title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: The shipyard is a major employer, not only for the lower Virginia Peninsula, but also portions of Hampton Roads south of the James River and the harbor, portions of the Middle Peninsula region, and even some northeastern counties of North Carolina.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 2013, Newport News Shipbuilding began the deactivation of the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, , which it also built.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: Newport News Shipbuilding also performs refueling and complex overhaul (RCOH) work on s. This is a four-year vessel renewal program that not only involves refueling of the vessel's nuclear reactors but also includes modernization work. The yard has completed RCOH for five "Nimitz"-class carriers (, , , and ). As of November 2017 this work was underway for the sixth "Nimitz"-class vessel, .


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: Industrialist Collis P. Huntington (1821–1900) provided crucial funding to complete the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad (C&O) from Richmond, Virginia to the Ohio River in the early 1870s. Although originally built for general commerce, this C&O rail link to the midwest was soon also being used to transport bituminous coal from the previously isolated coalfields, adjacent to the New River and the Kanawha River in West Virginia. In 1881, the Peninsula Extension of the C&O was built from Richmond down the Virginia Peninsula to reach a new coal pier on Hampton Roads in Warwick County near the small unincorporated community of Newport News Point. However, building the railroad and coal pier was only the first part of Huntington's dreams for Newport News.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 1886, Huntington built a shipyard to repair ships servicing this transportation hub. In 1891 Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company delivered its first ship, the tugboat "Dorothy". By 1897 NNS had built three warships for the US Navy: , and .


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: When Collis died in 1900, his nephew Henry E. Huntington inherited much of his uncle's fortune. He also married Collis' widow Arabella Huntington, and assumed Collis' leadership role with Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company. Under Henry Huntington's leadership, growth continued.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 1906 the revolutionary launched a great naval race worldwide. Between 1907 and 1923, Newport News built six of the US Navy's total of 22 dreadnoughts – , , , , and . All but the first were in active service in World War II. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet on its round-the-world voyage. NNS had built seven of its 16 battleships.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 1914 NNS built SS "Medina" for the Mallory Steamship Company; as she was until 2009 the world's oldest active ocean-faring passenger ship.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In the early years, leaders of the Newport News community and those of the shipyard were virtually interchangeable. Shipyard president Walter A. Post served from March 9, 1911 to February 12, 1912, when he died. Earlier, he had come to the area as one of the builders of the C&O Railway's terminals, and had served as the first mayor of Newport News after it became an independent city in 1896. It was on March 14, 1914 that Albert Lloyd Hopkins, a young New Yorker trained in engineering, succeeded Post as president of the company. In May 1915 while traveling to England on shipyard business aboard , Albert L. Hopkins tenure and life ended prematurely when that ship was torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat off Queenstown on the Irish coast. His assistant, Frederic Gauntlett, was also on board, but was able to swim to safety. Homer Lenoir Ferguson was company vice president when Hopkins died, and assumed the presidency the following August. He saw the company through both world wars, became a noted community leader, and was a co-founder of the Mariners' Museum with Archer Huntington. He served until July 31, 1946, after World War II had ended on both the European and Pacific fronts.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: Just northwest of the shipyard, Hilton Village, one of the first planned communities in the country, was built by the federal government to house shipyard workers in 1918. The planners met with the wives of shipyard workers. Based on their input 14 house plans were designed for the projected 500 English-village-style homes. After the war, in 1922, Henry Huntington acquired it from the government, and helped facilitate the sale of the homes to shipyard employees and other local residents. Three streets there were named after Post, Hopkins, and Ferguson.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: The "Lusitania" incident was among the events that brought the United States into World War I. Between 1918 and 1920 NNS delivered 25 destroyers, and after the war it began building aircraft carriers. was delivered in 1934, and NNS went on to build and .


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: After World War I NNS completed a major reconditioning and refurbishment of the ocean liner . Before the war she had been the German liner "Vaterland", but the start of hostilities found her laid up in New York Harbor and she had been seized by the US Government in 1917 and converted into a troopship. War duty and age meant that all wiring, plumbing, and interior layouts were stripped and redesigned while her hull was strengthened and her boilers converted from coal to oil while being refurbished. Virtually a new ship emerged from NNS in 1923, and SS "Leviathan" became the flagship of United States Lines.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 1927 NNS launched the world's first significant turbo-electric ocean liner: Panama Pacific Line's . At the time she was also the largest merchant ship yet built in the United States, although she was a modest size compared with the biggest European liners of her era. NNS launched "California"s sister ships "Virginia" in 1928 and "Pennsylvania" in 1929. NNS followed them by launching two even larger turbo-electric liners for Dollar Steamship Company: the in 1930, followed by her sister in 1931. was launched in 1939 and entered service with United States lines shortly before World War II but soon returned to the shipyard for conversion to a troopship, USS "West Point".


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: By 1940 the Navy had ordered a battleship, seven more aircraft carriers and four cruisers. During World War II, NNS built ships as part of the U.S. Government's Emergency Shipbuilding Program, and swiftly filled requests for "Liberty ships" that were needed during the war. It founded the North Carolina Shipbuilding Company, an emergency yard on the banks of the Cape Fear River and launched its first Liberty ship before the end of 1941, building 243 ships in all, including 186 Libertys. For its contributions during the war, the Navy awarded the company its "E" pennant for excellence in shipbuilding. NNS ranked 23rd among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In the post-war years NNS built the famous passenger liner , which set a transatlantic speed record that still stands today. In 1954 NNS, Westinghouse and the Navy developed and built a prototype nuclear reactor for a carrier propulsion system. NNS designed in 1960. In 1959 NNS launched its first nuclear-powered submarine, .


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In the 1970s, NNS launched two of the largest tankers ever built in the western hemisphere and also constructed three liquefied natural gas carriers – at over 390,000 deadweight tons, the largest ever built in the United States. NNS and Westinghouse Electric Company jointly form Offshore Power Systems to build floating nuclear power plants for Public Service Electric and Gas Company.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In the 1980s, NNS produced a variety of Navy products, including nuclear aircraft carriers and nuclear attack submarines. Since 1999 the shipyard has produced only warships for the Navy.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 2007, the US Navy found that workers had used incorrect metal to fuse together pipes and joints on submarines under construction and this could have led to cracking and leaks. In 2009 it was found that bolts and fasteners in weapons-handling systems on four Navy submarines, , , , and , were installed incorrectly, delaying the launching of the boats while the problems were corrected.


title: Newport News Shipbuilding

text: In 1968, Newport News merged with Tenneco Corporation. In 1996, Tenneco initiated a spinoff of Newport News into an independent company (Newport News Shipbuilding). The company was purchased by Northrop Grumman in 2001 for $2.6 billion and renamed "Northrop Grumman Newport News". This division was merged with Northrop Grumman Ship Systems in 2008 and given the name "Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding". Three years later, the company was spun off as Huntington Ingalls Industries, Inc., which trades under the symbol HII on the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Charades

text: Charades (, ) is a parlor or party word guessing game. Originally, the game was a dramatic form of literary charades: a single person would act out each syllable of a word or phrase in order, followed by the whole phrase together, while the rest of the group guessed. A variant was to have teams who acted scenes out together while the others guessed. Today, it is common to require the actors to mime their hints without using any spoken words, which requires some conventional gestures. Puns and visual puns were and remain common.


title: Charades

text: A charade was a form of literary riddle popularized in France in the 18th century where each syllable of the answer was described enigmatically as a separate word before the word as a whole was similarly described. The term "charade" was borrowed into English from French in the second half of the eighteenth century, denoting a "kind of riddle in which each syllable of a word, or a complete word or phrase, is enigmatically described or dramatically represented".


title: Charades

text: Written forms of charade appeared in magazines and books, and on the folding fans of the Regency. The answers were sometimes printed on the reverse of the fan, suggesting that they were a flirting device, used by a young woman to tease her beau. One charade composed by Jane Austen goes as follows:


title: Charades

text: Later examples omitted direct references to individual syllables, such as the following, said to be a favorite of Theodore Roosevelt:


title: Charades

text: In the early 20th century, the 11th edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" offered these two prose charades as "perhaps as good as could be selected":


title: Charades

text: In the early 19th century, the French began performing "acting" or "acted charades"—with the written description replaced by dramatic performances as a parlor game—and this was brought over to Britain by the English aristocracy. Thus the term gradually became more popularly used to refer to acted charades, examples of which are described in William Thackeray's "Vanity Fair" and in Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre".


title: Charades

text: Thackeray snarked that charades were enjoyed for "enabling the many ladies amongst us who had beauty to display their charms, and the fewer number who had cleverness, to exhibit their wit". In his "Vanity Fair", the height of Rebecca Sharp's social success is brought on by her performances of acting charades before the Prince Regent. The first scene—"first two syllables"—displays a Turkish lord dealing with a slaver and his odalisque before being garroted by the sultan's chief black eunuch; the second—"last two syllables"—finds a Turk, his consort, and his black slave praying at sunrise when an enormous Egyptian head enters and begins singing. The answer—Agamemnon—is then acted out by Becky's husband, while she makes her (first) appearance as Clytemnestra. After refreshments, another round begins, partially in pantomime: the first scene shows a household yawningly finishing a game of cribbage and preparing for bed; the second opens on the household bustling with activity as daybreak prompts bells ringing, arguments over receipts, collection of the chamber pots, calls for carriages, and greetings to new guests; the third closes with a ship's crew and passengers tossed about by a storm with strong winds. The answer—nightingale—is then (somewhat mistakenly) acted out by Becky in the role of a singing French marquise, recalling both Lacoste's 1705 tragic opera "Philomèle" and an "arriviste" lover and wife of Louis XIV. Apart from its importance in the book, the scenes were subsequently considered models of the genre.


title: Charades

text: By the time of the First World War, "acting charades" had become the most popular form and, as written charades were forgotten, it adopted its present, terser name. Thackeray's scenes—even those said to be "in pantomime"—included dialogue from the actors but truly "dumb" or "mime charades" gradually became more popular as well and similarly dropped their descriptive adjectives. The amateurish acting involved in charades led to the word's use to describe any obvious or inept deception, but over time "a charade" became used more broadly for any put-on (even highly competent and successful ones) and its original association with the parlor game has largely been lost.


title: Charades

text: The acted form of charades has been repeatedly made into television game shows, including the American "Play the Game", "Movietown, RSVP", "Pantomime Quiz", "Stump the Stars", "Celebrity Charades", "Showoffs" and "Body Language"; the British "Give Us a Clue"; the Canadian "Party Game" and "Acting Crazy"; and the Australian "Celebrity Game". On Britain's BBC Radio 4, "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue" performs a variant of the old written and spoken form of the game as "Sound Charades".


title: Charades

text: As a long-lived and informal game, charades' rules can vary widely. Common features of the game include holding up a number of fingers to indicate the number of syllables in the answer, silently replying to questions, and making a "come on" gesture once the guesses become close; some forms of the games, however, forbid anything except physically acting out the answer. In a mixed setting, it is therefore advisable to clarify the rules before play begins.


title: United Spirits

text: United Spirits Limited, abbreviated to USL, is an Indian alcoholic beverages company, and the world's second-largest spirits company by volume. It is a subsidiary of Diageo, and headquartered at UB Tower in Bangalore, Karnataka. USL exports its products to over 37 countries.


title: United Spirits

text: According to the official website of the company, as of March 2013, USL has more than 140 liquor brands, of which 15 brands each sell more than one million cases annually while 3 brands each sell more than 10 million cases annually.


title: United Spirits

text: The company originated as a trading company called McDowell and Company (also known as McDowell & Co, McDowell or McDowell's), founded in India in 1826 by Angus McDowell, a Scot. He set up a warehouse near Fort St. George, Madras (now Chennai). The company imported liquor, tobacco products, and other consumer goods into India to serve the needs of British people stationed there. McDowell & Company Limited was incorporated as a company in 1898, with an initial capital of as 4,000 preferred shares and 4,000 common shares of each. The company's principal shareholders were A.M. Hooper, G.D. Coleman, and G.A. Ruppell.


title: United Spirits

text: The Vittal Mallya-run United Breweries Group bought McDowell and Company in 1951. In 1959, Mallya established the company's first distillery at Cherthala, Kerala on the banks of the Vembanad lake. McDowell's began bottling Bisquit Brandy and Dorville French Brandy, from imported concentrates, becoming the first company to manufacture Indian Made Foreign Liquor (IMFL). The company opened India's first distillation plant to manufacture extra neutral alcohol (ENA) at Cherthala in 1961. The plant began bottling products for Herbertsons Limited of the Anglo Thai Group that same year. The company launched Golden Grape Brandy, its first original product, in 1962. The company launched McDowell's No.1 Brandy in 1963–64 when their contract with Herbertsons expired. In the early 1960s, the company acquired Carew & Co and Phipson & Co, manufacturers of rum, gin, and other hard liquors. in 1963–64.


title: United Spirits

text: The company launched McDowell's No.1 whisky in 1968, and commissioned new distilleries in Hyderabad, Ponda (Goa), and Hathidah (Bihar) over the next few years. In the late 1970s, distilleries were acquired in Udaipur, Alwar, Mirganj, and Serampore, and a plant was built in Pondicherry. The company bought out Herbertsons in 1973. Mallya's son, Vijay Mallya, took over as director of McDowell's the same year, and assumed chairmanship of UB Group and McDowell's after Vittal Mallya died in 1983. McDowell's moved its headquarters from Madras to Bangalore in 1987. The company established a technical centre for product and process development research in Bangalore in 1989. McDowell's No.1 Rum was launched in 1990. McDowell's acquired the spirits business and manufacturing facility of Forbes Campbell & Company Limited. McDowell's formed United Distillers India Limited, India's first joint venture in the alcoholic beverages industry, with United Distillers of the United Kingdom in 1991–92. McDowell's Signature whisky was launched in 1994. In 1995, Carew Phipson Limited, Consolidated Distilleries Ltd and several other companies were merged into McDowell's. The company was incorporated as McDowell Spirits Ltd in 1999. The name was changed to McDowell & Company Ltd on 1 April 2000. McDowell Alcobev became a wholly owned subsidiary of McDowell & Company in 2002. In the same year, the company acquired Phipson Distilley, McDowell International Brands Ltd, and most of Triumph Distilleries & Vinters Pvt Ltd. McDowell launched Derby Special Whisky in 2003 and Old Cask rum in 2004.


title: United Spirits

text: On 21 March 2005, McDowell & Company entered into an agreement with Jumbo World Holdings Limited (JWHL) in Dubai to acquire Shaw Wallace. The board of Shaw Wallace approved the merger of the company with USL and fixed the appointed date of the merger as 1 April 2008 subject to approvals. In 2006, McDowell & Co Limited, Herbertsons Limited, Triumph Distillers and Vintners Private Limited, Baramati Grape Industries India Limited, Shaw Wallace Distilleries Limited and four other companies are merged to form United Spirits Limited. Bouvet Ladubay, subsidiary of France-based Taittinger was acquired, the same year. The UB Group purchased Whyte & Mackay in May 2007 for £595 million. USL also acquired Liquidity Inc., makers of Pinky Vodka, in 2007. USL launched Black Dog 18 YO and Four Seasons Barrique Reserve in 2009–10, and McDowell's No 1 Platinum, 100% grain based whisky, in 2011.


title: United Spirits

text: On 27 May 2013, Diageo acquired a 10% stake in United Spirits at a cost of . It also separately acquired an additional 58,668 shares for 85,778,082. On 4 July 2013, Diageo bought an additional 14.98% of the company for . Diageo acquired an additional 21.77 million shares at a cost of per share in an off-market-deal from United Spirits' promoters, raising its holdings to 25.02 per cent of the company. Following that purchase, Diageo held 36.3 million shares in USL, acquired at a cost of , making it the largest shareholder. Under pressure from Diageo, some substantial changes to the management structure of the firm began to take place in 2013.


title: United Spirits

text: In early 2014, Whyte & Mackay, which had been purchased by UB Group in 2007, was sold to Philippines-based Emperador for £430 million.


title: United Spirits

text: On 5 November 2017, the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment, revealed that United Spirits with three other subsidiaries based in the UK were allegedly involved with diverting funds amounting to $1.5 billion.


title: United Spirits

text: The USL technical centre was opened in 1989 in Bangalore, and is recognised by the Department of Scientific & Industrial Research (DSIR) as an in-house Research & Development laboratory.


title: United Spirits

text: USL owns several distilleries throughout India, and also owns one unit in Nepal. Besides these, USL also has several contract and associate distilleries in India, and one in Nepal.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: David Mayer de Rothschild (born 25 August 1978) is a British adventurer, ecologist, and environmentalist.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: He is a member of the Rothschild family, the youngest of three children of Victoria Lou Schott (1949 – 18 January 2021) and Sir Evelyn de Rothschild (1931–2022) of the Rothschild banking family of England. His middle name "Mayer" is taken from the name of the founder of the Rothschild family banking empire, Mayer Amschel Rothschild. The youngest heir to his family's banking fortune, de Rothschild was born in 1978 in London, England. His mother was American, the daughter of Marcia Lou (née Whitney) and real estate developer Lewis M. Schott. He is the younger brother of Anthony de Rothschild and Jessica de Rothschild. As a teenager, de Rothschild was a top-ranked horse jumper on Britain's junior event team. He later gave up the sport to pursue his education, stating in an interview with "The New Yorker" "I realized there was more to life than spending hours and hours and hours on a horse." After leaving Harrow School in 1996 he attended Oxford Brookes receiving a 2:1 B.Sc (Hons) in Political Science and Information Systems. In 2002, de Rothschild studied at the College of Naturopathic Medicine, London where he received an advanced Diploma in Natural Medicine, ND.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: By age 20, de Rothschild had started his own music merchandising business and sold it. In 2001 he bought a 1,100 acre organic farm in New Zealand, and was invited to take part in a Polar expedition. This experience turned de Rothschild into an enterprising eco-adventurer.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2006, de Rothschild spent over 100 days crossing the Arctic from Russia to Canada, which saw him become one of only 42 people, and the youngest British person, to ever reach both geographical poles. He had already become one of only 14 people ever to traverse the continent of Antarctica, and was part of a team that broke the world record for the fastest ever crossing of the Greenland ice cap. In 2006 he launched the website "Mission Control" in order to present his expeditions and environmental efforts to children and the youth. The trek across the Arctic was the first "mission" to be highlighted on the website, and the second was planned to either be a trek through the Amazon or a trek from Lake Baikal to the Gobi Desert.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: His expeditions also led to his founding of the Adventure Ecology organization. It serves as a community and network for the discussion of climate change and associated problems.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In the late 2000s, de Rothschild developed a mission to raise awareness of the Pacific Garbage Patch, in which he invented a new form of sustainable ship at a lab on Pier 31 in San Francisco, called the "Plastiki". In March 2010, de Rothschild launched the boat, a catamaran built from approximately 12,500 reclaimed plastic bottles and a unique recyclable technology called Seretex. Seretex, which was developed by de Rothschild and his team, was meant to reuse PET in a novel way, finding new uses for a waste product. The "Plastiki" and its crew sailed over across the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco to Sydney.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: The evening before their journey began, de Rothschild and his skipper Jo Royle interviewed with CNN, quoting Mark Twain when asked how he felt in anticipation for the trip.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: The Plastiki successfully completed its journey to Sydney on 26 July 2010. Along with the "Plastiki", de Rothschild launched a platform for community interaction and sharing stories called "Myoo" (the name comes from the pronunciation of "community"). The "Plastiki" was named one of 2010's fifty best inventions by "Time" magazine. The "Plastiki" is named after the "Kon-Tiki", a raft used by Pacific explorer Thor Heyerdahl.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: The construction of the ship is notable not only for its use of recycled plastic bottles as a primary building material, but also for using reclaimed and environmentally friendly materials throughout. In April 2010, Mayer told "Good Morning America": "Every part of the boat, even down to the glue we used to stick the boat together, [it] is a glue we made and had to engineer specifically for this project. It's made of cashew nuts and sugar...every part of the boat – from the interior with reclaimed materials, reclaimed fabric, is all trying to do our best and showcasing there are a lot of solutions out there."


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2009, "New Yorker" correspondent John Colapinto wrote about the "Plastiki", comparing its creator, de Rothschild, to adventurers such as Sir Richard Francis Burton and Sebastian Snow.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: As part of Adventure Ecology's ARTiculate series, de Rothschild led a field trip expedition to the Ecuadorian Amazon in 2007. The group spent time in the Ecuadorian rain forest, documenting the damage international oil companies had caused by drilling the vast oil reserves. In November 2011, de Rothschild and a small crew mounted an expedition to Brazil's Amazon rainforest as part of the ARTiculate series, with the goal of better understanding and publicizing the effects of the controversial Belo Monte dam project. This expedition was supplemented by articles on Myoo.com and culminated in an art project developed with local children.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: When asked by "Outside Magazine" reporter Caty Enders about whether an expedition could make a difference in a pressing issue like the Belo Monte dam de Rothschild replied that "it would be naïve to think that this mini art-based adventure into the Amazon is going to change what has been in motion for the last 36 years. But when you see someone in the road and they're dying, do you keep walking and say, Oh, they'll be dead soon? That's the reality when you embark on an adventure like this, you may never know the true outcome until many years later".


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: The Myoo concept developed into the Myoo Agency, founded by de Rothschild as a marketing agency that works with businesses looking to create sustainable practices. The Plastiki development was done under the company name Smarter Plan, which continues to develop additional solutions for adapting waste into useful objects and devices. Myoo was eventually renamed the World-Exposure agency, reflecting his new partnership with the Exposure marketing agency. It carries on the task of introducing firms to sustainable practices and promoting communications strategies involving sustainable means and profiling sustainable enterprises. A precursor to Myoo was de Rothschild's previous organization Adventure Ecology, the mission of which has been absorbed into World-Exposure.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: De Rothschild is also the founder of the environmental foundation Sculpt the Future. Sculpt the Future took the initiative of spreading environmental education through the use of adventure ecology and other high-profile methods. According to "The Today Show", the foundation "encourages people to find new ways to change and improve their communities and environment". De Rothschild also founded Mpact, which focuses on teaching corporations and organizations on how to access the most zealous community contributors and volunteers, and how to provide them with the tools they need to succeed on their behalf.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2007, de Rothschild wrote "The Live Earth Global Warming Survival Handbook: 77 Essential Skills to Stop Climate Change—Or Live Through It" (), with afterword by Kevin Wall, which was the official companion book to the Live Earth concert series. In 2008, he was the Consultant Editor for "Earth Matters: An Encyclopedia of Ecology", wrote an action graphic novel, "The Boy, The Girl, The Tree" with artist Simon Harrison and wrote the foreword to "True Green Kids: 100 Things You Can Do to Save the Planet".


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2007, alongside others including Zac Goldsmith, the Baron Goldsmith of Richmond Park (David Cameron's environmental advisor), de Rothschild contributed to Sebastian Copeland's book "Antarctica – The Global Warning". De Rothschild is a "Huffington Post" contributor, commenting on environmental issues. In early 2010, he also trademarked the phrase Equation For Curiosity.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2009, de Rothschild produced "Playground", a documentary focusing on the child sex trade in the United States.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2012, de Rothschild developed "Eco Trip: The Real Cost of Living", an eight part series on the production methods behind household items and the impact their use has on the environment. Each episode covers the full life cycle of the products.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2017, he produced "Becoming Bond", a docudrama exploring the casting of Australian actor George Lazenby as James Bond in the film "On Her Majesty's Secret Service".


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: David de Rothschild was awarded the accolade of "Emerging Explorer" by National Geographic, appointed an "international ambassador" by NGO Clean Up the World, and nominated as a "Young Global Leader" by the World Economic Forum.


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2007, de Rothschild was named one of "GQ Magazine"'s men of the year, being the sole individual named to the "Environmentalist" category. The following year, due to his efforts at involving youth in environmental issues, he was the 2008 winner of the Kids' Choice Awards UK "Greenie Award".


title: David Mayer de Rothschild

text: In 2009, Rothschild was named by the United Nations Environment Program as a "Climate Hero". In 2011, de Rothschild served on the judging panel for the International Green Awards as well as the Climate Week Awards. In 2011, he also received the Honorary Award of the German Sustainability Award.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: In computer architecture, multithreading is the ability of a central processing unit (CPU) (or a single core in a multi-core processor) to provide multiple threads of execution concurrently, supported by the operating system. This approach differs from multiprocessing. In a multithreaded application, the threads share the resources of a single or multiple cores, which include the computing units, the CPU caches, and the translation lookaside buffer (TLB).


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Where multiprocessing systems include multiple complete processing units in one or more cores, multithreading aims to increase utilization of a single core by using thread-level parallelism, as well as instruction-level parallelism. As the two techniques are complementary, they are combined in nearly all modern systems architectures with multiple multithreading CPUs and with CPUs with multiple multithreading cores.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: The multithreading paradigm has become more popular as efforts to further exploit instruction-level parallelism have stalled since the late 1990s. This allowed the concept of throughput computing to re-emerge from the more specialized field of transaction processing. Even though it is very difficult to further speed up a single thread or single program, most computer systems are actually multitasking among multiple threads or programs. Thus, techniques that improve the throughput of all tasks result in overall performance gains.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: If a thread gets a lot of cache misses, the other threads can continue taking advantage of the unused computing resources, which may lead to faster overall execution, as these resources would have been idle if only a single thread were executed. Also, if a thread cannot use all the computing resources of the CPU (because instructions depend on each other's result), running another thread may prevent those resources from becoming idle.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Multiple threads can interfere with each other when sharing hardware resources such as caches or translation lookaside buffers (TLBs). As a result, execution times of a single thread are not improved and can be degraded, even when only one thread is executing, due to lower frequencies or additional pipeline stages that are necessary to accommodate thread-switching hardware.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Overall efficiency varies; Intel claims up to 30% improvement with its Hyper-Threading Technology, while a synthetic program just performing a loop of non-optimized dependent floating-point operations actually gains a 100% speed improvement when run in parallel. On the other hand, hand-tuned assembly language programs using MMX or AltiVec extensions and performing data prefetches (as a good video encoder might) do not suffer from cache misses or idle computing resources. Such programs therefore do not benefit from hardware multithreading and can indeed see degraded performance due to contention for shared resources.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: From the software standpoint, hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software, requiring more changes to both application programs and operating systems than multiprocessing. Hardware techniques used to support multithreading often parallel the software techniques used for computer multitasking. Thread scheduling is also a major problem in multithreading.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: The simplest type of multithreading occurs when one thread runs until it is blocked by an event that normally would create a long-latency stall. Such a stall might be a cache miss that has to access off-chip memory, which might take hundreds of CPU cycles for the data to return. Instead of waiting for the stall to resolve, a threaded processor would switch execution to another thread that was ready to run. Only when the data for the previous thread had arrived, would the previous thread be placed back on the list of ready-to-run threads.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Conceptually, it is similar to cooperative multi-tasking used in real-time operating systems, in which tasks voluntarily give up execution time when they need to wait upon some type of the event. This type of multithreading is known as block, cooperative or coarse-grained multithreading.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: The goal of multithreading hardware support is to allow quick switching between a blocked thread and another thread ready to run. Switching from one thread to another means the hardware switches from using one register set to another. To achieve this goal, the hardware for the program visible registers, as well as some processor control registers (such as the program counter), is replicated. For example, to quickly switch between two threads, the processor is built with two sets of registers.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Additional hardware support for multithreading allows thread switching to be done in one CPU cycle, bringing performance improvements. Also, additional hardware allows each thread to behave as if it were executing alone and not sharing any hardware resources with other threads, minimizing the amount of software changes needed within the application and the operating system to support multithreading.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Many families of microcontrollers and embedded processors have multiple register banks to allow quick context switching for interrupts. Such schemes can be considered a type of block multithreading among the user program thread and the interrupt threads.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: The purpose of Fine grained multithreading is to remove all data dependency stalls from the execution pipeline. Since one thread is relatively independent from other threads, there is less chance of one instruction in one pipelining stage needing an output from an older instruction in the pipeline. Conceptually, it is similar to preemptive multitasking used in operating systems; an analogy would be that the time slice given to each active thread is one CPU cycle.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: This type of multithreading was first called barrel processing, in which the staves of a barrel represent the pipeline stages and their executing threads. Interleaved, preemptive, fine-grained or time-sliced multithreading are more modern terminology.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: In addition to the hardware costs discussed in the block type of multithreading, interleaved multithreading has an additional cost of each pipeline stage tracking the thread ID of the instruction it is processing. Also, since there are more threads being executed concurrently in the pipeline, shared resources such as caches and TLBs need to be larger to avoid thrashing between the different threads.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: The most advanced type of multithreading applies to superscalar processors. Whereas a normal superscalar processor issues multiple instructions from a single thread every CPU cycle, in simultaneous multithreading (SMT) a superscalar processor can issue instructions from multiple threads every CPU cycle. Recognizing that any single thread has a limited amount of instruction-level parallelism, this type of multithreading tries to exploit parallelism available across multiple threads to decrease the waste associated with unused issue slots.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: To distinguish the other types of multithreading from SMT, the term "temporal multithreading" is used to denote when instructions from only one thread can be issued at a time.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: In addition to the hardware costs discussed for interleaved multithreading, SMT has the additional cost of each pipeline stage tracking the thread ID of each instruction being processed. Again, shared resources such as caches and TLBs have to be sized for the large number of active threads being processed.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Implementations include DEC (later Compaq) EV8 (not completed), Intel Hyper-Threading Technology, IBM POWER5/POWER6/POWER7/POWER8/POWER9, IBM z13/z14/z15, Sun Microsystems UltraSPARC T2, Cray XMT, and AMD Bulldozer and Zen microarchitectures.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: A major area of research is the thread scheduler that must quickly choose from among the list of ready-to-run threads to execute next, as well as maintain the ready-to-run and stalled thread lists. An important subtopic is the different thread priority schemes that can be used by the scheduler. The thread scheduler might be implemented totally in software, totally in hardware, or as a hardware/software combination.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: Another area of research is what type of events should cause a thread switch: cache misses, inter-thread communication, DMA completion, etc.


title: Multithreading (computer architecture)

text: If the multithreading scheme replicates all of the software-visible state, including privileged control registers and TLBs, then it enables virtual machines to be created for each thread. This allows each thread to run its own operating system on the same processor. On the other hand, if only user-mode state is saved, then less hardware is required, which would allow more threads to be active at one time for the same die area or cost.


title: Capri Sun

text: Capri Sun (, , stylized as CAPRISUN in the United States and Capri-Sun internationally) is a German brand of juice concentrate drinks owned by Capri Sun Group Holding in Germany, which is a privately held company of Hans-Peter Wild. It was introduced in 1969 and named after the Italian island of Capri. Capri Sun has been distributed in the United States since 1981. Kraft Heinz is a licensed production partner for North America. In the Netherlands, France, the UK, Belgium and Ireland, it is distributed by Coca-Cola Europacific Partners.


title: Capri Sun

text: The standard box is filled with ten pouches of liquid. In the U.S., Capri-Sun pouches are now ; previously they were . The pouch is trapezoidal in profile when filled and rectangular when flat, with a flared bottom that makes the pouch able to stand upright when placed on a horizontal surface. A straw is supplied with each individual pouch. Other sizes, such as the pouch with a re-sealable cap, are available in some countries.


title: Capri Sun

text: In 2014, after continued pressure to fix what consumers described as worm-shaped food mold in Capri Sun pouches, Kraft released a clear bottomed pouch to allow consumers to better inspect the product before consumption. Additionally, the non-recyclable packaging has spurred environmental groups to pressure Kraft into redesigning their iconic pouch.


title: Capri Sun

text: In August of 2022, Kraft Heinz announced a voluntary recall of approximately 5,760 cases of Capri Sun Wild Cherry because they were contaminated with diluted cleaning solution.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia–Serbia relations (, ) are the bilateral foreign relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Serbia.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The countries established official diplomatic relations as Russian Empire and Principality of Serbia in 1816. Russia has an honorary consulate in Belgrade, an embassy in Belgrade, and a liaison office to UNMIK in Pristina as Serbian province of Kosovo and Metohija. Serbia has an embassy in Moscow, an honorary consulate in St. Petersburg, and has announced to open a consulate-general in Yekaterinburg.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: While geographically not close, Serbia and Russia are both Slavic and Eastern Orthodox Christian countries and thus share distant and notable cultural heritage. Both countries were full members of the Council of Europe (until Russia's expulsion in 2022) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After the dissolution of the USSR, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia recognized Russia in December 1991 by the Decision of the Presidency on the recognition of the former republics of the USSR.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the USSR were established on 24 June 1940, and Serbia and the Russian Federation recognize the continuity of all inter-State documents signed between the two countries. There are about 70 bilateral treaties, agreements and protocols signed in the past. Serbia and the Russian Federation have signed and ratified 43 bilateral agreements and treaties in diverse areas of mutual cooperation so far.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: According to censuses, there were 3,247 ethnic Russians living in Serbia (2011) and 3,510 Serbs with Russian citizenship (2010).


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia and Serbia are both predominantly Slavic and Eastern Orthodox countries, which share a strong mutual cultural affinity. The countries have been close allies for centuries; and the friendship between them has been strongly maintained despite Serbia's recent attempt to maintain closer relations with the West.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After the Ottoman invasion of Serbia in the 14th century, Serbian refugees found refuge in Russia. Lazar the Serb (built the first mechanical public clock in Russia) and Pachomius the Serb (hagiographer and translator) were some of the notable Serbs in Russian medieval history. Elena Glinskaya (1510–1538), the mother of Russian emperor Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547–84), was maternally Serbian. The Orthodox worship of Saint Sava was established in Russia in the 16th century.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In the 1750s, in a re-settlement initiated by Austrian Colonel , a vast number of Orthodox Serbs, mostly from territories controlled by the Habsburg monarchy (the Serbian Grenzers), settled in Russia's military frontier region of New Serbia (with the centre in Novomirgorod, mainly in the territory of present-day Kirovohrad Oblast of Ukraine), as well as in Slavo-Serbia (now mainly the territory of the Luhansk Oblast of Ukraine). In 1764, both territorial entities were incorporated in Russia's Novorossiya Governorate.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After the Ottoman Empire had allied itself with Napoleon in late 1806, and was attacked by Russia and Britain, it sought to meet the demands of the Serbian rebels under Karađorđe. Russian diplomat and agent Konstantin Rodofinikin initially proposed that Serbia becomes a protectorate of the Russian Empire and that Russian garrisons be stationed in Serbia as well as a high representative which would oversee the affairs in the country. Karađorđe refused the proposition claiming that it would turn Serbia into a Russian province. At the same time, the Russians offered the Serbs aid and cooperation. The Serbs accepted the Russians′ offer over autonomy under the Ottomans (as set by the "Ičko's Peace") and signed an alliance with the Russian Empire in July 1807: Karađorđe was to receive arms, and military and medical missions; nevertheless the terms of Russo-Turkish settlement agreed in May 1812 effectively provided for Turkish re-occupation of Serbia, and the First Serbian Uprising was definitively suppressed in October 1813. The Second Serbian Uprising (April 1815 – July 1817) achieved Serbian autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, which was internationally recognised through the Russo-Turkish Akkerman Convention (October 1826, solemnly announced in the cathedral in Kragujevac in the presence of Prince Miloš Obrenović) and the Treaty of Adrianople (September 1829). Serbia was thus put under Russian protection, although Russia was unable to exert control as it did in Wallachia and Moldavia, territories also dealt with in the Akkerman Convention. Serbian autonomy was briefly abolished by the Ottoman sultan in 1828, then re-granted in 1829. Russian protection was recognized until abolition thereof in 1856, after the Russian defeat in the Crimean War.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In February 1838, in his residence in Kragujevac Prince Miloš Obrenović received the first Russian consul, Gerasim Vashchenko.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In June 1876, Serbia, along with the Principality of Montenegro, declared independence and war on the Ottoman Empire. The war eventually ended with Serbian victory in March 1878, while Russia had been involved in its own war with Turkey (April 1877 – March 1878), with the final settlement of both wars decided by the great powers at the Congress of Berlin (1878). The Treaty of Berlin (July 1878), whose deliberations and decisions were greatly influenced by Austria-Hungary′s Gyula Andrássy, recognised Serbia's independence, yet left Serbia's ruling class disgruntled at Russia, who was seen as favouring the newly established Principality of Bulgaria at the expense of Serbia. In line with Andrássy's idea that Vienna, in order to neutralise inimical irredentist tendencies, should establish close legally binding ties with all her neighbours with whom she had ethnic connections, Austria-Hungary, which bordered Serbia to the north (modern Vojvodina), and the west (Bosnia and Herzegovina), sought to integrate Serbia economically by concluding a series of trade conventions with her and pressured Milan Obrenović to enter into a comprehensive bilateral political treaty. In June 1881, Serbian Prince Milan Obrenović and Austria-Hungary concluded a secret convention that effectively turned Serbia into Vienna′s client state. In turn, Russia in the 1880s intensified her courtship of Montenegro. Prince Nikola I of Montenegro was a regular visitor to Saint Petersburg and was awarded the Russian Empire's highest decoration by Alexander III in 1889.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Serbia's People's Radical Party, which was founded by reputed Russophile Nikola Pašić in 1881 and gained parliament majority by 1891, sought to free the country of Austro-Hungarian dependence. Serbia was defeated in the war with Bulgaria in 1885, and the Bulgarian unification was internationally recognized. Meanwhile, tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary grew. Serbian pretensions in creating a South Slavic state (Yugoslavism as opposed to Austro-Slavism) put fear in Austria-Hungary of potential devastation of the Austro-Hungarian empire. On the other hand, Russia became increasingly disappointed in Bulgaria, where the rulers of the German dynasties, Alexander of Battenberg and from 1887 Ferdinand I, pursued policies that Russia opposed. The visit to Saint Petersburg of Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph and his conference with Nicholas II of Russia in 1897 heralded a secret agreement between the two empires to honour and seek to maintain the "status quo" in the Balkans, which was in line with Vienna's attempts to forestall an emergence of a large Slavic state in the region. The 1901 massacres of Serbs in Kosovo was instrumental in causing a diplomatic conflict between Austria-Hungary, which supported the Albanians, and Serbia, which was supported by Russia.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Serbian King Alexander I was assassinated in a coup d'état in 1903, which ushered in the extinction of Obrenović dynasty and return of the Russophile Karađorđević dynasty: the new political regime of prime minister Nikola Pašić under King Peter I Karađorđević re-orientated Serbia towards Russia. Serbia was supported by Russia in the economic Pig War (1906–08) with Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908; Russia did not interfere in the Bosnian crisis. The "National Defence" ("Narodna Odbrana") organization was founded following the annexation, and sought to liberate Serb territories from Austro-Hungarian rule.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: One of the factors that led to the beginning of World War I was close bilateral relations between the Kingdom of Serbia and the Russian Empire. While Russia and Serbia were not formally allied, Russia openly sought political and religious influence in Serbia. In May 1914, Serbian politics were polarized between two factions, one headed by the Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, and the other by the radical nationalist chief of Military Intelligence, Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević, known by his codename Apis. In that month, due to Colonel Dimitrijević's intrigues, King Peter dismissed Pašić's government, but the Russian Minister in Belgrade intervened to have Pašić's government restored. Pašić, though he often talked in public, knew that Serbia was near-bankrupt and, having suffered heavy casualties in the Balkan Wars and in the suppression of an Albanian revolt in Kosovo, needed peace. Since Russia also favoured peace in the Balkans, from the Russian viewpoint it was desirable to keep Pašić in power. However, the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand led Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia during the July Crisis. Russia mobilised its armed forces in late July ostensibly to defend Serbia, but also to maintain status as a Great Power, gain influence in the Balkans and deter Austria-Hungary and Germany. This led Germany to declare war on Russia on 1 August, ultimately expanding the local conflict into a world war.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: A few months after the Russian Revolution in November 1917, the Russian Civil War ensued, in which a small number of mercenaries from Yugoslavia fought for both the Russian Whites and the Bolsheviks. After the Civil War ended in 1922 in a Bolshevik victory, relations between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union remained frosty. It was not until June 1940 that the Kingdom of Yugoslavia formally recognised the USSR and established diplomatic relations, one of the last European countries to do so.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Since 1920, the government of the Kingdom of SHS welcomed tens of thousands of anti-Bolshevik Russian refugees, mainly those who fled after the final defeat of the Russian Army under General Pyotr Wrangel in Crimea in November 1920, explaining its hospitality by presenting it as paying back the debt Serbia owed Russia for the latter's intervention on the side of Serbia at the outbreak of WWI. The Kingdom of SHS became home for 40,000 exiles from the Russian Empire. In 1921, at the invitation of the Serbian Patriarch Dimitrije, the leadership of the Russian Church in exile moved from Constantinople to Serbia and in September 1922 in Karlovci (until 1920, the seat of the abolished Patriarchate of Karlovci) established a de facto independent ecclesiastical administration that a few years later was instituted as the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). The exiled Russian clergy's devotion and dedication to the Church was held up as an example by the churchpeople in Serbia. The ROCOR's Head Metropolitan Anthony Khrapovitsky was widely viewed as a spiritual leader of all the Russian émigrés until his death in 1936. Patriarch Varnava of Serbia (1930–1937) came to be a staunch defender and advocate of the Russian exiles in Yugoslavia and exerted constant pressure on the Royal Court and government to forestall any rapprochement and establishment of diplomatic relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. The Russian community in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was effectively in a privileged position in a number of ways, as it enjoyed support and protection on the part of the Karađorđević dynasty.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The Russian military servicemen under the command of Gen Pyotr Wrangel were partly enlisted into Yugoslavia's border guard troops and deployed on the country's south-eastern and later north-western border. This service was terminated by a law passed in April 1922 that abolished the border guard troops; in 1923–1924 Wrangel's men were engaged in a contract to build a road between Kraljevo and Raška.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: At the Genoa Conference in spring of 1922, there occurred a spat between Soviet Russia's delegation and that of the Kingdom of SHS over the absence of a delegation from Montenegro; a meeting between Georgy Chicherin and Momčilo Ninčić took place on the sidelines of the conference: the sides arrived at a pro forma agreement that the government of the Kingdom would prevent further activities of Russian émigrés in its territory. Nevertheless, Russian émigré activity continued apace: multiple Russian military officers′ associations were set up in Yugoslavia, which in 1924 were united under an umbrella council headed by the seniormost Russian generals and Georgiy Rozalion-Soshalsky. In 1924, a cavalry brigade staffed completely by Wrangel's men was formed under the command of Russian Gen Sergei Ulagay in order to overthrow Albania′s pro-Soviet Orthodox leader Fan Noli, who had seized power in June that year, and re-install Muslim Ahmet Zogu, which was carried out in December that year. On 1 September 1924, Gen Pyotr Wrangel founded the Russian All-Military Union (ROVS), until 1927 headquartered in Karlovci, a global organisation designed to unite all Russian military officers outside Russia. According to the data contained in the declassified UDBA study compiled in 1955, in 1934 ROVS's membership in Yugoslavia totaled 25.000 people. Department IV of ROVS (Yugoslavia) was established with headquarters in Belgrade, Gen Eduard Ekk heading it until 1933. Department IV was in constant liaison with Yugoslavia's Ministry of the Army and Navy.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The USSR's intelligence agencies were undertaking efforts to recruit agents in Yugoslavia from the early 1930s, including from among the White emigres such as , who was exposed and arrested by the Yugoslavian police in 1935.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In 1938, the Soviet government sponsored a planned coup d'état designed to remove the Stojadinović government, which was resented by Edvard Beneš, the president of Czechoslovakia, and establish an anti-German military regime: Soviet intelligence officer was given $200,000 in cash meant for the Serbian military officers selected by Czechs to execute the coup; the plan failed, as Zubov, after judging the Serbian officers to be unfit for the mission, refused to make advance payment.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: While Yugoslavia remained a monarchy, Communist elements in Yugoslavia retained some influence in the National Assembly (in December 1920, the government all Communist activities). Relations between Yugoslavian Communists and the officials of the Soviet Union were developed. Initial relations, however, remained tense. In 1937, for example, Stalin had the Secretary-General of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, Milan Gorkić, murdered in Moscow during the Great Purge.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: At the end of June 1940, the first Soviet ambassador (″polpred″, i.e. plenipotentiary representative) to Yugoslavia, , was appointed.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The March 1941 coup d'état against the pro-German government of Yugoslavia, while primarily backed by the UK government, was also actively supported by Soviet intelligence agencies, GRU and NKVD, following Stalin′s instructions, with a view to strengthening the USSR's strategic position in the Balkans. On 5 April 1941, the new government of Yugoslavia and the USSR signed the Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression, which did not commit the parties to military assistance in case of aggression.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: According to Soviet General Pavel Sudoplatov, the Soviet leadership was shocked by an instant defeat of Yugoslavia in April 1941, after Hitler reacted to the coup ″promptly and effectively″.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After Germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the USSR began to assist the military campaign of Communist partisans led by Tito; and from the autumn of 1944 regular Red Army troops directly participated in battles in cooperation with the Partisans, especially in the territories of present-day Serbia. The most notable of these battles in which Soviet soldiers fought in Serbian territories was the Belgrade Offensive.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The ROVS′ Department IV (Yugoslavia) was the only regional branch of the Russian All-Military Union that made a decision to side with Germany against the USSR and ROVS participated in forming the Russian Protective Corps () that was established in Serbia in September 1941. The Russian Corps was engaged in guarding important sites and also combating the Communist partisans led by Tito.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After the war ended in May 1945, King Peter II was not allowed to return to Yugoslavia; in November 1945 he was formally deposed by Yugoslavia's Communist Constituent Assembly with the state reorganised as a republic and renamed "Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia" (FPR Yugoslavia or FPRY; from 1963 "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", or SFRY). Initially, Yugoslavia's Communist regime under Josip Broz Tito was loyal to Joseph Stalin′s Kremlin. The latter wanted Yugoslavia to become a member of the USSR-led block of Communist countries. However, Tito eventually rejected Stalin's pressure and in 1950s became one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement, which was regarded as the third way, neither adhering to the U.S.-led NATO, nor joining the Moscow-dominated Warsaw Pact.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: As early as on 11 April 1945, the USSR concluded a friendship treaty with Josip Tito, who put signature on behalf of the Regent Council of Yugoslavia.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In the first two years following the war, relations between FPRY and the Soviet leadership, which during that period sought to accommodate the USSR's Western allies demands in Europe, were not entirely free of disagreements on a number of issues, such as Yugoslavia's territorial claims to Italy's Free Territory of Trieste and the part of Austria's Carinthia populated by Carinthian Slovenes, Tito's efforts to play a leading role in the entire Balkans region, as well as over Stalin's reluctance to decisively support the Greek Communists in the Greek Civil War, who were actively supported by Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Albania. Drastic deterioration in relations occurred in early 1948. In June 1948, Tito did not attend the second conference of the Cominform, which was established on the initiative of the USSR in September 1947 as a coordinating body for Communist parties in the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Italy, France, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The conference, on the motion of the VKP(B), was mostly dedicated to the discussion of the situation in the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. On 28 June 1948, the other member countries adopted a resolution that noted that ″recently the leadership of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had pursued an incorrect line on the main questions of home and foreign policy, a line which represents a departure from Marxism-Leninism″; the resolution concluded by stating, ″the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia has placed itself and the Yugoslav Party outside the family of the fraternal Communist Parties, outside the united Communist front and consequently outside the ranks of the Information Bureau.″ The assumption in Moscow was that once it was known that he had lost Soviet approval, Tito would collapse. The expulsion effectively banished Yugoslavia from the international association of socialist states, while other socialist states of Eastern Europe subsequently underwent purges of alleged "Titoists". Stalin took the matter personally and attempted, unsuccessfully, to assassinate Tito on several occasions.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The following year, the crisis nearly escalated into an armed conflict, as Hungarian and Soviet forces were massing on the northern Yugoslav frontier. In May 1949, the Ministry of foreign affairs of Yugoslavia formally protested against the support rendered by the USSR to a group of Yugoslav citizens who had formed a committee in Moscow in early April to promote ″unfriendly activity against the FPRY" (the ministry's note of 23 May 1949). The Soviet response dated 31 May 1949 asserted the USSR's right to offer asylum to "Yugoslav revolutionary emigrants″ and stated that Yugoslavia′s government ″had forfeited the right to expect a friendly attitude″ from the USSR, as it had established an ″anti-Communist and anti-democratic terrorist regime″ in Yugoslavia and was fighting against the Soviet Union. On 19 November 1949, the Kominform adopted another resolution on the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, which stated that the CPY had been hijacked by a group of ″murderers and spies" and declared that fighting against the "Tito gang" was a duty of all communist and workers′ parties.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After Stalin's death, relations underwent normalisation heralded by the signing of the Belgrade declaration in June 1955, which expressly rescinded Stalin's policies towards Yugoslavia. Nevertheless, the SFRY never joined the USSR-led political and military block of socialist countries and remained one of the leading members of the Non-Aligned Movement, a grouping of countries that sought to be neutral in the Cold War. However, Yugoslav government's permission to Soviet Air Force to fly over the country, allowed Soviet Union to send advisors, weapons and troops to Egypt between Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. Economic and cultural ties between the USSR and SFRY developed successfully until the late 1980s.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The breakup of Yugoslavia and the dissolution of the Soviet Union occurred nearly concurrently. Throughout the 1990s, FR Yugoslavia was hard hit with sanctions from the western world; meanwhile Russia was undergoing painful structural reforms that were accompanied by a in production until 1999. Relations between the countries were largely neglected until the spring 1999.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In 1998, the Kosovo War began, followed by break-up of relations between Yugoslavia and the West and to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, which Russia strongly condemned. In March 1999, Russian president Boris Yeltsin described NATO's military action against sovereign Yugoslavia as an ″open aggression″. Russia condemned NATO at the United Nations and supported the statement that NATO air strikes on Serbia were an illegal military action. Volunteers and mercenaries from Russia were cited to have gone to Kosovo in large numbers to fight the KLA, and to resist and complicate NATO operations. Around the time of the bombing, a Russia-friendly rhetoric developed in the Serbian political team as Borislav Milošević, the brother of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav ambassador to Moscow at the time, proposed that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia could join the Union State which is composed by Belarus and Russia.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: After Vladimir Putin became the President of Russia with the start of year 2000, months after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, relations between the countries began to gain momentum. Following the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, the new President of Yugoslavia Vojislav Koštunica paid a visit to Putin in October 2000.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In January 2008, a major deal was struck between Moscow and Belgrade that by the end of the year transferred 51 percent of Serbia's oil and gas company Naftna Industrija Srbije (NIS) to Russia's Gazprom Neft (a subsidiary of Gazprom) in exchange for 400 million Euros and 550 mln Euros of investments; later Gazprom increased its stake in NIS to 56,5 percent.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In April 2012, Ivica Dačić, then Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia and the Minister of Internal Affairs of Serbia, and Vladimir Puchkov, Deputy Minister of Emergency Situations of Russia, opened the Russian-Serbian Humanitarian Center in Niš, an intergovernmental nonprofit organization. While Serbia has intensive military cooperation with NATO (Serbia's military-to-military cooperation with the U.S. being much bigger than with Russia) and in early 2016 the Serbian parliament ratified an agreement that granted NATO staff freedom of movement in the Serbian territory and diplomatic immunity, the Serbian government has refused to grant similar status to the Russian-Serbian Humanitarian Center in Niš.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The visit to Russia by Serbia's president Aleksandar Vučić in December 2017 was hailed by "Politika" as a symbolic ending of ″decades of stagnation in relations″. In November 2019 Serbian security services revealed activities of Russian intelligence operatives who were meeting and passing money to Serbian army officials.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Serbia did not impose sanctions on Russia following the crisis in Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea in 2014.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: On 25 February 2022, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Vučić stated that while Serbia felt it was wrong to violate the territorial integrity of Ukraine, it also felt that it was not in Serbia's interest to impose sanctions against Russia. In March 2022 the People's Patrol, a far-right anti-immigrant and vigilante group, held a rally in support of Russia in Belgrade, attended by thousands of pro-Russia Serbs, a few days later, on 21 March, a protest against Russia's war on Ukraine took place in the capital of Serbia, it was the second reported pro-Ukraine demonstration since the start of the war, with the first one organised by peace activists and Russians living in Serbia. In the next month more demonstrations in support of Ukraine were held.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In March, Serbia voted in favour of the UN's resolution condemning Russian attack on Ukraine. In April 2022, Serbia voted in favour of expelling Russia from the United Nations Human Rights Council.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia has backed Serbia's position regarding Kosovo. Vladimir Putin said that any support for Kosovo's unilateral declaration is immoral and


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: illegal. He described the recognition of Kosovo's unilaterally declared independence by several major world powers as "a terrible precedent" that "breaks up the entire system of international relations" that have taken "centuries to evolve", and "undoubtedly, it may entail a whole chain of unpredictable consequences to other regions in the world" that will come back to hit the West "in the face". During an official state visit to Serbia following the declaration, Russian President-elect Dmitry Medvedev reiterated support for Serbia and its stance on Kosovo.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia has also said that the March 2008 riots in Tibet were linked with the recognition by some states of the independence of Serbia's breakaway province, Kosovo. Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, in an interview with a Russian newspaper, also linked the demands for greater autonomy by ethnic Albanians in Macedonia (Today North Macedonia) with the Kosovo issue. Lavrov said, "There are grounds to presume that this is not occurring by chance. You can see what is happening in Tibet, how the separatists there are acting. The Albanians in Macedonia are already demanding a level of autonomy that is a clear step toward independence. Furthermore, events in other areas of the world give us grounds to assume that we are only at the beginning of a very precarious process".


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: On 23 March 2008 Vladimir Putin ordered urgent humanitarian aid for Kosovo Serb enclaves. Prime Minister of Kosovo, Hashim Thaci, opposed the Russian plan for sending aid to Kosovo Serbs. He stated that Russia could only send aid if it was agreed and coordinated with Government in Pristina.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: On July 15, President Dmitry Medvedev stated in a major foreign policy speech "For the EU, Kosovo is almost what Iraq is to the United States... This is the latest example of the undermining of international law".


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: On 29 May 2009, President Dmitry Medvedev described Serbia as a "key partner" for Russia in Southeast Europe and announced "We intend to continue to coordinate our foreign policy moves in future, including the ones related to the solving of the issue with Kosovo".


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russian ambassador to Serbia Aleksandr Konuzin told a Belgrade daily in June 2009 that "Russia's stand is rather simple — we are ready to back whatever position Serbia takes (with regards to Kosovo)."


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Although Russia is antagonistic to Kosovo's independence, nonetheless Russia has supported Donald Trump-brokered normalization agreements between Kosovo and Serbia in 2020.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In 2016, trade between Russia and Serbia totalled $1.657 bn, having grown by 1,32 percent against 2015; Russia's export to Serbia totalled $770.2 mln, a decrease by 9.34 percent; Russia's import from Serbia was at $886.8 mln, an increase by 12.84 percent.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In 2017, 70 percent of Russia's export to Serbia was said to be hydrocarbons, natural gas being the primary export item; from 2013 to 2016 exports of Russian gas to Serbia dropped from 2 bn to 1.7 billion cubic meters. In 2013, Gazprom offered a 13 percent discount on its gas export price for Serbia, to be effective until 2021.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In December 2017, Russia cancelled the requirement for Serbia to consume its gas only on the domestic market, thus allowing Serbia to re-export the fuel; a Russian government document published on 18 December amended the 2012 contract for gas supplies until 2021 for the volume of 5 billion cubic meters per year.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Naftna Industrija Srbije, the best performing company of Serbia, is majority owned by the Russian company Gazprom Neft, a subsidiary of the government-controlled Gazprom.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia and Serbia have shared a visa-free policy for travelers going between the two countries since 2008.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The Serbian Armed Forces and its arms industry have since the Soviet-Yugoslavia period been dependent on Soviet/Russian technology.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In June 2016, Serbia received two Russian Mi17 utility helicopters that it purchased for 25 million euros.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In December 2016, the two countries signed a military-technical assistance agreement that allowed Serbia to receive as a gift: six Mikoyan MiG-29 fighters, 30 modernized T-72 main battle tanks and 30 BRDM-2 armored vehicles. The fighters were delivered in October 2017, the armored vehicles are expected to be delivered in 2018.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Russia supplies three-kilogram radio-electronic counter gun Pishchal (also being supplied to the Russian law enforcement agencies) and fixed radio-electronic complexes Taran to Serbia and South Ossetia in 2018.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Serbia takes part in Russo-Belarus-Serbian military war games called 'Slavic Brotherhood' and is also being supplied with Chaborz M-3 combat buggies. 3 weapons contracts were signed in early 2019.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: In recent years, the military cooperation between Serbia and Russia has grown stronger. Since the beginning of 2022, Serbia has purchased multiple pieces of Russian military hardware, such as the Pantsir-S1 air defense system and 9M133 Kornet anti-tank missiles, despite the threat of US sanctions.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: Yugoslavia and the Russian Federation signed the Agreement on cooperation in the Fields of Culture, Education, Science and Sports on July 19, 1995. Based on this, the Program of Cooperation in the Areas of Education, Science and Culture was signed in December 2001 for the period 2002–04. The Days of Culture of the Russian Federation were held in Serbia and Montenegro in 2002 and those of Serbia and Montenegro in the Russian Federation in 2003.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: The Russian Centre for Science and Culture in Belgrade opened on April 9, 1933. Popular name of the centre is "Russian Home".


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: According to censuses there were 3,247 Russians living in Serbia (2011) and 3,510 Serbs living in Russia (2010). There were 11,043 speakers of Serbian language in Russia, out of which 3,330 were native speakers and 3,179 native speakers of Russian in Serbia. According to 2015 data there were 29,499 Serbian citizens in Russia. According to 2013 data there were 3,290 Russian citizens in Serbia.


title: Russia–Serbia relations

text: One of the most successful and prestigious hotels in Belgrade, Hotel Moskva is named after Russia's capital. It has been on separate occasions the host to Anatoly Karpov, Mikhail Kalashnikov, Maxim Gorky, and many other prominent Russians.


title: Indian Railways coaching stock

text: Indian Railways offers various travel classes on their coaches. Depending upon their travel class, the passenger cars feature different seating arrangements or berths subject to availability.


title: Indian Railways coaching stock

text: Seater train coaches have no berths, and only the seater coaches(EA, EC, CC, 2S) are classified into three types, which are:


title: Indian Railways coaching stock

text: Middle and Aisle seats are not mentioned in the train ticket. Only Window Side (WS) seats are mentioned in the ticket.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The "Pennsylvania" class consisted of two super-dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy just before the First World War. The ships were named and , after the American states of the same names. They constituted the United States' second battleship design to adhere to the "all or nothing" armor scheme, and were the newest American capital ships when the United States entered the First World War.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The s represented a marked increase in the United States' dreadnought technology, and the "Pennsylvania" class was intended to continue this with slight increases in the ships' capabilities, including two additional /45 caliber guns and improved underwater protection. The class was the second standard type battleship class to join the US Navy, along with the preceding "Nevada" and the succeeding , and classes.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: In service, the "Pennsylvania" class saw limited use in the First World War, as a shortage of oil fuel in the United Kingdom meant that only the coal-burning ships of Battleship Division Nine were sent. Both were sent across the Atlantic to France after the war for the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, and were then transferred to the Pacific Fleet before being significantly modernized from 1929 to 1931. For the remainder of the inter-war period, the ships were used in exercises and fleet problems. Both "Pennsylvania" and "Arizona" were present during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which brought the United States into the Second World War. "Arizona" was sunk by a massive magazine explosion and was turned into a memorial after the war, while "Pennsylvania", in dry dock at the time, received only minor damage. After a refit from October 1942 to February 1943, "Pennsylvania" went on to serve as a shore bombardment ship for most of the remainder of the war. "Pennsylvania" was present at the Battle of Surigao Strait, the last battle ever between battleships, but did not engage. "Pennsylvania" was severely damaged by a torpedo on 12 August 1945, two days before the cessation of hostilities. With minimal repairs, it was used in Operation Crossroads, part of the nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll, before being expended as a target ship in 1948.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The preceding "Nevada"-class battleships represented a leap forward from previous American battleship technology and from most contemporary foreign designs. They were the first in the world to employ the "all or nothing" armor scheme that characterized every succeeding American battleship. Devised with the knowledge that engagement ranges between battle fleets was growing greater as main battery sizes increased, the system moved away from previous designs that used heavy, medium, and light armor, in favor of using only heavy armor to protect vital areas on the ship. The new system envisioned that, at long ranges, ships would be attacked with only armor-piercing (AP) projectiles, stoppable only by heavy armor. Medium or light armor would only serve to detonate the shells. By removing gun turrets and reducing the overall protected length of the ship, the navy's designers were able to devote the weight savings to the belt, as well as extra deck armor to protect against plunging shells.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: In issuing desired specifications for the design that would become the "Nevada" class, the Navy's General Board asked for triple gun turrets, "i.e.", three guns mounted per turret. They were very unsatisfied with the awkward placement required on classes preceding the "Nevada"s, which had five and six two-gun turrets—yet moving back to the four two-gun turrets of the would be a significant loss in firepower. Although a triple turret was first proposed in American professional magazines in 1901 and briefly considered for the "South Carolina"s, it was not even in the experimental stage—the first turret was authorized in 1911 and would not be ready until months after contracts for the new ships would be signed with the shipbuilders. The decision to go ahead with the turret was a calculated gamble, but proved to be a qualified success; the only issue came with shell interference when the center and outside guns were fired simultaneously, which was easily solved by delaying the firing of the center barrel by a small fraction of a second. Moreover, there was a major benefit in weight thanks to the accompanying loss of an armored barbette and turret. These weight savings were applied to the armor protection, making the "all or nothing" concept a reality.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The "Nevada"s were also the first American battleships to use exclusively oil fuel, which had greater thermal efficiency than firing with coal or coal sprayed with oil. The cumulative effect of the change was measured by the navy as a fifty-five percent increase in steam production per pound of fuel (in a design for an oil-fired version of the ). This would give oil-fired vessels additional range, an important consideration for ships based in the Pacific, but the Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) pointed out what it saw as the unfortunate side effects, including a lower center of gravity, higher metacentric height, and the loss of coal bunkers, which were employed as part of the armor protection. Within a few years oil tanks below the waterline were considered indispensable parts of the underwater armor scheme employed in American dreadnoughts.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The General Board's call for a new 1913 fiscal year battleship design was sent in June 1911 with the recent "Nevada" innovations in mind. They desired a ship with a main battery of twelve 14-inch guns in triple turrets, a secondary battery of twenty-two guns, a speed of , and armor equivalent to that of the "Nevada"s. The US Navy Bureau of Construction and Repair's (C&R) first sketch was unsatisfactory; their lengthy design of and actually had less armor than the "Nevada"s, with a belt.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The design process was marked by various efforts to meet the General Board's specifications with only a moderate increase in tonnage over the "Nevada" class. Between January and March 1912, thirteen sketches were prepared for consideration by C&R with reciprocating or turbine engines that traded either speed or metacentric height for armor. Some later designs gave up a half knot of speed to free up about , enough to thicken the belt from and the barbettes to 14 inches. The choice between double or triple turrets was also still an issue, as the "Nevada" class had not been completed yet. The Bureau of Ordnance was in favor of waiting for test results, rather than risking reverting to two-gun 14-inch turrets or moving up to two-gun 16-inch turrets.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: In March 1912, C&R proposed their seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth designs to the General Board for approval. The eighth and ninth designs were the ones to give up a half knot of speed, while the tenth was a design with four triple turrets and lighter than the "Nevada"-class ships. In April, the General Board chose the seventh design, which satisfied all of their requirements, albeit on the largest displacement, . The length was fixed at , the beam at , and the draft at . Steam turbines gave the design and 21 knots, while the main armor belt was 13.5 inches tapering to at the ends. This design was further refined and emerged in a completed state in September. The delay was partially due to tests on the proposed armor, which were completed in June 1912 and resulted in significant alterations to the "Pennsylvania"-class' underwater protection.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The "Pennsylvania"-class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors, the "Nevada" class. They had a waterline length of , an overall length of , a beam of (at the waterline), and a draft of at deep load. This was longer than the older ships. Its designed standard and full load displacements were and , respectively, but they actually displaced standard and at full load, over more than the older ships. The class had a metacentric height of at full load.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The ships had four direct drive Parsons steam turbine sets with geared cruising turbines, each of which drove a propeller in diameter. They were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , but only achieved during "Pennsylvania"s sea trials, when it slightly exceeded its designed speed of . "Pennsylvania" reached during full-power trials in 1916, and "Arizona" reached in September 1924. The class was designed to normally carry of fuel oil, but had a maximum capacity of . At full capacity, they could steam at a speed of for an estimated ; this could be extended to with a clean bottom. They had four turbo generators.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The "Pennsylvania" class carried twelve 14-inch/45 caliber guns in triple gun turrets. The guns could not elevate independently and were limited to a maximum elevation of +15° which gave them a maximum range of . The ships carried 100 shells for each gun. Defense against torpedo boats was provided by twenty-two 5-inch/51 caliber guns mounted in individual casemates in the sides of the hull; these proved vulnerable to sea spray and could not be worked in heavy seas. At an elevation of 15°, they had a maximum range of . Each gun was provided with 230 rounds of ammunition. The ships mounted four /50 caliber anti-aircraft (AA) guns, although only two were fitted when completed. The other pair were added shortly afterward on top of Turret III. The class also mounted two submerged torpedo tubes and carried 24 Bliss-Leavitt Mark 3 torpedoes for them.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The "Pennsylvania"-class design continued the all-or-nothing principle of armoring only the most important areas of the battleships, which began in the preceding "Nevada" class. The waterline armor belt of Krupp armor measured 13.5 inches thick and only covered the class' machinery spaces and magazines. It had a total height of , of which was below the waterline; beginning below the waterline, the belt tapered to its minimum thickness of 8 inches. The transverse bulkheads at each end of the ships ranged from 13 to 8 inches in thickness. The faces of the gun turrets were thick while the sides were thick and the turret roofs were protected by 5 inches of armor. The armor of the barbettes was thick. The conning tower was protected by of armor and had a roof eight inches thick.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The main armor deck was three plates thick with a total thickness of 3 inches; over the steering gear the armor increased to in two plates. Beneath it was the splinter deck that ranged from in thickness. The boiler uptakes were protected by a conical mantlet that ranged from in thickness. A 3-inch torpedo bulkhead was placed inboard from the side, and the class was provided with a complete double bottom. Testing in mid-1914 revealed that this system could withstand of TNT.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The authorization for the two "Pennsylvania"-class ships faced political opposition for being too weak and expensive. Senator Benjamin Tillman believed that a much more capable warship was needed because of the shocking increase in battleship size over the previous few years—between 1907 (the ) and 1912, the displacement of American battleships increased by about fifty percent, from around to 30,000 long tons. Tillman proposed a "maximum battleship" in a Senate resolution in July 1912, which was adopted unanimously:


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Resolved": That the Committee on Naval Affairs [is] instructed to investigate and report to the Senate ... the object being to find out from official sources the maximum size and maximum draft, the maximum armament, and the maximum armor to make the best battleship or cruiser the world has ever seen or ever will see; to have this country own the greatest marine engine of war ever constructed or ever to be constructed under known conditions; and to report whether one such overpowering vessel would not in its judgement be better for this country to build than to continue by increasing taxation to spend the millions and millions of dollars now in prospect in the race for naval supremacy. ... Let us leave some money in the Treasury for other more necessary and useful expenditures, such as good roads, controlling the floods in the Mississippi, draining swamp land in the South, and irrigating the arid land in the West. (S 361, 62nd Cong., 2nd sess.)


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: Tillman's proposal was, in his own words, treated as a "joke"; the "Advocate of Peace" stated that "it is nearly impossible to read this ... without having an inextinguishable bout of laughter." Still, C&R published multiple studies of a battleship unconstrained by cost, although none of them approached Tillman's ideal. The first design submitted by C&R was a severely enlarged "Nevada", or a ship with twelve 14-inch guns, belt armor, and a maximum speed of for a price of $19.5 million. A later sketch dropped the speed to to see the effect on displacement and cost, which it dropped to and $17 million, respectively, and the consequent shortening of the ship would allow it to enter the dry docks in New York and Norfolk. Tillman was concerned with this speed, and another study increased the speed to , trading it for four guns, or one-third of the main battery, and much of the armor.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: Other politicians in Congress also had concerns with the navy's plans. The House of Representatives refused to fund any new battleships for the fiscal year 1913, though the Senate would fund two in its comparable bill. They eventually compromised on one, and the battleship that would become "Pennsylvania" was authorized on 22 August 1912. The ship's plans were given to prospective builders on 20 December; bids were opened on 18 February 1913; and the contract was awarded to the lowest bidder, Newport News, on 27 February 1913 at the quoted price of $7,260,000 without armor or armament. The independent bidding process led the navy to claim $750,000 in savings, but the final cost actually came in at $7,800,000 ($15,000,000 with armor and armament).


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Arizona" was the one approved battleship for the fiscal year 1914. Secretary of the Navy George von Lengerke Meyer had requested three battleships for that fiscal year, citing the former policy of building two per year, plus an additional ship to make up for authorizing only "Pennsylvania" in the previous year, but congressional compromises once again approved only one new battleship. "Arizona" was authorized on 4 March 1913, but to avoid a lengthy delay between the two, the ship was ordered much more quickly, on 24 June, by giving the contract to a navy-owned shipyard.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Pennsylvania" was laid down on 27 October 1913, with goals of fourteen months until launch, and thirty-two until completion. The as-yet unnamed "Arizona" was laid down on the morning of 16 March 1914 with Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt in attendance, and the builders intended to set a world-record ten months between keel-laying and launch, These ambitious goals—"Pennsylvania"s anticipated completion date was a full two months earlier than the American record—were set by Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, who wanted the United States to compete with British and German achievements.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: The constructors were not able to meet these goals. "Pennsylvania" was launched on 16 March 1915, a full seventeen months after keel-laying, when it was just over two-thirds complete. "Arizona" was launched on 19 June 1915, about fifteen months after keel laying, when it weighed about . Movie cameras were used to film the launch to provide data for future launches. After their launches, both ships went through the necessary fitting-out period and sea trials. On "Pennsylvania"s trials, the ship attained a top speed of , averaged , and was also able to steam for twelve hours at in winds. These attributes pleased the Navy's Board of Inspection, but "Scientific American" lamented the ship's low speed compared to the Italian s, Russian s, and British s, which they (somewhat inaccurately) stated had top speeds of 22.5, 23, and 25 knots, respectively. "Pennsylvania" was commissioned on 12 June 1916, its sister ship followed on 17 October 1916.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Pennsylvania" and "Arizona" were commissioned during the First World War, but prior to the United States' entry on the side of the Allies. During their first year, the ships were cleaned and readied for full active duty. "Pennsylvania" became the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet on 12 October 1916. "Arizona" first fired its main guns on 23 December, but issues with a stripped turbine kept the ship almost exclusively in the New York Navy Yard from December 1916 to March 1917. Both ships were based in the United States for the duration of the war, owing to a shortage of fuel oil in the United Kingdom, and only the coal-burning battleships of Battleship Division Nine were sent across the Atlantic. It was only after the armistice in 1918 that both "Pennsylvania"-class battleships were sent to Europe. "Arizona" departed first, leaving on 18 November and arriving in Portsmouth in the United Kingdom on the 30th. "Pennsylvania" escorted the American President Woodrow Wilson's transport, , across the Atlantic for the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. In 1921 and 1922, during the inter-war period, both ships took part in a mission to Peru and were transferred to the Pacific Fleet.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Pennsylvania" and "Arizona" were given extensive modernizations from 1929 through 1931; the expenditure came in the fiscal year 1930. As part of the rebuilding, "Pennsylvania", which had been designed as a fleet flagship, had its conning tower expanded. Aside from that, "Pennsylvania" and "Arizona" received similar treatment: the elevation of the main batteries was increased to °, new fire control systems on tripod masts were added, the secondary armament and directors were replaced and overhauled, eight 5-inch/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns (four per side) were mounted on the weather deck which was above the secondary anti-ship 5-inch gun battery, and their bridges were enlarged to hold elevated anti-aircraft directors. Armor additions were comparatively minimal beyond anti-torpedo bulges, which were standard additions on all major warships in this period: of armor were added to the second armored deck, and a torpedo bulkhead was added to the engine room. The propulsion system of the two "Pennsylvania"s received perhaps the most attention. The boiler system was entirely replaced with six small-tube boilers and new turbines, the latter partially from the cancelled battleship . The new machinery allowed the ships to come close to their old design speed of , even with the added bulk of bulges: "Pennsylvania" made 20.89 knots and "Arizona" 20.7 knots on full-power trials.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: After their modernization, both ships participated in the normal activities of the fleet, including fleet problem exercises, and then joined the entire Pacific Fleet in their new base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, after the beginning of the Second World War in Europe. Two years later, on 7 December 1941, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor sank "Arizona" in a tremendous explosion and slightly damaged "Pennsylvania", which was in dry dock at the time. "Arizona"s wreck was later partly salvaged and is now a war memorial.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: "Pennsylvania" came back into service more quickly than many of the other battleships present during the attack; it left on 20 December and was under repair in San Francisco until 30 March 1942. For the next several months, "Pennsylvania" was stationed on the United States' West Coast, before being reassigned to Pearl Harbor as the fleet flagship for a short time (August to October). After another refit in San Francisco, which lasted until February 1943, the ship was sent to assist American forces engaged in the Aleutian Islands Campaign. During this time, "Pennsylvania" was nearly hit by a torpedo from , which was later sunk.


title: Pennsylvania-class battleship

text: For the next year, "Pennsylvania" provided shore bombardment during the Battles of Makin, Kwajalein, Eniwetok, and Saipan, along with the Palau Islands Campaign. The ship also participated in the landings on Leyte and the Battle of Leyte Gulf. During this time, "Pennsylvania" was present at the last battle ever between battleships, the Battle of Surigao Strait. The ship did not fire any salvos because the Japanese vessels were turned away or sunk at long range, beyond "Pennsylvania"s outdated fire control but within range of other, radar-directed battleships.