title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards' regular season coaching debut with the Chiefs was a home loss to the Cincinnati Bengals on September 10. His first win with Kansas City came in the third game of the season on October 1, a 41–0 shutout of the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Herm Edwards

text: The 2006 season would see many highs and lows. Starting quarterback Trent Green suffered a serious concussion in the first game of the season. Despite Green's injury, the Chiefs continued to stay in contention, largely thanks to backup quarterback Damon Huard and Pro Bowl running back Larry Johnson. In a move some considered controversial, Edwards chose to sit Huard and start Green when he returned from injury. At the time, Huard's performance at quarterback was one of the best in the league, having thrown 11 touchdowns and just one interception, averaging 7.7 yards per pass attempt, and posting a quarterback rating of 98.0 (2nd best rating in the NFL, second to only Peyton Manning).


title: Herm Edwards

text: Additionally, the Chiefs were in games started by Huard in 2006. Upon his return, Green struggled and failed to perform at the level of play that he had achieved in previous seasons, throwing seven touchdowns (against nine interceptions) and going as a starter. Green's poor play led to Edwards placing more of the offensive burden on the shoulders of Larry Johnson, who ultimately ended up setting a record for rushing attempts in a season.


title: Herm Edwards

text: The Chiefs finished at 9–7, edging out the Denver Broncos (who lost in OT to the San Francisco 49ers in the final game of the season) by divisional tiebreaker for second place in the AFC West, and making the playoffs as the sixth seed in the AFC. This was their first playoff appearance since 2003.


title: Herm Edwards

text: On January 6, 2007, the Chiefs were soundly defeated by the Indianapolis Colts In the first half, the Chiefs offense failed to produce a single first down. This was the first time in the modern NFL era (post AFL–NFL merger), and the first time since 1960, that any team had been held without a first down in the first half of a playoff game.


title: Herm Edwards

text: In 2007, Edwards' streak of losses on opening day continued as the Chiefs lost to the Houston Texans This loss marked the first time since the opening day of the 1970 season that the Chiefs had lost by a margin of 17 points on opening day, and was the first time in a decade that the Chiefs had been held to three points or less on opening day. The Chiefs under Edwards ended the 2007 season 4–12 with a nine-game losing streak, which tied the then-longest losing streak in the history of the Chiefs franchise.


title: Herm Edwards

text: In the 2007 season, the Chiefs were plagued with quarterback, running back, kicker and offensive coaching controversies. Damon Huard started the season and compiled a 4–5 record. He was benched in favor of Edwards' 2006 draft choice Brodie Croyle, who split time with Huard mid-season, was injured, then finished most of the season. Croyle played in a total of nine games and did not win any. Running back Larry Johnson injured his foot mid-season and was replaced by Priest Holmes who came out of retirement late in the year and was ineffective, averaging just three yards per carry and recording no touchdowns.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Kicker Justin Medlock was Edwards' draft choice but was cut after the first game and replaced by Dave Rayner. He was cut late in the year and replaced with John Carney. Finally, after promoting Mike Solari from offensive line coach to offensive coordinator in 2007, Edwards fired Solari and replaced him with Chan Gailey in early 2008. He also fired his offensive line coach, receivers coach, and running backs coach.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Chiefs owner Clark Hunt set the tone for the 2008 season by expressing his support for Edwards and general manager Carl Peterson and their plan to rebuild the team. However, Clark did warn that he expected the Chiefs to be competitive for a playoff spot.


title: Herm Edwards

text: In an attempt to rebuild the team, the Chiefs cut numerous aging veterans in the offseason, and the team traded Pro Bowl defensive end Jared Allen to the Minnesota Vikings. As a result, Edwards fielded one of the youngest teams in the NFL. Edwards' streak of opening day defeats continued as the Chiefs lost to the New England Patriots , a defeat mostly overshadowed by Patriots quarterback Tom Brady suffering a season-ending injury off a low hit by Chiefs safety Bernard Pollard. The team eventually skidded to a franchise record of 12 consecutive regular-season defeats. The Chiefs finally ended the streak after defeating the Denver Broncos 33–19 at home on September 28. However, they were defeated the following week at the Carolina Panthers. During that game, the Chiefs managed to gain only 127 total yards, which was their worst offensive performance in 22 years. In a game against the San Diego Chargers on November 9, Edwards opted to go for a 2-point conversion to win (rather than tie the game) after the Chiefs has scored a touchdown to bring the score to 20–19. The controversial decision backfired, as the two-point conversion attempt failed, resulting in another loss. He was fired January 23, 2009.


title: Herm Edwards

text: On December 3, 2017, Edwards was named the head coach of the Arizona State football team. Edwards earned his first win with Arizona State on September 1, 2018, against UTSA. He earned his first win against a ranked opponent on September 8, 2018, against the 15th-ranked Michigan State Spartans. Arizona State finished with a 7–6 record in Edwards' first season.


title: Herm Edwards

text: The 2019 season began with Edwards choosing true freshman Jayden Daniels to quarterback the Sun Devils. Arizona State would start the season with a 3–0 record, including Edwards' second consecutive win over a ranked Michigan State Spartans team. The team finished 8–5 with a Sun Bowl victory against the Florida State Seminoles.


title: Herm Edwards

text: On June 16, 2021, ASU confirmed that NCAA is investigating the football program over recruiting high school players during the COVID-19 dead period in 2020. Throughout the course of the 2021 season, multiple assistant coaches were placed on administrative leave. After the 2021 season had ended, multiple coaches including Zak Hill and Antonio Pierce resigned. 17 players including quarterback Jayden Daniels, wide receiver Johnny Wilson, and All-American linebacker Eric Gentry, entered the transfer portal as a result of the investigation and NIL. Despite the mass exodus, Edwards remained as head coach for the Sun Devils.


title: Herm Edwards

text: On September 18, 2022, Arizona State fired Edwards the day following a 30–21 loss to Eastern Michigan.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards is known for his motivational speeches and soundbites given at press conferences. Edwards' popularity among motivational speaking has even led to the publication of his own book of quotes.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards was born in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. Edwards is the son of Master Sergeant Herman Edwards Sr., and his wife, Martha. Edwards grew up in Seaside, California and attended Monterey High School.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards graduated from San Diego State University with a degree in criminal justice. He and his wife Lia have two daughters, Gabrielle and Vivian. Edwards has a son, Marcus, from a previous relationship.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards has a "tradition" of not watching the Super Bowl until he himself participates in one. Edwards did not even watch his friends Tony Dungy and Lovie Smith participate in Super Bowl XLI. Dungy had a tradition much like what Edwards does, that is, with the exceptions of Dungy's victories in both Super Bowls XIII and XLI. Edwards broke that tradition when, to serve in his capacity as an analyst for ESPN, he watched Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards has a strict workout regimen that has him in the gym at 5:00 AM six days a week. Instead of wearing athletic sneakers with his coaching attire, Edwards wears dress shoes. Before every game, Edwards polishes the shoes himself.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Known widely for his enthusiasm and faith-based personality, Edwards was born and raised Baptist, but converted with his family and is now a practicing Catholic.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards appeared in the 2012 episode "Broke", about the high rates of bankruptcy and poor financial decisions amongst professional athletes, part of ESPN's "30 for 30" series of sports documentaries. In 2013, Edwards served as a head coach in the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl. Herm was named senior adviser to the proposed Major League Football in 2015.


title: Light the Night

text: Light the Night (), previously known as Blue Hour, is a 2021 Taiwanese Netflix original series written by Ryan Tu and directed by Lien Yi-chi. The series stars Ruby Lin, Yo Yang, Cheryl Yang, Rhydian Vaughan, Derek Chang, Puff Kuo, Esther Liu, Cherry Hsieh and Nikki Hsin-ying Hsieh.


title: Light the Night

text: In 1988, teenagers find a dead body in the woods; months before, two madams at Light Bar struggle with the men in their lives.


title: Light the Night

text: At the end of the second season of "Light the Night", Chiang Han is shown listening to a tape recorder that was handed over to him earlier by Rose. It had a recording of a woman panicking about another woman's death. Just as Chiang Han is on his way to meet Rose, he is hit by a speeding car and collapses on the road


title: Light the Night

text: We learn that Rose came to work at Light after being released from prison, having taking the fall for her unscrupulous husband (Joseph Cheng). While serving time, Rose befriended Hana (Esther Liu), who also comes to work at Light upon her release.(strong sex scenes)


title: Light the Night

text: The fact that "Light the Night" ends with Rose staring at Sue's body suggests that their relationship is going to remain very central in the second and third parts, and we certainly can't dismiss her as a suspect just because there are likelier candidates.


title: Light the Night

text: Six female leads attended the press meeting held in Taipei on September 11, 2020. Also, unveiled their male actors line up on October 14, 2020. Over 250 million Taiwanese dollars were spent to produce the 24-episode series, which features extravagant sets and costumes. The original series planned to be broadcast only in TVBS, but the high-standard production and unique story themes attracted the attention of streaming platform Netflix, and finally they attained its overseas distribution rights for over 300 million Taiwanese dollars.


title: Light the Night

text: "Light the Night" Season 1 was released globally on November 26, 2021 on Netflix. The series' first season was released in three parts. On November 22, 2021, a few days before the series premiere, the first two episodes of the first part was screened at the 58th Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival.


title: Light the Night

text: Light the Night Original Soundtrack (OST) (華燈初上影集原聲帶) was released on January 1, 2022 by various artists. It contains a total of 9 tracks. The OST album is available for streaming on various music streaming platforms


title: Paulownia

text: Paulownia ( ) is a genus of seven to 17 species of hardwood tree (depending on taxonomic authority) in the family Paulowniaceae, the order Lamiales. They are present in much of China, south to northern Laos and Vietnam and are long cultivated elsewhere in eastern Asia, notably in Japan and Korea.


title: Paulownia

text: It was introduced to North America in 1844 from Europe and Asia where it was originally sought after as an exotic ornamental tree. Its fruits (botanically capsules) were also used as packaging material for goods shipped from East Asia to North America, leading to "Paulownia" groves where they were dumped near major ports. The tree has not persisted prominently in US gardens, in part due to its overwintering brown fruits that some consider ugly. In some areas it has escaped cultivation and is found in disturbed plots. Some US authorities consider the genus an invasive species, but in Europe, where it is also grown in gardens, it is not regarded as invasive.


title: Paulownia

text: The genus, originally "Pavlovnia" but now usually spelled "Paulownia", was named in honour of Anna Paulowna, queen consort of The Netherlands (1795–1865), daughter of Tsar Paul I of Russia. It is also called "princess tree" for the same reason.


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" trees produce as many as 20 million tiny seeds per year. However, the seeds are very susceptible to soil biota and only colonize well on sterile soils (such as after a high temperature wildfire). Well-drained soil is also essential. Successful plantations usually purchase plants that have been professionally propagated from root cuttings or seedlings. Although seeds, seedlings, and roots of even mature trees are susceptible to rot, the wood is not and is used for boat building and surfboards.


title: Paulownia

text: Trees can grow to maturity in under 10 years and produce strong, lightweight timber, good as firewood, with an even higher strength to weight ratio than balsa wood. Its density is low at around 0.28 kg/liter, although significantly higher than balsa's very low 0.16 kg/liter.


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" is a genus of angiosperm trees, and one of the fastest growing trees in the world. "Paulownia tomentosa" can grow over tall and has (E see labeled image below) large heart shaped leaves ranging from wide and long with a long petiole. The leaves grow in opposite decussate pairs, and as the name tomentosa suggests, are covered in hairs. The leaf margin can be toothed or entire and sometimes may be slightly lobed. They can be distinguished from common look alike genera such as "Catalpa" and "Cercis" by secondary and tertiary venation. The leaves are late to come in on the tree and late to fall from the typically deciduous "Paulownia", however in tropical areas the tree can become evergreen. The leaves are often preceded by pale violet to purple shaded tubular flowers similar to a foxglove. Like most members of the Lamiales the flowers are zygomorphic. The (B) inflorescences are terminal erect long panicles of ~ long flowers. (C) The thick fused calyx is covered by a brown hairy indumentum and the fused calyx tube is the same length as its calyx lobes, except in "P. catalpifolia" and "P. elogata" where the lobes are shorter than the calyx tubes. The corolla has 5 fused lobes with a shorter adaxial bilobed lip and a somewhat longer abaxial trilobed lower lip. The lips of all the petals are curled and their surface tomentose.


title: Paulownia

text: On the inner side of the lower trilobed corolla tube run two light yellow folded ridges from the calyx to the lip. These are interpreted as floral guides to the top of the corolla tube. (C) Inside the corolla tube, and approximately half way down, are 4 stamen filaments fused to the petals at the base, with 2 being longer than the others. At the bottom of the corolla tube is a short corolla-stamen tube. The base of the stamen filaments are bent so that they run along the upper portion of the flower with the arrow shaped anthers then depositing pollen on the dorsal side of a variety of pollen-feeding insects. (D) The superior bilocular ovary, surrounded by the brown calyx, with its stigma and style rising up, is approximately the same length as the longer stamen filaments that surround it. This is left on the stem as the corolla and stamen fall off. The stigma tip has a singular small hole that leads to a tubular dilated chamber at the top of the style covered in receptive papillae. In the species "P. kawakamii" this stigma tip is slightly bilobed. This is a unique morphological characteristic to distinguish "Paulownia" from all of the Lamiales. At the bottom of the ovary is a nectary with nectary slits on the basal sides of the ovary beneath a hairy region. The ovary then develops into a sticky green oval capsule tapered at the apex with the remaining dried up style sometimes still attached. (F) The capsule remains on the persistent brown calyx were they can last on the tree through the rest of the year before turning brown and woody and loculicidal dehiscence reveals up to 2000 small winged seeds stacked tightly inside. (G) The tiny seeds have lateral wings that gradually increase in length around the seed. The ventral and dorsal side of the seed are flat. This wing shape on the seeds is another distinguishing characteristic of Paulownia from the rest of the Lamiales. (A) The new buds, enclosed by the early brown fuzzy calyx, are visible in late summer to early fall and wait dormant, alongside the brown seed capsules, till spring.


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" once occurred in North America, with fossilized leaves found in Tertiary strata of Ellensburg Canyon of Washington state.


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" macrofossils have been recovered from the late Zanclean stage of the Pliocene sites in Pocapaglia, Italy and "Paulownia caucasica" macrofossils have been recovered from strata of the Serravallian stage of the Miocene in Georgia in the Caucasus region. It is believed that the climate then would have been suitable for the genus across the whole northern hemisphere.


title: Paulownia

text: In China, it is popular for roadside planting and as an ornamental tree. "Paulownia" needs much light and does not like high water tables.


title: Paulownia

text: As a forestry crop "Paulownia" are exacting in their requirements, performing well only in very well draining soil, with summer rainfall or availability of irrigation water. "Paulownia" grown on plantations generally has widely spaced growth rings, meaning that it is soft and of little value; wood with close growth rings is harder and of higher value. "Paulownia" is extremely fast growing; up to 20 feet in one year when young. Some species of plantation "Paulownia" can be harvested for saw timber in as little as five years. Once the trees are harvested, they regenerate from their existing root systems, earning them the name of the "Phoenix tree".


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" is also used in Chinese agroforestry systems because it grows fast, its wood is light but strong, its flowers are rich in nectar, its leaves make good fodder for farm animals, it is deep-rooting, and it is late-leafing and its canopy is quite sparse so that crops below it get both light enough to grow and shelter.


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" is known in Japanese as , specifically referring to "P. tomentosa"; it is also known as the "princess tree". "Paulownia" is the "mon" of the office of prime minister, and also serves as the Government Seal of Japan used by the Cabinet and the Government of Japan (whereas the chrysanthemum is the Imperial Seal of Japan). It is one of the suits in the card game hanafuda, associated with the month of November or December (some regions reverse the order of these two months).


title: Paulownia

text: "Paulownia" wood is very light, fine-grained, and warp-resistant. It is the fastest-growing hardwood. It is used for chests, boxes, and clogs ("geta"). The wood is burned to make charcoal for sketching and powder for fireworks, the bark is made into a dye. The silvery-grey wood is sliced into veneers for special visiting cards.


title: Paulownia

text: It is important in China, Korea, and Japan for making the soundboards of stringed musical instruments such as the "guqin", "guzheng", "pipa", "koto", and "gayageum". More recently it is used as body material for low-cost electric guitars, as the core for lightweight touring skis, and for surfboard cores. It is used in guitars as the core body, then laminated under a more durable wood.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The Allgemeine SS (; "General SS") was a major branch of the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) paramilitary forces of Nazi Germany; it was managed by the SS Main Office ("SS-Hauptamt"). The "Allgemeine SS" was officially established in the autumn of 1934 to distinguish its members from the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (SS Dispositional Troops or SS-VT), which later became the Waffen-SS, and the "SS-Totenkopfverbände" (SS Death's Head Units or SS-TV), which were in charge of the Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. SS formations committed many war crimes against civilians and allied servicemen.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Starting in 1939, foreign units of the "Allgemeine SS" were raised in occupied countries. From 1940 they were consolidated into the Directorate of the Germanic-SS ("Leitstelle der germanischen SS"). When the war first began, the vast majority of SS members belonged to the "Allgemeine SS", but this proportion changed during the later years of the war after the Waffen-SS opened up membership to ethnic Germans and non-Germans.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Adolf Hitler in 1925 ordered Julius Schreck to organise the formation of a new bodyguard unit, the "Schutzkommando" ("Protection Command"). Hitler wanted a small group of tough ex-soldiers like Schreck, who would be loyal to him. The unit included old "Stoßtrupp" members like Emil Maurice and Erhard Heiden. The unit made its first public appearance on 4 April 1925. That same year, the "Schutzkommando" was expanded to a national level. It was also successively renamed the "Sturmstaffel" ("Storm Squadron") and then finally the "Schutzstaffel" ("Protection Squadron"; SS) on 9 November 1925. The SS was subordinated to the SA and thus a subunit of the SA and the NSDAP. It was considered to be an elite organization by both party members and the general population.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The main task of the SS was the personal protection of the Führer of the Nazi Party, Adolf Hitler. In 1925 the SS had only 200 active members and in 1926, it ended the year with the same number. There were 280 members in 1928 as the SS continued to struggle under the SA. After Heinrich Himmler took over the SS in January 1929, he worked to separate the SS from the SA. By December 1929, the number of SS members had grown to 1,000. Himmler began to systematically develop and expand the SS with stricter requirements for members as well as a general purge of SS members who were identified as drunkards, criminals, or otherwise undesirable for service in the SS. Himmler's ultimate aim was to turn the SS into the most powerful organization in Germany and most influential branch of the party. By 1930 Himmler had persuaded Hitler to run the SS as a separate organisation, although it was officially still subordinate to the SA.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: After the "Machtergreifung" (seizure of power) by the NSDAP in January 1933, the SS began to expand into a massive organization. By the end of 1932 it included over 52,000 members. By December 1933 the SS increased to 204,000 members and Himmler ordered a temporary freeze on recruitment.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: On 20 April 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside their differences, largely because of their mutual hatred of the SA. Göring transferred control of the Gestapo to Himmler, who was also named chief of all German police forces outside Prussia. Two days later Himmler named Reinhard Heydrich the head of the Gestapo. The SS was further cemented when both it and the Gestapo participated in the destruction of the SA leadership during the Night of the Long Knives from 30 June to 2 July 1934. They either killed or arrested every major SA leader, above all Ernst Röhm.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Himmler was later named the chief of all German police in June 1936, and the Gestapo was incorporated with the Kripo (Criminal Police) into sub-branches of the SiPo. Heydrich was made head of the SiPo and continued as chief of the SD.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: In August 1934, Himmler received permission from Hitler to form a new organisation from the "SS Sonderkommandos" and the "Politischen Bereitschaften", the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (SS-VT). This was a paramilitary force, which in war was to be subordinate to the "Wehrmacht" ("Armed Forces"), but remained under Himmler's control in times of peace and under Hitler's personal control regardless. According to this restructure, the SS now housed three different subordinate commands:


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Himmler further conducted additional purges of the SS to exclude those deemed to be opportunists, alcoholics, homosexuals, or of uncertain racial status. This "house cleaning" removed some 60,000 SS members by December 1935. By 1939, the SS had risen again and reached its peak with an estimated 240,000 members.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: By the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the SS had solidified into its final form. Correspondingly, the term "SS" could be applied to three separate organizations, mainly the "Allgemeine SS", "SS-Totenkopfverbände" and the Waffen-SS, which until July 1940 was officially known as the SS-VT. When the war first began, the vast majority of SS members belonged to the "Allgemeine SS", but this statistic changed during the later stages of the war when the Waffen-SS opened up membership for non-Germans. Further, with Himmler as Chief of the German Police, the SS also controlled the uniformed "Ordnungspolizei" (Order Police).


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The term "Allgemeine-SS" referred to the "General SS," meaning those units of the SS considered "main, regular, or standard." By 1938, the Allgemeine SS was administratively divided into several main sections:


title: Allgemeine SS

text: After World War II began, the lines between the "Allgemeine SS" and the Waffen-SS became increasingly blurred, due largely to the "Allgemeine SS" headquarters offices having administrative and supply command over the Waffen-SS. By 1940, all of the "Allgemeine SS" had been issued grey war-time uniforms. Himmler ordered that the all-black uniforms be turned in for use by others. They were sent east where they were used by auxiliary police units and west to be used by Germanic-SS units such as the ones in the Netherlands and Denmark.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Approximately one third of the "Allgemeine SS" were considered "full time" meaning that they received a salary as government employees, were employed full-time in an SS office, and performed SS duties as their primary occupation. The vast majority of such full-time SS personnel were assigned to the main SS offices that were considered part of the Allgemeine SS. By 1942, these main offices managed all activities of the SS and were divided as follows:


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Main office commanders and staff were exempt from military conscription, although many, such as Heydrich, served as reservists in the regular German military. Main office members did join the Waffen-SS, where they could accept a lower rank and serve in active combat or be listed as inactive reservists. By 1944, with Germany's looming defeat, the draft exemption for the "Allgemeine SS" main offices was lifted and many junior members were ordered into combat with senior members assuming duties as Waffen-SS generals.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The core of the "Allgemeine SS" was part-time mustering formations spread throughout Germany. Members in these regional units would typically meet once a week in uniform, as well as participate in various Nazi Party functions. Activities including drill and ideological instruction, marching in parades, and providing security at various Nazi party rallies.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Regional SS units were organized into commands known as "SS-Oberabschnitt" meaning "SS-Senior Sector" responsible for commanding a (region), which were subordinate to the SS-HA; "SS-Abschnitt" (SS-Sector) was the next lower level of command, responsible for administrating a (District); "Standarten" (regiment), which were the basic units of the "Allgemeine SS". Before 1934, SS personnel received no pay and their work was completely voluntary. After 1933, the "Oberabschnitt" commanders and their staff became regarded as "full time" but the rank and file of the "Allgemeine SS" were still part-time only. Regular "Allgemeine SS" personnel were also not exempt from conscription and many were called up to serve in the Wehrmacht.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: In 1936, the state security police forces of the Gestapo and Kripo (Criminal Police) were consolidated. The combined forces were folded into the "Sicherheitspolizei" (SiPo) and placed under the central command of Reinhard Heydrich, already chief of the party "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD). Later from 27 September 1939 forward, the SD, Gestapo, and Kripo were folded into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) that was placed under Heydrich's control. As a functioning state agency, the SiPo ceased to exist. The ordinary uniformed German police, known as the "Ordnungspolizei" (Orpo), were under SS control after 1936 but were never incorporated into the "Allgemeine SS"; although many police members were also dual SS members.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The death squad units of the "Einsatzgruppen" were formed under the direction of Heydrich and operated by the SS before and during World War II. In September 1939, they operated in territories occupied by the German armed forces following the invasion of Poland. Men for the units were drawn from the SS, the SD, and the police. Originally part of the SiPo, in late September 1939 the operational control of the "Einsatzgruppen" was taken over by the RSHA. When the killing units were re-formed prior to the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the men of the "Einsatzgruppen" were drawn from the SD, Gestapo, Kripo, Orpo, civilian (SS auxiliary) and Waffen-SS. The "Einsatzgruppen" units perpetrated atrocities in the occupied Soviet Union, including mass murder of Jews, communists, prisoners of war, and hostages, and played a key role in the Holocaust.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: All Concentration Camp staffs were originally part of the "Allgemeine SS" under the office of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate ("Inspektion der Konzentrationslager" or IKL). First headed by Theodor Eicke, the Concentration Camp personnel were formed into the "SS-Wachverbände" in 1933, which later became known as the SS-"Totenkopfverbände" (SS-TV). Thereafter, the SS-TV branch increasingly became divided into the camp service proper and the military "Totenkopf" formation controlled by the SS-VT (forerunner of the Waffen-SS).


title: Allgemeine SS

text: As the Nazi regime became more oppressive and World War II escalated, the concentration camp system grew in size, lethal operation, and scope as the economic ambitions of the SS intensified. Intensification of the killing operations took place in late 1941 when the SS began construction of stationary gassing facilities to replace the use of "Einsatzgruppen" for mass killings.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Victims at these new extermination camps were killed with the use of carbon monoxide gas from automobile engines. During Operation Reinhard, three death camps were built in occupied Poland: Bełżec (operational by March 1942), Sobibór (operational by May 1942), and Treblinka (operational by July 1942). On Himmler's orders, by early 1942 the concentration camp at Auschwitz was greatly expanded to include the addition of gas chambers, where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: After 1942, the entire camp service was placed under the authority of the Waffen-SS for a variety of administrative and logistical reasons. The ultimate command authority for the camp system during World War II was the "SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt" (WHVA) under Oswald Pohl. Beside the camp operations, the WHVA was the organization responsible for managing the finances, supply systems and business projects for the "Allgemeine SS". By 1944, with the concentration camps fully integrated with the Waffen-SS and under the control of the WVHA, a standard practice developed to rotate SS members in and out of the camps, based on manpower needs and also to give assignments to wounded Waffen-SS officers and soldiers who could no longer serve in front-line combat. This rotation of personnel is the main argument that nearly the entire SS knew of the concentration camps, and what actions were committed within them, making the entire organization liable for war crimes and crimes against humanity.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: By late 1940 the "Allgemeine SS" controlled the Germanic SS ("Germanische SS"), which were collaborationist organizations modeled after the "Allgemeine SS" in several Western European countries. Their purpose was to enforce Nazi racial doctrine, especially anti-Semitic ideals. They typically served as local security police augmenting German units of the Gestapo, SD, and other main departments of the Reich Main Security Office.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The "Allgemeine SS" also consisted of the "SS-Frauenkorps" (literally, "Women's Corps") which was an auxiliary reporting and clerical unit, which included the "SS-Helferinnenkorps" (Women Helper Corps), made up of female volunteers. Members were assigned as administrative staff and supply personnel, and served in command positions and as guards at women's concentration camps in places such as Ravensbrück concentration camp. Like their male equivalents in the SS, females participated in atrocities against Jews, Poles, and others.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: In 1942, Himmler set up the "Reichsschule für SS Helferinnen" (Reich school for SS helpers) in Oberehnheim to train women in communications so that they could free up men for combat roles. Himmler also intended to replace all female civilian employees in his service with "SS-Helferinnen" members, as they were selected and trained according to NSDAP ideology. The school was closed on 22 November 1944 due to the Allied advance.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The ranks of the "Allgemeine SS" and the Waffen-SS were based upon those of the SA and used the same titles. However, there was a distinctly separate hierarchical subdivisions of the larger Waffen-SS from its general-SS counterpart and an SS member could in fact hold two separate SS ranks. For instance, in 1940 Hermann Fegelein held the "Allgemeine SS" rank of a "Standartenführer" (full colonel), yet was only ranked an "Obersturmbannführer" (lieutenant colonel) in the Waffen-SS. If this same SS member were an architectural engineer, then the "SS-Hauptamt" would issue a third rank of "SS-Sonderführer".


title: Allgemeine SS

text: SS members could also hold reserve commissions in the regular military as well as a Nazi Party political rank. Add to this that many senior SS members were also employees of the Reich government in capacities as ministers, deputies, etc. In 1944, nearly every SS general was granted equivalent Waffen-SS rank, without regard to previous military service. This was ordered so to give SS-generals authority over military units and POW camps and apparently to try to provide potential protection under the Hague Convention rules of warfare. In the event of capture by the Allies, SS-Generals thereby hoped they would be given status as military prisoners rather than captured police officials.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: In 1944, the stated membership estimate for the SS was 800,000. The Waffen-SS had approximately 600,000 of those members in their ranks. The Waffen-SS had grown from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, and served alongside the "Heer" (regular army), but never formally a part of it. In comparison, by the end of the war the "Allgemeine SS" only had a little over 40,000 men still in its ranks.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: The mustering formations of part-time SS members, considered before 1938 to be the core of the "Allgemeine SS", were maintained in their own order of battle, beginning with regiment sized "Standarten" units and extending upwards to division strength "Oberabschnitte" commands. Within the "Allgemeine SS" "Standarten" there were in turn subordinate battalions of "Sturmbann" themselves divided into company "Sturme".


title: Allgemeine SS

text: For most rank and file members of the "Allgemeine SS", the "Sturm" level was the highest which the ordinary SS member would typically associate with. The "Sturm" itself was further divided into platoon sized "Truppen" (sometimes known as "Zug") which were in turn divided into squad sized "Scharen". For larger "Allgemeine SS" commands, the "Scharen" would be further divided into "Rotte" which were the "Allgemeine SS" equivalent of a fire team.


title: Allgemeine SS

text: Himmler had grand visions for the SS and authorized SS and Police Bases ("SS- und Polizeistützpunkte") to be established in occupied Poland and occupied areas of the Soviet Union. They were to be "armed industrialized agricultural complexes". They would also maintain order in the areas they were established. They did not go beyond the planning stage.


title: Cruising for sex

text: Cruising for sex, or cruising, is walking or driving about a locality, called a cruising ground, in search of a sex partner, usually of the anonymous, casual, one-time variety. The term is also used when technology is used to find casual sex, such as using an Internet site or a telephone service.


title: Cruising for sex

text: According to historian and author Tim Blanning, the term cruising originates from the Dutch equivalent "kruisen".


title: Cruising for sex

text: In a specifically sexual context, the term "cruising" originally emerged as an argot "code word" in gay slang, by which those "in the know" would understand the speaker's unstated sexual intent, whereas most heterosexuals, on hearing the same word in the same context, would normally misread the speaker's intended meaning in the word's more common nonsexual sense. This served (and in some contexts, still serves) as a protective sociolinguistic mechanism for gay men to recognize each other, and avoid being recognized by those who may wish to do them harm in broader societies noted for their homophobia.


title: Cruising for sex

text: In the latter half of the twentieth century, decriminalization of homosexual behaviour increasingly became the norm in English-speaking countries. The protective barrier once provided by the term "cruising" as a "code word" has therefore largely broken down and, arguably, become increasingly irrelevant. Thus the specifically sexual meaning of the term has passed into common usage to include the sexual behavior of heterosexual persons, as well.


title: Cruising for sex

text: Public health officials have noted that cruising locations are frequented by men who have sex with men, but do not identify with being homosexual or bisexual, who are closeted, married, or in relationships with women, do not date men or frequent gay bars, clubs or websites, or have otherwise no other way of meeting men for sex.


title: Cruising for sex

text: The cruising places are often considered meeting places for men who are otherwise living more conventional lifestyles. For instance, it was noted in Laud Humphreys' 1970 study about anonymous gay sex meeting places that most men who visited those places were at least seeming heterosexuals who had families.


title: Cruising for sex

text: In the United States, the term "cruising" was used predominantly to denote exclusively homosexual behavior, but in Australia and the United Kingdom it is used by both homosexuals and heterosexuals to describe their own behavior, as witnessed in the common male heterosexual derivative phrase "cruising for chicks".


title: Cruising for sex

text: In the United States, cruising often takes place in gay bars, adult video arcades often through gloryholes, adult movie theaters, public toilets, parks, saunas, gyms or gay bathhouses. Engaging in such activities in public places like parks has led to participants being charged with indecent exposure.


title: Cruising for sex

text: Cruising for sex is alluded to in songs such as "Cruisin' the Streets" by the Boys Town Gang as well as "I'm a Cruiser" by the Village People, on the album titled "Cruisin'".


title: Cruising for sex

text: In 1980, director William Friedkin made the film "Cruising", starring Al Pacino. The film introduced many audiences to homosexual activities and the linguistic codes used for them, but gay rights groups perceived a negative depiction of the gay community in the film and protested its production.


title: Cruising for sex

text: The opening scene of the first episode of the HBO series "Looking" involves the main character Patrick (Jonathan Groff) cruising in a park, mainly out of curiosity of whether the activity is still in practice or not.


title: Cruising for sex

text: Cruising for sex was explored in "Cruising Pavilion", a 2018 art installation associated with the Venice Biennale of Architecture.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Eugene Boris Mirman (born July 24, 1974) is a Russian-American actor, comedian, and writer, known for playing Yvgeny Mirminsky on "Delocated" and Gene Belcher on the animated comedy "Bob's Burgers".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman was born Evgeniy Borisovich Mirman () on July 24, 1974, in Moscow, Russia, when the country was part of the Soviet Union, to Boris Mirman, Jewish Latvian, and Marina, Jewish Russian. His father was a civil engineer. His family immigrated to the United States when he was four years old, and settled in Lexington, Massachusetts, where Mirman attended William Diamond Middle School and Lexington High School. After arriving in the United States, his name was anglicized, his first name being changed to its English form, Eugene, and his patronymic Borisovich being shortened to simply Boris.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman is a graduate of Hampshire College in Western Massachusetts. As part of the college's "design your own major" program, Mirman graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in comedy, with a one-hour routine as his thesis. He returned to his high school to deliver its 2009 commencement address. He returned to Hampshire to deliver the 2012 commencement speech as well.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: In 2004, Mirman released "The Absurd Nightclub Comedy of Eugene Mirman", a CD/DVD on Suicide Squeeze Records. The album was voted one of the Best Albums of 2004 by both "The A.V. Club" and "Time Out" New York. His second album, "En Garde, Society" was released by Sub Pop in 2006. Three years later, Mirman released another comedy album, "God Is a Twelve-Year-Old Boy with Aspergers" which was recorded in Chicago at the Lakeshore Theatre. In 2012, Mirman released "An Evening Of Comedy In A Fake, Underground Laboratory".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman has appeared at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, Colorado, the Just for Laughs Festival in Montreal, Bumbershoot and South by Southwest. He co-produced the weekly standup-variety show Invite Them Up with Bobby Tisdale and Holly Schlesinger, which won a Nightlife Award. Guests included the comedians Mike Birbiglia, Aziz Ansari, David Cross, and Chelsea Peretti. He currently produces Pretty Good Friends (formerly Tearing the Veil of Maya) at Union Hall in Park Slope, Brooklyn with Julie Smith, which has been voted the best comedy night in New York City by "New York Magazine". Similar to comedians David Cross and Patton Oswalt, Mirman often performs in rock clubs and theaters as opposed to traditional comedy clubs. Often touring the US, Mirman occasionally opens for the comedy troupe Stella (former members of The State). He has opened for various bands such as The Shins and toured with Modest Mouse, Yo La Tengo, Gogol Bordello, Andrew Bird, and Cake. In 2012, Mirman stated that opening for musicians is uncommon and that music concerts pay three times that of a comedy gig. Mirman also toured with Patton Oswalt, Brian Posehn and Maria Bamford on the Comedians of Comedy tour. He has toured as an opener for the comedy duo Flight of the Conchords (and was a regular actor on their HBO series) and with Andy Kindler and Marc Maron in "Stand Uppity".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: In January 2010, Mirman performed standup comedy on the "John Oliver's New York Stand Up Show" on Comedy Central.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: On April 10, 2015, Mirman filmed a live stand-up special in Tucson, Arizona, directed by Bobcat Goldthwait. The special was released on Netflix in 2015 as "Eugene Mirman: Vegan on His Way to the Complain Store".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman has appeared on several TV shows, including "Late Night with Conan O'Brien", HBO's "Flight of the Conchords" as the character Eugene, the BBC's "Russell Howard's Good News", "Comedy Central Presents", "Delocated", "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", Comedy Central's "Premium Blend", VH1, "Third Watch", Cartoon Network's "Home Movies", "Cheap Seats", "Lucy, the Daughter of the Devil" and more. He also played a spokes-potato on Food Network.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: In 2010, Mirman co-starred with Phill Jupitus in the Dave TV movie "Comedy Exchange". In late 2010, Mirman performed on the Comedy Central show "The Benson Interruption".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: On February 21, 2011, Mirman appeared on "The Colbert Report" as a fertility clown. On April 4, 2013, Mirman provided the voice for Cecil Tunt, multi-millionaire brother of Cheryl/Carol Tunt on FX's "Archer". On March 13, 2016, Mirman appeared on "Last Week Tonight" as a hacker.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman was a guest voice as Emperor Keith Merman in the Netflix original "The Adventures of Puss in Boots". Mirman voices the character Burger on the animated show "Apple & Onion".


title: Eugene Mirman

text: He often appears on "StarTalk Radio", hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson. He has also appeared several times on the TV adaptation.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman appeared on Ken Reid's "TV Guidance Counselor Podcast" on April 24, 2015. The episode was recorded live as part of the 2015 Eugene Mirman Comedy Festival in Boston.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: Mirman plays a supporting role of Benny the gerbil on the children's podcast "This Podcast Has Fleas" in 2017.


title: Eugene Mirman

text: On September 7, 2015, Mirman wed his longtime partner Katie Westfall-Tharp (1980 – 2020). She was a set decorator who worked on such productions as "Inside Amy Schumer" and "Human Giant". The two remained married until Westfall-Tharp's death from cancer on January 29, 2020. They had one child together, son Oliver, who was born in 2016.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: Kristina Wagner (born Kristina Kay Crump; October 30, 1962) is an American actress. She is sometimes credited by the name Kristina Malandro. She is best known for her role as Felicia Jones on the ABC soap opera "General Hospital". She also briefly had a small role on the ABC series "Hotel" in the late 1980s.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: On September 7, 1984, Kristina Wagner got her big break when she was cast as Felicia Cummings on "General Hospital" as the spirited Aztec princess. She became half of the 80's super couple Frisco and Felicia, whose on-screen chemistry was real and undeniable. She appeared in the role on a contract basis until 2003. After a brief departure, she returned to the series in a recurring capacity in 2004. In May 2005, however, Wagner asked ABC to place her back on contract status for an important storyline involving her character. After ABC refused, Wagner walked, and she was replaced briefly by former "Another World" actress Sandra Ferguson. Upon Ferguson's departure in 2005, the character was absent from the show until late 2007, when Wagner again returned for a month-long stint.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: In 2012, it was announced that Wagner would once again reprise the role of Felicia, with a first airing on April 27 that year.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: In 2013, it was announced that Wagner was releasing a documentary, "Children of Internment", which she produced and directed with her brother, Joe Crump. The documentary concerns the events surrounding the American internment of German-Americans during World War II. The documentary won Best Documentary at the Santa Fe Film Festival.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: Wagner appeared as Nora Avery alongside her ex-husband, actor Jack Wagner, on the Hallmark Channel's "When Calls the Heart".


title: Kristina Wagner

text: In 2019, Wagner celebrated her 35-year journey with "General Hospital", recounting how the journey affected both her professional and personal life.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: In late 2021, Wagner was placed back under contract at General Hospital after 18 years downgraded to recurring.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: After privately dating, Malandro went public about her relationship with her "General Hospital" co-star, Jack Wagner, when she announced her pregnancy in 1990. Kristina and Jack Wagner eventually wed on December 18, 1993, in a private ceremony in Lake Tahoe. Citing irreconcilable differences, they filed for divorce in February 2001. After two years apart, the Wagners announced that they were working through their problems and privately reconciling; they publicized their news of formal reconciliation in 2004. However, in 2005, the Wagners once again filed for divorce, which was finalized the following year. The couple had two sons together: Peter (born 1990) and Harrison (born 1994). Their son Harrison Wagner died in Los Angeles on June 6, 2022. On June 13, 2022, Kristina and Jack Wagner (Harrison's father) announced that Harrison died after losing his battle with addiction. The Wagners have created a scholarship fund in honour of their son. All funds donated to the Harrison Wagner Scholarship Fund will be used to directly help young men pay their rent or a portion of their rent who could not otherwise afford their care at New Life House (a sober living facility in California).


title: Kristina Wagner

text: After her divorce, she decided to go back to college and attended California State University, Northridge where she majored in history. In her senior year, she began working on what became the "Children of Internment" documentary.


title: Kristina Wagner

text: A self-proclaimed adventurous type, Wagner loves camping, river rafting and mountaineering, as well as ice skating, swimming and gymnastics.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Jindo dog (진도개, "Jindo-gae", 진도견, "Jindo-gyeon", 珍島犬), formerly known as Chindo dog is an indigenous dog native to Jindo Island in South Korea. It is one of South Korea's Natural Treasures (대한민국의 천연기념물/大韓民國의 天然紀念物), prized for its loyalty and homing instinct. Due to its protected status within South Korea, only dogs born on Jindo Island can be officially registered as a Jindo by the Government of South Korea after an inspection, although the Jindo dog was registered as a breed by the United Kennel Club on January 1, 1998 and by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 2005.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Jindos are double-coated spitz-type dogs. The keen and alert appearance of the Jindo gives the impression of intelligence, strength, loyalty, and agility. Other features include forward-pointing upright ears and a double coat.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The KNDA also recognizes a third body type called Gakgol which is a gradually emerging combination of the two traditional types, retaining the length of body of the Hudu and the depth of chest of the Tonggol.


title: Korean Jindo

text: In regards to the Jindo's body appearance, the United Kennel Club currently states, "The squarely built Jindo has a chest that is moderately deep but not too broad. At its deepest point the chest reaches to, or just above, the elbow. The brisket is well developed and the ribs are well sprung. The back is strong and straight and the loin is well muscled, taut, lean and narrower than the ribcage. There is considerable tuck up."


title: Korean Jindo

text: Some Jindo Island residents value black, black/red, and red/white Jindos as good hunters. The United Kennel Club recognizes six different coat colors: white, red fawn, wolf grey, black, black and tan, and brindle (tiger pattern).


title: Korean Jindo

text: The feet are of medium size, round in shape, with thick, strong tan pads. Nails are hard and may be black, cream or gray.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Desirable height at maturity, measured at the withers, ranges from 19½ to 21 inches (or 48 to 53 cm) for males and 18½ to 20 inches (or 45 to 50 cm) for females.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Weight should be in proportion to the height, giving a well-muscled, lean appearance without being too light or too heavy. The typical weight range for a male Jindo in good condition is 40 to 60 pounds (18 to 27 kg); for a female, 35 to 55 pounds (16 to 25 kg).


title: Korean Jindo

text: The tail is thick and strong and set on at the end of the top line. The tail should be at least long enough to reach to the hock joint. The tail may be loosely curled over the back or carried over the back in a sickle position. The hair on the underside of the tail is thick, stiff, abundant, and twice as long as the coat on the shoulders, which causes the hair to fan outward when the tail is up.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Jindo dogs are well known for their loyalty and gentle nature. Since Jindo dogs are active, they need proper living space, walks, care, and attention. There is also a clear perception of family hierarchy.


title: Korean Jindo

text: They are of medium to high energy. If kept in a yard, the fencing must be at least 6 feet high due to their strong hind legs that enable them to jump high. Because Jindos are active and intelligent, they require frequent interaction with people or other dogs.


title: Korean Jindo

text: In 1993, a 7-year-old female Jindo named Baekgu (백구; 白狗; translated as a White Dog), raised by Park Bok-dan (박복단), an 83-year-old woman on Jindo Island, was sold to a new owner in the city of Daejeon which is located about 300 km (180 mi) away from the island. The dog escaped her new home and returned to her original owner, Park, after 7 months, haggard and exhausted. Baekgu remained with her original owner, who decided to keep the loyal dog, until the dog died of natural causes 7 years later. The story was a national sensation in South Korea and was made into cartoons, a TV documentary, and a children's storybook. In 2004, Jindo County erected a statue of Baekgu in her hometown to honor the dog.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Another Jindo, also named Baekgu, a 4-year-old male at the time who lived alone with his owner Park Wan-suh (박완서) residing on Jindo Island, did not eat anything and mourned for his dead owner for seven days after the owner died from a liver disease in June 2000. According to "Chosun Ilbo", the dog accompanied his dead owner for three days until other people came to find the body, followed the owner to his funeral, and came back home, not eating anything for four days. The Korean Jindo Dog Research Institute (진돗개 시험연구소) brought him under its care, but a person related to the Institute announced that the dog would not interact with anyone except for his feeder as of 2005.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Jindo dog was researched by Tamezo Mori, a professor of Keijo Imperial University in February 1937 and it was registered as 53rd of Natural Treasure of 朝鮮總督府 (the Government-General of Korea) in May, 1938.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Jindo dog managed to survive Korea under Japanese rule between 1910 and 1945 due to Japanese biologists recognizing its similarity to Japan's native dogs, whereas other Korean dog breeds did not survive. In 1962, the Government of South Korea designated the Jindo as the 53rd 'Natural Treasure' (or translated as 'Natural Monument') (천연기념물; 天然記念物) and was thusly protected along with all designated Natural Treasures under the Cultural Heritage Protection Act the same year. Because of the special status of the Jindo, it is very difficult to export pure Jindo Island Jindo dogs outside of Korea. Jindos marched in the opening ceremonies of the 1988 Summer Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Jindo Dogs Guild of Korea (), as of 2008, issues certificates of Korean Jindo dog purity, which specifies the registered number of the mother, sex, and birth date of the dog, as well as breeder's address, and certifies that the dog is purely of Jindo Island origin.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Jindo first appeared in the West in France, and a small number have since been introduced to the United Kingdom and the United States, both in an official capacity and by Korean immigrants. The Jindo dog as a breed was recognized by the United Kennel Club on January 1, 1998. As of 2016, there were only two registered Jindos in the U.S.: one in the Los Angeles area and one in Seattle. There were 25 registered in the United Kingdom.


title: Korean Jindo

text: A 2020 study showed that Jindos and other East and Southeast Asian dogs share some common ancestry with the New Guinea singing dog. These dogs were shown in this same study to be more phylogenetically related to each other than to other more selectively bred dog breeds, most of which contain far greater percentages of the Modern European lineage. DNA analysis indicates another common ancestor around 900 years ago that the Donggyeongi dog and the Korean Jindo separated from.


title: Korean Jindo

text: In a genomic analysis of the Jindo dog, several mitochondrial DNA genotypes unique to the Jindo were noted. Within the same study, the Jindo's unique mitochondrial DNA genome was reflected in its similarities to other dogs but distinctive branch on the mapped canine phylogenetic tree.


title: Korean Jindo

text: Naturally having a strong prey drive, Jindo dogs were traditionally utilized by the various inhabitants of Jindo (island) for hunting game animals, including water deer and wild boar. In more modern times, the Jindo dog is usually kept by humans as a loyal canine companion and guard dog.


title: Korean Jindo

text: The Korean Army is known to use Jindos as guard dogs at major bases. Furthermore, Jindos are instinctively wary of strangers and do not take food from anyone other than their owners.


title: Korean Jindo

text: In a 2009 interview with "Korea Economic Daily" (한국경제), Park Nam-sun (박남순), an expert search dog handler in South Korea, testified that Jindo dogs are not fit as rescue dogs and search dogs. It is because Jindo dogs' hunting instincts are too strong (they can forget their mission because of their hunting instincts), and they usually give their loyalty only to the first owner, while handlers of search dogs and rescue dogs can frequently change.


title: Korean Jindo

text: In 2010, Son Min-suk (손민석), a member of the Korean Security Forum, wrote that most Korean military dogs were German Shepherds, and that Jindo dogs were not fit for military dogs as they were highly likely to escape their duties to find their first handlers, who might have been discharged from military services, or to come back to their original home.


title: Korean Jindo

text: However, efforts to train Jindo dogs as search and rescue dogs continue. In October 2010, the Los Angeles Police Department announced their intent to evaluate the Jindo dog breed for law enforcement service, specifically for patrol and detection service. Four selected Jindo puppies would be distributed to LAPD and Glendale California Police Department to be trained as K9 units. After a year of trying, the trainers found that the dogs did not have the right disposition for police work because they were too easily distracted and too eager to please their masters.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The Royal Danish Air Force () (RDAF) is the aerial warfare force of The Kingdom of Denmark and one of the four branches of the Danish Defence. Initially being components of the Army and the Navy, it was made a separate service in 1950. Its main purpose is to serve as enforcer of Danish airspace and to provide air support to Danish group troops on the battlefield.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The Royal Danish Air Force (RDAF) was formed as a military service independent from the army and navy in 1950 from the merger of the Danish Army Air Corps () founded on 2 July 1912 and the Danish Naval Air Service () which had been founded on 14 December 1911. All military aviation had been prohibited during the Nazi occupation from 1940 to 1945 and so as of V-E Day the Danish armed forces had no aircraft, but the Luftwaffe had built or expanded air bases in Denmark.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The air force was led by Lieutenant General C.C.J. Førslev, who had previously served as a colonel in the army and as first commander of the Danish Army Air Corps. The national command was located at Værløse Air Base which also served as Command East, while Command West was located at Karup in central Jutland. Royal Air Force volunteer and former member of the Free Norwegian Forces in England, Kaj Birksted, was appointed chief of the flying staff. The rivalries and mutual disrespect between the established officer Førslev, who had never been in air combat himself, and the experienced fighter ace Birksted led to a series of misunderstandings which delayed the operationalization of the air force. Further, the East and West commands lacked experience and knowledge of the newly delivered Gloster Meteor and F-84 Thunderjet aircraft.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The Danish armed forces received 38 surplus Supermarine Spitfire H. F. Mk. IXE and 3 P.R.Mk. XI in 1947–48 plus four additional airframes for ground instruction, which were operated by units of the Hærens Flyvertropper and Marinens Flyvevæsen prior to their merger, and by the Royal Danish Air Force until 1956, when the last examples were retired and all but two scrapped.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: One survived for a number of years in a children's playground. The one surviving instructional airframe was later restored to depict the number '401' Spitfire Mk. IX. This airplane is now preserved at "Dansk Veteranflysamling" at Stauning Airfield in Jutland.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: Pilot training was initially based at Avnø from May 1946 until 1951, when the school were transferred to the U.S. under the "Military Assistance Programme". The school at Avnø continued to conduct tests to choose the candidates for the American training programme. In 1947 the RDAF established a school for aircraft mechanics, based at Værløse Air Base. In 1951, the RDAF officers school was inaugurated at Rungstedlund north of Copenhagen, while airmen were educated at Værløse.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The air force received six F-84E Thunderjet and 238 F-84G Thunderjet as military aid from the US, and formed five new squadrons (726 to 730) at Karup Air Base from 1952 to 1954. The rapid expansion caused problems as neither two-seaters nor flight simulators were available, causing 89 crashed F-84's and 40 pilot casualties. Some casualties were due to the lack of experience in the newly formed air force while others stemmed from the tactics introduced by American WWII and Korean War-veterans based on fast and low flying attacks to avoid anti-aircraft fire.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: To avoid further casualties the air force established a training squadron of two-seated T-33As in 1956 to train US-educated pilots to navigate under local weather conditions. Furthermore, Eskadrille 722 was changed to function as rescue squadron in 1956 and was strengthened by seven Sikorsky S-55 helicopters in 1957. Finally, Air Chief Marshal Hugh Saunders from Royal Air Force was employed in 1954 to reorganize the air force which led to the merger of Command East and West, forming Flyvertaktisk Kommando (Air Tactical Command) with the initial mission to lower the number of crashes during training.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1962, the Royal Danish Army's four SAM batteries based on Nike missiles were transferred to the air force. They were to defend Copenhagen against Soviet ballistic missiles and high altitude bombers and based as Eskadrille 531 in Gunderød, Eskadrille 532 at Kongelunden on Amager, Eskadrille 533 in Sigerslev and Eskadrille 534 in Tune. In 1965 four batteries of Hawk missiles were deployed close to the Nike batteries to protect them from low altitude aircraft.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1968, Denmark became the first of three export customers for the Saab 35 Draken (Kite/Dragon). Ever since 1966 the Danish government had started looking for an aircraft to replace two squadrons of Republic RF-84F Thunderflash reconnaissance aircraft and North American F-100 Super Sabre fighter/ground attacker aircraft. A number of candidates were considered and these were: the Douglas A-4F Skyhawk, Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter, Vought A-7 Corsair II, Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, Dassault Mirage III/5 and Saab's Draken. The F-5 and Mirage 5 were the favourites while the Draken was one of the least popular since it had poor payload/range performance and could not carry heavy weapon loads. In response to the Kongelige Danske Flyvevåben's (Royal Danish Air Force's) initial dislike, Saab decided to create a new Draken variant that would put it on the top of the competition shortlist.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, the RDAF operated a number of US financed Lockheed F-104G Starfighters, North American F-100D and F-100F Super Sabres, and several other types.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The first Danish Draken, designated F35, delivery took place on 1 September 1970 when three F35s were delivered to Karup Air Base. They were later followed by another 17 F35s and six TF35s. Since the F35s lacked radar, they replaced F-100Ds in the ground attack role. However, Sidewinder AAMS could be carried for self-defence. The six trainers were delivered between 1970 and 1972 and the F35s were delivered between 1970 and 1971.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1971, the Danish army created the Royal Danish Army Flying Service as the first air-unit outside the air force, since its creation in 1950. It had observation helicopters and piston-engined artillery spotting aeroplanes. In 1977 the Danish Naval Air Squadron was extracted from squadron 722 to the Danish navy, and it had ship-based helicopters. In a joint arms purchase four NATO countries: Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, and Belgium introduced the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon as their common strike fighter in January 1980. The F-16 was later bought by additional NATO countries, Greece and Turkey, and the United States of America, also a NATO member operates the F-16.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1982, the number of fighter aircraft was reduced by 12 units. General Dynamics F-16 is introduced to replace initially the F-100 and later the F-104G. The Royal Danish Naval Air Service is strengthened by eight Westland Lynx Mk. 80 from 1980, replacing the Alouette III helicopters. As a supplement to the Greenland-based C-130s the air force purchases three Gulfstream G-III.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1990, the Danish Army Air Corps purchases 12 Eurocopter Fennec lightweight attack helicopters to strengthen capabilities to perform expeditionary mission. The helicopters were transferred to RDAF in 2003.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1992, during the Yugoslavian civil wars, the RDAF C-130 Hercules aircraft were used for transport of the 900 Danish troops participating in the UN-led mission to the Balkans. In 1996, a C-130 joined the NATO On-Call International Airlift Pool along with a Gulfstream aircraft. The Gulfstreams were replaced by Challenger planes the following year, when the Danish government ordered the three Challengers in current use.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 1999, following the end of the Cold War, the Danish air force was re-organised to be an "expeditionary" air force, capable of supporting international operations worldwide – but at the same time still being able to uphold its domestic air and seaward defence commitments. The same year, an expeditionary force of 9 F-16s to join the Operation Allied Force is approved in parliament.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2002, Denmark joined the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Team, and eventually up to 48 F-35s could be bought to replace the F-16s.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In October 2002, a tri-national detachment of 18 Danish, Dutch, and Norwegian F-16 fighter-bombers, with one Dutch KC-10 tanker, flew to the Manas Air Base in Kyrgyzstan, in support of the NATO ground forces in Afghanistan as part of the Operation Enduring Freedom.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2004, the older C-130H Hercules fleet of three transport aircraft (bought by the government in 1973) was replaced by three of the more-advanced and stretched C-130J transport aircraft. A fourth C-130J joined in 2007.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2005, a modification program (Mid Life Update) was completed on the remaining F-16 aircraft. The modification programme, started in 1995, introduced a new mission computer, colour multifunction displays, and other avionic improvements. Despite the modifications and improvements, the Danish air force is considering the replacement of 30 F-16s with a more advanced fighter. Contenders include the two-seated Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet, the Lockheed Martin F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. The decision of the selected type will be announced before the end of June 2015*. Update: the RADF have selected the F-35 and 27 units are to be procured.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2003, 16 H-500 Cayuse and 13 Eurocopter AS550C2 Fennec from the Army Air Corps and eight Westland Lynx Mk. 90B from the Naval Air Squadron were supposed to be transferred to the air force. The 16 Cayuse and 13 Fennec helicopters were transferred to the newly re-formed Danish Squadron 724. The eight Lynx helicopters were supposed to enter another re-formed squadron, "Squadron 728", but for political reasons those helicopters remained with the Navy. This change of "ownership" of the naval helicopters became effective on 1 January 2011 when the naval helicopters joined the newly formed "Squadron 723".


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2005, the 16 Cayuses were decommissioned, and also one of the Fennecs. The remaining 12 Fennecs took over many of the tasks from the Cayuses, including support-functions of the Danish police.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2006, the air force signed a letter of intent to purchase several of the Boeing Integrated Defense C-17 Globemaster III. That order needs to be confirmed, but it is to be made on the basis of the formation of a shared NATO C-17 air fleet to support international deployments. Denmark has later withdrawn from this arrangement but it is in existence today. See NATO Strategic Airlift Capability. The United States and the United Kingdom have already bought numerous C-17s, and several other NATO countries are considering doing so, too.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In June 2007, Denmark's six EH101 transport helicopters were transferred to the British Royal Air Force to meet an urgent British requirement for additional transport helicopters. In 2009 six replacement AW101 were delivered to the RDAF from AgustaWestland Yeowil and paid for by the UK.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The Danish Defence Acquisition and Logistics Organization (DALO), short listed five helicopters as potential replacements for the Lynx with around 12 new naval helicopters needed. The Sikorsky/Lockheed MH-60R, the NH90/NFH, H-92, AW159 and AW101 were on the short list and a Request For Proposal was issued on 30 September 2010. Ultimately the air force decided to buy nine Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk helicopters.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2014, RDAF flew F-16 fighter jets in Greenland for the first time, testing the operational capabilities of maintaining sovereignty of the vast arctic airspace.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In 2005 the RDAF requested information about the possible procurement of a replacement for the F-16 fighter aircraft from the producers of the Gripen, Rafale, Eurofighter and Joint Strike Fighter, to which the RDAF has been a partner since 1997. Due to this fact Rafale-producer, Dassault Aviation, decided not to participate in the information round as they considered it to be biased towards the JSF option. This also led to the withdrawal of the Eurofighter in 2007, reentering in 2012. Meanwhile, the Boeing F-18 Super Hornet entered the competition in 2008. After several delays, a request for binding information was sent to the four candidates in April 2014 expecting a final decision in mid-2015. On 9 June 2016, the Danish Defence Committee agreed to purchase 27 F-35As to succeed the F-16. The price tag is US$3 billion.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: In January 2020, Lockheed Martin announced that assembly had begun on L-001, the first of 27 F-35As destined for the Royal Danish Air Force.


title: Royal Danish Air Force

text: The Royal Danish Air Force Command was headquartered at Karup Air Base and tasked to train, maintain and prepare the army for war. However operational control in peacetime rested with the Tactical Air Command. In wartime the air force's commander would have become the commander of Allied Air Forces Baltic Approaches (AIRBALTAP). AIRBALTAP commanded all flying units, flying reinforcements, all ground-based radar systems and stations, all air defence units and airfields in its sector. In war the entire Royal Danish Air Force would have come under AIRBALTAP.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Francisco Balagtas y de la Cruz (April 2, 1788 – February 20, 1862), commonly known as Francisco Balagtas and also as Francisco Baltasar, was a Filipino Tagalog litterateur and poet during the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. He is widely considered one of the greatest Filipino literary laureates for his impact on Filipino literature. The famous epic "Florante at Laura" is regarded as his defining work.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas adopted the legal surname, Baltasar, as part of the edict issued by Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua in 1849, that mandated the native population to adopt Standard Spanish surnames. Which was commonly misspelled as Baltazar and sometimes misinterpreted as his pen name. The Philippines has released currency honoring Kiko Balagtas on the 10 centavo coin.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Francisco Balagtas was born in Barrio Panginay, Bigaa, Bulacan as the youngest of the four children of Juan Balagtas, a blacksmith, and Juana de la Cruz. He studied in a parochial school in Bigaa and later in Manila. During his childhood years. Francisco later worked as a houseboy in Tondo, Manila.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas learned to write poetry from José de la Cruz ("Joseng Sisiw"), one of the most famous poets of Tondo, in return for chicks. It was De la Cruz himself who personally challenged Balagtas to improve his writing. Balagtas swore he would overcome Huseng Sisiw as he would not ask for anything in return as a poet.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: In 1835, Balagtas moved to Pandacan, Manila, where he met María Asunción Rivera, who would effectively serve as the muse for his future works. She is referenced in "Florante at Laura" as 'Selya' and 'MAR'.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas' affections for MAR were challenged by the influential Mariano Capule. The latter won the battle for MAR when he used his wealth to get Balagtas imprisoned. It was here that he wrote "Florante at Laura"—in fact, the events of this poem were meant to parallel his own situation.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: He wrote his poems in the Tagalog language, during an age when Filipino writing was predominantly written in Spanish.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas published "Florante at Laura" upon his release in 1838. He moved to Balanga, Bataan, in 1840 where he served as the assistant to the Justice of the Peace. He was also appointed as the translator of the court. He married Juana Tiambeng on July 22, 1842, in a ceremony officiated by Fr. Cayetano Arellano, uncle of future Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the Philippines—Chief Justice Arellano. They had eleven children but only four survived to adulthood. On November 21, 1849, Governor General Narciso Clavería y Zaldua issued a decree that every Filipino native must adopt a Spanish surname. In 1856, he was appointed as the Major Lieutenant, but soon after was convicted and sent to prison again in Bataan under the accusation that he ordered Alferez Lucas' housemaid's head to be shaved.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: He sold his land and all of his riches, in order for him to be imprisoned in 1861, and continued writing poetry, along with translating Spanish documents, but he died a year later—on February 20, 1862, at the age of 73. Upon his deathbed, he asked the favor that none of his children become poets like him, who had suffered under his gift as well as under others. He even went as far as to tell them it would be better to cut their hands off than let them be writers.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas is greatly idolized in the Philippines that the term for Filipino debate in extemporaneous verse is named after him: "Balagtasan".


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: An elementary school was erected in honor of Balagtas, the Francisco Balagtas Elementary School (FBES), located along Alvarez Street in Santa Cruz, Manila. There is also a plaza and park (Plaza Balagtas) erected in Pandacan, Manila while most of the streets were named after various Florante at Laura characters in honor of Francisco Balagtas. His birthplace, Bigaa, Bulacan, was renamed to Balagtas, Bulacan in his memory. A museum, historical marker, monument and elementary school has been placed in his birthplace at Panginay, Balagtas, Bulacan. The former Folk Arts Theater in Manila was renamed to Tanghalang Francisco Balagtas to honor Balagtas. Mercurian crater was also named after him. The barangay of Udyong in Orion, Bataan was also renamed Balagtas.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: No original manuscript in Balagtas' handwriting of any of his works has survived to the present day. This is due mainly to two great fires that razed Udyong (Now Balagtas in Orion, Bataan) and destroyed much of the poet's works. The most notable of his works, ""Florante at Laura"" or ""Pinagdaanang Buhay ni Florante at Laura sa Kaharian ng Albanya"" has been published in numerous editions from its original publication in 1838. The oldest extant edition of the Florante is believed to be the 1861 edition published in Manila, while a handwritten manuscript written down by Apolinario Mabini exists and is in the possession of the Philippine National Library.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: The major source of the poet's life and works is from a 20th-century work entitled ""Kun Sino ang Kumatha ng Florante"" (He who wrote the Florante) by Hermenigildo Cruz. The poet lists down Balagtas' works and recreates some of his plays based on scenes and lines memorized by the poet's children. The book also has an edition of the Florante. Balagtas wrote ten comedias and one metrical romance according to Cruz as well as numerous other poems and short plays that are recorded in his book. These include two "laos" or short celebratory scenes usually involving a patron saint and performed during fiestas.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Only three of Balagtas' complete works have survived to this day. Of the three, "Florante at Laura" is considered Balagtas' defining work and is a cultural touchstone for the Philippines.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Majority of the source material for Balagtas' work come from Hermenigildo Cruz' book which itself is based on the surviving testimonies and memories of Balagtas' children at the turn of the century. In his book, he reconstructs five plays.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: As a folk poet and employee of the courts, Balagtas' prowess in writing was mainly seen in the yearly fiestas held in nearby towns, a great majority of his plays may have been staged in outdoor theaters set up in town squares and as a poet, a number of his works and writings have been recorded in collections of poetry such as the ""Coleccion de refranes, frases y modismos tagalos"" (Guadalupe, 1890) as well as in the accounts of Spanish officials such as Martinez de Zuniga who recorded traditional plays and religious events in Philippine fiestas.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Balagtas also wrote in the Ladino style of poems that were popular among his contemporaries. He is said to have written two loas recorded in Cruz's book as well as numerous Ladinos and didactic works.


title: Francisco Balagtas

text: Five (5) of the ten plays Balagtas wrote as recorded by Cruz are considered lost. Another work, "Claus" a translation work from Latin is considered lost for Cruz does not mention any fragments or elaborates on it in his book, Eufronio Alip's 1930 Tagalog literary history mentions the same book. Among his other lost works, one should consider plays and short poems written by Balagtas in his lifetime for fiestas and celebrations as well as to earn his living. Eufronio Alip, in his 1930 historical study on Tagalog literature, also provides an additional two titles of plays by Balagtas.


title: Viol

text: The viol (), viola da gamba (), or informally gamba, is any one of a family of bowed, fretted, and stringed instruments with hollow wooden bodies and pegboxes where the tension on the strings can be increased or decreased to adjust the pitch of each of the strings. Frets on the viol are usually made of gut, tied on the fingerboard around the instrument's neck, to enable the performer to stop the strings more cleanly. Frets improve consistency of intonation and lend the stopped notes a tone that better matches the open strings. Viols first appeared in Spain in the mid-to-late 15th century, and were most popular in the Renaissance and Baroque (1600–1750) periods. Early ancestors include the Arabic "rebab" and the medieval European vielle, but later, more direct possible ancestors include the Venetian "viole" and the 15th- and 16th-century Spanish "vihuela", a six-course plucked instrument tuned like a lute (and also like a present-day viol) that looked like but was quite distinct from (at that time) the four-course guitar (an earlier chordophone).


title: Viol

text: Although bass viols superficially resemble cellos, viols are different in numerous respects from instruments of the violin family: the viol family has flat rather than curved backs, sloped rather than rounded shoulders, c holes rather than f holes, and five to seven rather than four strings; some of the many additional differences are tuning strategy (in fourths with a third in the middle—similar to a lute—rather than in fifths), the presence of frets, and underhand ("German") rather than overhand ("French") bow grip.


title: Viol

text: All members of the viol family are played upright (unlike the violin or the viola, which is held under the chin). All viol instruments are held between the legs like a modern cello, hence the Italian name "viola da gamba" (it. "viol for the leg") was sometimes applied to the instruments of this family. This distinguishes the viol from the modern violin family, the "viola da braccio" (it. "viol for the arm"). A player of the viol is commonly known as a "gambist, violist" "," or "violist da gamba." "Violist" shares the spelling, but not the pronunciation, of the word commonly used since the mid-20th century to refer to a player of the viola. It can therefore confuse if used in print where context does not indicate that a viol player is meant, though it is entirely unproblematic, and common, in speech.


title: Viol

text: Vihuelists began playing their flat-edged instruments with a bow in the second half of the 15th century. Within two or three decades, this led to the evolution of an entirely new and dedicated bowed string instrument that retained many of the features of the originally plucked vihuela: a flat back, sharp waist-cuts, frets, thin ribs (initially), and an identical tuning—hence its original name, vihuela de arco; "arco" is Spanish for "bow".


title: Viol

text: Stefano Pio argues that a re-examination of documents in the light of newly collected data indicates an origin different from the vihuela de arco from Aragon. According to Pio, the viol (viola da gamba) had its origins and evolved independently in Venice. Pio asserts that it is implausible that the vihuela de arco (which possibly arrived in Rome and Naples after 1483–1487, since Johannes Tinctoris does not mention it before this time) underwent such a rapid evolution by Italian instrument makers – not Venetian (circumstances specifically excluded by Lorenzo da Pavia), nor Mantuan or Ferrarese (as evidenced by Isabella and Alfonso I d'Este's orders from luthiers from other cities) – so that a ten-year span brought the birth and diffusion in Italy of a new family of instruments (viola da gamba or viols). These comprised instruments of different sizes, some as large as the famous "violoni" as 'big as a man' mentioned by Prospero Bernardino in 1493.


title: Viol

text: Pio also notes that both in the manuscript of the early 15th-century music theorist Antonius de Leno and the treatises of the Venetian Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego and , the fifth string of the viola da gamba is uniquely called a "bordone" (drone), although it is not a drone and is played the same as the other strings. Pio argues that this inconsistency is justifiable only assuming the invention, during the last part of the fifteenth century, of a larger instrument derived from the medieval "violetta", to which was gradually added other strings to allow a greater extension to the low register that resulted from its increased size. The fifth string, already present in some specimens of these violette as a drone ("bordone"), was incorporated into the neck when they were expanded in size. This was then surpassed by a sixth string, named "basso", which fixed the lower sound produced by the instrument. In Pio's view, the origin of the viola da gamba is tied to the evolution of the smaller medieval violetta or vielle, which was originally fitted with a fifth string drone, where the name remained unchanged even though it ceased to perform this function.


title: Viol

text: Ian Woodfield, in his "The Early History of the Viol", points to evidence that the viol does start with the vihuela but that Italian makers of the instrument immediately began to apply their own highly developed instrument-making traditions to the early version of the instrument when it was introduced into Italy.


title: Viol

text: Initially, the family of "viole" ("viols") shared common characteristics but differed in the way they were played. The increase in the dimensions of the "viola" determined the birth of the viol and the definitive change in the manner the instrument was held, as musicians found it easier to play it vertically. The first consort of viols formed by four players was documented at the end of the fifteenth century in the courts of Mantua and Ferrara, but was also present in popular Venetian music ambience, noted at the Scuola Grande di San Marco, 1499; Venetian culture remained independent of Spanish influence and consequently unfamiliar with the instruments of those lands, such as the bowed "vihuela de arco". Groups of viol players, generally called "violoni", was established in the Venetian Scuole Grandi around 1530–40, but the highly traditional environment of these institutions suggests that these groups would have already been active in the general urban context during the previous two decades (1510–1520). Some of these players were known to have travelled to distant lands, including Vienna, the Duchy of Bavaria or the Kingdom of England where they were welcomed at the court of the Tudors and subsequently influenced England's local instrument production.


title: Viol

text: Viols most commonly have six strings, although many 16th-century instruments had only four or five strings. Viols were (and are) strung with gut strings of lower tension than on the members of the violin family. Gut strings produce a sonority far different from steel, generally described as softer and sweeter. Around 1660, gut or silk core strings overspun with copper wire first became available; these were then used for the lowest-pitched bass strings on viols, and many other string instruments as well.


title: Viol

text: Viols are fretted like early guitars or lutes, using movable wrapped-around and tied-on gut frets. A low seventh string was supposedly added in France to the bass viol by Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe (c. 1640–1690), whose students included the French gamba virtuoso and composer Marin Marais. Also, the painting (1618) by Domenichino (1581–1641) shows what may be a seven-string viol.


title: Viol

text: Unlike members of the violin family, which are tuned in fifths, viols are usually tuned in fourths with a major third in the middle, mirroring the tuning employed on the vihuela de mano and lute during the 16th century and similar to that of the modern six-string guitar.


title: Viol

text: Viols were first constructed much like the "vihuela de mano", with all surfaces, top, back, and sides made from flat slabs or pieces of joined wood, bent or curved as required. However, some viols, both early and later, had carved tops, similar to those more commonly associated with instruments of the violin family. The ribs or sides of early viols were usually quite shallow, reflecting more the construction of their plucked vihuela counterparts. Rib depth increased during the 16th century, finally coming to resemble the greater depth of the classic 17th-century pattern.


title: Viol

text: The flat backs of most viols have a sharply angled break or "canted" bend in their surface close to where the neck meets the body. This serves to taper the back (and overall body depth) at its upper end to meet the back of the neck joint flush with its heel. Traditional construction uses animal glue, and internal joints are often reinforced with strips of either linen or vellum soaked in hot animal glue—a practice also employed in early plucked vihuela construction. The peg boxes of viols (which hold the tuning pegs) were typically decorated either with elaborately carved heads of animals or people or with the now-familiar spiral "scroll" finial.


title: Viol

text: The earliest vihuelas and viols, both plucked and bowed, all had sharp cuts to their waists, similar to the profile of a modern violin. This is a key and new feature—first appearing in the mid-15th century—and from then on, it was employed on many different types of string instruments. This feature is also key in seeing and understanding the connection between the plucked and bowed versions of early vihuelas. If one were to go searching for very early viols with smooth-curved figure-eight bodies, like those found on the only slightly later plucked vihuelas and the modern guitar, they would be out of luck. By the mid-16th century, however, "guitar-shaped" viols were fairly common, and a few of them survive.


title: Viol

text: The earliest viols had flat, glued-down bridges just like their plucked counterpart vihuelas. Soon after, however, viols adopted the wider and high-arched bridge that facilitated the bowing of single strings. The earliest of viols would also have had the ends of their fretboards flat on the deck, level with or resting upon the top or soundboard. Once the end of their fretboards was elevated above the top of the instrument's face, the entire top could vibrate freely. Early viols did not have sound posts, either (again reflecting their plucked vihuela siblings). This reduced damping again meant that their tops could vibrate more freely, contributing to the characteristic "humming" sound of viols; yet the absence of a sound post also resulted in a quieter and softer voice overall.


title: Viol

text: It is commonly believed that C-holes (a type and shape of pierced sound port visible on the top face or belly of string instruments) are a definitive feature of viols, a feature used to distinguish viols from instruments in the violin family, which typically had F-shaped holes. This generality, however, renders an incomplete picture. The earliest viols had either large, open, round, sound holes (or even round pierced rosettes like those found on lutes and vihuelas), or they had some kind of C-holes. Viols sometimes had as many as four small C-holes—one placed in each corner of the bouts—but more commonly, they had two. The two C-holes might be placed in the upper bouts, centrally, or in the lower bouts. In the formative years, C-holes were most often placed facing each other or turned inwards.


title: Viol

text: In addition to round or C-holes, however, and as early as the first quarter of the 16th century, some viols adopted S-shaped holes, again facing inward. By the mid-16th century, S-holes morphed into the classic F-shaped holes, which were then used by viols and members of the violin family alike. By the mid-to late 16th century, the viol's C-holes facing direction were reversed, becoming outward-facing. That configuration then became a standard feature of what we today call the “classic” 17th-century pattern. Yet another style of sound holes found on some viols was a pair of flame-shaped Arabesques placed left and right. The lute- and vihuela-like round or oval ports or rosettes became a standard feature of German and Austrian viols and were retained to the very end. That feature was unique to viols and reminded one always of the viol's more ancient plucked vihuela roots, the "cuteness" of viols.


title: Viol

text: Historians, makers, and players generally distinguish between "renaissance" and "baroque" viols. The latter are more heavily constructed and are fitted with a bass bar and sound post, like modern stringed instruments.


title: Viol

text: The bow is held underhand (palm up), similar to a German double bass bow grip, but away from the frog towards the balance point. The stick's curvature is generally convex as were violin bows of the period, rather than concave like a modern violin bow. The "frog" (which holds the bow hair and adjusts its tension) is also different from that of modern bows: whereas a violin bow frog has a "slide" (often made of mother of pearl), which pinches the hair and holds it flat and stationary across the frog, viol bows have an open frog that allows more movement of the hair. This facilitates a traditional playing technique where the performer uses one or two fingers of the bow hand to press the hair away from the bow stick. This dynamically increases bow hair tension to control articulation and inflection.


title: Viol

text: Viols come in seven sizes: "pardessus de viole" (which is relatively rare, exclusively French and did not exist before the 18th century), treble (in French "dessus"), alto, tenor (in French "taille"), bass, and "two" sizes of contrabass (also known as a violone), the smaller one tuned an octave below the tenor (violone in G, sometimes called "great bass" or in French "grande basse") and the larger one tuned an octave below the bass (violone in D, or the contrabass viol). This latter instrument is not to be confused with the double bass.


title: Viol

text: Their tuning (see next section) alternates G and D instruments: pardessus in G, treble in D, tenor in G, bass in D (the seven-string bass was a French invention, with an added low A), small violone in G, large violone in D. The alto (between the treble and the tenor) and the baritone (between the tenor and the bass) do not fit in this scheme. The treble has a size similar to a viola but with a deeper body; the typical bass is about the size of a cello. The pardessus and the treble were held vertically in the lap. The English made smaller basses known as division viols, and the still-smaller Lyra viol. The viola bastarda was a similar type of viol used in Italy for a virtuosic style of viol repertoire and performance. German consort basses were larger than the French instruments designed for continuo.


title: Viol

text: Those instruments were not all equally common. The typical Elizabethan consort of viols was composed of six instruments: two basses, two tenors and two trebles, or one bass, three tenors and two trebles (see Chest of viols). Thus the bass, tenor and treble were the central members of the family as far as music written specifically for viols is concerned. Besides consort playing the bass could also be used as a solo instrument (there were also smaller basses designed especially for a virtuosic solo role, see above "division viol", "lyra viol", "viola bastarda"). And the bass viol could also serve as a continuo bass. The pardessus was a French 18th-century instrument that was introduced to allow ladies to play mostly violin or flute music but eventually acquired its repertoire. The alto and the baritone were relatively rare smaller and larger versions of the tenor respectively. The violones were never part of the consort of viols but functioned as the contrabass of all kinds of instrumental combinations.


title: Viol

text: The standard tuning of most viols is in fourths, with a major third in the middle (like the standard Renaissance lute tuning), or in fourths, with a major third in between the 2nd and 3rd strings. The following table shows the tunings that have been adopted at least somewhat widely during the 20th and 21st-century revival of the viols. (Lyra viol tunings are not included.)


title: Viol

text: Alternate tunings (called "scordatura") were often employed, particularly in the solo lyra viol style of playing, which also made use of many techniques such as chords and "pizzicato", not generally used in consort playing. An unusual style of pizzicato was known as a thump. Lyra viol music was also commonly written in tablature. There is a vast repertoire of this music, some by well-known composers and much by anonymous ones.


title: Viol

text: Much viol music predates the adoption of equal temperament tuning by musicians. The movable nature of the tied-on frets permits the viol player to make adjustments to the tempering of the instrument, and some players and consorts adopt meantone temperaments, which are more suited to Renaissance music. Several fretting schemes involve frets that are spaced unevenly to produce better-sounding chords in a limited number of "keys". In some of these schemes, the two strands of the gut that form the fret are separated so that the player can finger a slightly sharper or flatter version of a note (for example G versus A) to suit different circumstances.


title: Viol

text: Descriptions and illustrations of viols are found in numerous early 16th-century musical treatises, including those authored by: