title: Galvanometer

text: Galvanometer mechanisms were also used to get readings from photoresistors in the metering mechanisms of film cameras (as seen in the adjacent image).


title: Galvanometer

text: In analog strip chart recorders such as used in electrocardiographs, electroencephalographs and polygraphs, galvanometer mechanisms were used to position the "pen". Strip chart recorders with galvanometer driven pens may have a full-scale frequency response of 100 Hz and several centimeters of deflection.


title: Galvanometer

text: The deflection of a magnetic compass needle by the current in a wire was first described by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820. The phenomenon was studied both for its own sake and as a means of measuring electric current.


title: Galvanometer

text: The earliest galvanometer was reported by Johann Schweigger at the University of Halle on 16 September 1820. André-Marie Ampère also contributed to its development. Early designs increased the effect of the magnetic field generated by the current by using multiple turns of wire. The instruments were at first called "multipliers" due to this common design feature. The term "galvanometer," in common use by 1836, was derived from the surname of Italian electricity researcher Luigi Galvani, who in 1791 discovered that electric current would make a dead frog's leg jerk.


title: Galvanometer

text: Originally, the instruments relied on the Earth's magnetic field to provide the restoring force for the compass needle. These were called "tangent" galvanometers and had to be oriented before use. Later instruments of the "astatic" type used opposing magnets to become independent of the Earth's field and would operate in any orientation.


title: Galvanometer

text: An early mirror galvanometer was invented in 1826 by Johann Christian Poggendorff. An astatic galvanometer was invented by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1849; a more sensitive version of that device, the Thomson "mirror galvanometer", was patented in 1858 by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Thomson's design was able to detect very rapid current changes by using small magnets attached to a lightweight mirror, suspended by a thread, instead of a compass needle. The deflection of a light beam on the mirror greatly magnified the deflection induced by small currents. Alternatively, the deflection of the suspended magnets could be observed directly through a microscope.


title: Galvanometer

text: The ability to measure quantitatively voltage and current allowed Georg Ohm, in 1827, to formulate Ohm's Law – that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through it.


title: Galvanometer

text: The early moving-magnet form of galvanometer had the disadvantage that it was affected by any magnets or iron masses near it, and its deflection was not linearly proportional to the current. In 1882 Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval and Marcel Deprez developed a form with a stationary permanent magnet and a moving coil of wire, suspended by fine wires which provided both an electrical connection to the coil and the restoring torque to return to the zero position. An iron tube between the magnet's pole pieces defined a circular gap through which the coil rotated. This gap produced a consistent, radial magnetic field across the coil, giving a linear response throughout the instrument's range. A mirror attached to the coil deflected a beam of light to indicate the coil position. The concentrated magnetic field and delicate suspension made these instruments sensitive; d'Arsonval's initial instrument could detect ten microamperes.


title: Galvanometer

text: Edward Weston extensively improved the design of the galvanometer. He substituted the fine wire suspension with a pivot and provided restoring torque and electrical connections through spiral springs rather than through the traditional wristwatch balance wheel hairspring. He developed a method of stabilizing the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, so the instrument would have consistent accuracy over time. He replaced the light beam and mirror with a knife-edge pointer that could be read directly. A mirror under the pointer, in the same plane as the scale, eliminated parallax observation error. To maintain the field strength, Weston's design used a very narrow circumferential slot through which the coil moved, with a minimal air-gap. This improved linearity of pointer deflection with respect to coil current. Finally, the coil was wound on a light-weight form made of conductive metal, which acted as a damper. By 1888, Edward Weston had patented and brought out a commercial form of this instrument, which became a standard electrical equipment component. It was known as a "portable" instrument because it was affected very little by mounting position or by transporting it from place to place. This design is almost universally used in moving-coil meters today.


title: Galvanometer

text: Initially, laboratory instruments relying on the Earth's own magnetic field to provide restoring force for the pointer, galvanometers were developed into compact, rugged, sensitive portable instruments essential to the development of electro-technology.


title: Galvanometer

text: The taut-band movement is a modern development of the D'Arsonval-Weston movement. The jewel pivots and hairsprings are replaced by tiny strips of metal under tension. Such a meter is more rugged for field use.


title: Galvanometer

text: There is broadly two types of galvanometers. Some galvanometers use a solid pointer on a scale to show measurements; other very sensitive types use a miniature mirror and a beam of light to provide mechanical amplification of low-level signals.


title: Galvanometer

text: A tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument used for the measurement of electric current. It works by using a compass needle to compare a magnetic field generated by the unknown current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It gets its name from its operating principle, the tangent law of magnetism, which states that the tangent of the angle a compass needle makes is proportional to the ratio of the strengths of the two perpendicular magnetic fields. It was first described by Johan Jakob Nervander in 1834.


title: Galvanometer

text: A tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with levelling screws. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of a circular scale. It consists of a tiny, powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle to it. To avoid errors due to parallax, a plane mirror is mounted below the compass needle.


title: Galvanometer

text: In operation, the instrument is first rotated until the magnetic field of the Earth, indicated by the compass needle, is parallel with the plane of the coil. Then the unknown current is applied to the coil. This creates a second magnetic field on the axis of the coil, perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field. The compass needle responds to the vector sum of the two fields and deflects to an angle equal to the tangent of the ratio of the two fields. From the angle read from the compass's scale, the current could be found from a table. The current supply wires have to be wound in a small helix, like a pig's tail, otherwise the field due to the wire will affect the compass needle and an incorrect reading will be obtained.


title: Galvanometer

text: The galvanometer is oriented so that the plane of the coil is vertical and aligned along parallel to the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field (i.e. parallel to the local "magnetic meridian"). When an electric current flows through the galvanometer coil, a second magnetic field is created. At the center of the coil, where the compass needle is located, the coil's field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnitude of the coil's field is:


title: Galvanometer

text: where is the current in amperes, is the number of turns of the coil and is the radius of the coil. These two perpendicular magnetic fields add vectorially, and the compass needle points along the direction of their resultant . The current in the coil causes the compass needle to rotate by an angle :


title: Galvanometer

text: One problem with the tangent galvanometer is that its resolution degrades at both high currents and low currents. The maximum resolution is obtained when the value of is 45°. When the value of is close to 0° or 90°, a large percentage change in the current will only move the needle a few degrees.


title: Galvanometer

text: A tangent galvanometer can also be used to measure the magnitude of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. When used in this way, a low-voltage power source, such as a battery, is connected in series with a rheostat, the galvanometer, and an ammeter. The galvanometer is first aligned so that the coil is parallel to the geomagnetic field, whose direction is indicated by the compass when there is no current through the coils. The battery is then connected and the rheostat is adjusted until the compass needle deflects 45 degrees from the geomagnetic field, indicating that the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the coil is the same as that of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. This field strength can be calculated from the current as measured by the ammeter, the number of turns of the coil, and the radius of the coils.


title: Galvanometer

text: Unlike the tangent galvanometer, the "astatic galvanometer" does not use the Earth's magnetic field for measurement, so it does not need to be oriented with respect to the Earth's field, making it easier to use. Developed by Leopoldo Nobili in 1825, it consists of two magnetized needles parallel to each other but with the magnetic poles reversed. These needles are suspended by a single silk thread. The lower needle is inside a vertical current sensing coil of wire and is deflected by the magnetic field created by the passing current, as in the tangent galvanometer above. The purpose of the second needle is to cancel the dipole moment of the first needle, so the suspended armature has no net magnetic dipole moment, and thus is not affected by the earth's magnetic field. The needle's rotation is opposed by the torsional elasticity of the suspension thread, which is proportional to the angle.


title: Galvanometer

text: To achieve higher sensitivity to detect extremely small currents, the mirror galvanometer substitutes a lightweight mirror for the pointer. It consists of horizontal magnets suspended from a fine fiber, inside a vertical coil of wire, with a mirror attached to the magnets. A beam of light reflected from the mirror falls on a graduated scale across the room, acting as a long mass-less pointer. The mirror galvanometer was used as the receiver in the first trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cables in the 1850s, to detect the extremely faint pulses of current after their thousand-mile journey under the Atlantic. In a device called an oscillograph, the moving beam of light is used, to produce graphs of current versus time, by recording measurements on photographic film. The string galvanometer is a type of mirror galvanometer so sensitive that it was used to make the first electrocardiogram of the electrical activity of the human heart.


title: Galvanometer

text: A ballistic galvanometer is a type of sensitive galvanometer for measuring the quantity of charge discharged through it. It is an integrator, by virtue of the long time constant of its response, unlike a current-measuring galvanometer. The moving part has a large moment of inertia that gives it an oscillation period long enough to make the integrated measurement. It can be either of the moving coil or moving magnet type; commonly it is a mirror galvanometer.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The Mercedes-Benz CL-Class is a line of grand tourers which was produced by German automaker Mercedes-Benz, produced from 1992 to 2014. The name CL stands for the German Coupé Leicht (Coupé-Light) or Coupé Luxusklasse (Coupé-Luxury). It is considered by Mercedes as their premier model.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: In 2015 Mercedes officially ceased using the CL-Class designation, returning the vehicle's name back to the S-Class Coupe/Convertible, replacing it with the C217 S-Class Coupé.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The CL-Class is the coupé derivative of the S-Class full-size luxury saloon, upon which it shares the same platform. Formerly known as the SEC (Sonderklasse-Einspritzmotor-Coupé) and later S-Coupé, it was spun off into its own, separate name in 1996 and in 1997 for North American markets. The CL continued to follow the same development cycle as the S, though riding on a shorter wheelbase, and sharing the same engines albeit with less choice as only the higher-output powertrains are offered. The last generation of the CL was actually heavier than its corresponding S trim (considering equivalent equipment), due to the roof engineering required to compensate for the lack of a central B-pillar.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The first generation CL-Class was the sleek but hard-lined and redesigned W140-chassis (internally known as C140) coupé of 1992–1999. Designed by Bruno Sacco, the C140's final design was approved between late 1987 and early 1988. Though the coupé's physical appearance changed little over these years, the class underwent a name change several times. The V8 and V12 coupés were called the 500 SEC and 600 SEC, respectively, in 1992 and 1993. The 600 SEC was the first V12 coupé ever offered by Mercedes-Benz. For 1994, the model names were changed to the S500 Coupé and the S600 Coupé. The name CL-Class was adopted in June 1996 (1997 for MY1998 North American models), and the W140 coupés were called the CL500 and CL600. Production ended in August 1998.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The M119 5.0 L V8 engine was regarded as one of the best engines ever produced by the German manufacturer (according to various journalists from automobile magazines such as "Car" and "Auto Motor Und Sport"). Being much lighter at the front, the CL500 tended to have better handling characteristics than the heavier V12 flagship. The CL600 powered by the M120 48-valve twelve cylinder engine, developed and of torque.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: Twelve cylinder variants are easily identified by the "V12" emblems at the base of each C pillar, placed immediately behind the passenger windows. An entry level model, the CL420, was available with a 4.2 L V8 engine (with the same architecture as the M119 5.0 L V8 engine) and since it was not available at all markets, it had very low sales compared to its larger-engined siblings. Production ended September 1998 with 26.022 Coupés produced.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The second generation of the CL is the W215-chassis coupé of 1999–2006. It is based on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) (which was launched in late 1998 in Europe), though it rides on an shorter wheelbase. The CL's front fascia of four oval headlights is similar to that of the W210 and W211 E-Class. The CL is offered as four models: the V8-powered CL 500, the NA V8-Powered CL55 AMG, the supercharged V8-powered CL55 AMG, the NA V12-powered CL 600 (2000-2002), the limited production (about 200 per year worldwide), 5.5 litre V12 Bi-Turbo CL600 (2003-2006), the very rare limited-edition NA CL63 AMG (26 examples only), the 2000 NA CL55 AMG F1 Edition (55 examples only), and the limited production (196 total) 6.0 litre V12 Bi-Turbo CL65 AMG (2004-2006). All models seat four. Development took place from 1993 to 1999, with final design being approved in 1996.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The CL coupés come equipped with the very latest in Mercedes-Benz technology, and along with the S-Class saloons the CL coupés receive new technological features (it introduced the refined Active Body Control fully active suspension system and Bi-Xenon HID lights). Active Body Control uses four hydraulic suspension rams that use three pressure regulators connected to a combination power steering and suspension pump, pushing fluid at a pressure of through the system that, along with several intermediate computers and master CPU, keeps this car absolutely flat through the corners.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The CL class has a lengthy list of custom available features. The following features are standard: climate control, ABC (hydraulic) suspension, all-leather interior, designer wood trim, trip computer, CD, navigation system, front heated seats, power moonroof, as well as power door and trunk closing assist. Optional features include a heated steering wheel and voice-activated telephone, as well as, front fan-cooled and heated seats.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The CL63 AMG is the rarest W215 CL of all. It was produced only in November 2001 and just 26 examples were sold. The engine produces 438 bhp and 390 lb-ft torque between 2,500 - 5,800 rpm, with a peak of 457 at 4,400 rpm. with some UK being and one for France registered in March 2002. The V12-powered CL63 AMG was only sold in Europe and Asia. Mercedes-Benz never offered the W215 CL63 for sale; all were sold exclusively through AMG.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The 2000 CL55 AMG F1 is also extremely rare with a total production of only 55 units. This was a tribute to the modified Safety Car version used in Formula One during the and seasons. The engine was a naturally-aspirated 5.4-liter V8 delivering 354 bhp at 5,500 rpm, and 391 ft lbs torque at 4,100 rpm. This was the first road car to feature full Ceramic Brembo Vented and Cross Drilled Disc Brakes.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: From 2000 through 2002, the V12-equipped cars featured a cylinder deactivation system called Active Cylinder Control. The feature was dropped when the Bi-Turbo V12 was introduced. This deactivation feature allowed the CL 600 to get better fuel economy than the comparable CL 500, especially on the highway where the six-cylinder operation could be effectively used. Basically this engine is two Mercedes six-cylinder series engines mated to a common crank with appropriate engine monitoring systems.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: Exclusive “Designo” packages are also available. These packages add custom color metallic paint, custom color Nappa leather interior and exotic wood trims. They are available in three variants: Designo Cashmere, Designo Espresso and Designo Silver. Additional variants can be found on rarer models. There was even an optional granite trim that took the place of wood.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: In 2003 the engine options changed. The CL 55 AMG became supercharged allowing the car to accelerate from 0-60 mph in 4.27 sec according to Motor Trend and the V12 CL 600 had 2 turbochargers added and a slight engine reduction, from 5980 cc to 5513 cc. Both cars produced the distinction, again, was the ghost like quietness of the CL 600 as compared to rather noisy CL 55 AMG. The CL 600 was conservatively rated by Mercedes-Benz as not to take sales away from the AMG CL 55. A dyno tested stock CL 600 was closer to 540 hp. Car & Driver's acceleration test delivered a 0-60 time of 4.3 seconds. The more powerful CL 65 (2004-2006) produced . The top speed of the CL 65 was limited to . These numbers are the stock performance ratings for the AMG CL 65.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: As with all major German manufacturers (except Porsche), Mercedes electronically limits most of its cars to .


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: After 6 years of development, the new model was officially unveiled at the end of June 2006 and was presented at the 2006 Paris Salon. Like its predecessors, the C216 has no B-pillar interrupting the sleek curve of the side windows. The W216 is offered in four models, each with its own engine and transmission, the 5.5L V8-powered CL 500 (available with 4MATIC all-wheel drive, which is standard in Canada and the USA), the high-performance 6.2L V8-powered CL 63 AMG (with optional performance package variant) and the ultra-luxury twin-turbo 5.5L V12-powered CL 600 and, lastly, the CL 65 AMG with a twin-turbo 6.0L V12 engine. The CL 500 is sold as the CL 550 in some markets (including the U.S.). The class is based on the chassis of the W221 S-Class, which shares the same powertrains, although there are V6 and hybrid engines for the S not available for the CL. The two-door coupé weighs , being heavier than the equivalent S saloon, and rides on a full-size 116.3-inch wheelbase (albeit 8.2 inches less than the long wheelbase S-Class, which is the only S-Class sold in the U.S.). Despite its large size, rear seat legroom is limited in keeping in the tradition of 2+2 luxury coupés, though CL has more rear passenger space than its rivals. The CL's trunk is as large as that of the Audi A8 flagship saloon.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The C216 makes use of the Distronic Plus cruise control, which debuted on the 2007 S-Class. This system is able to bring the car to a complete stop, and accelerate again to the pre-set speed, to keep a pre-set distance away from the car ahead of it. This Mercedes-Benz CL has also debuted with the new "Active NightVision" program that enables drivers to view the conditions in front of the car despite the dark surroundings.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: In 2007, 40 C216 CL 65 AMG units have been sold as 40th Anniversary Edition, to celebrate AMG's founding 40 years earlier. Performance wise, the '40th Anniversary Edition' was a custom CL 65 AMG. Changes to the car included a 'ONE OUT OF 40' badge near the COMAND controller, special upholstery and rooflining, and a special 'AMG Alubeam' paint finish. Apart from the CL 65 AMG 40th Anniversary Edition, only a small selection of showcars got an Alubeam finish, a special paint designed to gleam like liquid metal.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The facelift version of the Mercedes CL-Class made its world debut in July 2010 at the Goodwood Festival of Speed. The new CL-Class comes with an improved exterior and interior, but the biggest changes are found under the hood. The exterior gets a new grille, bi-xenon headlights with LED technology, LED fog lamps, revised fenders and hood, and new exhaust pipes. For the interior the biggest change is the addition of a new wood trim. The new CL-Class will also be offered with all the latest technologies including: Active Blind Spot Assist, Attention Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, Night View Assist Plus, and Active Body Control.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The model line-up starts with the entry-level CL 500 (550 in the US) powered by the new 4.7 L (4,663cc) V8 direct-injected engine that delivers and of torque, paired to a new seven speed automatic transmission, which accelerates from 0 to 60 mph in 4.9 seconds. The CL 600 retains the twin-turbo 5.5 L V12 engine and five-speed automatic with a total output of and of torque. It sprints from 0 to 60 mph in 4.0 seconds. Both vehicles are limited to 250 km/h. The CL 63 AMG is powered by a new direct injection, 5.5-litre V8 engine (a larger displacement version of the CL 550's) mated to a 7-speed MCT dual-clutch transmission with a total output of and of torque. The CL 65 AMG's V12 engine has been tweaked to deliver and of torque, mated to a 5-speed automatic with AMG speedshift.


title: Mercedes-Benz CL-Class

text: The last generation of the CL-Class, C216, was available in five models: CL 500 (CL 550 in some markets, with standard 4MATIC in Canada and the USA), CL 600, CL 63 AMG, CL 63 AMG (S) and CL 65 AMG. The CL 65 AMG was the most powerful model of the CL and the most expensive Mercedes-branded vehicle, slightly edging out its S-Class equivalent S 65 AMG and the SLS. CL sales are the third-lowest of Mercedes-Benz in North America with under 1400 units sold in 2006, as only the G-Class four-wheel drive and two-seat SLS AMG sell smaller numbers; annual CL sales equalled Ford truck sales for one day. However, this degree of distinction was considered attractive to CL buyers.


title: Scott Haze

text: Known for his role in the 2013 film, "Child of God", where he played the role of Lester Ballard, sleeping in a cave for months and losing 45 pounds for his role in the adaptation of the Cormac McCarthy novel. Haze has appeared in films such as "Thank You for Your Service", "Midnight Special", "Only the Brave" and the 2021 Western "Old Henry". His directorial debut, "Mully", is a documentary on the African humanitarian Charles Mully, which was released in cinemas on October 3, 2017.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze also owns a theater in North Hollywood, California, named the Sherry Theater, and is the co-artistic director and founder of the Rattlestick West theater company.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze is an alumnus of the Stella Adler Conservatory and Playhouse West, which was founded by Robert Carnegie and Sanford Meisner. In 2006, Haze envisioned, built, and founded The Sherry Theater in the North Hollywood Arts District in California, naming the theater after his mother. Plays written by Haze include 2006's "Devil's Night" and 2011's "Angel Asylum", both of which he acted in as well as directed.


title: Scott Haze

text: Between 2006 and 2010, Haze starred in several films and television shows including "", "Live!", "Prey For Me", "Tunnel Vision", and "Cop Dog".


title: Scott Haze

text: In 2011, Haze received critical acclaim for his role of Sgt. Scotty Fowlkes in "Post", the directorial debut by Jim Parrack, and for the play "Angel Asylum", which Haze wrote, directed and starred in, which premiere at The Sherry Theater in October, 2011.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze first collaborated with close friend James Franco in 2011 on "Rebel", a multimedia art piece Franco created with a series of other filmmakers and artists including Ed Ruscha and Paul McCarthy, Turner Prize-winner Douglas Gordon, paint-by-motorcycle artist Aaron Young, fashion photographer Terry Richardson, and filmmaker Harmony Korine. Haze worked with Franco in the section titled "Brad Forever", a documentary piece on actor Brad Renfro.


title: Scott Haze

text: In September 2011, Franco announced at the Toronto International Film Festival that he was set to direct and adaptation of Cormac McCarthy's novel "Child of God", the story of Lester Ballard, "a young man who becomes ostracized from society and falls into a life of crime and sexual depravity while living in a cave in Tennessee." In January 2012, Haze had signed on to play that lead role of Lester Ballard. Haze worked on the role of Ballard for a year prior to filming and actually moved to Sevierville, Tennessee, where the Cormac McCarthy novel is set. In preparation for the role, Haze lost 45 pounds, lived in caves and stayed in character for months before and during filming.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze starred in "As I Lay Dying", James Franco's adaptation of the William Faulkner novel, as Skeet McGowan, "a conniving drug store clerk." The film premiered at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival in the Un Certain Regard section.


title: Scott Haze

text: In 2013 "Child of God" made its premiere in official competition at the 70th Venice International Film Festival and official selection of the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival. "Child of God" was an Official selection of the 51st New York Film Festival and the 2013 Austin Film Festival. The film screened at the Dallas International Film Festival and the San Francisco International Film Festival in 2014. "Child of God" was released theatrically by Well Go USA on August 1, 2014.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze was named one of Variety's 10 Actors To Watch For 2013. For his performance in "Child Of God", Haze was also award the Breakthrough Performer Of The Year at the 2013 Hamptons International Film Festival.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze then made his New York Stage debut on July 13 in the Rattlestick Playwrights Theatre's production of Robert Boswell's "The Long Shrift", directed by Franco. The play also starred Ahna O'Reilly, Brian Lally, Allie Gallerani, and Ally Sheedy.


title: Scott Haze

text: He starred Franco's adaptation of William Faulkner's novel "The Sound and the Fury" as Jason Compson IV. The film co-starred Franco, Ahna O'Reilly, and Tim Blake Nelson. "The Sound and the Fury" made its premiered at the 71st Venice Film Festival on September 5, 2014. The film had its North American premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival, and screened at the Austin Film Festival and Virginia Film Festival, in October and November 2014.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze had a cameo as serial killer, Charles Manson, in the 2018 adaptation of Steven Erikson's novel "Zeroville", which is directed by and stars Franco alongside Seth Rogen, Megan Fox, Jacki Weaver and Will Ferrell.


title: Scott Haze

text: On June 25, 2015, Haze had joined the cast of "The Force", later re-titled "Between Us", a romantic drama written and directed by Rafael Palacio Illingworth. The film also stars Olivia Thirlby, Ben Feldman, Adam Goldberg, Analeigh Tipton, Peter Bogdanovich, and Betsy Brandt. The film made its premiere on 18 April 2016 at the Tribeca Film Festival and was released theatrically on January 6, 2017.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze's directorial debut "Mully" made its world premiere on November 1, 2015, at The Austin Film Festival. In 2016, "Mully" won the Grand Jury Prize for Best Film at the Winnipeg Real to Reel Film Festival. The film was awarded The Man In The Mirror Awards at the 2017 Bentonville Film Festival.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze starred as Levi in the Warner Bros. film "Midnight Special". The film, written and directed by Jeff Nichols, also stars Michael Shannon, Joel Edgerton, Kirsten Dunst, Adam Driver and Sam Shepard. In February 2016 Midnight Special made its world premiere at the Berlin Film Festival to positive reviews.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze teamed with James Franco on his directorial adaptation of John Steinbeck's "In Dubious Battle". The film also stars Vincent D'Onofrio, Robert Duvall, Ed Harris, Bryan Cranston and Sam Shepard. The film made its world premiere at the 2016 Venice Film Festival and its North American premiere at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival. The film was released in cinemas on February 17, 2017.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze co-starred opposite Miles Teller in "Thank You for Your Service", the directorial debut of "American Sniper" scribe, Jason Dean Hall. Haze plays a wounded soldier; to prepare for the role, Haze spent time at the VA hospital with veteran Michael Adam Emory, whom he plays in the film, and stayed in character while on set of the film.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze re-teamed with his "Thank You For Your Service" co-star Teller on "No Exit", later re-titled, "Only the Brave". The film follows "the true story of a group of firefighters known as the Granite Mountain Hotshots, who lost 19 crew members as they faced one of the deadliest wildfires in history in order to save an Arizona town." Haze plays Clayton Whitted, a firefighter and pastor. The film also stars Josh Brolin, Jennifer Connelly, Jeff Bridges, Taylor Kitsch, and James Badge Dale, and is directed by Joseph Kosinski. The film was released by Sony Pictures on October 20, 2017.


title: Scott Haze

text: Fathom Events released Haze's directorial debut, "Mully", for a three-day special theatrical event on October 3, 4, and 5, 2017.


title: Scott Haze

text: Haze co-starred in "Venom". The film, directed by Ruben Fleischer, also stars Tom Hardy, Riz Ahmed, Michelle Williams and Jenny Slate, and was released on October 5, 2018.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church is a historic parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York, at the intersection of Wall Street and Broadway in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. Known for its history, location, architecture and endowment, Trinity is a traditional high church, with an active parish centered around the Episcopal Church and the worldwide Anglican Communion in missionary, outreach, and fellowship. In addition to its main facility, Trinity operates two chapels: St. Paul's Chapel, and the Chapel of St. Cornelius the Centurion on Governors Island. The Church of the Intercession, the Trinity Chapel Complex and many other of Anglican congregations in Manhattan were part of Trinity at one point.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The current building is the third constructed for Trinity Church, and was designed by Richard Upjohn in the Gothic Revival style. The first Trinity Church building was a single-story rectangular structure facing the Hudson River, which was constructed in 1698 and destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776. The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street and was consecrated in 1790. The current church building was erected from 1839 to 1846 and was the tallest building in the United States until 1869, as well as the tallest in New York City until 1890. In 1876–1877 a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers, who extended the rear.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The church building is adjacent to the Trinity Churchyard, one of three used by the church. Besides its building, Trinity manages real estate properties with a combined worth of over $6 billion . Trinity's main building is a National Historic Landmark as well as a New York City designated landmark. It is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a NRHP district created in 2007.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: In 1696, Governor Benjamin Fletcher approved the purchase of land in Lower Manhattan by the Church of England community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from King William III on May 6, 1697. Its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat. The first rector was William Vesey (for whom nearby Vesey Street is named), a protege of Increase Mather, who served for 49 years until his death in 1746.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a gambrel roof and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on Wall Street, facing the Hudson River. The land on which it was built was formerly a formal garden and then a burial ground. It was built because in 1696, members of the Church of England (Anglicans) protested to obtain a "charter granting the church legal status" in New York City. According to historical records, Captain William Kidd lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Anne, Queen of Great Britain, increased the parish's land holdings to in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded Trinity School as the Charity School of the church, and classes were originally held in the steeple of the church. In 1754, King's College (now Columbia University) was chartered by King George II of Great Britain, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: During the American Revolutionary War the city became the British military and political base of operations in North America, following the departure of General George Washington and the Continental Army shortly after Battle of Long Island and subsequent local defeats. Under British occupation clergy were required to be Loyalists, while the parishioners included some members of the revolutionary New York Provincial Congress, as well as the First and Second Continental Congresses.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The church was destroyed in the Great New York City Fire of 1776, which started in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, destroying between 400 and 500 buildings and houses, and leaving thousands of New Yorkers homeless. Six days later, most of the city's volunteer firemen followed General Washington north. Rev. Charles Inglis served throughout the war and then to Nova Scotia on evacuation with the whole congregation of Trinity Church.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The Rev. Samuel Provoost was appointed Rector of Trinity (1784–1800) in 1784, and the New York State Legislature ratified the charter of Trinity Church, deleting the provision that asserted its loyalty to the King of England. Whig patriots were appointed as vestrymen. In 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended Thanksgiving service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at St. Paul's Chapel, a chapel of the Parish of Trinity Church. He continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in continuous use in New York City.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788; it was consecrated in 1790. St. Paul's Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street; it was 200 feet tall, and longer and wider than its predecessor. Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838–39.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included John Jay and Alexander Hamilton.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846. When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on Ascension Day (May 1) 1846, its soaring Gothic Revival spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, dominated the skyline of lower Manhattan. Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into New York Harbor.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: In 1843, Trinity Church's expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape and to better serve the needs of its parishioners. The newly formed parish would build Grace Church, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today. Both Grace and Trinity Churches were completed and consecrated in 1846.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church held the title of tallest building in the United States until 1869, when it was surpassed by St. Michael's Church, Old Town, Chicago. Trinity continued to be the tallest in New York City, with its spire and cross, until it was surpassed in 1890 by the New York World Building.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: In 1876–1877, a reredos and altar were erected in memory of William Backhouse Astor, Sr., to the designs of architect Frederick Clarke Withers. As the chancel was rearranged, the vestry voted for a one-story rear extension with rooms for the clergy, choir, and a mortuary chapel.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: On July 9, 1976, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, visited Trinity Church. Vestrymen presented the Queen with a symbolic "back rent" of 279 peppercorns.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: "Inspiration, Please!", a game show aired on Odyssey Network (now Hallmark Channel), taped at Trinity Church in 1995.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: During the September 11 attacks, people took refuge inside the church from the massive debris cloud produced by the first World Trade Center tower collapse. Some of the chapel pew's paint was rubbed off from the people taking refuge. The pews were later replaced, but one still exists at the back of the chapel for remembrance of the events on 9/11. Falling wreckage knocked over a giant sycamore tree that had stood for nearly a century in the churchyard of St. Paul's Chapel, part of Trinity Church's parish, located several blocks north of Trinity Church. Sculptor Steve Tobin used its roots as the base for a bronze sculpture titled "Trinity Root", which stood in front of the church at the corner of Wall Street and Broadway until December 2015, when it was moved by the church to its conference center in Connecticut. The move was controversial as it damaged the sculpture, which was later repaired, and the artist objected to its relocation.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity is located near Zuccotti Park, the location of the Occupy Wall Street protests. It offered both moral and practical support to the demonstrators but balked when protesters demanded an encampment on church-owned land called LentSpace, adjoining Juan Pablo Duarte Square in the neighborhood of Hudson Square. The church hierarchy were criticized by others within the Anglican movement, most notably Archbishop Desmond Tutu. On December 17, 2011, occupiers and a few clergy attempted to occupy LentSpace, which is surrounded by a chain-link fence. After demonstrating in Duarte Park and marching on the streets surrounding the park, occupiers climbed over and under the fence. Police responded by arresting about 50 demonstrators, including at least three Episcopal clergymen and a Roman Catholic nun.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Architectural historians consider the third and present Trinity Church building, built in 1846 and designed by architect Richard Upjohn, the first and finest example of Gothic Revival architecture. In 1976, the United States Department of the Interior designated Trinity Church a National Historic Landmark because of its architectural significance and its place within the history of New York City.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The tower of Trinity Church currently contains 23 bells, the heaviest of which weighs 27 U.S. hundredweight ().


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Eight of these bells were cast for the tower of the second church building and were hung for ringing in the English change ringing style. Three more bells were added later. In 1946 these bells were adapted for swing chiming and sounded by electric motors.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: A project to install a new ring of 12 additional change ringing bells was initially proposed in 2001 but put on hold in the aftermath of the September attacks, which took place three blocks north of the church. This project came to fruition in 2006, thanks to funding from the Dill Faulkes Educational Trust. These new bells form the first ring of 12 change-ringing bells ever installed in a church in the United States. The installation work was carried out by Taylors, Eayre and Smith of Loughborough, England, in September 2006.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: In late 2006, the ringing of the bells for bell practice and tuning caused much concern to local residents, some of whose windows and residences are less than at eye level from the bell tower. The church then built a plywood deck right over the bells and placed shutters on the inside of the bell chamber's lancet windows. With the shutters and the plywood deck closed, the sound of the bells outside the tower is minimal. The shutters, and hatches in the plywood deck, are opened for public ringing.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Public ringing takes place before and after 11:15 a.m. Sunday service and on special occasions, such as 9/11 commemorations, weddings, and ticker-tape parades. Details of the individual bells can be found at "Dove's Guide for Church Bellringers".


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church has three sets of impressive bronze doors, donated by William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor in memory of his father, John Jacob Astor III. Conceived by Richard Morris Hunt, they date from 1893 and were produced by Karl Bitter (east door), J. Massey Rhind (south door), and Charles Henry Niehaus (north door). The north and east doors each consists of six panels from Church history or the Bible, and the south door depicts the history of New York in its six panels.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: In 2015 Mark Francisco Bozzuti-Jones, a priest at Trinity Church, commissioned Mark Dukes to create the icon Our Lady of Ferguson.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church, as an Episcopal parish in the Anglican Communion, offers a full schedule of Daily Prayer and Eucharist services throughout the week, based on the Book of Common Prayer. It is also available for special occasions, such as weddings and baptisms. In addition to daily worship, Trinity Church provides Christian fellowship and outreach to the community.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Since 1993, Trinity Church has hosted the graduation ceremonies of the High School of Economics and Finance. The school is located on Trinity Place, a few blocks away from the church. Guided tours of the church are offered daily at 2p.m.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church has a rich music program. "Concerts at One" has been providing live professional classical and contemporary music for the Wall Street community since 1969, and the church has several organized choirs, featured Sunday mornings on WQXR 105.9 FM in New York City. Trinity presents world-class music programs both in New York City and around the world via high definition video streaming.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The mainstay of Trinity's music program is The Choir of Trinity Wall Street, a professional ensemble that leads liturgical music at Trinity Church and St. Paul's Chapel, presents new-music concerts in New York City, produces recordings, and performs in international tours. The Choir is often joined by the Trinity Baroque Orchestra, Trinity's ensemble of period instrumentalists, and NOVUS NY, Trinity's contemporary music orchestra.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity is also home to a Youth Chorus, Youth Orchestra, Family Choir, Downtown Voices, change bell ringers, and a wide variety of arts programming through Congregational Arts. Visiting choirs from around the world perform at Trinity weekly.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Beginning in the 1780s, the church's claim on 62 acres of Queen Anne's 1705 grant was contested in the courts by descendants of a 17th-century Dutchwoman, Anneke Jans Bogardus, who, it was claimed, held original title to that property. The basis of the lawsuits was that only five of Bogardus' six heirs had conveyed the land to the English crown in 1671. Numerous times over the course of six decades, the claimants asserted themselves in court, losing each time. The attempt was even revived in the 20th century. In 1959, the Internal Revenue Service sued over the compensation of the church's property manager, but the church prevailed in "Stanton v. United States".


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Disclosure resulting from a lawsuit filed by a parishioner revealed total assets of about $2 billion as of 2011. Although Trinity Church has sold off much of the land that was part of the royal grant from Queen Anne, it is still one of the largest landowners in New York City with 14 acres of Manhattan real estate including of commercial space in Hudson Square. The parish's annual revenue from its real estate holdings was $158 million in 2011 with net income of $38 million, making it perhaps one of the richest individual parishes in the world. , Trinity's investment portfolio was worth over $6 billion, At the end of 2018, the church's total equity was $8.3 billion, and it had $0.6 million in liabilities.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: The institution also owns the Trinity Court Building property, where it formerly housed its offices and preschool. That building was demolished in 2015, and a replacement at 76 Trinity Place was completed in 2020. The church was connected to 76 Trinity Place by a footbridge.


title: Trinity Church (Manhattan)

text: Trinity Church owned many tenement-houses in New York City during the late 19th and early 20th century.


title: Korfball

text: Korfball () is a ball sport, with similarities to netball and basketball. It is played by two teams of eight players with four female players and four male players in each team. The objective is to throw a ball into a netless basket that is mounted on a high pole.


title: Korfball

text: The sport was invented by Dutch school teacher Nico Broekhuysen in 1902. In the Netherlands there are approximately 500 clubs and more than 90,000 people playing korfball. The sport is also played in Belgium and Taiwan, and in nearly 70 other countries.


title: Korfball

text: In 1902 Nico Broekhuysen, a Dutch school teacher from Amsterdam, was sent to Nääs, a town in Sweden, to follow an educational course about teaching gymnastics to children. This is where he was introduced to the Swedish game "ringboll". In ringboll one could score points by throwing the ball through a ring that was attached to a 3 m pole. Men and women played together, and the field was divided into three zones. Players could not leave their zone.


title: Korfball

text: When Broekhuysen returned to Amsterdam he decided to teach his students a similar game. He replaced the ring with a basket (for which the Dutch word is or ), so it was easier to see whether or not a player had scored. Broekhuysen also simplified the rules so that children could understand and play the game. Thus korfball was born. The main idea was the same as ringboll, but the new sport now stood on its own.


title: Korfball

text: The oldest still existing korfball club never to have merged with any other club is a Dutch korfball club H.K.C. ALO from The Hague, Netherlands. H.K.C. ALO was founded on 1 February 1906.


title: Korfball

text: Korfball is played in 69 countries including the United States, China, England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Australia, New Zealand, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Greece, Serbia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, India, The Netherlands, Belgium, Nigeria, Morocco, Ghana, Russia, Germany, Taiwan, Turkey, Hong Kong, Portugal, Pakistan, India, Sweden, Hungary, Philippines, Indonesia, Italy, Spain, France and Romania.


title: Korfball

text: In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, on March 1, 2022, the International Korfball Federation announced that the Russian Korfball Federation would not be invited until further notice to any international korfball competition. This implied effectively that no Russian athletes shall take part in any international korfball event. Furthermore, the Russian Korfball Federation shall not be eligible to bid for the hosting of any IKF event until further notice, and no IKF events were planned in Russia.


title: Korfball

text: It is growing in popularity in the U.K., and is referenced in a song by the band Half Man Half Biscuit entitled "Joy in Leeuwarden (We Are Ready)" on their 2011 album "90 Bisodol (Crimond)".


title: Korfball

text: Korfball has been played in the World Games since 1985. IKF World Korfball Championships have been held every four years since 1978. The leading nations are the Netherlands, Chinese Taipei, and Belgium.


title: Korfball

text: Hong Kong hosted its first international tournament, the IKF Asia Oceania Korfball Championship, in 2006. New Zealand hosted the IKF Asia Oceania Youth Korfball Championships in 2007.


title: Korfball

text: The size of the indoor court is , as are most outdoor courts. The court is divided into halves called "zones". In each zone is a tall post with a basket at the top. This is positioned two-thirds of the distance between the center line and the back of the zone.


title: Korfball

text: The ball is very similar to the one used in association football, with a circumference of 68.0-70.5 cm (or diameter of 21.75-22.45 cm), a weight of 445-475 grams, and a bounce height of 1.10-1.30 meters when dropped from a height of 1.80 meters.


title: Korfball

text: An international korfball match typically consists of two halves or four periods, with the length varying depending on the competition. When the match consists of halves, the duration is typically 25 minutes, with periods typically between 7 and 10 minutes, with a one-minute break between the first and second periods and between the third and fourth periods. At half time the break is five or ten minutes.


title: Korfball

text: Four players of each team are in one zone and the other four are in the other zone. Within each zone, a player may only defend a member of the opposite team of the same gender.


title: Korfball

text: At the beginning of the match, one team chooses a particular half of the court. That half will be that team's defending zone, with "their" basket in it. Players score by throwing the ball through the opposing team's basket. After two goals, the teams change zones: defenders become attackers and attackers become defenders. In between those zone-changes, attackers cannot set foot on their defending zone or vice versa. At half time the teams swap halves of the court.


title: Korfball

text: The rules prevent physical strength dominating the game. Blocking, tackling, and holding are not allowed, nor is kicking the ball.


title: Korfball

text: Once a player has the ball, that player cannot dribble or walk with it; however, the player can move one foot as long as the foot on which the player landed when catching the ball stays in the same spot. Therefore, tactical and efficient teamwork is required, because players need each other in order to keep the ball moving.


title: Korfball

text: A player may not attempt to score when defended, which occurs when the defender is in between the opponent and the basket, is facing his/her opponent, or is within arm's length and attempting to block the ball. This rule encourages fast movement while also limiting the impact of players' height compared to their opponents.


title: Korfball

text: The national teams competition organized by the International World Games Association has been played roughly every four years since 1981.


title: Korfball

text: The national teams competition organized by the International Korfball Federation has been played roughly every four years since 1978.


title: Korfball

text: IKF promotes four continental championships: European Korfball Championship, All-Africa Korfball Championship, Pan-American Korfball Championship and Asia-Oceania Korfball Championship.


title: Korfball

text: Every year the IKF organises the Europa Cup for national champions (clubs). The Europa Cup was organized for the first time in 1967, and was won by Ons Eibernest from the Netherlands. The winner of the last edition was Fortuna/Delta Logistiek, which won the 2020 edition.


title: Korfball

text: PKC from Papendrecht, the Netherlands, have won the championship the most times, a record 12 wins in total.


title: Korfball

text: Until now, the winning team was either from the Netherlands or Belgium, with respectively 45 and 6 Europa Cups. The only club from the United Kingdom to reach the final was Mitcham Korfball Club from London. Mitcham lost the final against Catbavrienden from Belgium in 1998.


title: Korfball

text: For beach korfball, the rules of the game differ slightly from those of regular korfball. Each team has 4 starting players and up to 4 substitutes. The field of play is 20 metres by 10 metres, and goals are to be placed 4 metres from the end line. Matches consist of two halves of 6 minutes with a 1-minute rest.


title: Korfball

text: Furthermore, if a goal is scored from a 2-point zone, a two-point goal is awarded. Free shots can both be executed at the standard Free Shot line, or at the spot where the fault was made by the opponent.


title: Korfball

text: The current Beach Korfball World Champion is Poland, who won the World Beach Korfball Championship in Nador, Morocco in 2022. 13 teams were represented with Portugal taking silver and Belgium bronze.


title: Korfball

text: Korfball is the theme of the song "Joy in Leeuwarden (We Are Ready)" on the album "90 Bisodol (Crimond)" by Half Man Half Biscuit.


title: Alemanni

text: The Alemanni or Alamanni, were a confederation of Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine River. First mentioned by Cassius Dio in the context of the campaign of Caracalla of 213, the Alemanni captured the in 260, and later expanded into present-day Alsace, and northern Switzerland, leading to the establishment of the Old High German language in those regions, by the eighth century named "Alamannia".


title: Alemanni

text: In 496, the Alemanni were conquered by Frankish leader Clovis and incorporated into his dominions. Mentioned as still pagan allies of the Christian Franks, the Alemanni were gradually Christianized during the seventh century. The is a record of their customary law during this period. Until the eighth century, Frankish suzerainty over Alemannia was mostly nominal. After an uprising by Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia, though, Carloman executed the Alamannic nobility and installed Frankish dukes.


title: Alemanni

text: During the later and weaker years of the Carolingian Empire, the Alemannic counts became almost independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between them and the Bishopric of Constance. The chief family in Alamannia was that of the counts of , who were sometimes called margraves, and one of whom, Burchard II, established the Duchy of Swabia, which was recognized by Henry the Fowler in 919 and became a stem duchy of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Alemanni

text: The area settled by the Alemanni corresponds roughly to the area where Alemannic German dialects remain spoken, including German Swabia and Baden, French Alsace, German-speaking Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austrian Vorarlberg.


title: Alemanni

text: The French language name of Germany, , is derived from their name, from Old French "aleman(t)", from French loaned into a number of other languages, including Middle English which commonly used the term "Almains" for Germans. Likewise, the Arabic name for Germany is (Almania), the Turkish is Almanya, the Spanish is Alemania, the Portuguese is Alemanha, Welsh is Yr Almaen and Persian is (Alman).


title: Alemanni

text: According to Gaius Asinius Quadratus (quoted in the mid-sixth century by Byzantine historian Agathias), the name "Alamanni" (Ἀλαμανοι) means "all men". It indicates that they were a conglomeration drawn from various Germanic tribes. The Romans and the Greeks called them as such (Alamanni, all men, in the sense of a group composed of men of all groups in the region). This derivation was accepted by Edward Gibbon, in his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" and by the anonymous contributor of notes assembled from the papers of Nicolas Fréret, published in 1753.


title: Alemanni

text: Walafrid Strabo in the ninth century remarked, in discussing the people of Switzerland and the surrounding regions, that only foreigners called them the Alemanni, but that they gave themselves the name of "Suebi".


title: Alemanni

text: The Suebi are given the alternative name of "Ziuwari" (as "Cyuuari") in an Old High German gloss, interpreted by Jacob Grimm as "Martem colentes" ("worshippers of Mars").


title: Alemanni

text: The Alemanni were first mentioned by Cassius Dio describing the campaign of Caracalla in 213. At that time, they apparently dwelt in the basin of the Main, to the south of the Chatti.


title: Alemanni

text: Cassius Dio portrays the Alemanni as victims of this treacherous emperor. They had asked for his help, according to Dio, but instead he colonized their country, changed their place names, and executed their warriors under a pretext of coming to their aid. When he became ill, the Alemanni claimed to have put a hex on him. Caracalla, it was claimed, tried to counter this influence by invoking his ancestral spirits.


title: Alemanni

text: In retribution, Caracalla then led the Legio II "Traiana Fortis" against the Alemanni, who lost and were pacified for a time. The legion was as a result honored with the name "Germanica." The fourth-century fictional Historia Augusta, "Life of Antoninus Caracalla", relates (10.5) that Caracalla then assumed the name "Alemannicus," at which Helvius Pertinax jested that he should really be called "Geticus Maximus," because in the year before he had murdered his brother, Geta.


title: Alemanni

text: Through much of his short reign, Caracalla was known for unpredictable and arbitrary operations launched by surprise after a pretext of peace negotiations. If he had any reasons of state for such actions, they remained unknown to his contemporaries. Whether or not the Alemanni had been previously neutral, they were certainly further influenced by Caracalla to become thereafter notoriously implacable enemies of Rome.


title: Alemanni

text: This mutually antagonistic relationship is perhaps the reason why the Roman writers persisted in calling the Alemanni ”barbari," meaning "savages." The archaeology, however, shows that they were largely Romanized, lived in Roman-style houses and used Roman artifacts, the Alemannic women having adopted the Roman fashion of the "tunica" even earlier than the men.


title: Alemanni

text: Most of the Alemanni were probably at the time, in fact, resident in or close to the borders of Germania Superior. Although Dio is the earliest writer to mention them, Ammianus Marcellinus used the name to refer to Germans on the Limes Germanicus in the time of Trajan's governorship of the province shortly after it was formed, around 98-99 AD. At that time, the entire frontier was being fortified for the first time. Trees from the earliest fortifications found in Germania Inferior are dated by dendrochronology to 99-100 AD.


title: Alemanni

text: Ammianus relates (xvii.1.11) that much later the Emperor Julian undertook a punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who by then were in Alsace, and crossed the Main (Latin "Menus"), entering the forest, where the trails were blocked by felled trees. As winter was upon them, they reoccupied a


title: Alemanni

text: "fortification which was founded on the soil of the Alemanni that Trajan wished to be called with his own name".


title: Alemanni

text: In this context, the use of Alemanni is possibly an anachronism, but it reveals that Ammianus believed they were the same people, which is consistent with the location of the Alemanni of Caracalla's campaigns.


title: Alemanni

text: "Germania" by Tacitus (AD 90) states that the Hermunduri were a tribe certainly located in the region that later became Thuringia. Tacitus states that they traded with Rhaetia, which in Ptolemy is located across the Danube from Germania Superior, suggesting that the Alemanni originally in part derived from the Hermunduri.


title: Alemanni

text: However, no Hermunduri appear in Ptolemy, though after the time of Ptolemy, the Hermunduri joined with the Marcomanni in the wars of 166–180 against the empire.


title: Alemanni

text: Tacitus says that the source of the Elbe is among the Hermunduri, somewhat to the east of the upper Main. He places them also between the Naristi (Varisti), whose location was at the very edge of the Black Forest, and the Marcomanni and Quadi. Moreover, the Hermunduri were broken in the Marcomannic Wars and made a separate peace with Rome.


title: Alemanni

text: The Alemanni thus were probably not primarily the Hermunduri, although some elements of them may have been present.


title: Alemanni

text: Before the mention of Alemanni in the time of Caracalla, one would search in vain for Alemanni in the moderately detailed geography of southern Germany in Claudius Ptolemy, written in Greek in the mid-second century; at that time, the people who later used that name likely were known by other designations.


title: Alemanni

text: Nevertheless, some conclusions can be drawn from Ptolemy. Germania Superior is easily identified. Following up the Rhine one comes to a town, Mattiacum, which must be at the border of the Roman Germany (vicinity of Wiesbaden). Upstream from it and between the Rhine and Abnoba (in the Black Forest) are the Ingriones, Intuergi, Vangiones, Caritni and Vispi, some of whom were there since the days of the early empire or before. On the other side of the northern Black Forest were the Chatti about where Hesse is today, on the lower Main.


title: Alemanni

text: Historic Swabia was eventually replaced by today's Baden-Württemberg, but it had been the most significant territory of mediaeval Alamannia, comprising all Germania Superior and territory east to Bavaria. It did not include the upper Main, but that is where Caracalla campaigned. Moreover, the territory of Germania Superior was not originally included among the Alemanni's possessions.


title: Alemanni

text: However, if one looks for the peoples in the region from the upper Main in the north, south to the Danube and east to the Czech Republic where the Quadi and Marcomanni were located, Ptolemy does not give any tribes. The Tubanti are just south of the Chatti and at the other end of what was then the Black Forest, the Varisti, whose location is known. One possible reason for this distribution is that the population preferred not to live in the forest except in troubled times. The region between the forest and the Danube, though, included about a dozen settlements, or "cantons".


title: Alemanni

text: Ptolemy's view of Germans in the region indicates that the tribal structure had lost its grip in the Black Forest region and was replaced by a canton structure. The tribes stayed in the Roman province, perhaps because the Romans offered stability. Also, Caracalla perhaps felt more comfortable about campaigning in the upper Main because he was not declaring war on any specific historic tribe, such as the Chatti or Cherusci, against whom Rome had suffered grievous losses. By Caracalla's time, the name Alemanni was being used by cantons themselves banding together for purposes of supporting a citizen army (the "war bands").


title: Alemanni

text: The term Suebi has a double meaning in the sources. On the one hand Tacitus' "Germania" tells us (Chapters 38, 39) that they occupy more than half of Germany, use a distinctive hairstyle, and are spiritually centered on the Semnones. On the other hand, the Suebi of the upper Danube are described as though they were a tribe.


title: Alemanni

text: The solution to the puzzle as well as explaining the historical circumstances leading to the choice of the Agri Decumates as a defensive point and the concentration of Germans there are probably to be found in the German attack on the Gallic fortified town of Vesontio in 58 BC. The upper Rhine and Danube appear to form a funnel pointing straight at Vesontio.


title: Alemanni

text: Julius Caesar in "Gallic Wars" tells us (1.51) that Ariovistus had gathered an army from a wide region of Germany, but especially the Harudes, Marcomanni, Triboci, Vangiones, Nemetes and Sedusii. The Suebi were being invited to join. They lived in 100 cantons (4.1) from which 1000 young men per year were chosen for military service, a citizen-army by our standards and by comparison with the Roman professional army.


title: Alemanni

text: Ariovistus had become involved in an invasion of Gaul, which the German wished to settle. Intending to take the strategic town of Vesontio, he concentrated his forces on the Rhine near Lake Constance, and when the Suebi arrived, he crossed. The Gauls had called to Rome for military aid. Caesar occupied the town first and defeated the Germans before its walls, slaughtering most of the German army as it tried to flee across the river (1.36ff). He did not pursue the retreating remnants, leaving what was left of the German army and their dependents intact on the other side of the Rhine.


title: Alemanni

text: The Gauls were ambivalent in their policies toward the Romans. In 53 BC the Treveri broke their alliance and attempted to break free of Rome. Caesar foresaw that they would now attempt to ally themselves with the Germans. He crossed the Rhine to forestall that event, a successful strategy. Remembering their expensive defeat at the Battle of Vesontio, the Germans withdrew to the Black Forest, concentrating there a mixed population dominated by Suebi. As they had left their tribal homes behind, they probably took over all the former Celtic cantons along the Danube.


title: Alemanni

text: The Alemanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire in the third and fourth centuries. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy in 268, when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the Goths from the east. Their raids throughout the three parts of Gaul were traumatic: Gregory of Tours (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260), when the Alemanni assembled under their "king", whom he calls Chrocus, who acted "by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to Clermont he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call "Vasso Galatae" in the Gallic tongue," martyring many Christians ("Historia Francorum" Book I.32–34). Thus sixth-century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.


title: Alemanni

text: In the early summer of 268, the Emperor Gallienus halted their advance into Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the Battle of Naissus in September, Gallienus' successor Claudius Gothicus turned north to deal with the Alemanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the Po River.


title: Alemanni

text: After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alemanni to battle at the Battle of Lake Benacus in November. The Alemanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards.


title: Alemanni

text: Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum (Strasbourg), in 357, where they were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomarius was taken prisoner to Rome.


title: Alemanni

text: On January 2, 366, the Alemanni yet again crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces, this time being defeated by Valentinian (see Battle of Solicinium). In the great mixed invasion of 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine river a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau. The crossing is described in Wallace Breem's historical novel "Eagle in the Snow". The Chronicle of Fredegar gives the account. At "Alba Augusta" (Alba-la-Romaine) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishop retired to Viviers, but in Gregory's account at Mende in Lozère, also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated. It is thought this detail may be a generic literary ploy to epitomize the horrors of barbarian violence.


title: Alemanni

text: The kingdom of Alamannia between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until 496, when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis I at the Battle of Tolbiac. The war of Clovis with the Alemanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by Gregory of Tours. (Book II.31) After their defeat in 496, the Alemanni bucked the Frankish yoke and put themselves under the protection of Theodoric the Great of the Ostrogoths but after his death they were again subjugated by the Franks under Theudebert I in 536. Subsequently, the Alemanni formed part of the Frankish dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke.


title: Alemanni

text: In 746, Carloman ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the blood court at Cannstatt, and for the following century, Alemannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the treaty of Verdun of 843, Alemannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of Louis the German, the precursor of the Holy Roman Empire. The duchy persisted until 1268.


title: Alemanni

text: The German spoken today over the range of the former Alemanni is termed Alemannic German, and is recognised among the subgroups of the High German languages. Alemannic runic inscriptions such as those on the Pforzen buckle are among the earliest testimonies of Old High German.


title: Alemanni

text: The High German consonant shift is thought to have originated around the fifth century either in Alemannia or among the Lombards; before that the dialect spoken by Alemannic tribes was little different from that of other West Germanic peoples.


title: Alemanni

text: "Alemannia" lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when Charles Martel absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the eighth century. Today, "Alemannic" is a linguistic term, referring to Alemannic German, encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of Baden-Württemberg (German State), in western Bavaria (German State), in Vorarlberg (Austrian State), Swiss German in Switzerland and the Alsatian language of the Alsace (France).


title: Alemanni

text: The Alemanni established a series of territorially defined "pagi" (cantons) on the east bank of the Rhine. The exact number and extent of these "pagi" is unclear and probably changed over time.


title: Alemanni

text: "Pagi", usually pairs of "pagi" combined, formed kingdoms ("regna") which, it is generally believed, were permanent and hereditary. Ammianus describes Alemanni rulers with various terms: "reges excelsiores ante alios" ("paramount kings"), "reges proximi" ("neighbouring kings"), "reguli" ("petty kings") and "regales" ("princes"). This may be a formal hierarchy, or they may be vague, overlapping terms, or a combination of both. In 357, there appear to have been two paramount kings (Chnodomar and Westralp) who probably acted as presidents of the confederation and seven other kings ("reges"). Their territories were small and mostly strung along the Rhine (although a few were in the hinterland). It is possible that the "reguli" were the rulers of the two "pagi" in each kingdom. Underneath the royal class were the nobles (called "optimates" by the Romans) and warriors (called "armati" by the Romans). The warriors consisted of professional warbands and levies of free men. Each nobleman could raise an average of c. 50 warriors.


title: Alemanni

text: The Christianization of the Alemanni took place during Merovingian times (sixth to eighth centuries). We know that in the sixth century, the Alemanni were predominantly pagan, and in the eighth century, they were predominantly Christian. The intervening seventh century was a period of genuine syncretism during which Christian symbolism and doctrine gradually grew in influence.


title: Alemanni

text: Some scholars have speculated that members of the Alemannic elite such as king Gibuld due to Visigothic influence may have been converted to Arianism even in the later fifth century.


title: Alemanni

text: In the mid-6th century, the Byzantine historian Agathias records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alemanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king Theudebald were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since


title: Alemanni

text: He also spoke of the particular ruthlessness of the Alemanni in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alemanni would assume better manners through prolonged contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances, in a manner of speaking, what eventually happened.


title: Alemanni

text: Apostles of the Alemanni were Columbanus and his disciple Saint Gall. Jonas of Bobbio records that Columbanus was active in Bregenz, where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to Wodan. Despite these activities, for some time, the Alemanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or syncretistic Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic animal-style with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the seventh century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxons and of the Slavs, the Alemanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread in emulation of the Merovingian elite.


title: Alemanni

text: From c. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alemannic Elder Futhark inscriptions. About 70 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on fibulae, others on belt buckles (see Pforzen buckle, Bülach fibula) and other jewelry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity.


title: Alemanni

text: The Nordendorf fibula (early seventh century) clearly records pagan theonyms, "logaþorewodanwigiþonar " read as "Wodan and Donar are magicians/sorcerers", but this may be interpreted as either a pagan invocation of the powers of these deities, or a Christian protective charm against them.


title: Alemanni

text: A runic inscription on a fibula found at Bad Ems reflects Christian pious sentiment (and is also explicitly marked with a Christian cross), reading "god fura dih deofile ᛭" ("God for/before you, Theophilus!", or alternatively "God before you, Devil!"). Dated to between AD 660 and 690, it marks the end of the native Alemannic tradition of runic literacy. Bad Ems is in Rhineland-Palatinate, on the northwestern boundary of Alemannic settlement, where Frankish influence would have been strongest.


title: Alemanni

text: The establishment of the bishopric of Konstanz cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by 635, when Gunzo appointed John of Grab bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history unlike the Raetian bishopric of Chur (established 451) and Basel (an episcopal seat from 740, and which continued the line of Bishops of Augusta Raurica, see Bishop of Basel). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. In the early seventh century "Pactus Alamannorum" hardly ever mentions the special privileges of the church, while Lantfrid's "Lex Alamannorum" of 720 has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters alone.


title: Alemanni

text: A genetic study published in "Science Advances" in September 2018 examined the remains of eight individuals buried at a seventh-century Alemannic graveyard in Niederstotzingen, Germany. This is the richest and most complete Alemannic graveyard ever found. The highest ranking individual at the graveyard was a male with Frankish grave goods. Four males were found to be closely related to him. They were all carriers of types of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b. A sixth male was a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1b1a2a1a1c2b2b1a1 and the maternal haplogroup U5a1a1. Along with the five closely related individuals, he displayed close genetic links to northern and eastern Europe, particularly Lithuania and Iceland. Two individuals buried at the cemetery were found to be genetically different from both the others and each other, displaying genetic links to Southern Europe, particularly northern Italy and Spain. Along with the sixth male, they might have been adoptees or slaves.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Glasgow Subway is an underground light metro system in Glasgow, Scotland. Opened on 14 December 1896, it is the fourth-oldest underground rail transit system in Europe after the London Underground, Liverpool's Mersey Railway and the Budapest Metro. It is also one of the very few railways in the world with a track running gauge of wide. Originally a cable railway, the subway was later electrified, but the double-track circular line was never expanded. The line was originally known as the Glasgow District Subway, and was later renamed Glasgow Subway Railway. In 1936 it was renamed the Glasgow Underground. Despite this rebranding, many Glaswegians continued to refer to the network as "the Subway". In 2003, the name "Subway" was officially readopted by its operator, the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT). A £40,000 study examining the feasibility of an expansion into the city's south side was conducted in 2005 while a further commitment from Labour in 2007 to extend to the East End was also to no avail.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The system is not the oldest underground railway in Glasgow: that distinction belongs to a section of the Glasgow City and District Railway opened in 1886, now part of the North Clyde Line of the suburban railway network, which runs in a tunnel under the city centre between High Street and west of Charing Cross. Another major section of underground suburban railway line in Glasgow is the Argyle Line, which was formerly part of the Glasgow Central Railway.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Subway runs from 06:30 to 23:40 Monday to Saturday and 10:00 to 18:12 on Sunday. Trains run every 6–8 minutes during off-peak periods.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The subway system was constructed as one large circular loop almost long and extends both north and south of the River Clyde. The tracks have the unusual narrow gauge of , and a nominal tunnel diameter of , even smaller than that of the deep-level lines of the London Underground ( at their smallest); the rolling stock is considerably smaller.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The system is described as two lines, the Outer Circle and Inner Circle, which simply refers to the double track, having trains running clockwise and anticlockwise respectively around the same route in separate tunnels. Stations use a variety of platform layouts including single island platforms, opposing side platforms and in some stations such as Hillhead one side and one island platform.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The subway's running lines are entirely underground, and the maintenance depot at Broomloan Road (located between the and stations) is above ground, as was the earlier depot, also at Govan. Prior to modernisation, trains used to be lifted by crane onto and off the tracks. Modernisation brought the installation of points and an access ramp between Govan and Ibrox where trains can exit the tunnel system to terminate for maintenance and repairs, cleaning or storage.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The system is owned and operated by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT), formerly Strathclyde Passenger Transport, and carried 12.7 million passengers in the period 2019–20. The Subway has been policed by British Transport Police since 2007.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Glasgow District Subway Company began construction of the underground in 1891 and opened on 14 December 1896, the subway was powered by a clutch-and-cable system, with one cable for each direction. The Assistant Engineer for the project was William Tait.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The cable was driven from a steam-powered plant between and stations. There was no additional cable to allow trains to reach the depot; instead, they were transferred to and from the running lines by crane operating over a pit at the Govan workshops. This also meant that the two tracks could be completely separate, with no points anywhere. The company's headquarters were in the upper rooms at St Enoch subway station; this distinctive ornate building still stands in St Enoch Square and was subsequently used as a travel information office by SPT and is now a coffee shop.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: When the Subway first opened, single-carriage four axle (twin truck) trains were operated. Late in the evening on the opening day, after 11 pm, one car laden with 60 passengers was run into by another under the River Clyde. Four people were injured, one being taken to the infirmary. This entailed the closure of the Subway until 19 January 1897. The 20 original wooden bodied carriages were built by the Oldbury Railway Carriage and Wagon Company, of Oldbury, Worcestershire. Many continued in service until 1977 in an upgraded form. A further 10 were delivered by the same manufacturer in 1897. From 1898, second four axle (trailer) carriages without a cable gripper mechanism were added, though they were considerably shorter than the front (gripper) carriage. These additional carriages, eventually numbering 30, were built by Hurst Nelson & Company, Motherwell, Lanarkshire. These carriages were soon expanded to match the length of the front carriages, although carriage 41T has been restored to its original length and cut longitudinally and number 39T is preserved in the Riverside Museum. Most of the gripper carriages were subsequently converted to electric traction in 1935. All carriages were originally built with lattice gates (instead of doors) at the ends; many were converted to air-operated sliding doors in the 1960s, but a few retained the gates until 1977.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: All 15 stations were built with island platforms. The trains were thus built with doors on one side only. Power for the electric lighting in the trains was supplied by two parallel wall-mounted rails (known as "T-irons") at window level on the non-platform side of the trains; trains were originally equipped with wheels to pick up the electricity but changed to skids at electrification. The trains remained cable-hauled until 1935, though the anachronistic way of supplying power for the lighting continued until 1977. The lighting circuit was also part of the operation of the signalling system.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: Opening times of the Glasgow Subway have varied through the years, now open 06:30 to 23:40 Monday to Saturday and 10:00 to 18:12 on Sunday following a trial period between April 2011 and 2012 when the subway was open from 09:00–18:30.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: Glasgow Corporation took over the company in 1923 at a cost of £385,000 (). In 1935, the existing trains were converted to electric power delivered by a third rail at 600 volts, direct current. From March until December 1935, clockwise trains were cable-hauled, whilst anti-clockwise ones were electric. The conversion to electric traction cost £120,000 (). The last cable drawn car service was on 30 November 1935, and was driven by Robert Boyd.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The trains lost their original plum and cream-coloured liveries, being painted red and white instead. From the 1950s the trains became all red—in a shade similar to that of London buses. During the early 1970s, trailer carriage number 41 was repainted in the original 1896 livery.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: According to Keith Anderson World War II brought an "unprecedented" level of use by passengers. Anderson attributes this, and an increase in patronage in the years leading up to the conflict, to the expansion of the local shipyard workforce due to the need for rearmament. Unlike its larger counterpart in London the system's stations did not make good air-raid shelters due to its much more limited depth. On 18 September 1940, during World War II, a German bomb, which dropped during a night raid on Glasgow and may have been intended for nearby naval facilities, landed on a bowling green to the south of Merkland Street station. The resulting explosion caused damage to both tunnels, leading to closure of part of the system until repairs were completed in January 1941. The system suffered no other damage during the conflict. It did lose staff who were called up to participate in the war effort.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: After the Beeching Axe of the 1960s, both and mainline stations were closed and demolished,; there was no direct connection between the underground and mainline stations of Buchanan Street as they were over distant. The Subway had no direct passenger connection to the national railway network—a major weakness—although Buchanan Street and Merkland Street stations were a short walk from Queen Street and Partickhill British Rail stations respectively.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: Before the 1977–1980 modernisation, the stations had a distinctive earthy odour. The trains (mostly dating back to 1896) were always formed with two carriages—the front (motor) carriage with red leather seats and the rear (trailer) carriage with brown leather seats. Smoking was permitted in the rear carriage only. The backs of the seats were attached to the sides of the carriages, which moved semi-independently from the floor (to which the seats themselves were attached); passengers were rocked forwards and backwards while the carriage 'shoogled' them around. Passengers always entered at the middle of the train ("Q Here" signs were painted on the platforms), leaving by the front door of the front carriage or the rear door of the rear carriage.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: By the 1970s, the stations were very dilapidated. Stations were marked with circular signs often attached to lampposts. This sign had a white background in the top three quarters (containing a large red letter "U") and black in the bottom quarter (containing the word "Underground" and an arrow to the station entrance). No station had an escalator; had a lift. Each station had a ticket office (often very small, little more than a booth with a window). The ticketing system was identical to that of most cinemas of the era, with tickets emerging from slots in the counters of the station ticket offices (the words "Control Systems Ltd" or "Automaticket Ltd" were printed on all tickets). Tickets were invariably collected on leaving the train. From the time of being taken over by the Corporation until 1977, the staff were issued with tramway uniforms; these were dark green and had a black braid on the cuffs which had been introduced at the time of the funeral of Queen Victoria in 1901.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Glasgow Museum of Transport had an area dedicated to the subway, with models showing the operation of the clutch-and-cable system, as well as a full-scale replica of part of a subway station, complete with different rolling stock of the pre-modernisation era.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: By the 1970s, use of the Subway had declined significantly. This was caused partly by the closure of some of the dockyards and by widescale demolition of tenements south of the River Clyde. The original carriages, mostly dating back to 1896, were still in use, though adapted for electric traction in 1935. Breakdowns were becoming increasingly frequent; because trains could only be removed from the tracks to the depot by crane, a single inoperable train could cause major delays. The future of the Subway became a major issue for the Greater Glasgow Passenger Transport Executive (GGPTE), which took over responsibility for the line from Glasgow Corporation in the late 1960s. In January 1974 GGPTE announced a modernisation programme would be undertaken. The original plan would have seen trains continue to run on the system, with one of the two circles continuing to run while the other was upgraded. This idea was abandoned as expert advice suggested a safety risk.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: On 24 March 1977, cracks were noticed in the roof of Govan Cross station, leading to suspension of services until 2 May. The service resumed with only four trains per circle. On 21 May 1977, the system was shut down eight days prematurely for a major refurbishment and modernisation; the date was brought forward because of the appearance of more cracks in the Govan Cross roof. Badly deteriorated tunnels were repaired; stations were rebuilt and enlarged, with additional platforms at Buchanan Street, Partick, Govan, Ibrox, Hillhead and St Enoch. The entrance to Kelvinbridge was reversed, with a new entrance and car park built at South Woodside Road, an escalator to Great Western Road and stairs down to the west end of the platform; the former entrance and stairway at the east end became an emergency exit, and the lift was withdrawn from service. Merkland Street station was closed; a new station to the north was built at Partick to provide an interchange with the North Clyde Line of the suburban rail system. The site of Merkland Street can be noticed by the characteristic hump and the larger-diameter tunnel with both tracks. Many fittings from Merkland Street were used to build a replica pre-modernisation station at the Glasgow Museum of Transport (which closed in 2010, and moved to Riverside Museum in 2011) which contained three preserved cars.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: A further interchange via moving walkway was installed between Buchanan Street station and Queen Street mainline station as part of the modernisation.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: In August 1977, all redundant fittings and equipment from the old system were sold at a public sale at Broomloan Works. During the 1977–1980 modernisation, two Clayton battery locomotives were used by the contractors Taylor Woodrow to haul construction trains.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: Heavier track was installed although still at the unique gauge, the original Broomloan Depot was modernised and equipped with connecting tracks with points to replace the crane transfer, and a new electrical supply from Westinghouse Electric Corporation was installed. A new ticketing system, provided by Crouzet, with passenger-operated ticket vending machines and automatic turnstile barriers, replaced the old, perforated cinema-style tickets and conductors. The post-1980 yellow tickets have since been replaced by a newer system, issuing magnetic stripe card tickets.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The modernised system uses automatic train operation with the driver only responsible for closing the doors pressing a "start" button in normal operation.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: While the system was closed a replacement bus service was introduced by GGPTE in a bid to retain customers. Service 66 covered the inner circle route, while service 99 covered the route taken by the outer circle.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The line was formally reopened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 November 1979. Rebuilding work was still incomplete, and the line did not reopen to passengers until 16 April 1980. Thirty-three new carriages were built by Metro-Cammell at its Washwood Heath works in Birmingham, and equipped with GEC electric motors. The exterior design of the trains was carried out in partnership with Glasgow School of Art, which, according to SPT publicity films of the day, was largely responsible for the trains' "cute" appearance. Eight additional centre-trailer carriages were built in 1992 (the body shells by Hunslet Gyro Mining Transport in Leeds for completion by Hunslet-Barclay in Kilmarnock), making all trains three carriages long. Smoking has never been permitted on the modernised system.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: A new corporate identity was introduced (following contemporary fashions of the 1970s), with trains painted bright orange, stations largely rebuilt with dark brown bricks, orange-yellow wall tiles and other surfaces in off-white, plus brown uniforms for the staff. Large, illuminated orange "U" signs were placed at station entrances (since removed, with the re-adoption of the name "Subway"). Since the 1990s, ongoing renovation work has resulted in most stations adopting individual colour schemes. The trains' initial orange livery of 1980 (with a white stripe) was soon replaced by a darker, more durable shade of orange, later being replaced by SPT's carmine-red and cream livery.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The system was resignalled using Vital Processor Interlocking in 1996 and subsequently an upgraded Supervisory & Control System was installed.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Glasgow Subway system is the only metro system never to have been expanded from its original route in 125 years, although a report published in 2018 summarised various extension plans from 1937 onwards.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: In early 2005, SPT announced that they would employ consultants to look into extending the system in the West End, East End, South Side and Glasgow Harbour areas of the city. The extension would take advantage of existing unused tunnels underneath the city, and there is a possibility that roads would be dug up to install tunnels before being replaced and resurfaced (cut-and-cover tunnelling).


title: Glasgow Subway

text: On 14 March 2007, SPT announced the plans that the consultants had recommended. These included major refurbishment of the existing rolling stock and stations, at an overall cost of £270 million. The expansion of the existing network was also considered at a cost of £2.3 billion, including a new East End Circle, with seven new stations at St Mungo's, Onslow, Duke Street, Celtic Park, Dalmarnock, Newhall and Gorbals. The aim was to improve transport links in an area of the city which is currently poorly served by rail, in the hope that this would aid regeneration, and the city's 2014 Commonwealth Games bid. This circle would interchange at , and . Other proposals include extending the system southwards to Cathcart and further westwards to the SEC Centre and Maryhill using an older railway line.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: In 2007, SPT produced a report that showed huge support for a Subway extension. Councillor Alistair Watson of the SPT stated:


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The plans were expected to take twelve years, but never came to fruition. New electronic destination signs were installed in the stations in 2008.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: The Partick station modernisation project was completed in 2009, and resulted in a complete redevelopment at the station, which hosts a railway station, a subway station and a bus terminal on the outside.


title: Glasgow Subway

text: In March 2016, Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT) awarded contracts to Stadler and Ansaldo STS for the supply of 17 new trains for the subway. The first new trains are expected to operate in 2022.