonzi Software, which offered downloads of an animated figure "BonziBuddy" that provided shopping advice, jokes, and trivia was fined $75,000 for COPPA violations. Similarly, the owners of the Xanga website were fined US$1,000,000 in 2006 for COPPA violations of repeatedly allowing children under 13 to sign up for the service without getting their parent's consent.


text: In 2016, the mobile advertising network inMobi was fined US$950,000 for tracking the geo-location of all users (including those under 13) without their knowledge. The advertising software continuously tracked user location despite privacy preferences on the mobile device. Other websites that were directed towards children and fined due to COPPA include Imbee (2008), Kidswirl (2011) and Skid-e-Kids (2011).


text: In February 2019, the FTC issued a fine of $5.7 million to ByteDance for failing to comply with COPPA with their TikTok app (then called Musical.ly). ByteDance agreed to pay the largest COPPA fine since the bill's enactment and to add a kids-only mode to the TikTok app.


text: Three dating apps by Wildec were pulled by Apple and Google from their respective app stores, after the FTC determined that the dating apps allowed users under 13 to register, that Wildec knew there were significant numbers of minor users, and that this allowed inappropriate contact with minors.


text: On September 4, 2019, the FTC issued a fine of $170 million to YouTube for COPPA violations, including tracking the viewing history of minors in order to facilitate targeted advertising. Many notable social media platforms were subjected to this attack from the FTC, especially groups like Facebook where the platform had users actively ignoring these guidelines since its inception due to ease-of-access and the universal need for children to sign up to use third-party content. As a result, YouTube announced that as part of the settlement, in 2020 it would require channel operators to mark videos that are "child-oriented" as such, and would use machine learning to automatically mark those as clearly "child-oriented" if not marked already. In the settlement terms, channel operators that failed to mark videos as "child-oriented" could be fined by the FTC for up to $42,530 per video, which has raised criticism towards the settlement terms. The decision came in terms that, despite good faith, created many issues among the content creators on the site. Users such as Ryan's World, Philip DeFranco and TheOdd1sOut with vastly different content found themselves in the hot seat for their appealing content for children. The following guidelines were implemented on the basis set by the following rules:


text: The Rule sets out additional factors the FTC will consider in determining whether the video content is child-directed:


text: In 2022, Epic Games settled a Federal Trade Commission complaint in part by agreeing to pay a $275 million penalty for COPPA violations. The FTC complaint alleged that Epic illegally collected personal information from children under the age of 13 and made it difficult for parents to get such information deleted. The full agreement included an additional $245 million to refund users who were manipulated into making unintended purchases.


text: In December 2012, the Federal Trade Commission issued revisions effective July 1, 2013, which created additional parental notice and consent requirements, amended definitions, and added other obligations for organizations that (1) operate a website or online service that is "directed to children" under 13 and that collects "personal information" from users or (2) knowingly collects personal information from people under 13 through a website or online service. After July 1, 2013, operators must:


text: According to a notice issued by the Federal Trade Commission, an operator has actual knowledge of a user's age if the site or service asks for – and receives – information from the user that allows it to determine the person's age. An example, cited by the FTC, includes an operator who asks for a date of birth on a site's registration page has actual knowledge as defined by COPPA if a user responds with a year that suggests they are under 13. Another example cited by the FTC is that an operator may have actual knowledge based on answers to "age identifying" questions like "What grade are you in?" or "What type of school do you go to? (a) elementary; (b) middle; (c) high school; (d) college."


text: A small fee is charged by Microsoft under COPPA as a way to verify parental consent. The fee is donated to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Google, however, charges a small fee as a way to verify one's date of birth.


text: In the changes effective July 1, 2013, the definition of an operator was updated to make clear that COPPA covers a child-directed site or service that integrates outside services, such as plug-ins or advertising networks, that collect personal information from its visitors. The definition of a website or online service directed to children is expanded to include plug-ins or ad networks that have actual knowledge that they are collecting personal information through a child-directed website or online service. Websites and services that target children as a secondary audience may differentiate among users, and are required to provide notice and obtain parental consent only for those users who identify themselves as being younger than 13. The definition of personal information requiring parental notice and consent before collection now includes "persistent identifiers" that can be used to recognize users over time and across different websites or online services. However, no parental notice and consent are required when an operator collects a persistent identifier for the sole purpose of supporting the website or online service's internal operations. The definition of personal information after July 1, 2013, also includes geolocation information, as well as photos, videos, and audio files that contain a child's image or voice.


text: On November 19, 2015, the FTC announced it had approved an additional method for obtaining verifiable parental consent: "face match to verified photo identification" (FMVPI). The two-step process allows a parent to submit a government-sanctioned ID for authentication, then submit an impromptu photo via mobile device or web camera, which is then compared to the photo on the ID.


text: The FTC has asserted that COPPA applies to any online service that is directed to U.S. users or knowingly collects information from children in the U.S., regardless of its country of origin. Referring to their official website, the following embodies such views:


text: The FTC's Office of International Affairs directs the agency's international activities for competition and consumer protection, which include:


text: However, the FTC rarely performs enforcement actions against foreign companies, and faces a number of practical challenges in doing so. The general assumption is that, despite the interconnected world of internet services, jurisdiction only applies to domestic operation. Nevertheless, it has successfully enforced COPPA against at least one foreign company with a significant US userbase, securing a $5.7 million settlement against the Chinese company ByteDance over their TikTok app.


text: COPPA is controversial and has been criticized as ineffective and potentially unconstitutional by legal experts and mass media since it was drafted. Complaints leveled against the legislation include website owners banning users 12 and under — which only "encourages age fraud and allows websites to bypass the burden of obtaining parental consent" — and the active suppression of children's rights to freedom of speech, self-expression, and other First Amendment rights due to necessity of registering accounts to do so.


text: Delays in obtaining parental consent often result in children moving on to other activities that are less appropriate for their age or pose bigger privacy risks.


text: In addition, age restrictions and the "parental consent" process are easy for children to circumvent, and parents generally help them to lie about their age.


text: An Internet Safety Technical Task Force composed of experts from academia and commercial companies found in 2012 that mandatory age verification is not only a poor solution for privacy but also constitutes a violation of privacy. The law has also many safety flaws. For example, it does not protect kids from predatory advertising, it does not prevent kids from accessing pornography or lying about their age, and it does not ensure a totally safe environment online. Tech journalist Larry Magid, a long-time vocal opponent of the law, also notes that parents, not the government, hold the bulk of responsibility of protecting children online. COPPA has also been criticized for its potential chilling effect on children's apps, content, websites and online services. For example, Snapchat released a Snapkidz version of its app in June 2013, but unlike Snapchat, Snapkidz did not allow photo sharing at all due to COPPA regulations. Similarly, it has been pointed out that the COPPA Rule was not necessarily about privacy protection but more about "enforcing the laws."


text: COPPA's penalties ($40,000 per violation) can be potentially catastrophic for small businesses, undermining their business model. By contrast, the FTC has been criticized, including by COPPA author Ed Markey, and FTC commissioner Rohit Chopra, for not fining major and big tech companies harshly enough for their COPPA violations, especially in comparison to their revenue. In contrast, violators of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) may be fined up to 4% of their annual global revenue.


text: With the rise of virtual education, COPPA may inadequately represent the role of administrators, teachers, and the school in protecting student privacy under the assumption of "loco parentis".


text: Mark Zuckerberg, co-founder and CEO of Facebook, expressed opposition to COPPA in 2011 and stated "That will be a fight we take on at some point. My philosophy is that for education you need to start at a really, really young age." The next year, Jim Steyer, the CEO of Common Sense Media, has called for updates to COPPA, calling the time of the act's creation "the stone age of digital media" and pointing out the lack of platforms such as Google, YouTube, Facebook and Twitter at the time.


text: In 2019, the Government of the State of New York sued YouTube for violating COPPA by illegally retaining information related to children under 13 years of age. YouTube responded by dividing its content strictly into "for kids" and "not for kids". This has met with extremely harsh criticism from the YouTube community, especially from gamers, with many alleging that the FTC of the United States intends to fine content creators $42,530 for "each mislabeled video", possibly putting all users at risk. However, some have expressed skepticism over this, feeling that the fines may actually be in reference to civil penalties, possibly intended for the site's operators and/or warranted by more serious of COPPA violations or specific cases of "mislabeling videos". As of October 2021, no YouTuber has been fined.


text: Several bills have been proposed to amend COPPA. Markey and Josh Hawley introduced multiple bills (in the house in 2018 as the "Do Not Track Kids Act", and in 2019 as a senate measure) proposing that COPPA ban the use of targeted advertising to users under 13, require personal consent before the collection of personal information from users ages 13–15, require connected devices and toys directed towards children to meet security standards and include a privacy policy disclosure on their packaging, and require services to offer an "eraser button" to "permit users to eliminate publicly available personal information content submitted by the child, when technologically feasible". In January 2020, Bobby Rush and Tim Walberg introduced a similar house bill known as the Preventing Real Online Threats Endangering Children Today (PROTECT Kids) Act, which would extend all existing COPPA consent requirements to users under the age of 16, and explicitly add mobile apps, "precise geolocation", and biometric data to its remit.


title: Kim Yoon-hye

text: Kim first appeared on a 2002 magazine cover of Vogue Girl Korea, and also modeled for MTV Asia in 2005 before starring in several music videos. She made her acting debut under the stage name Woori, which means "us" in Korean, making it difficult for her name to be searched on internet portals. She reverted to using her real name Kim Yoon-hye during the promotions for horror-comedy film "Ghost Sweepers" in 2012. Kim next starred in the TV dramas "Heartstrings", "I Need a Fairy" (also known as "Sent from Heaven"), and "My Cute Guys". In 2013, she garnered positive reviews for her portrayal of a cold and aloof high school girl in romantic thriller "Steel Cold Winter".


title: Hype Williams

text: Harold Williams (born August 1, 1970) is an American music video director, film director, film producer, and screenwriter.


title: Hype Williams

text: Williams was born in Queens, New York. He is of mixed African-American and Honduran descent. He attended Adelphi University. He first displayed his work by tagging local billboards, storefronts, and playgrounds using HYPE as his graffiti tag. His graffiti style was influenced by artists like Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat. His big break came when he began working with Classic Concepts Video Productions. Lionel "Vid Kid" Martin and VJ Ralph McDaniels created Williams' first opportunity with the Filmmakers With Attitude moniker (FWA), which was Williams' first video company.


title: Hype Williams

text: Awards Williams has received for his video work include the "Billboard" Music Video Award for Best Director of the Year (1996), the Jackson Limo Award for Best Rap Video of the Year (1996) for Busta Rhymes' "Woo Hah!! Got You All in Check", the NAACP Image Award (1997), the 8th annual Music Video Production Association Award for Black Music Achievement (1997), MTV Video Music Award in the Best Rap Video (1998) category for Will Smith's "Gettin' Jiggy wit It", MTV Video Music Award for Best Group Video (1999) for TLC's "No Scrubs", and the BET Award for Best Director (2006) for Kanye West's "Gold Digger". In 2006, Williams was honored by MTV with its Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award, presented in honor of his achievements as a filmmaker.


title: Hype Williams

text: In the December 2007 issue of "Playboy" magazine, Williams shot the photographs for cover subject Kim Kardashian.


title: Hype Williams

text: In 2008, Williams directed Kanye West's video for "Heartless". He also directed the music video for his single "All of the Lights", which premiered on February 19, 2011.


title: Hype Williams

text: As of 2014, Kanye West holds the artist record for working the most times with Williams; the two have collaborated on 20 music videos, beginning in 2005 with the music video for "Diamonds from Sierra Leone". Busta Rhymes is second behind West, collaborating with Williams on 16 music videos, beginning with debut solo music video "Everything Remains Raw" / "Woo Hah!! Got You All in Check".


title: Hype Williams

text: In 1998, he directed his first and so far his only feature film to date, "Belly", starring rappers Nas and DMX, the film released by Artisan Entertainment. In 1999, Williams signed a two-year overall deal with New Line Cinema to produce and direct feature films. His first film with New Line, "Mothership", died in development. Later that year, Williams was in negotiations with MTV to develop an animated series which was described as a behind-the-scenes look at the world of music and celebrities. The project also died in development.


title: Hype Williams

text: In 2000, Williams was hired to direct the Warner Bros. film "Speed Racer". He left the project the following year, with the film being released in 2008 under the direction of The Wachowskis.


title: Hype Williams

text: In 2003, Disney purchased the zombie horror film "Thrilla", which Williams wrote. The project died in development, with Gavin Polone attached to produce.


title: Hype Williams

text: A signature style used by Williams throughout the vast majority of his videos (shot mostly with cinematographer John Perez) was the Fisheye lens which distorted the camera view around the central focus. This was used by the tandem Williams/Perez in "Gimme Some More" by Busta Rhymes and "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)" by Missy Elliott; however, it was dropped by 2003, when he experienced his lowest level of production activity since the beginning of his career as a music video director.


title: Hype Williams

text: Another "signature style" involves placing shots in regular widescreen ratio, while a second shot is split and placed in the upper and lower bars. Videos that use this style include "Diamonds on My Neck" by Smitty, "I Ain't Heard of That" by Slim Thug, "So Sick" by Ne-Yo, "My Hood" by Young Jeezy, "Gomenasai" by t.A.T.u., "Check on It" by Beyoncé, "Freeze" by LL Cool J, "Snap Yo Fingers" by Lil Jon and many others. In addition to this, he frequently utilizes aerial and tracking shots which often move backwards or forwards, some techniques which can often be seen in "Rock the Boat" by Aaliyah, "She's a Bitch" by Missy Elliott, "Not Myself Tonight" by Christina Aguilera and "Only U" by Ashanti. Further style traits include the use of slow motion action, deep focus, and smooth cutting.


title: Hype Williams

text: Since 2003, Williams has accepted a signature style combining a center camera focus on the artist or actor's body from the torso upward and a solid color background with a soft different-colored light being shown in the center of the background, so as to give a sense of illumination of the background by the foreground subject. This has been displayed in "Gold Digger" by Kanye West, "Digital Girl" (Remix) by Jamie Foxx, "Video Phone" by Beyoncé, and “Barbie Dreams” by Nicki Minaj.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The abolition of monarchy and anti-royalism is a legislative or revolutionary movement to abolish monarchical elements in government, usually hereditary.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Abolition of absolutist monarchy in favor of limited government under constitutional monarchy is a less radical form of anti-royalism that has succeeded in some nations that still retain monarchs, such as the United Kingdom, Spain, Thailand.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Abolition has been carried out in various ways, including via abdication leading to the extinction of the monarchy, legislative reform, revolution, coup d'état, and decolonisation. Abolition became more frequent in the 20th century, with the number of monarchies in Europe falling from 22 to 12 between 1914 and 2015, and the number of republics rising from 4 to 34. Decolonisation and independence have resulted in an abolition of monarchies in a number of former colonies such as those created by the United Kingdom.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Motivations for abolition include egalitarianism and anti-class views, eliminating a rival system potentially opposed to another incoming system (as had occurred in Romania in 1947), opposition to undemocratic and hereditary institutions, perception of monarchy as anachronistic or outdated, and opposition to a particular monarch or dynasty. In many colonies and former colonies, abolishing the influence of the monarchy of a colonising state is considered part of decolonisation. In many Commonwealth realms, the monarchy may be viewed as a foreign institution running counter to the national identity or national sovereignty.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In the 21st century, some countries that are monarchies have significant republican movements, such as Spain and Australia.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Since the beginning of the 20th century, restorations of monarchies have been comparatively rare. Examples are the monarchy of Spain, which since 1947 had been nominally a regency with a vacant throne but the Bourbon dynasty was restored in 1975; the reinstatement in 1991 of the Emir of Kuwait following abolition in 1990 and the Gulf War; and a 1993 transition of Cambodia from a Marxist-Leninist republic to an elective monarchy.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The city-state of Athens was ruled by monarchs in a period before the establishment of Athenian Democracy. Most of this is either mythical or semi-historical. The Athenian monarchy was abolished and replaced with lifetime archons around 1068 BC, whose power was reduced over many years.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The Roman Republic was established after the overthrow of the seventh king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BC, after their disrespect for roman customs and senate as well as use of violence to control Rome


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, in 1649, King Charles I was tried for high treason, convicted and executed. This marked the conclusion of the English Civil War which resulted in the Parliament of England overthrowing the English monarchy, and initiating a period of an English republic (known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms). After eleven years, in 1660, a limited monarchy was restored but moderated by an independent Parliament.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In the Kingdom of England, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 furthered the constitutional monarchy, restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701. At the same time, in Scotland, the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, which placed similar limits on the Scottish monarchy.