title: Anna Netrebko

text: On 2 April 2011, she sang the title role of Gaetano Donizetti's "Anna Bolena" at the Vienna State Opera for a sold-out premiere there, and the repeat performance on 5 April 2011 was broadcast live to cinemas around the world. On 7 December 2011, she opened the new season at La Scala in Milan, making her house debut, as Donna Anna in "Don Giovanni". She has the distinction of being invited to appear in three consecutive opening night new productions at the Metropolitan Opera: "Anna Bolena" in 2011, "L'elisir d'amore" in 2012, and "Eugene Onegin" in 2013. Her performance as Lady Macbeth in the Metropolitan's 2014 fall season's production of "Macbeth", a revival of Adrian Noble's 2007 production, drew critical praise and demonstrated her voice is still expanding in range and volume. She continued her expansion into heavier Verdi roles at the Met the following year, singing the role of Leonora in "Il trovatore" to acclaim from both critics and audiences.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: She participated in the gala concert inaugurating the Mariinsky Theatre Second Stage on 2 May 2013. She was invited to perform the Olympic Anthem, in Russian, at the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In April 2016, Netrebko announced her withdrawal from productions of Bellini's "Norma" at the Royal Opera House's 2016/17 season and the Metropolitan Opera's 2017/18 season due to the change in her voice. The vacancies were filled respectively by Sonya Yoncheva and Sondra Radvanovsky.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: She then made her debut as Elsa in "Lohengrin" at the Semperoper in Dresden, and then went to Saint Petersburg for the same role at the Mariinsky Theatre.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: She made several role debuts in 2017, including the title role of "Adriana Lecouvreur" at Mariinsky Theatre in June, the title role of "Aida" at Salzburg Festival in August, and Maddalena in "Andrea Chénier" at La Scala in December. In 2018, she debuted as Tosca at the Metropolitan Opera in April and performed at the Summer Night Concert Schönbrunn on 31 May.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In 2018, she performed in both gala concerts at the Red Square on 13 June and at the Bolshoi Theatre on 14 July, respectively commemorating the opening and closing of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On 8 September 2018 she took part in the inauguration gala concert of Zaryadye Concert Hall in Moscow, which was streamed on Medici.tv. In February 2019, she opened the 2019 Vienna Opera Ball. She was featured in the opening ceremony of 2019 European Games in Minsk on 21 June and inaugurated the first concert season of the Congress Hall at the Yekaterinburg Expo on 30 August 2019.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In June 2020 Netrebko performed highlights from Verdi's "Don Carlo" in reduced concert form at the Semperoper as part of its "Aufklang!" series which reopened the theatre after the first COVID-19 lockdown in Germany. She went on debuting at the Teatro di San Carlo in Naples for semi-staged "Tosca" with her husband and Ludovic Tézier. In September 2020 she had to self-isolate after her co-star in "Don Carlo" at the Bolshoi Theatre, Ildar Abdrazakov, was tested positive for COVID-19. She was soon hospitalised in Moscow, being treated for COVID-19-related pneumonia for about a week.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: On 26 February 2022, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Netrebko released a statement in which she voiced her opposition to the warfare but also expressed disagreement on forcing one to voice one's political opinion. Despite her statement, she faced pressure from performance institutions for failing to distance from Russian president Vladimir Putin. On 1 March 2022, she shared she would "retire from concert life until further notice". Immediately prior to her announcement, she withdrew from opera productions in Milan and Zürich, while the Bavarian State Opera cancelled existing engagements with both her and Valery Gergiev. Two days later, the Metropolitan Opera removed her from the upcoming "Turandot" and "Don Carlo" in the next season. Berlin State Opera and Festspielhaus Baden-Baden also cancelled her appearances, with the latter not ruling out future cooperation. Finn McRedmond of "The Irish Times" commented such "Wholesale boycott of Russia" would be "a dangerous departure from Western values", in reference to Netrebko's exclusion.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: On 30 March 2022, Netrebko released another statement, where she announced plans to resume her public performances from May 2022, and repeated her condemnation of the war in Ukraine, distancing herself from Putin"."


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko was denounced as a traitor of the Russian State after her second statement on 30 March 2022. Her Russian performances were cancelled while a Duma deputy suggested that she resign from her Russian titles. Mathias Schulz later announced that he had been contacting Netrebko about performances scheduled in 2023.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In June 2022, Netrebko filed a labor grievance against the Met with the assistance of the American Guild of Musical Artists.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In April 2022, Netrebko came back on stage in Monte-Carlo as Manon Lescaut, where she stepped in for the ailing Maria Agresta. She was unanimously praised for her performance, which was called "triumphant".


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In May 2022, she received "triumphal" welcomes and ovations from audiences for her official comeback on stage in Philharmonie de Paris and Teatro alla Scala.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: During summer 2022, she sang Aida (Verdi) and Turandot (Puccini) in Arena di Verona. She was praised by critics as "superlative" or "masterful" for the first one, and was acclaimed for her vocal and acting interpretations for the second one. Her name was applaused by the audience during the cast announcement. Between these performances, she sang some concerts, including in the program arias from Roméo et Juliette, Anna Bolena or The Queen of Spades, showing her vocal range.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In September 2022, she opened the season of the Wiener Staatsoper, singing Mimi in La Bohème. Around twenty people protested against her performance outside the opera and at her entrance, few protesters occupied the famous standing places, and booed her, while she was widely applauded by the rest of the audience. Critics praised her performance and noted that the booing was totally unjustified and ultimately covered by ovations at the end of the performance. The last performance of La bohème took place on her birthday and was broadcast on ORF3, press calling it another triumph.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko has often performed the titular character in "Aida", an Ethiopian princess, with face-darkening makeup, including her role debut at the Salzburg Festival in 2017, and at the Metropolitan Opera in 2018—despite the opera company's 2015 pledge to eliminate the use of face-darkening makeup in its productions. In June 2019 she defended such choice in the comments under her Instagram post for a performance.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In July 2022, Netrebko and the Arena di Verona Festival faced heavy criticism for performing in blackface, following the release of publicity photos for a performance of "Aida". Subsequently, American soprano Angel Blue canceled her upcoming performances of "La traviata" at the Festival, citing the company's insistence on maintaining the practice. Blue's cancellation initiated heated discussion. Tenor Yusif Eyvazov, Netrebko's husband, called Blue's decision "disgusting," while mezzo-soprano Grace Bumbry offered a conciliatory perspective.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Other notable singers to have publicly spoken out against the use of blackface in Opera include the mezzo-soprano Jamie Barton who named Netrebko directly, and Stephanie Blythe, who suggested an abstention from performing operas that have typically featured white singers made up to appear as other ethnicities.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Responding to the controversy surrounding blackface, the Arena di Verona Festival claimed it is "very hard to change" the production to avoid the use of blackface (this staging dates from 2002). The Festival also stated that when Blue signed her contract for La traviata, this staging of Aida was already planned and she should already have known that blackface was to be used.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko serves as an honorary director of the Russian Children's Welfare Society and has featured in several editions of "Petroushka Ball", the major fund raiser of the charity. In 2007, she was announced to be an ambassador for SOS Children's Villages in Austria, and a sponsor for the Tomilino village in Russia. She has been supporting the association "projekt Anna - Kinderhilfe Kaliningrad e.V." since 2005, and became its patron in 2008. In May 2012, she and her then-partner Erwin Schrott jointly founded the charitable foundation "Anna Netrebko and Erwin Schrott 4 Kids", aiming to promote education, art, culture and youth welfare.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: She has worn several designs by Austrian fashion designer Irina Vitjaz, who is a close friend of hers.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: As of 2022, there has been a debate over her association with Russian president Vladimir Putin. In 2012 she appeared on a list of 499 celebrities endorsing Putin in the 2012 Russian presidential election alongside Valery Gergiev and Denis Matsuev. She later explained this as a gesture of recognition of Putin´s support for the arts. After a blogger published that she also appeared on a declaration of support for Putin in 2018 she stated several times that she did not sign this declaration, that her name was kept from the 2012 list without her approval and that she did not even participate in the vote.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In 2011, she rejected claims that she and Putin had formerly been romantically involved, though she said "I'd have loved to have been ... he's a very attractive man. Such a strong, male energy."


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In December 2014, she gave a ₽1,000,000 cheque to Oleg Tsaryov saying she was donating to the Donetsk Opera and Ballet Theatre, and posed alongside him with a flag of Novorossiya, a self-proclaimed confederation in Ukraine. Tsaryov is one of the individuals sanctioned by the European Union for his role in the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Netrebko said in a statement, "I want to make clear, however, that this donation is not a political act."


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Netrebko has held varying public stances. In late February, she said on social media that she opposed the invasion, but subsequently described people who forced her to express her political position as "human s***s" who "are as evil as blind aggressors." After her second statement on 30 March 2022, where she repeated her condemnation of the war in Ukraine, distancing herself from Putin, the Putin-controlled Russian Duma denounced her a traitor to her nation.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko applied for Austrian citizenship in Vienna in March 2006. In response to the backlash in her native country, she cited the cumbersome and humiliating process of obtaining visas as a Russian citizen for her many performances abroad as the main reason for the decision. In late July, the Council of Ministers approved the application for her "special merits", despite the fact that she neither spoke German nor lived in Austria.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko started a relationship with Italian bass-baritone Simone Alberghini when they met during performances of "Rigoletto" at the Washington National Opera in 1999. She announced their engagement but did not consider marrying due to a busy schedule. In May 2007 their relationship was confirmed as ended.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In December 2007 Netrebko became engaged to Uruguayan bass-baritone Erwin Schrott, whom she first met during a collaboration in 2003. In April 2008, she announced their marriage, but their wedding never in fact took place. Their son, Tiago Aruã, was born on 5 September 2008 in Vienna. On 25 November 2013, the couple announced their separation, after several months of largely separate lives.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In February 2014, during rehearsals for a staging of "Manon Lescaut" in Rome, Netrebko began a relationship with Azerbaijani tenor , her co-star in that opera. Five months later, the couple announced their engagement. They married in Vienna on 29 December 2015. Their official wedding ceremony took place at the Palais Coburg, and the following celebration at the Gartenpalais Liechtenstein welcomed 180 guests in attendance, including Plácido Domingo.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko has apartments in Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and New York City. Since her pregnancy she had been looking for a new residence in Vienna. In 2008, she purchased and renovated a penthouse apartment at Franziskanerplatz. The renovation was not finished and she still lived in her original apartment by 2010. The building was evacuated in February 2010 due to acute danger of collapsing and only reopened two months later. In November 2009, she moved into a new apartment above Lincoln Square, Manhattan, where she combined two units for additional space.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In 2004, Netrebko was awarded the State Prize of the Russian Federation. She won 2006 Bambi Award in the classical music category.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: "Time" magazine placed her on its Time 100 list in 2007. She won the 2007 Singer of the Year and the 2008 Female Artist of Year in the Classical Brit Awards. She was identified by the journal "Musical America" as "a genuine superstar for the 21st century" and was named Musician of the Year for 2008. In February 2008, she was named People's Artist of Russia. She was included in the list of Young Global Leaders 2010 issued by World Economic Forum. Netrebko was one of the recipients of Leading Ladies Award 2012 awarded by "Madonna" magazine. She received another Leading Ladies Award in the category of Culture in 2016. She was named one of the Beautiful People in 2013 by "Paper". She was presented an Opera News Award in April 2016.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: Netrebko won the "Female Singer of the Year" ("Sängerin des Jahres") in the 2014 and 2016 Echo Klassik Award. She was awarded "Best Vocalist in Classical Music" at the Russian National Music Awards in 2016, 2017 and 2018. In February 2017, the Austrian government named her Kammersängerin. She won the Best Female Singer in the 2017 International Opera Awards. Asteroid 31104 Annanetrebko was named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 31 January 2018 (). She was awarded the "World Star" of the BraVo International Professional Music Awards 2018. In May 2018, she received the Order of Friendship from the Azerbaijani president. On 26 October 2018, the Metropolitan Opera Guild honored her on its annual luncheon. In 2020 she was awarded the Swedish Polar Music Prize and the Victoire d'honneur in the Victoires de la musique classique.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: On 18th September of 2021, Netrebko celebrated her 50th birthday with a concert held in the Kreml palace in Moscow. The concert featured friends and stars as Yusif Eyvazov, Rolando Villazon, Placido Domingo or Michael Volle. Putin congratulated from afar through Dmitri Peskov, because he had been exposed to Corona cases. Part of the proceeds from ticket sales will be donated to the Arithmetic of Good charity fund, which helps orphans.


title: Anna Netrebko

text: In September 2022, she received an "Österreichischer Musiktheaterpreis" as Best Female Leading Role for her portrayal of Lady Macbeth in “Macbeth” in Wiener Staatsoper.


title: Leonie Benesch

text: Leonie Benesch (born 22 April 1991 in Hamburg) is a German actress who has played roles in major productions including "Babylon Berlin "and "The Crown", as well as "Around the World in 80 Days". She is currently based in London.


title: Leonie Benesch

text: In 2009, Benesch played the role of Eva in the film "The White Ribbon", which won the Golden Palm. Film critics singled out her performance as "a discovery". She received the American "Young Artist Award" for her work, as well as a "New Faces Award". In 2010, she performed in Philip Koch's drama "Picco" and in Sophie Heldman's film "" ("Satte Farben vor Schwarz"), where she worked alongside Senta Berger and Bruno Ganz.


title: Leonie Benesch

text: In 2017, Benesch performed in "Babylon Berlin" as Greta Overbeck, winning the "German Acting Prize". Benesch also performed in "The Crown" as the sister of Prince Philip, Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark. In 2020, she was cast in the BBC miniseries "Around the World in 80 Days", alongside David Tennant as Phileas Fogg and Ibrahim Koma as Passepartout.


title: Leonie Benesch

text: Benesch grew up in Tübingen, and attended the Freie Waldorfschule. She also attended the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London. She is of French and Transylvanian descent.


title: Letter of marque

text: A letter of marque and reprisal () was a government license in the Age of Sail that authorized a private person, known as a privateer or corsair, to attack and capture vessels of a nation at war with the issuer. After capturing, the privateers could bring the case of that prize before their own admiralty court for condemnation and transfer of ownership to the privateer. A letter of marque and reprisal would include permission to cross an international border to conduct a reprisal (take some action against an attack or injury) and was authorized by an issuing jurisdiction to conduct reprisal operations outside its borders.


title: Letter of marque

text: Popular among Europeans from the late Middle Ages up to the 19th century, cruising for enemy prizes with a letter of marque was considered an honorable calling that combined patriotism and profit. Such privateering contrasted with individuals conducting unlicensed attacks and captures of random ships, which was known as piracy; piracy was almost universally reviled. In practice, the differences between privateers and pirates were often at best subtle and at worst a matter of interpretation.


title: Letter of marque

text: In addition to referring to the license, the terms "letter of marque" and "privateer" were sometimes used to describe the vessels used to pursue and capture prizes. In this context, a letter of marque was a lumbering, square-rigged cargo carrier that might pick up a prize if the opportunity arose in its normal course of duties. In contrast, the term privateer generally referred to a fast and weatherly fore-and-aft rigged vessel, well armed and carrying more crew, intended exclusively for fighting.


title: Letter of marque

text: Letters of marque allowed governments to fight their wars using private captains and sailors, akin to mercenary soldiers, to hunt down enemies and fight their wars instead of using their navies. Oftentimes it was cheaper and easier for governments to issue letters of marque to privateers than to maintain a longstanding navy. Instead of building, funding, and maintaining a navy in times of peace and in times of war, governments would issue letters of marque to privateers so they could fight the nation's battles. This way, the government issuing the letter of marque were not responsible to fix or maintain any of the privateers' ships since they were owned by the privateers.


title: Letter of marque

text: Marque derives from the Old English "mearc", which is from the Germanic *"mark-", which means boundary, or boundary marker. This is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root "*merǵ-", meaning boundary, or border. The French "marque" is from the Provençal language "marca", which is from "marcar", also Provençal, meaning to seize as a pledge.


title: Letter of marque

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the first recorded use of "letters of marque and reprisal" was in an English statute in 1354 during the reign of King Edward III. The phrase referred to "a licen[c]e granted by a sovereign to a subject, authorizing him to make reprisals on the subjects of a hostile state for injuries alleged to have been done to him by the enemy's army."


title: Letter of marque

text: During the Middle Ages, armed private vessels enjoying their sovereign's tacit consent, if not always an explicit formal commission, regularly raided shipping of other nations, as in the case of the English Sir Francis Drake's attacks on Spanish shipping. Queen Elizabeth I (despite protestations of innocence) took a share of the prizes. Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius's 1604 seminal work on international law, "De Iure Praedae" ("Of The Law of Prize and Booty"), was an advocate's brief defending Dutch raids on Spanish and Portuguese shipping.


title: Letter of marque

text: King Henry III of England first issued what later became known as privateering commissions in 1243. These early licences were granted to specific individuals to seize the King’s enemies at sea in return for splitting the proceeds between the privateers and The Crown.


title: Letter of marque

text: The letter of marque and reprisal was documented in 1295, 50 years after wartime privateer licenses were first issued. According to Grotius, letters of marque and reprisal were akin to a "private war", a concept alien to modern sensibilities but related to an age when the ocean was lawless and all merchant vessels sailed armed for self-defense. A reprisal involved seeking the sovereign's permission to exact private retribution against some foreign prince or subject. The earliest instance of a licensed reprisal recorded in England was in the year 1295 under the reign of King Edward I. The notion of reprisal, and behind it that just war involved avenging a wrong, was associated with the letter of marque until 1620 in England. To apply for such a letter, a shipowner had to submit to the Admiralty Court an estimate of actual losses incurred.


title: Letter of marque

text: Licensing privateers during wartime became widespread in Europe by the 16th century, when most countries began to enact laws regulating the granting of letters of marque and reprisal. Such business could be very profitable; during the eight years of the American Revolutionary War, ships from the tiny island of Guernsey carrying letter of marque captured French and American vessels to the value of £900,000 (). Privateers from Guernsey continued to operate during the Napoleonic Wars.


title: Letter of marque

text: Although privateering commissions and letters of marque were originally distinct legal concepts, such distinctions became purely technical by the 18th century. Article I of the United States Constitution, for instance, states that "The Congress shall have Power To ... grant Letters of marque and reprisal ...", without separately addressing privateer commissions.


title: Letter of marque

text: During the American War of Independence, the Napoleonic Wars, and the War of 1812, it was common to distinguish verbally between privateers (also known as private ships of war) on the one hand, and armed merchantmen, which were referred to as "letters of marque", on the other, though both received the same commission. The "Sir John Sherbrooke" (Halifax) was a privateer; the "Sir John Sherbrooke" (Saint John) was an armed merchantman. The East India Company arranged for letters of marque for its East Indiamen ships, such as the "Lord Nelson". They did not need permission to carry cannons to fend off warships, privateers, and pirates on their voyages to India and China but, the letters of marque provided that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the "Earl of Mornington", an East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also carried a letter of marque.


title: Letter of marque

text: Letters of marque and privateers are largely credited for the age of Elizabethan exploration, because privateers were used to explore the seas. Under the Crown, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Sir Martin Frobisher sailed the seas as privateers; their expedition reports helped shape the age of Elizabethan exploration.


title: Letter of marque

text: In July 1793, the East Indiamen , "Triton", and "Warley" participated in the capture of Pondichéry by maintaining a blockade of the port. Afterwards, while sailing to China, the same three East Indiamen participated in an action in the Straits of Malacca. They came upon a French frigate, with some six or seven British prizes, with a crew replenishing her water casks ashore. The three British vessels immediately gave chase. The frigate fled towards the Sunda Strait. The Indiamen were able to catch up with a number of the prizes, and, after a few cannon shots, were able to retake them. Had they not carried letters of marque, such behaviour might well have qualified as piracy. Similarly, on 10 November 1800, the East Indiaman "Phoenix" captured the French privateer "General Malartic", under Jean-Marie Dutertre, an action made legal by a letter of marque. Additionally, vessels with a letter of marque were exempt from having to sail in convoy, and nominally their crew members were exempt, during a voyage, from impressment.


title: Letter of marque

text: During the Napoleonic Wars, the "Dart" and "Kitty", British privateers, spent some months off the coast of Sierra Leone hunting slave-trading vessels.


title: Letter of marque

text: The procedure for issuing letters of marque, and the issuing authority varied by time and circumstance. In colonial British America, for instance, colonial governors issued such letters in the name of the Crown. During the American War of Independence, authorization shifted from individual state legislatures, followed by both the states and the Continental Congress, and lastly, after ratification of the Constitution, only Congress authorized and the President signed letters of marque. A shipowner applied for such a letter of marque by stating the name, description, tonnage, and force (armaments) of the vessel, the name and residence of the owner, and the intended number of crew, and tendered a bond promising strict observance of the country's laws and treaties, and of international laws and customs. The United States granted the commission to the vessel, not to its captain, often for a limited time or specified area, and stated the enemy upon whom attacks were permitted. For example, during the Second Barbary War (1815), President James Madison authorized the brig "Grand Turk" (out of Salem, Massachusetts) to cruise against "Algerine vessels, public or private, goods and effects, of or belonging to the Dey of Algiers". (This particular commission was never put to use, as it was issued July 3, 1815, the same day the treaty was signed, ending the U.S. involvement in the war.)


title: Letter of marque

text: In Britain in the 18th century, the High Court of Admiralty issued Letters of Marque. It was customary for the proposed privateer to pay a deposit or bond, possibly £1,500 () as surety for good behaviour. The details of the ship, including tonnage, crew and weapons were recorded. The ownership of these ships was often split into ⅛ shares. Prizes were assessed and valued with profits split in pre-agreed proportions among the government, the owners, and the captain and crew.


title: Letter of marque

text: A letter of marque and reprisal in effect converted a private merchant vessel into a naval auxiliary. A commissioned privateer enjoyed the protection and was subject to the obligations of the laws of war. If captured, the crew was entitled to honorable treatment as prisoners of war, while without the licence they were deemed mere pirates "at war with all the world," criminals who were properly hanged.


title: Letter of marque

text: For this reason, enterprising maritime raiders commonly took advantage of "flag of convenience" letters of marque, shopping for cooperative governments to license and legitimize their depredations. French/Irishman Captain Luke Ryan and his lieutenants in just over two years commanded six vessels under the flags of three different nations and on opposite sides in the same war. Likewise the notorious Lafitte brothers in New Orleans cruised under letters of marque secured by bribery from corrupt officials of tenuous Central American governments, to cloak plunder with a thin veil of legality.


title: Letter of marque

text: The letter of marque by its terms required privateers to bring captured vessels and their cargoes before admiralty courts of their own or allied countries for condemnation. Applying the rules and customs of prize law, the courts decided whether the letter of marque was valid and current, and whether the captured vessel or its cargo in fact belonged to the enemy (not always easy, when flying false flags was common practice), and if so the prize and its cargo were "condemned", to be sold at auction with the proceeds divided among the privateer's owner and crew. A prize court's formal condemnation was required to transfer title; otherwise the vessel's previous owners might well reclaim her on her next voyage, and seek damages for the confiscated cargo.


title: Letter of marque

text: Often questions arose as to the legitimacy of the letter of marque in the case of divided sovereignty during civil wars. An English court, for instance, refused to recognize the letters of marque issued by rebellious Ireland under King James II, and hanged eight privateer captains as pirates. Seventy-nine years later during the American Civil War, the Union charged officers and crew of the Confederate privateer "Savannah" with piracy, calling their letter of marque invalid since the Union refused to acknowledge the breakaway Confederacy as a sovereign nation. The case resulted in a hung jury, and after Confederate President Jefferson Davis threatened to retaliate by hanging one Union officer for each executed Confederate privateer, the Union relented and thereafter treated Confederate privateers honorably as prisoners of war.


title: Letter of marque

text: Privateers were also required by the terms of their letters of marque to obey the laws of war, honour treaty obligations (avoid attacking neutrals), and in particular to treat captives as courteously and kindly as they safely could. If they failed to live up to their obligations, the admiralty courts could — and did — revoke the letter of marque, refuse to award prize money, forfeit bonds, or even award tort (personal injury) damages against the privateer's officers and crew.


title: Letter of marque

text: Nations often agreed by treaty to forgo privateering, as England and France repeatedly did starting with the diplomatic overtures of Edward III in 1324; privateering nonetheless recurred in every war between them for the next 500 years.


title: Letter of marque

text: Benjamin Franklin had attempted to persuade the French to lead by example and stop issuing letters of marque to their corsairs, but the effort foundered when war loomed with Britain once again. The French Convention did forbid the practice, but it was reinstated after the Thermidorian Reaction, in August 1795; on 26 September 1797, the Ministry of the Navy was authorized to sell small ships to private parties for this purpose.


title: Letter of marque

text: Finally, after the Congress of Paris at the end of the Crimean War, seven European nations signed the Paris Declaration of 1856 renouncing privateering, and 45 more eventually joined them, which in effect abolished privateering worldwide. The United States was not a signatory to that declaration. Despite the attempt to end privateering around the world, nations continued issuing letters of marque. In 1879, at the beginning of the War of the Pacific, Bolivia issued letters of marque to any vessels willing to fight for them. At the time Bolivia was under threat from Chile's fleet but had no navy.


title: Letter of marque

text: In December 1941 and the first months of 1942, Goodyear commercial L-class blimp "Resolute" operating out of Moffett Field in Sunnyvale, California, flew anti-submarine patrols. As the civilian crew was armed with a rifle, a persistent misconception arose that this made the ship a privateer and that she and sister commercial blimps were operated under letters of marque until the Navy took over operation. Without congressional authorization, the Navy would not have been able to legally issue any letters of marque.


title: Letter of marque

text: Article I of the United States Constitution lists issuing letters of marque and reprisal in Section 8 as one of the enumerated powers of Congress, alongside the power to tax and to declare war. However, since the American Civil War, the United States as a matter of policy has consistently followed the terms of the 1856 Paris Declaration forbidding the practice. The United States has not legally commissioned any privateers since 1815, although the status of submarine-hunting Goodyear airships in the early days of World War II created significant confusion. Various accounts refer to airships "Resolute" and "Volunteer" as operating under a "privateer status", but Congress never authorized a commission, nor did the President sign one.


title: Letter of marque

text: The issue of marque and reprisal was raised before Congress after the September 11 attacks and again by Congressman Ron Paul on July 21, 2007. The attacks were defined as acts of "air piracy" and the "Marque and Reprisal Act of 2001" was introduced, which would have granted the president the authority to use letters of marque and reprisal against the specific terrorists, instead of warring against a foreign state. The terrorists were compared to pirates in that they are difficult to fight by traditional military means. On April 15, 2009, Paul also advocated the use of letters of marque to address the issue of Somali pirates operating in the Gulf of Aden. However, the bills Paul introduced were not enacted into law.


title: Letter of marque

text: In February of 2022, House bill H.R. 6869 was introduced, and if passed would "[authorize] the President to issue letters of marque and reprisal" in relation to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Sophie's World

text: Sophie's World (Norwegian: "Sofies verden") is a 1991 novel by Norwegian writer Jostein Gaarder. It follows Sophie Amundsen, a Norwegian teenager, who is introduced to the history of philosophy as she is asked "Who are you?" in a letter from an unknown philosopher. The nonfictional content of the book aligns with Bertrand Russell's "The History of Western Philosophy".


title: Sophie's World

text: "Sophie's World" became a best-seller in Norway and won the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis in 1994. The English translation was published in 1995, and the book was reported to be the best-selling book in the world that year.


title: Sophie's World

text: By 2011, the novel had been translated into fifty-nine languages, with over forty million print copies sold. It is one of the most commercially successful Norwegian novels outside of Norway, and has been adapted into a film and a PC game.


title: Sophie's World

text: The book begins with Sophie receiving two messages in her mailbox and a postcard addressed to Hilde Møller Knag. Afterwards, she receives a packet of papers, part of a course in philosophy.


title: Sophie's World

text: Sophie, without the knowledge of her mother, becomes the student of an old philosopher, Alberto Knox. Alberto teaches her about the history of philosophy. She gets a substantive and understandable review from the Pre-Socratics to Jean-Paul Sartre. In addition to this, Sophie and Alberto receive postcards addressed to a girl named Hilde from a man named Albert Knag. As time passes, Knag begins to hide birthday messages to Hilde in ever more impossible ways, including hiding one inside an unpeeled banana and making Alberto's dog, Hermes, speak.


title: Sophie's World

text: Eventually, through the philosophy of George Berkeley, Sophie and Alberto figure out that their entire world is a literary construction by Albert Knag as a present for Hilde, his daughter, on her 15th birthday. Hilde begins to read the manuscript but begins to turn against her father after he continues to meddle with Sophie's life by sending fictional characters like Little Red Riding Hood and Ebenezer Scrooge to talk to her.


title: Sophie's World

text: Alberto helps Sophie fight back against Knag's control by teaching her everything he knows about philosophy, through the Renaissance, Romanticism, and Existentialism, as well as Darwinism and the ideas of Karl Marx. These take the form of long pages of text, and, later, monologues from Alberto. Alberto manages to concoct a plan so that he and Sophie can finally escape Albert's imagination. The trick is performed on Midsummer's Eve, during a "philosophical garden party" that Sophie and her mother arranged to celebrate Sophie's fifteenth birthday. The party soon descends into chaos as Albert Knag lost his control over the world, causing the guests to react with indifference to extraordinary occurrences. Alberto informs everyone that their world is fictional but the guests react with rage, believing him to be instilling dangerous values in the children. When a Mercedes smashes into the garden, Alberto and Sophie use it as an opportunity to escape. Knag is so focused on writing about the car that he doesn't notice them escaping into the real world.


title: Sophie's World

text: Having finished the book, Hilde decides to help Sophie and Alberto get revenge on her father. Alberto and Sophie cannot interact with anything in the real world and cannot be seen by anyone but other fictional characters. A woman from Grimm's Fairy Tales gives them food before they prepare to witness Knag's return to Lillesand, Hilde's home.


title: Sophie's World

text: While at the airport, Knag receives notes from Hilde set up at shops and gateways, instructing him on items to buy. He becomes increasingly paranoid as he wonders how Hilde is pulling the trick off. When he arrives back home, Hilde has forgiven him now that he has learned what it is like to have his world interfered with. Alberto and Sophie listen as Knag tells Hilde about one last aspect of philosophy—the universe itself. He tells her about the Big Bang and how everything is made up of the same material, which exploded outward at the beginning of time. Hilde learns that when she looks at the stars she is actually seeing into the past. Sophie makes a last effort to communicate with her by hitting her and Knag with a wrench. Knag doesn't feel anything, but Hilde feels as though a gadfly stung her, and can hear Sophie's whispers. Sophie wishes to ride in the rowboat but Alberto reminds her that as they are not real people, they cannot manipulate objects. In spite of this, Sophie manages to untie the rowboat and they ride out onto the lake, immortal and invisible to all but a few. Hilde, inspired and mesmerized by philosophy and reconnected with her father, goes out to get the boat back.


title: Sophie's World

text: The book has been translated into several languages, including Persian, Bengali, English, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), French, German and Chinese. Below are mentioned the names and translators of the translations.


title: Sophie's World

text: In 1999 "Sophie's World" was adapted into a Norwegian movie by screenwriter Petter Skavlan. It was not widely released outside of Norway. Kjersti Holmen won an Amanda Award for her role in the movie.


title: Sophie's World

text: The 1999 movie was also presented as an eight-part TV series in Australia and Iceland, again scripted by Petter Skavlan.


title: Sophie's World

text: It was also adapted for television in 1995 by Paul Greengrass and shown on the BBC as part of "The Late Show". This version starred Jessica Marshall-Gardiner as Sophie, Jim Carter as Alberto Knox, and Twiggy as Sophie's Mother.


title: Sophie's World

text: In 1999 it was made into a board game by Robert Hyde and Ken Howard, and published by Sophisticated Games Ltd. The game involves answering trivia on famous philosophers and requires players to talk for several minutes on philosophical topics such as animal rights.


title: Sophie's World

text: In 1998 it was adapted into a PC and Mac CD-ROM game by The MultiMedia Corporation. The game allows players to learn about philosophy as in the book, while adapting the metafiction elements for a virtual world.


title: Sophie's World

text: English space rock band Spiritualized named their 1997 studio album "Ladies and Gentlemen We Are Floating in Space" after a line in the novel.


title: Sophie's World

text: Chinese math rock indie band Baby Formula's self-titled album has a track called "Sophie's World（苏菲的世界)".


title: Sophie's World

text: In the Xiao Baosen-translated Chinese version (Simplified Chinese) published by Writers Publishing House, parts of the content related to Karl Marx were deleted according to the requirements of the Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China, such as the last 32 paragraphs in the Marx Chapter.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bidya Devi Bhandari (, ; born 19 June 1961) is a Nepali politician who is serving as the second and current president of Nepal. She formerly served as the minister of defence and minister of environment and population.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: She is the first woman to hold the office in the country. She served as the vice-chairperson of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) and was the chair of the All Nepal Women's Association before being elected president. Bhandari previously served as the Minister of Defence, the first woman to hold the office, from 2009 to 2011. She also served as the Minister of Environment and Population in 1997, and has been an active campaigner for environmental awareness and women's rights in Nepal. In June 2017, she visited the headquarters of the International Union for Conservation of Nature in Gland, Switzerland and met with the director general Inger Andersen to discuss enhanced collaboration on nature conservation and sustainable development. In 2016, Forbes placed her as number 52 in their list of the world's 100 most powerful women.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bhandari was born on 19 June 1961 in Mane Bhanjyang, Bhojpur, to Ram Bahadur Pandey and Mithila Pandey. She completed her school level education in Bhojpur and pursued her higher education in Biratnagar, Morang. Her political career began from a leftist student union. She joined the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist–Leninist) in 1980.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bhandari was active in politics from an early age. According to the details provided by the CPN (UML), Bhandari joined politics as an activist of the Youth League of CPN (ML) in 1978, from Bhojpur. She played a role as an in-charge for Eastern Zone Committee of ANNFSU from 1979 to 1987. Her active political journey, however, started when she received party membership from the CPN (ML) in 1980. After completing her school level study, Bhandari was enrolled in Mahendra Morang Adarsha Multiple Campus where she was elected treasurer of the students' union. Also, she played a pivotal role as a chairperson of the women's wing of GEFONT from 1993 until being elected a central committee member of the CPN (UML) in 1997.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bhandari was first elected to the parliament in a by-election in January 1994, caused by the death of her husband, the sitting member from Kathmandu–1, where she defeated former prime minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai. In the 1994 general election, she was elected from Kathmandu–2, defeating house speaker Daman Nath Dhungana. She served as the Minister for Environment and Population in a coalition government led by prime minister Lokendra Bahadur Chand in 1997. She was re-elected from Kathmandu–2 in the 1999 general election. However, she was defeated in the 2008 Constituent Assembly poll, and was later nominated under the proportional electoral system. She served as the Minister of Defence in the cabinet of prime minister Madhav Kumar Nepal. She was re-elected under the proportional electoral system in the 2013 elections. Her influence in the party remained dominant when she was elected as vice-chairperson of the CPN (UML) in its eighth general convention held in Butwal. Bhandari, who was re-elected vice-chairperson in the party's next general convention, is considered a close confidante to party chairman and prime minister KP Sharma Oli.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: After the promulgation of the new constitution in 2015, Bhandari was elected president by an indirect election held in the parliament on 28 October 2015. She defeated Nepali Congress' Kul Bahadur Gurung, receiving 327 votes against Gurung's 214 votes. She thus became Nepal's second president and first female head of state. She was re-elected in 2018, defeating Congress' Kumari Laxmi Rai.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bhandari has been accused of taking a partisan stance since she was elected president. She held onto the National Assembly election ordinance delaying the formation of the government after the 2017 legislative elections. She also held the nomination of three members to National Assembly sent by the outgoing Deuba government but immediately approved the nominations sent in by the incoming Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli. Bhandari passed the ordinance brought for citizenship brought upon by KP Sharma Oli government which was finally denied by Supreme Court to be a matter requiring discussion in parliament. After it came being approved by majority from parliament by Deuba cabinet it was denied by her. Bhandari has been accused of taking a partisan stance when she approved both the decisions of cabinet to dissolve the House of Representatives against the Constitution of Nepal. She did not appoint Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister of Nepal, although showing majority signature present in House. Instead she dissolved parliament supporting KP Sharma Oli. The decision was challenged by the Supreme Court of Nepal, along with signature of majority (146) MPs. On 12 July 2021, the Supreme Court stated the decision of parliament dissolution by Bhandari was unlawful. Similarly, it ordered to appoint Deuba as the next prime minister of Nepal citing article 76(5) of the Constitution of Nepal within 28 hours. It stated that the decision made by Bhandari was against the norms of the constitution. This was celebrated by the then opposition alliance led by the Nepali Congress, including allies CPN (Maoist Centre) and Janata Samajbadi Party.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: On 13 July 2021, Bhandari appointed Deuba as Prime Minister without including any article of Constitution and stating as per the order of Court. This created cold dispute and people alleged Bhandari of forgetting her limits and being tilted to Oli. After Deuba denied to take oath as per the appointment letter, it was changed and stated that Deuba was made Prime Minister in accordance with article 76(5) marking Deuba's fifth term as Prime Minister.


title: Bidya Devi Bhandari

text: Bidya Devi Bhandari was born on 19 June 1961 in Manebhanjyang, Nepal. Bhandari was married to Madan Bhandari, a popular Nepalese communist leader, who died in a car accident near Dasdhunga, Chitwan in 1993. The couple had two daughters, Usha Kiran Bhandari and Nisha Kusum Bhandari. She is also related to Nepali Congress leader Gyanendra Bahadur Karki.


title: American McGee

text: American James McGee (born December 13, 1972) is an American video game designer. He is best known as the designer of "American McGee's Alice", its sequel "", and his works on various video games from id Software.


title: American McGee

text: American James McGee was born on December 13, 1972, in Dallas, Texas to an eccentric mother who was a house painter. His only interaction with his biological father was on his 13th birthday, a meeting which turned violent as McGee's father drunkenly assaulted him that night. McGee was highly creative and was gifted in mathematics and science, taking an early interest in computer programming. He was eventually accepted to a magnet school for computer science.


title: American McGee

text: In explaining where his name came from, McGee has said that his mother was a hippie and was inspired by a woman she knew in college that named her child "America":


title: American McGee

text: McGee had a number of stepfathers when growing up until his mother finally settled into a relationship with a transgender woman. When McGee was sixteen, he came home from school and found his house empty and abandoned; the only things left were his bed, his books, his clothes and his Commodore 64 computer. His mother had sold the house to pay for two plane tickets and the fee for her girlfriend's sex reassignment surgery, leaving him on his own. He packed up his computer, dropped out of high school and took a variety of odd jobs, finally settling on a Volkswagen repair shop.


title: American McGee

text: At 21, McGee, an automobile and gaming enthusiast, moved to an apartment complex where he met and befriended John Carmack. Carmack offered McGee a tech support job at id Software, where he was quickly promoted to level designer and music manager. McGee, along with Kevin Cloud and Tim Willits, were part of id Software's "second generation" of developers, working on games such as "The Ultimate Doom", "Doom II", "Quake" and "Quake II".


title: American McGee

text: In 1998, McGee was fired from id Software. Later, McGee would say that the day he got fired was very meaningful to him:


title: American McGee

text: According to former id staff Sandy Petersen, Tim Willits was the one responsible for McGee's firing (although he did not mention Willits by name; referring to him only by "Snake" and "X"). Allegedly, during the development of "Quake II", Willits deliberately gave bad level design advice to McGee and when he presented his work to Carmack, it angered him and McGee was fired soon after. McGee has stated to this day, he still has no idea why he was fired but acknowledged the fact that it was due to "internal politics and my own failings".


title: American McGee

text: McGee soon joined Electronic Arts and worked as creative director on "American McGee's Alice" (with Rogue Entertainment), which garnered favorable reviews. Discussions began soon after the game's release about making a film adaptation of the game; initially Wes Craven was attached to direct the film, and later actress Sarah Michelle Gellar bought the film rights, but the film has remained languishing in development hell.


title: American McGee

text: After finishing "Alice", McGee left EA "in frustration" when the company fired his creative partner R. J. Berg and shut down Rogue Entertainment. In 2002, McGee founded the short-lived Carbon6, which two years later became known as Mauretania Import Export Company.


title: American McGee

text: McGee directed the 2002 music video for the song "Same Ol' Road" by the band dredg, from their album "El Cielo". Partnering with Enlight Software and its founder Trevor Chan, McGee released the games "Scrapland" in 2004 and "Bad Day L.A." in 2006.


title: American McGee

text: The planned "American McGee's Oz", which was to be produced in conjunction with Ronin Games, was canceled over financial difficulties at Atari. "American McGee's Grimm", developed by his Shanghai-based game development studio Spicy Horse for the online service GameTap, was released in 23 weekly episodic segments, starting in 2007.


title: American McGee

text: At the 2009 D.I.C.E. Summit, Electronic Arts CEO John Riccitiello announced that a sequel to "American McGee's Alice" was in development for PC, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 by McGee's Spicy Horse studio. In July 2010, at the EA Showcase in San Francisco, Spicy Horse and EA announced that sequel's title, "", released less than one year after its announcement, on June 14, 2011.


title: American McGee

text: More recently, McGee's Spicy Horse expanded to include another brand, Spicy Pony, to produce digital mobile media games for the iPhone platform. Their first title, "DexIQ", was released in early December 2009, and its follow-up, "Crooked House", was released in March 2010 (both had iPad versions released in June 2010). On December 17, 2010, McGee's old company The Mauretania Import Export Company was dissolved and all intellectual property was transferred to Spicy Horse.


title: American McGee

text: In 2012, McGee was focusing on free-to-play games for mobile devices with BigHead Bash, Akaneiro, and Crazy Fairies. In 2013, he opened a Kickstarter for a new game, "American McGee's OZombie"; however, due to slow/lackluster funding the project was canceled. Another Kickstarter for a project called "", a planned series of short films leading to a theatrical film, was announced a few days later. This reached its goal on August 4, 2013, and was officially confirmed.


title: American McGee

text: McGee has stated his mission is "to create a unified production method for story telling across the interactive and film industries" and of himself, he says, "I want to be the next Walt Disney, only a little more wicked."


title: American McGee

text: In 2005, McGee left the United States and resided for a time in Hong Kong before moving to Shanghai, where he lived as of 2009. Once in China, he created Spicy Horse, at one point the largest independent Western game development house in the nation, and helped found Blade (formerly Vykarian), a game outsourcing company. They produced "American McGee's Grimm" for GameTap (now owned by Metaboli) and worked on the sequel to his original "Alice" game, "".


title: American McGee

text: He also mentions that his inspiration for the macabre tone of "Alice" comes from his disturbing, dysfunctional childhood.


title: American McGee

text: In 2015, McGee declared his sister, Mercy Covington, missing. Believing she was taken by an opponent of GamerGate, McGee contacted Dallas Police. Very little effort was made to find her; thus resulted in McGee hiring a private investigator and starting a GoFundMe. Upon raising funds, Dallas PD soon declared Covington to be in severe danger and may have been met with foul play. As of current, McGee's sister is still missing.


title: American McGee

text: McGee continues to live in Shanghai with his wife, Yeni Zhang. The couple co-founded Mysterious, Inc., a company that markets art, apparel, and accessories based on McGee's works. The couple have two children, Lucky Jack McGee (张吉克) and Leeloo McGee (张玲珑).


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad I ( "Fu’ād al-Awwal"; or ; 26 March 1868 – 28 April 1936) was the Sultan and later King of Egypt and the Sudan. The ninth ruler of Egypt and Sudan from the Muhammad Ali dynasty, he became Sultan in 1917, succeeding his elder brother Hussein Kamel. He replaced the title of Sultan with King when the United Kingdom unilaterally declared Egyptian independence in 1922.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad was born in Giza Palace in Cairo, the fifth issue of Isma'il Pasha. He spent his childhood with his exiled father in Naples. He got his education from the military academy in Turin, Italy. His mother was Ferial Qadin.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Prior to becoming sultan, Fuad had played a major role in the establishment of Egyptian University. He became the university's first rector in 1908, and remained in the post until his resignation in 1913. He was succeeded as rector by then-minister of Justice Hussein Rushdi Pasha. In 1913, Fuad made unsuccessful attempts to secure the throne of Albania for himself, which had obtained its independence from the Ottoman Empire a year earlier. At the time, Egypt and Sudan was ruled by his nephew, Abbas II, and the likelihood of Fuad becoming the monarch in his own country seemed remote. This, and the fact that the Muhammad Ali dynasty was of Albanian descent, encouraged Fuad to seek the Albanian throne. Fuad also served as President of the Egyptian Geographic Society from 1915 until 1918.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad came under consideration as a candidate for the Albanian throne, but he was ultimately bypassed in favour of a Christian ruler. He ascended the throne of the Sultanate of Egypt upon the death of his brother Hussein Kamel in 1917. In the aftermath of the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, the United Kingdom ended its protectorate over Egypt, and recognised it as a sovereign state on 28 February 1922. On 15 March 1922, Fuad issued a decree changing his title from Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt. In 1930, he attempted to strengthen the power of the Crown by abrogating the 1923 Constitution and replacing it with a new constitution that limited the role of parliament to advisory status only. Large scale public dissatisfaction compelled him to restore the earlier constitution in 1935.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: The 1923 Constitution granted Fuad vast powers. He made frequent use of his right to dissolve Parliament. During his reign, cabinets were dismissed at royal will, and parliaments never lasted for their full four-year term but were dissolved by decree.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad was an instrumental force in modern Egyptian historiography. He employed numerous archivists to copy, translate, and arrange eighty-seven volumes of correspondence related to his paternal ancestors from European archives, and later to collect old documents from Egyptian archives into what became the Royal Archives in the 1930s. Fuad's efforts to portray his ancestors – especially his great-grandfather Muhammad Ali, his grandfather Ibrahim, and his father – as nationalists and benevolent monarchs would prove to be an enduring influence on Egyptian historiography.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad married his first wife in Cairo, on 30 May 1895 (nikah), and at the Abbasiya Palace in Cairo, on 14 February 1896 (zifaf), Princess Shivakiar Khanum Effendi (1876–1947). She was his first cousin once removed and the only daughter of Field Marshal Prince Ibrahim Fahmi Ahmad Pasha (his first cousin) by his first wife, Vijdan Navjuvan Khanum. They had two children, a son, Ismail Fuad, who died in infancy, and a daughter, Fawkia. Unhappily married, the couple divorced in 1898. During a dispute with the brother of his first wife, Prince Ahmad Saif-uddin Ibrahim Bey, Fuad was shot in the throat. He survived, but carried that scar the rest of his life.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: Fuad married his second wife at the Bustan Palace in Cairo on 24 May 1919. She was Nazli Sabri (1894–1978), daughter of Abdu'r-Rahim Pasha Sabri, sometime Minister of Agriculture and Governor of Cairo, by his wife, Tawfika Khanum Sharif. Queen Nazli also was a maternal granddaughter of Major-General Muhammad Sharif Pasha, sometime Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, and a great-granddaughter of Suleiman Pasha, a French officer in Napoleon's army who converted to Islam and reorganized the Egyptian army. The couple had five children, the future King Farouk, and four daughters, the Princesses Fawzia (who became Queen Consort of Iran), Faiza, Faika, and Fathia.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: As with his first wife, Fuad's relation with his second wife was also stormy. The couple continually fought, Fuad even forbidding Nazli from leaving the palace. When Fuad died, it was said that the triumphant Nazli sold all of his clothes to a local used-clothes market in revenge. Fuad died at the Koubbeh Palace in Cairo and was buried at the Khedival Mausoleum in the ar-Rifai Mosque in Cairo.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: King Fuad's wife lived as a widow after his death. She did not have good relations with her son. After Fuad's death, she left Egypt and went to the United States. She converted to Catholicism in 1950 and changed her name to Mary Elizabeth. She got deprived of her rights and titles in Egypt. Once named the world's richest and most elegant woman, she possessed one of the largest jewellery collections in the world.


title: Fuad I of Egypt

text: The Fuad (Fū’ād) (فؤاد الأول) Muslim Library in China was named after him by the Chinese Muslim Ma Songting. Muḥammad 'Ibrāhīm Fulayfil (محمد إبراهيم فليفل) and Muḥammad ad-Dālī (محمد الدالي) were ordered to Beijing by the King.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: "South ParQ Vaccination Special" is the second episode of the twenty-fourth season of the American animated television series "South Park". The 309th episode overall of the series, it premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on March 10, 2021.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: The episode centers on the efforts of South Park's citizens to receive the COVID-19 vaccine. Of particular focus is Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski and Eric Cartman, who find themselves reevaluating their strained friendship and the consequent toll it has on their friend Kenny McCormick. Meanwhile, former President Garrison returns to South Park, but is met with hostility by the populace; his only support comes from QAnon adherents opposing the people's vaccination efforts.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Critical reception to the episode was generally positive, with praise for its story, humor, and social commentary. It was one of the highest-rated "South Park" episodes in several years, premiering to 1.74 million viewers and reaching a total of 3.47 million viewers by the end of the night. It was the most-watched program of the night and as of March 2021, was at cable's number one telecast among young adults audiences of the year.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Desperate for the COVID-19 vaccine, Mr. Mackey and Thomas Adler visit a Walgreens to find a long line outside. They and everyone else in line are denied entry, as only senior citizens are admitted. At school, Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick play a prank on their teacher, Margaret Nelson, that involves her sitting on a packet of ketchup so that she appears to be menstruating. A humiliated Nelson quits when the prank is carried out, revealing that she has not been vaccinated.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Mr. Garrison, having finished his term as President, returns to South Park with his assistant, Mr. Service, to resume his profession as a teacher, being hired in Nelson's place. Many of the townspeople oppose Garrison's return; the White family are among Garrison's few supporters, and appeal to him about preventing vaccinations. Bob White interprets a dismissive remark by Garrison as a coded instruction to spread QAnon's conspiracy theories among children. Bob forms a private company, Tutornon, to indoctrinate the children, whose indignant parents hire them after withdrawing their children from Garrison's class.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Facing backlash over their prank, Cartman, Kenny, Stan Marsh, and Kyle Broflovski decide to make amends by obtaining vaccines for their teachers, under the pretense of forming the Kommunity Kidz. The boys gain entry to Walgreens by bribing an already-vaccinated elderly woman; upon being found out, they escape with a tray of vaccines, with several townspeople in pursuit. Cartman wants to sell the vaccines online, Stan wants the boys to take the vaccines themselves, and Kyle is pressured by his parents, Gerald and Sheila, to deliver some doses to them. The boys put aside their differences to deliver the vaccines to the school, but are impeded by the Lil' Qties, a group of children indoctrinated by their tutors. A fight ensues between the two groups, which is joined by members of QAnon and other townspeople wanting the vaccines.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Garrison confronts the White family, who tells him of QAnon and its conspiracy theories about the elite. Bob urges Garrison and Mr. Service to join him in opposing the elite. The three are inexplicably transported to a polar landscape, where Bob is toyed with by the elites. Garrison desperately calls out to the elites, pleading with them to return his life to normal; he is answered by Mr. Service's transformation into Mr. Hat. Meanwhile, Cartman, Stan, and Kyle start discussing a new plan to enter the school but are distracted into discussing increasingly elaborate schedule plans with Kenny, their friendship broken by mutual mistrust. Garrison returns and, having partnered with the elites, arranges for a plane to arrive with enough vaccines for everyone. Cartman, Stan, and Kyle finally enter the school with the teachers' vaccines. However, by that point, Nelson has contracted COVID-19 and dies from it. At her funeral, the townspeople celebrate being vaccinated, and life in South Park returns to normal.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: The episode was simulcast on MTV2, and released on the South Park Studios website and Comedy Central digital and on-demand platforms. It became available on HBO Max in the United States on March 11, 2021.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Alec Bojalad for Den of Geek gave the episode 4 out of 5 stars, writing that, "The "South Park Vaccination Special" is far superior to the "Pandemic Special" and is one of the better "South Park" episodes of the past few years." Bojalad praised the episode's focus on the children of South Park Elementary over the parents, though felt that the writers were not sure what to do with QAnon.


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Ben Travers with IndieWire gave the episode a B grade, and closed his review with the question "(Matt) Stone and (Trey) Parker can do whatever they want with 'South Park.' They have the power. But if America chooses to pretend everything can just go back to normal, what good is the power to pretend otherwise?" Dan Caffrey with The A.V. Club also gave the episode a B grade, and stated in his review "The world feels a lot stranger than it did when 'Trapped In The Closet' aired back in 2005, and a more competent commander-in-chief and vaccine aren't going to magically transport everything back to better times right off the bat. That sad truth outfits the show's depiction of QAnon in the kind of resigned humor that made its way into the show during the Trump years—a recognition that you can't exaggerate what's already exaggerated."


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: Jesse Schedeen for IGN gave the episode an 8 out of 10, saying "The second time proves to be the charm for South Park's new standalone special format. 'The Vaccination Special' toes that line between giving fans a pleasing throwback to classic seasons while also exploring the idea that you can't really ever go back to normal."


title: South ParQ Vaccination Special

text: According to "Newsweek" and the "New York Post", real QAnon supporters reacted positively to the episode, despite being lampooned by it, believing that their portrayal helped spread their beliefs and encourage viewers to do their own research into the conspiracy theory.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape is the largest and most sparsely populated province of South Africa. It was created in 1994 when the Cape Province was split up. Its capital is Kimberley. It includes the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, part of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and an international park shared with Botswana. It also includes the Augrabies Falls and the diamond mining regions in Kimberley and Alexander Bay.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Namaqualand region in the west is famous for its Namaqualand daisies. The southern towns of De Aar and Colesberg found within the Great Karoo are major transport nodes between Johannesburg, Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. Kuruman can be found in the north-east and is known as a mission station. It is also well known for its artesian spring and Eye of Kuruman. The Orange River flows through the province of Northern Cape, forming the borders with the Free State in the southeast and with Namibia to the northwest. The river is also used to irrigate the many vineyards in the arid region near Upington.


title: Northern Cape

text: Native speakers of Afrikaans comprise a higher percentage of the population in the Northern Cape than in any other province. The Northern Cape's four official languages are Afrikaans, Tswana, Xhosa, and English. Minorities speak the other official languages of South Africa and a few people speak indigenous languages such as Nama and Khwe.


title: Northern Cape

text: The provincial motto, "Sa ǁa ǃaĩsi 'uĩsi" ("We go to a better life"), is in the Nǀu language of the Nǁnǂe (ǂKhomani) people. It was given in 1997 by one of the language's last speakers, Ms. Elsie Vaalbooi of Rietfontein, who has since died. It was South Africa's first officially registered motto in a Khoisan language. Subsequently, South Africa's national motto, "ǃKe e ǀxarra ǁke", was derived from the extinct Northern Cape ǀXam language.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape was one of three provinces made out of the Cape Province in 1994, the others being Western Cape to the south and Eastern Cape to the southeast. Politically, it had been dominated since 1994 by the African National Congress (ANC). Ethnic issues are important in the politics of the Northern Cape. For example, it is the site of the Orania settlement, whose leaders have called for a Volkstaat for the Afrikaner people in the province.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape is also the home of over 1,000 San who emigrated from Namibia following the independence of the country; they had served as trackers and scouts for the South African Defence Force during the South African Border War, and feared reprisals from their former foes. They were awarded a settlement in Platfontein in 1999 by the Mandela government.


title: Northern Cape

text: The precolonial history of the Northern Cape is reflected in a rich, mainly Stone Age, archaeological heritage. Cave sites include Wonderwerk Cave near Kuruman, which has a uniquely long sequence stretching from the turn of the twentieth century at the surface to more than 1 million (and possibly nearly 2 million) years in its basal layer (where stone tools, occurring in very low density, may be Oldowan). Many sites across the province, mostly in open air locales or in sediments alongside rivers or pans, document Earlier, Middle and Later Stone Age habitation. From Later Stone Age times, mainly, there is a wealth of rock art sites – most of which are in the form of rock engravings such as at Wildebeest Kuil and many sites in the area known as ǀXam -ka !kau, in the Karoo. They occur on hilltops, slopes, rock outcrops and occasionally (as in the case of Driekops Eiland near Kimberley), in a river bed. In the north eastern part of the province there are sites attributable to the Iron Age such as Dithakong. Environmental factors have meant that the spread of Iron Age farming westwards (from the 17th century – but dating from the early first millennium AD in the eastern part of South Africa) was constrained mainly to the area east of the Langeberg Mountains, but with evidence of influence as far as the Upington area in the eighteenth century. From that period the archaeological record also reflects the development of a complex colonial frontier when precolonial social formations were considerably disrupted and there is an increasing 'fabric heavy' imprint of built structures, ash-heaps, and so on. The copper mines of Namaqualand and the diamond rush to the Kimberley area resulted in industrial archaeological landscapes in those areas which herald the modern era in South African history.


title: Northern Cape

text: The provincial government consists of a premier, an executive council of ten ministers, and a legislature. The provincial assembly and premier are elected for five-year terms, or until the next national election. Political parties are awarded assembly seats based on the percentage of votes each party receives in the province during the national elections. The assembly elects a premier, who then appoints the members of the executive council. The premier of the Northern Cape as of 2019 is Zamani Saul of the African National Congress.


title: Northern Cape

text: The politics of the Northern Cape are dominated by the African National Congress (ANC), but their position has not been as strong as in the other provinces. Initially, no party had an absolute majority. In 1994 the ANC's Manne Dipico became the first Premier of the Northern Cape after Ethne Papenfus, the sole elected representative of the Democratic Party (DP), voted with the ANC. In return, she was elected speaker of the legislature.


title: Northern Cape

text: The ANC increased its voter share in later elections and has remained firmly in charge of the province after 1999. Dipuo Peters replaced Dipico as Premier in 2004. The official opposition in the Northern Cape after the 2004 elections was the Democratic Alliance, receiving 11% of the vote in the provincial ballot. The opposition's hopes of unseating the ANC has not had any success, even with the Congress of the People (COPE), a splinter party from the ANC, helping to split the vote in the election of 22 April 2009. Hazel Jenkins became Premier following the election, and COPE became the official opposition. Jenkins was later replaced by Sylvia Lucas in 2013.


title: Northern Cape

text: The 2014 election saw the ANC returned to power once again with an increased mandate, while DA once again became the official opposition, after the collapse of COPE. The newly formed Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) also entered the legislature for the first time. Sylvia Lucas was re-elected to her first full term.


title: Northern Cape

text: In the 2019 election, the Northern Cape was considered competitive. The opposition DA planned on taking over the province. The ANC returned as the majority party but the party's support had dropped. The DA was once again the official opposition with an increased seat total. The EFF made gains, while the Freedom Front Plus (FF+) won a seat in the legislature for the first time since 2004.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape is South Africa's largest province, and distances between towns are enormous due to its sparse population. Its size is just shy of the size of the American state of Montana and slightly larger than that of Germany. The province is dominated by the Karoo Basin and consists mostly of sedimentary rocks and some dolerite intrusions. The south and south-east of the province is high-lying, , in the Roggeveld and Nuweveld districts. The west coast is dominated by the Namaqualand region, famous for its spring flowers. This area is hilly to mountainous and consists of granites and metamorphic rocks. The central areas are generally flat with interspersed salt pans. Kimberlite intrusions punctuate the Karoo rocks, giving the province its most precious natural resource, diamonds. The north is primarily Kalahari Desert, characterised by parallel red sand dunes and acacia tree dry savanna.


title: Northern Cape

text: Northern Cape has a shoreline in the west on the South Atlantic Ocean. It borders the following areas of Namibia and Botswana:


title: Northern Cape

text: The major river system is the Orange (or Gariep) River Basin, draining the interior of South Africa westwards into the Atlantic Ocean. (The political philosopher Neville Alexander has used the idea of the 'Garieb' as a metaphor for nationhood in South Africa, a flowing together, in preference to the rainbow metaphor where the diverse colours remain distinct).


title: Northern Cape

text: The principal tributary of the Orange is the Vaal River, which flows through part of the Northern Cape from the vicinity of Warrenton. The Vaal, in turn, has tributaries within the province: the Harts River and the Riet River, which has its own major tributary, the Modder River.


title: Northern Cape

text: Above the Orange-Vaal confluence, the Seekoei River drains part of the northeastern Karoo into the Orange River above the Vanderkloof Dam.


title: Northern Cape

text: Next downstream from the Orange-Vaal confluence is the Brak River, which flows nonperennially from the south and is in turn fed by the Ongers River, rising in the vicinities of Hanover and Richmond respectively.


title: Northern Cape

text: Along the Orange River near the town of Kakamas, the Hartebeest River drains the central Karoo. Above Kenhardt the Hartebeest is known as the Sak River, which has its source on the northern side of the escarpment, southeast of Williston.


title: Northern Cape

text: Further downstream from Kakamas, below the Augrabies Falls, and seldom actually flowing into the Orange River, is the Molopo River, which comes down from the Kalahari in the north. With its tributary, the Nossob River, it defines part of the international boundary between South Africa and Botswana. Further tributaries of the Molopo River include the Kuruman River, fed by the Moshaweng River and Kgokgole River, and the Matlhwaring River.


title: Northern Cape

text: Flowing west into the Atlantic, in Namaqualand, is the Buffels River and, further south, the Groen River.


title: Northern Cape

text: Mostly arid to semiarid, few areas in the province receive more than of rainfall per annum and the average annual rainfall over the province is . Rainfall generally increases from west to east from a minimum average of to a maximum of per year. The west experiences most rainfall in winter, while the east receives most of its moisture from late summer thunderstorms. Many areas experience extreme heat, with the hottest temperatures in South Africa measured along the Namibian border. Summers maximums are generally or higher, sometimes higher than . Winters are usually frosty and clear, with southern areas sometimes becoming bitterly cold, such as Sutherland, which often receives snow and temperatures occasionally drop below the mark.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape Province is divided into five district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 27 local municipalities:


title: Northern Cape

text: As reported by the Northern Cape Provincial Government, unemployment still remains a big issue in the province. Unemployment was reported to be at 24.9% during Q4, 2013. Unemployment also declined from 119,000 in Q4, 2012 to 109,000 in Q4, 2013.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape is also home to the Square Kilometer Array (SKA), which is located 75 km North-West of Carnarvon.


title: Northern Cape

text: The economy of the Northern Cape relies heavily on two sectors, mining and agriculture, which employ 57% (Tertiary Sector) of all employees in the province.


title: Northern Cape

text: Most famous for the diamond mines around Kimberley, it also has mining activities for Manganese and iron ore.


title: Northern Cape

text: The Northern Cape also has a substantial agricultural area around the Orange River, including most of South Africa's sultana vineyards. Some Wine of Origin areas have been demarcated. The Orange River also attracts visitors who enjoy rafting tours around Vioolsdrif. Extensive sheep raising is the basis of the economy in the southern Karoo areas of the province.


title: Northern Cape

text: About 68% of the population are first-language Afrikaans speakers, other primary languages being Setswana, Xhosa and English. To the extent that apartheid-era population classification persists, the majority of the Northern Cape population is characterised as Coloured.


title: Northern Cape

text: People who self-identify as San people, some of whom retain distinct indigenous cultural elements such as Khoisan languages, but no longer subsist by hunting and gathering, live in the Northern Cape.


title: Chinook wind

text: Chinook winds, or simply Chinooks, are two types of prevailing warm, generally westerly winds in western North America: Coastal Chinooks and interior Chinooks. The coastal Chinooks are persistent seasonal, wet, southwesterly winds blowing in from the ocean. The interior Chinooks are occasional warm, dry föhn winds blowing down the eastern sides of interior mountain ranges. The coastal Chinooks were the original term, used along the northwest coast, and the term in the interior of North America is later and derives from the coastal term.


title: Chinook wind

text: In the interior of North America, the Blackfoot people call these winds the "snow eater"; however, the more commonly used term "Chinook" originates from the name of the eponymous Chinook people, who lived near the ocean, along the lower Columbia River, where the term was first derived. The reference to "a Chinook" wind or weather system originally meant, to euro-American settlers along the Pacific Northwest coast, a warming wind from the ocean blowing into the interior regions of the Pacific Northwest of the North America.


title: Chinook wind

text: A strong föhn wind can make snow one foot (30 cm) deep almost vanish in one day. The snow partly sublimates and partly melts and evaporates in the dry wind. Chinook winds have been observed to raise winter temperature, often from below −20 °C (−4°F) to as high as 10–20°C (50–68°F) for a few hours or days, then temperatures plummet to their base levels.


title: Chinook wind

text: "Chinook" is used for coastal Chinook winds in British Columbia, and is the original use of the term, being rooted in the lore of coastal natives and immigrants, and brought to Alberta by French-speaking fur-traders. Such winds are extremely wet and warm and arrive off the western coast of North America from the southwest.


title: Chinook wind

text: These same winds have more recently been called the pineapple express, since they are of tropical origin, roughly from the area of the Pacific near Hawaii.


title: Chinook wind

text: The air associated with a coastal Chinook is stable; this minimizes wind gusts and often keeps winds light in sheltered areas. In exposed areas, fresh gales are frequent during a Chinook, but strong gale- or storm-force winds are uncommon; most of the region's stormy winds come when a fast "westerly" jet stream lets air masses from temperate and subarctic latitudes clash.


title: Chinook wind

text: When a coastal Chinook comes in when an Arctic air mass is holding steady over the coast, the tropical dampness brought in suddenly cools, penetrating the frozen air and coming down in volumes of powder snow, sometimes to sea level. Snowfalls and the cold spells that spawned them only last a few days during a Chinook; as the warm coastal Chinooks blow from the southwest, they push back east the cold Arctic air. The snow melts quickly and is gone within a week.


title: Chinook wind

text: The effects on the Interior of British Columbia when a coastal Chinook is in effect are the reverse. In a rainy spell, most of the heavy moisture will be wrung out of the rising air as a consequence of crossing over the mountain ramparts before the air mass descends (and hence warms and dries) into the Fraser Canyon and the Thompson River-Okanagan area. The effects are similar to those of an Albertan interior Chinook, though not to the same extreme, partly because the Okanagan is relatively warmer than the Prairies, and partly because of the additional number of precipitation-catching mountain ranges between Kelowna and Calgary. When the coastal Chinook brings snow to the coast during a period of coastal cold, bright but chilly weather in the interior will give way to a slushy melting of snow, more due to the warm spell than because of rain.


title: Chinook wind

text: The word "Chinook" remains in common use among local fishermen and people in communities along the British Columbia Coast, and coastal Washington and Oregon, and in particular, the term is used in the Puget Sound area of Washington. Coastal "Chinook" is not pronounced "shin-uk" () as it is in the interior, east of the Cascades, but is in the original coastal pronunciation "chin-uk" ().


title: Chinook wind

text: In British Columbia and other parts of the Pacific Northwest, the word Chinook was predominantly pronounced . However, the common pronunciation current throughout most of the inland Pacific Northwest, Alberta, and the rest of Canada, is , as in French. This difference may be because it was the Métis employees of the Hudson's Bay Company, who were familiar with the Chinook people and country, brought the name east of the Cascades and Rockies, along with their own ethnified pronunciation. Early records are clear that "tshinook" was the original pronunciation, before the word's transmission east of the Rockies.


title: Chinook wind

text: Native legend of the Lil'wat subgroup of the St'at'imc tells of a girl named Chinook-Wind, who married Chinook Glacier, and moved to his country, which was in the area of today's Birkenhead River. She pined for her warm sea-home in the southwest, and sent a message to her people. They came to her in a vision in the form of snowflakes, and told her they were coming to get her. They came in great number and quarrelled with Glacier over her, but they overwhelmed him and in the end she went home with them.


title: Chinook wind

text: While on the one hand this tale tells a tribal family-relations story, and family/tribal history as well, it also seems to be a parable of a typical weather pattern of a southwesterly wind at first bringing snow, then rain, and also of the melting of a glacier, namely the Place Glacier near Gates Lake at Birken. Thus, it also tells of a migration of people to the area – or a war, depending on how the details of the legend might be read, with Chinook-wind taking the part of Helen in a First Nations analogue to the Trojan War.


title: Chinook wind

text: Interior Chinooks are most prevalent over southern Alberta in Canada, especially in a belt from Pincher Creek and Crowsnest Pass through Lethbridge, which get 30–35 Chinook days per year, on average. Interior Chinooks become less frequent further south in the United States, and are not as common north of Red Deer, but they can and do occur annually as far north as High Level in northwestern Alberta and Fort St. John in northeastern British Columbia, and as far south as Las Vegas, Nevada, and occasionally to Carlsbad, in eastern New Mexico.


title: Chinook wind

text: In southwestern Alberta, interior Chinook winds can gust in excess of hurricane force . On 19 November 1962, an especially powerful Chinook in Lethbridge gusted to .


title: Chinook wind

text: In Pincher Creek, the temperature rose by , from , in one hour on 6 January 1966. Trains have been known to be derailed by interior Chinook winds. During the winter, driving can be treacherous, as the wind blows snow across roadways, sometimes causing roads to vanish and snowdrifts to pile up higher than a metre. Empty semitrailer trucks driving along Highway 3 and other routes in southern Alberta have been blown over by the high gusts of wind caused by interior Chinooks.


title: Chinook wind

text: Calgary, Alberta also gets many interior Chinooks – the Bow Valley in the Canadian Rockies west of the city acts as a natural wind tunnel, funneling the chinook winds.


title: Chinook wind

text: On 27 February 1992, Claresholm, Alberta, a small city just south of Calgary, recorded a temperature of ; again, the next day was recorded. These are some of Canada's highest February temperatures.


title: Chinook wind

text: This clash of temperatures can remain stationary, or move back and forth, in the latter case causing such fluctuations as a warm morning, a bitterly cold afternoon, and a warm evening. A curtain of fog often accompanies the clash between warm to the west and cold to the east.


title: Chinook wind

text: Two common cloud patterns seen in the interior during this time are a chinook arch overhead, and a bank of clouds (also referred to as a cloud wall) obscuring the mountains to the west. The bank appears to be an approaching storm, but does not advance any further to the east.


title: Chinook wind

text: One of its most striking features of the interior Chinook weather system is the "Chinook arch", a föhn cloud in the form of a band of stationary stratus clouds, caused by air rippling over the mountains due to orographic lifting. To those unfamiliar with it, the Chinook arch may at times look like a threatening storm cloud, however, the arch clouds rarely produce rain or snow. They can also create stunning sunrises and sunsets.


title: Chinook wind

text: The stunning colors seen in the Chinook arch are quite common. Typically, the colours will change throughout the day, starting with yellow, orange, red, and pink shades in the morning as the sun comes up, grey shades at midday changing to pink / red colours, and then orange / yellow hues just before the sun sets.


title: Chinook wind

text: The interior Chinook is a föhn wind, a rain shadow wind which results from the subsequent adiabatic warming of air which has dropped most of its moisture on windward slopes (orographic lift). As a consequence of the different adiabatic rates of moist and dry air, the air on the leeward slopes becomes warmer than equivalent elevations on the windward slopes.


title: Chinook wind

text: As moist winds from the Pacific (coastal Chinooks) are forced to rise over the mountains, the moisture in the air is condensed and falls out as precipitation, while the air cools at the moist adiabatic rate of The dried air then descends on the leeward side of the mountains, warming at the dry adiabatic rate of


title: Chinook wind

text: The turbulence of the high winds also can prevent the usual nocturnal temperature inversion from forming on the lee side of the slope, allowing night-time temperatures to remain elevated.


title: Chinook wind

text: Quite often, when the Pacific Northwest coast is being drenched by rain, the windward (western) side of the Rockies is being hammered by snow (robbing the air of its moisture), and the leeward (eastern) side of the Rockies in Alberta is basking in a föhn Chinook. The three different weather conditions are all caused by the same flow of air, hence the confusion over the use of the name "Chinook wind".


title: Chinook wind

text: The frequent midwinter thaws by interior Chinooks in Great Plains country are more of a bane than a blessing to gardeners. Plants can be visibly brought out of dormancy by persistent, warm interior Chinook winds, or have their hardiness reduced even if they appear to remain dormant. In either case, they become vulnerable to later cold waves.


title: Chinook wind

text: Many plants which do well at Winnipeg – where constant cold maintains dormancy throughout the winter – are difficult to grow in the Alberta Chinook belt. Examples include basswood, some apple, raspberry, and juneberry varieties, and Amur maples. Native trees in the interior Chinook-affected areas of Alberta are known to be small, with much less growth than the same species growing in areas not affected by interior Chinook winds. This is once again caused by the "off-and-on" dormancy throughout winter.


title: Chinook wind

text: Interior Chinook winds are said to sometimes cause a sharp increase in the number of migraine headaches suffered by the locals. At least one study conducted by the department of clinical neurosciences at the University of Calgary supports that belief. They are popularly believed to increase irritability and sleeplessness.


title: Chinook wind

text: In mid-winter over major centres such as Calgary, interior Chinooks can often override cold air in the city, trapping the pollutants in the cold air and causing inversion smog. At such times, it is possible for it to be cold at street level and much warmer at the tops of the skyscrapers and in higher terrain. In 1983, on the 45th floor [about 145 m (460 ft) above the street] of the Petro-Canada Center, carpenters worked shirtless in +12 °C, windy conditions (temperature reported to them by overhead crane operator), but were chagrined to find out the street temperature was still −20 °C as they left work at 3:30  that afternoon.


title: Chinook wind

text: In the North American western interior, winds that are generally called föhn winds by meteorologists and climatologists are called 'Chinooks'. Regardless of the name, föhns can occur on the leeward side of any nearby mountain range. The föhns called 'Chinook winds' are seen throughout most of inland western North America, particularly the Rocky Mountain region. Montana especially has a significant amount of föhn winds throughout much of the state during the winter months, but particularly coming off the Rocky Mountain Front in the northern and west-central areas of the state.


title: Chinook wind

text: On rare occasions, Chinook winds generated on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains have reached as far east as Wisconsin.


title: Chinook wind

text: Loma, Montana has the world record for the most extreme temperature change in a 24-hour period. On January 15, 1972, the temperature increased from −54 °F to 49 °F (−48 °C to 9 °C), a 103 °F (58 °C) change in temperature.


title: Chinook wind

text: Spearfish, South Dakota holds the world record for the fastest increase in temperature. On January 22, 1943, the temperature increased from −4 °F to 45 °F (−20 °C to 7 °C), a 49 °F (27 °C) change in temperature. This occurred in just 2 minutes.


title: Chinook wind

text: Rapid City, South Dakota holds the world record for the fastest decrease in temperature. On January 10, 1911, the temperature decreased from 60 °F to 13 °F (16 °C to −11 °C), a 47 °F (26.1 °C) change in temperature.


title: Chinook wind

text: The resulting outflow wind is more or less the opposite of British Columbia / Pacific Northwest coastal Chinook. These are called a squamish in certain areas, rooted in the direction of such winds coming down out of Howe Sound, home to the Squamish people, and in Alaska are called a "williwaw". They consist of cold airstreams from the continental air mass pouring out of the interior plateau via certain river valleys and canyons penetrating the Coast Mountains towards the coast.


title: Chinook wind

text: A similar, local föhn wind regularly occurs in the Cook Inlet region in Alaska, as air moves over the Chugach Mountains between Prince William Sound and Portage Glacier. Anchorage residents often believe the warm winds which melt snow and leave their streets slushy and muddy are a midwinter gift from Hawaii, following a common mistake that the warm winds come from the same place as the similar winds near the coasts in southern British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon.


title: Spirit level

text: A spirit level, bubble level, or simply a level, is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). Different types of spirit levels may be used by carpenters, stonemasons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, surveyors, millwrights and other metalworkers, and in some photographic or videographic work.


title: Spirit level

text: Early tubular spirit levels had very slightly curved glass vials with constant inner diameter at each viewing point. These vials are incompletely filled with a liquid, usually a colored spirit or alcohol, leaving a bubble in the tube. They have a slight upward curve, so that the bubble naturally rests in the center, the highest point. At slight inclinations the bubble travels away from the marked center position. Where a spirit level must also be usable upside-down or on its side, the curved constant-diameter tube is replaced by an uncurved barrel-shaped tube with a slightly larger diameter in its middle.


title: Spirit level

text: Alcohols such as ethanol are often used rather than water. Alcohols have low viscosity and surface tension, which allows the bubble to travel the tube quickly and settle accurately with minimal interference from the glass surface. Alcohols also have a much wider liquid temperature range, and will not break the vial as water could due to ice expansion. A colorant such as fluorescein, typically yellow or green, may be added to increase the visibility of the bubble.


title: Spirit level

text: A variant of the linear spirit level is the bull's eye level: a circular, flat-bottomed device with the liquid under a slightly convex glass face with a circle at the center. It serves to level a surface across a plane, while the tubular level only does so in the direction of the tube.


title: Spirit level

text: To check the accuracy of a carpenter's type level, a perfectly horizontal surface is not needed. The level is placed on a flat and roughly level surface and the reading on the bubble tube is noted. This reading indicates to what extent the surface is parallel to the horizontal plane, according to the level, which at this stage is of unknown accuracy. The spirit level is then rotated through 180 degrees in the horizontal plane, and another reading is noted. If the level is accurate, it will indicate the same orientation with respect to the horizontal plane. A difference implies that the level is inaccurate.


title: Spirit level

text: Adjustment of the spirit level is performed by successively rotating the level and moving the bubble tube within its housing to take up roughly half of the discrepancy, until the magnitude of the reading remains constant when the level is flipped.


title: Spirit level

text: A similar procedure is applied to more sophisticated instruments such as a surveyor's optical level or a theodolite and is a matter of course each time the instrument is set up. In this latter case, the plane of rotation of the instrument is levelled, along with the spirit level. This is done in two horizontal perpendicular directions.


title: Spirit level

text: Sensitivity is an important specification for a spirit level, as the device's accuracy depends on its sensitivity. The sensitivity of a level is given as the change of angle or gradient required to move the bubble by unit distance. If the bubble housing has graduated divisions, then the sensitivity is the angle or gradient change that moves the bubble by one of these divisions. is the usual spacing for graduations; on a surveyor's level, the bubble will move when the vial is tilted about 0.005 degree. For a precision machinist level with divisions, when the vial is tilted one division, the level will change one foot from the pivot point, referred to by machinists as 5 tenths per foot. This terminology is unique to machinists and indicates a length of 5 tenths "of" 1 thousandth of an inch.