title: High Speed 1

text: In February 2006, there were rumours that a 'third party' (believed to be a consortium headed by banker Sir Adrian Montague) had expressed an interest in buying out the present partners in the project. LCR shareholders rejected the proposal, and the government, which could effectively overrule shareholders' decisions as a result of LCR's reclassification as a state-owned body, decided that discussions with shareholders would not take place imminently, which effectively backed shareholders' views on the proposed takeover.


title: High Speed 1

text: By May 2009, LCR had become insolvent, and the government received an agreement to use state aid to purchase the line and to open it up to competition to allow other services to use it apart from Eurostar. LCR's wholly owned subsidiary, HS1 Ltd, thus became the property of the Secretary of State for Transport. On 12 October 2009 a proposal was announced to sell £16 billion of state assets including HS1 Ltd in the following two years to cut UK public debt. The government announced on 5 November 2010 that a concession to operate the line for thirty years had been sold for £2.1 billion to a consortium of Canadian investors. Under the concession, HS1 Ltd has the rights to sell access to track and to the four international stations (St Pancras, Stratford, Ebbsfleet and Ashford) on a commercial basis, under the scrutiny of the Office of Rail & Road. At the end of thirty years, ownership of the assets will revert to the government.


title: High Speed 1

text: The cost of construction was £6.84 billion. At £51 million per mile, this was higher than other projects in many other countries. The French LGV Est, a line built largely through near-flat fields (save for the Saverne Tunnel) and which terminates outside its urban centres (Vaires-sur-Marne for Paris and Vendenheim for Strasbourg) cost £22 million per mile. Its phase one was completed in 2007 and phase two in 2016.


title: High Speed 1

text: The high-speed railway operates as a "seven-day railway", with full availability on all days. Heavy maintenance is performed overnight.


title: High Speed 1

text: , track access charges were capped at approximate £71.35 per minute. In 2008, the cost of running a train along the full length of the line between St Pancras and the Channel Tunnel was £2,244; with lower costs of £2,192 for a domestic service to Ashford International, or £1,044 for St Pancras to Ebbsfleet International. A discounted rate of £4.00 per kilometre was made available for night-time-only railfreight operation until 31 March 2015.


title: High Speed 1

text: "Section 1" of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, opened on 28 September 2003, is a section of high-speed track from the Channel Tunnel to Fawkham Junction in north Kent with a maximum speed of 300km/h. Its completion cut the London–Paris journey time by around 21minutes, to 2hours 35minutes. The line includes the Medway Viaduct, a 1.2km (¾mile) bridge over the River Medway, and the North Downs Tunnel, a long, diameter tunnel. In safety testing on the section prior to opening, a new UK rail speed record of was set. Much of the new line runs alongside the M2 and M20 motorways through Kent. After its completion, Eurostar trains continued to use suburban lines to enter London, arriving at Waterloo International.


title: High Speed 1

text: Unlike most LGV stations in France, the through tracks for Ashford International station are off to one side rather than going through, partly because the station pre-dates the line. High Speed 1 approaches Ashford International from the north in a cut-and-cover "box"; the southbound line rises out of this cutting and crosses over the main tracks to enter the station. The main tracks then rise out of the cutting and over a flyover. On leaving Ashford, southbound Eurostars return to the high-speed line by travelling under this flyover and joining from the outside. The international platforms at Ashford are supplied with both overhead 25kVAC and third-rail 750VDC power, avoiding the need to switch power supplies.


title: High Speed 1

text: "Section 2" of the project opened on 14 November 2007, and is a stretch of track from the newly built Ebbsfleet station in Kent to London St Pancras. Completion of the section cut journey times by a further 20minutes (London–Paris in 2hours 15minutes; London–Brussels in 1hour 51minutes). The route starts with a tunnel which dives under the Thames on the edge of Swanscombe, then runs alongside the London, Tilbury and Southend line as far as Dagenham, where it enters a tunnel (), much of which is directly under the North London Line, before emerging over the East Coast Main Line near St Pancras. The tunnels are divided into "London East" and "London West" sections, between which a 1-kilometre stretch runs close to the surface to serve Stratford International and the Temple Mills Depot. The new depot, to the north of Stratford, replaced the North Pole depot in the west of London. In testing, the first Eurostar train ran into St Pancras on 6 March 2007. All CTRL connections are fully grade-separated.


title: High Speed 1

text: This station was rebuilt as Ashford International during the early 1990s for international services from mainland Europe; this included the addition of two platforms to the north of station (the original down island platform had been taken over by international services). Unlike normal LGV stations in France, the through tracks for Ashford International railway station are off to one side rather than going through. The number of services was reduced after the opening of the Ebbsfleet station. A high-speed domestic service operated by Southeastern to London St Pancras began on 29 June 2009.


title: High Speed 1

text: Ebbsfleet International railway station in the borough of Dartford, Kent is outside the eastern boundary of Greater London and opened to the public on 19 November 2007. It is now Eurostar's main station in Kent. Two of the platforms are designed for international passenger trains and four for high-speed domestic services.


title: High Speed 1

text: The terminus for the high-speed line in London is St Pancras railway station. During the 2000s, towards the end of the construction of the CTRL, the entire station complex was renovated, expanded and rebranded as St Pancras International, with a new security-sealed terminal area for Eurostar trains to continental Europe. In addition, it retained traditional domestic connections to the north and south of England. The new extension doubled the length of the central platforms now used for Eurostar services; new platforms have been provided for existing domestic East Midlands Trains and the Southeastern high-speed services that run along High Speed 1 to Kent. New platforms on the Thameslink line across London were built beneath the western margins of the station, and the station at King's Cross Thameslink was closed.


title: High Speed 1

text: A complex junction has been built north of St Pancras with connections to the East Coast Main Line, North London Line (for West Coast Main Line) and Midland Main Line, allowing for a wide variety of potential destinations albeit on conventional rails. As part of the works, tunnels connecting the East Coast Main Line to the Thameslink route were also built in readiness for the forthcoming Thameslink Programme.


title: High Speed 1

text: Stratford International railway station was not part of the original government plans for the CTRL. Despite its name, no international services call there.


title: High Speed 1

text: Completed in April 2006, it opened on 30 November 2009 when the domestic preview Southeastern highspeed services started calling there. An extension of the Docklands Light Railway opened to Stratford International in August 2011. It forms part of the complex of railway stations for the main site where the 2012 Summer Olympics were held.


title: High Speed 1

text: Temple Mills Depot in Leyton is used for storage and servicing of Eurostar trains and off-peak berthing of Class 395 Southeastern high-speed trains.


title: High Speed 1

text: Both track and signalling technology (TVM-430 + KVB) are based on or identical to the standards used on the French LGV high-speed lines. The areas around St Pancras and Gare du Nord use colour light and KVB signalling with the whole of the high-speed route to Paris (CTRL, Channel Tunnel, LGV Nord) using TVM-430. Traffic between London and the Channel Tunnel is controlled from the Ashford signalling centre. Signalling tests before opening were performed by the SNCF-owned "Lucie" test car.


title: High Speed 1

text: The track is cleared to a larger modern European GC loading gauge enabling GC gauge freight as far as the yards at Barking. The line is electrified entirely using overhead lines with 25 kV AC railway electrification.


title: High Speed 1

text: After local protests, early plans were modified to put more of the route into tunnels up until a point approximately from St Pancras. Previously the CTRL was planned to run on an elevated section alongside the North London Line on approach into the line's terminus. The twin tunnels bored under London were driven from Stratford westwards towards St Pancras, eastwards towards Dagenham and from Dagenham westwards to connect with the tunnel from Stratford. The tunnel boring machines were long and weighed 1,100 tonnes. The depth of the tunnels varies from .


title: High Speed 1

text: The construction works were complex, and many contractors were involved in delivering them. The CTRL Section 2 construction works had caused considerable disruption around the Kings Cross area of London; in their wake redevelopment was stimulated. The large redevelopment area includes the run-down areas of post-industrial and ex-railway land close to King's Cross and St Pancras, a conservation area with many listed buildings; this was promoted as one of the benefits for building the CTRL. It has been postulated that this development was actually suppressed by the construction project, and some affected districts were said still to be in a poor state in 2005.


title: High Speed 1

text: A connecting line providing access for Waterloo International leaves High Speed 1 at Southfleet Junction using a grade-separated junction; the main CTRL tracks continue uninterrupted through to CTRL Section 2 underneath the southbound flyover. The connection joins the Chatham Main Line at Fawkham Junction with a flat crossing. The retention of Eurostar services to Waterloo after the line to St Pancras opened was ruled out on cost grounds. Waterloo International closed upon opening of the section two of the CTRL in November 2007; Eurostar now serves the refurbished St Pancras as its only London terminal, so this connecting line is no longer used in regular service, but can be used by Class 395 passenger trains.


title: High Speed 1

text: International passenger services on this line are operated by Eurostar, with maximum speed 300km/h, while domestic passenger services are operated by Southeastern as far as Ashford International, with maximum speed 225km/h.


title: High Speed 1

text: High Speed 1 was built to allow eight trains per hour through to the Channel Tunnel. As of May 2014, Eurostar runs two to three trains per hour in each direction between London and the Channel Tunnel. Southeastern runs in the high peak eight trains per hour between London and Ebbsfleet, two of these continuing to Ashford. During the 2012 Olympic Games, Southeastern provided the Olympic Javelin service with up to twelve trains per hour from Stratford into London.


title: High Speed 1

text: The route was built with freight provision from the beginning. It has spurs leading to and from the freight terminal at Dollands Moor (Folkestone) and the freight depot at Barking (Ripple Lane), north of the River Thames. Long passing loops to hold freight trains while passenger trains overtake them were built at Lenham Heath and Singlewell.


title: High Speed 1

text: Freight trains operated by EWS first ran over CTRL Section 1, on the consecutive evenings of 3–4 April 2004. Five freight trains that would have run via the classic lines were diverted to run over the Channel Tunnel Rail Link instead: three southbound intermodal trains on 3 April 2004 and two northbound intermodal trains on 4 April 2004.


title: High Speed 1

text: In November 2010, the HS1 concession was awarded for a duration of thirty years to an investment consortium bringing together two Canadian public pension funds: Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement System (through its subsidiary Borealis Infrastructure), and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan.


title: High Speed 1

text: At the time, UK pension investors had generally limited interest in such long-term, illiquid, 'infrastructure assets'.


title: High Speed 1

text: In 2017, the sale of HS1 was announced to funds advised and managed by InfraRed Capital Partners and Equitix Investment Management; participants include HICL Infrastructure and South Korea's National Pension Service.


title: High Speed 1

text: The railway is operated on an open access basis. Trains are operated by several organisations all operating over the same track. HS1 Ltd. is the network manager for the line, stations, and other infrastructure.


title: High Speed 1

text: HS1 Ltd is responsible for overall managing and running of the line – along with the international railway stations at St Pancras, Stratford, Ashford and Ebbsfleet – with responsibility for the infrastructure itself sub-contracted to Network Rail (High Speed) Ltd (formerly known as Network Rail (CTRL) acting as the controller and infrastructure manager. Network Rail (CTRL) Limited was created as a subsidiary of Network Rail on 26 September 2003 for £57 million to take over the assets of the CTRL renewal and maintenance operations. Network Rail (High Speed) operates engineering, track maintenance machines, rescue locomotives, and infrastructure- and test trains. Eurotunnel's subsidiary Europorte 2 operates its Eurotunnel Class 0001 (Krupp/MaK 6400) rescue locomotives on the line when required.


title: High Speed 1

text: Various track recording trains run as necessary, including visits by the New Measurement Train. On the night of 4/5 May 2011 the SNCF TGV Iris 320 laboratory train took over, being hauled from Coquelles to St Pancras and back, towed by Eurotunnel Krupp locomotives numbers 4 and 5. The Iris 320 runs for Network Rail (High Speed) are an extension of the monitoring cycle already undertaken by SNCF International since December 2010 for Eurotunnel every two months.


title: High Speed 1

text: The Eurostar service uses about 40% of the capacity of High Speed 1, which in November 2007 became the company's route for all its services. Eurostar trains are for international traffic only, passing along the high-speed line from London St Pancras railway station to the Channel Tunnel, with the majority terminating at either Paris Gare du Nord in France or Brussels-South railway station in Belgium. A Eurostar train was used to set a new British rail speed record of on 30 July 2003. Prior to the formation of Eurostar International Limited, the British component of the Eurostar grouping was owned by London & Continental Railways, which had also previously owned the High Speed 1 infrastructure.


title: High Speed 1

text: The fastest regular-service Eurostar journeys on record are 2 hours, 3 minutes and 39 seconds from Paris Gare du Nord to St Pancras, set on 4 September 2007; and 1 hour 43 minutes from Brussels South to St Pancras, set on 19 September 2007.


title: High Speed 1

text: Domestic high-speed services on High Speed 1 are operated by Southeastern. Having been in planning since 2004, a preview service of the British Rail Class 395 trains, popularly known as "Javelins", started in June 2009, and regular services began on 13 December 2009. The quickest journey time from Ashford to London St Pancras is 35 minutes, compared with 80 minutes for the service to London Charing Cross via Tonbridge. This service on Section 2 of the CTRL, known previously as CTRL-DS, was a factor in London's successful 2012 Olympic Bid, promising a seven-minute journey time from the Olympic Park at Stratford to the London terminus at St Pancras.


title: High Speed 1

text: DB Cargo is a global freight operator with a large interest in freight over rail in Europe. While High Speed 1 was constructed with freight loops, no freight traffic had run upon the line since opening in 2003. On 16 April 2009 DB Schenker signed an agreement with HS1 Ltd, the owner of High Speed 1, for a partnership to develop TVM modifications for class 92 freight locomotives to run on the line. On 25 March 2011 for the first time a modified class 92 locomotive travelled from Dollands Moor to Singlewell using the TVM430 signalling system. A loaded container train ran for the first time on 27 May 2011, to Novara in Italy. Following further trials with loaded wagons DB is to upgrade five Class 92 locomotives to allow them to run on High Speed 1. From 11 November 2011 a weekly service using European-sized swap body containers has run between London and Poland using High Speed 1.


title: High Speed 1

text: At present, only Deutsche Bahn (DB) has applied for use of the line and in 2009, regulations were relaxed to allow its trains to use the Channel Tunnel. Other proposals are yet to be formalised.


title: High Speed 1

text: In November 2007, it was reported that DB, Germany's national train company, had applied to use the Channel Tunnel and High Speed 1 into London. This was denied by Deutsche Bahn, and the bi-national Channel Tunnel Safety Authority confirmed that it had not received such an application. The plan was delayed by safety regulations as Deutsche Bahn's fleet of ICE 3M high-speed trains could not be divided in the tunnel in an emergency.


title: High Speed 1

text: In December 2008, it was reported that DB was interested in buying the British share in Eurostar, which in practice means buying Eurostar (UK) Ltd., the 100% subsidiary of London & Continental Railways (LCR), which the British government intends to break up and sell just as it does the other rail-related subsidiary of L&CR, HS1 Ltd. The buyer of EUKL would become the owner of the 11 British "Three Capitals" Class 373 trainsets plus all seven "North of London" sets, and would also be responsible for the operations of Eurostar traffic within Britain once the management contract with ICRR expires in 2010. Guillaume Pépy, the president of SNCF, who held a press conference the same day, described DB's interest as "premature, presumptuous and arrogant".


title: High Speed 1

text: SNCF claims to own 62% of the shares of Eurostar Group Ltd. Hartmut Mehdorn, then CEO of Deutsche Bahn, confirmed DB's interest but insisted in a letter to Pépy that DB had only informally requested information and not made any official requests to Britain's Department for Transport.


title: High Speed 1

text: In 2009, Eurotunnel (the owners of the Channel Tunnel) announced that it was prepared to start relaxing the fire safety regulations, in order to permit other operators, such as Deutsche Bahn, to transport passengers via the Tunnel using other forms of rolling stock. Under the deregulation of European railway service, high-speed lines were opened up to access by other operators on 1 January 2010; the Inter-Governmental Commission on the Channel Tunnel (IGC) announced that it was considering relaxing the safety requirements concerning train splitting. LCR suggested that high-speed rail services between London and Cologne could commence before the 2012 Olympics.


title: High Speed 1

text: In March 2010, Eurotunnel, HS1 Ltd, DB and other interested train operators formed a working group to discuss changes to the safety rules, including allowing 200-metre trains. The Intergovernmental Commission currently requires trains to be 400 m long. Deutsche Bahn carried out evacuation trials in the tunnel on 17 October 2010 with two 200m-long ICE3 trains, and displayed one of them at St Pancras station on 19 October. The current Velaro ICE3 sets do not meet the fire safety requirements for passenger services through the tunnel, but the Siemens Velaro D sets on order include the necessary additional fire-proofing. In March 2011, the European Rail Agency decided to allow trains with distributed traction to operate in the Channel Tunnel. DB is planning three services a day to Frankfurt (5h from London), Rotterdam (3h) and Amsterdam (4h) via Brussels from 2015. This had originally planned to be 2013, but has been delayed due to the availability of the Channel Tunnel version of the Siemens Velaro D trains, high rental costs of the French rail network and border controls in their stations. As of 2016, nothing yet has come to fruition, but the High Speed One website continues to state that "HS1 Ltd are working with Deutsche Bahn on plans to incorporate three additional international return journeys, between Frankfurt and London via Cologne, Brussels and Lille. This will include connections from Amsterdam via Rotterdam to London."


title: High Speed 1

text: In March 2017, it was announced that Deutsche Bahn had revived plans for a London to Frankfurt train service with the service beginning as early as 2020. The service would take around five hours and could rival airlines and become the first competitor for Eurostar. However, in June 2018, Deutsche Bahn stated the plans have been shelved due to a "significantly changed economic environment".


title: High Speed 1

text: In 2009, Veolia announced that it would begin working on new proposals in co-operation with Trenitalia to run services from Paris to Strasbourg, London and Brussels.


title: High Speed 1

text: Spanish railway operator RENFE said in 2009 that it was interested in running AVE services from Spain to London via Paris, Lyon, Barcelona, Madrid and Lisbon (using the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line) once its AVE network was connected to France via the Barcelona to Figueres and Perpignan to Figueres lines in 2012.


title: High Speed 1

text: In October 2021, Renfe announced that It intends to operate high-speed trains between Paris and London using the Channel Tunnel and High Speed 1. A Renfe spokesperson has said that there are possible options available on the high-speed route for additional trains to operate. “According to the demand analyses carried out, it would be viable and profitable for Renfe to compete with Eurostar.” The rail company claims it had already received support from Getlink – the European company that operates the Channel tunnel – and from HS1, which owns, runs and maintains the 109km rail line between the Channel tunnel and London.


title: High Speed 1

text: In August 2018, "Bloomberg Businessweek" reported that Getlink is interested in setting up an Ouigo-style low cost high speed rail service between London and Paris, travelling between the railway stations of Stratford International and Charles-de-Gaulle.


title: High Speed 1

text: It was revealed in March 2020 that High Speed 1 Ltd, along with SNCF and Lisea, are looking for an operator for a future London St PancrasBordeaux St Jean train service.


title: Negative Man

text: Negative Man is a superhero from DC Comics. The character was created by Bob Haney, Arnold Drake, and Bruno Premiani and made his first appearance in "My Greatest Adventure" #80 (June 1963).


title: Negative Man

text: Negative Man has appeared in numerous cartoon television shows and films, such as guest appearances in "Teen Titans", in which he is voiced by Judge Reinhold, and the DC Universe series "Titans", performed by Dwain Murphy and voiced by Matt Bomer; as well as a starring role in the HBO Max spin-off series, "Doom Patrol", with Matthew Zuk taking over from Murphy and voiced again by Bomer.


title: Negative Man

text: The Larry Trainor version of Negative Man first appeared in "My Greatest Adventure" #80 and was created by Bob Haney, Arnold Drake, and Bruno Premiani. Drake recalled:


title: Negative Man

text: The original Negative Man, Larry Trainor, is a founding member of the Doom Patrol, along with Elasti-Girl, Robotman, and Chief. Like the rest of the Doom Patrol, Trainor sees himself as a victim as much as a hero, and his superpower as an affliction rather than a blessing.


title: Negative Man

text: Trainor's career as a superhero begins when he is accidentally exposed to a radioactive field in the atmosphere while piloting a test plane. This experience leaves him radioactive, but also gives him a strange superpower: the ability to release a negatively charged energy being from his body; the being, also referred to as Negative Man, or, later, as the Negative Spirit, can fly at high speed, cause solid objects to explode, and pass through solid materials. It resembles a shadowy silhouette of a human being, surrounded by a bright glow. The being is under Trainor's control and appears at first to have no mind of its own. But Trainor is weak and defenseless while the being is separated from his body; he can only send it forth for 60 seconds at a time without risking death. After his accident, Trainor resembles the Invisible Man; he is forced to wear specially treated bandages over his entire body to protect bystanders from his radioactivity.


title: Negative Man

text: Sales of "Doom Patrol" had waned, and the creative team chose to kill off the entire team, including Negative Man, in the final issue, "Doom Patrol" (vol. 2) #121 (September–October 1968). The Doom Patrol sacrificed their lives to Madame Rouge and General Zahl (who pushed the actual kill button) to save the small fishing village of Codsville, Maine.


title: Negative Man

text: Later, it was revealed that Larry Trainor somehow (never explained) survived the explosion. He turned up alive, permanently separated from the radio energy being, but still radioactive, bandaged, and weak in its absence.


title: Negative Man

text: In "Showcase" #94 (September 1977), the Negative Spirit reappears when it possesses a Russian cosmonaut, Colonel Valentina Vostok, who becomes Negative Woman. Initially, Vostok could transform herself into a radio-energy form, possessing the same capabilities as Trainor's "partner". Later, as with Trainor, it would emerge from her leaving her physically weak but in control of it and requiring her to wear special bandages just as Trainor had. After Trainor's return, he gains strength from being in Vostok's presence and pleads with her to return the negative being to him. He later breaks Reactron out of Belle Reve Penitentiary and after fitting him with a regulator, uses him to successfully draw the negative being out of Vostok. During an encounter with Garguax, the negative being is disrupted and returns to Vostok, but saves Trainor and in the process heals Trainor completely removing all radioactivity from his body. After this, Trainor works with the Patrol in a support capacity but occasionally enters combat using high tech weaponry.


title: Negative Man

text: Trainor has since been reunited with the energy being and is an active member of the current incarnation of the Doom Patrol.


title: Negative Man

text: Recently, Larry has exhibited the ability to cover himself in the negative energy that's inside him instead of releasing it, thus gaining the same powers that the negative spirit has shown. Larry's inner monologue says that it's making him feel a "burning sensation" ("Doom Patrol" (vol. 5) #9).


title: Negative Man

text: The Negative Spirit later reveals itself to be amoral, intelligent, and capable of speech. Trainor pleads with it to leave him alone, but it forcefully merges itself with both Trainor and his physician Dr. Eleanor Poole. Together the three entities form Rebis, a divine intersex person, who, again, must wear special bandages. Rebis has all of the memories of all three beings, and is as such a compound being, frequently using "we" when speaking of itself. Rebis has a larger range of powers than those of either Trainor or Vostok; Rebis can fly, is psychic, is extraordinarily intelligent, and, most significantly, is immortal. Rebis' unique life cycle is based on an event called the Aenigma Regis, in which it throws off its old body and gives birth to a new version of itself; in describing its paradoxical existence, Rebis often likens itself to Russian dolls, and to an ouroboros.


title: Negative Man

text: Rebis temporarily leaves the Doom Patrol to mate with itself and complete the Aenigma Regis; part of this process involves working through the significant trauma and inner turmoil caused by the death of Trainor and Poole's separate identities. At some point during this absence, Rebis also has intercourse with Coagula, giving her superpowers. Rebis's old body is killed by the Candlemaker, but Rebis' new, presumably harmonized body soon returns to see the Candlemaker defeated.


title: Negative Man

text: In 2004, the "Doom Patrol" was rebooted in a "JLA" storyline and new "Doom Patrol" series, both written and illustrated by John Byrne. In this version of the Doom Patrol, which ignored previous continuity, Trainor is once again Negative Man (although his negative-energy form now has the appearance of a black skeleton instead of a shadowy humanoid shape). After this series was canceled, the miniseries "Infinite Crisis" explained that this alteration had been caused by Superboy-Prime's attempts to escape from the extradimensional "heaven" he shared with Alexander Luthor and the Superman and Lois Lane of Earth-Two. When the Doom Patrol joins other heroes in fighting Superboy-Prime, Negative Man and the other Doom Patrol members (including former member Beast Boy) begin recalling their previous lives; all previous incarnations of the Doom Patrol are now in continuity, although the exact details of what this means are not yet clear.


title: Negative Man

text: Larry Trainor is once again a member of Doom Patrol. The negative energy being can now exist apart from Trainor's body for much longer than 60 seconds. During the "Blackest Night", he fights against Black Lantern Valentina Vostok, pitting his Negative Spirit against the corrupt Black Lantern version and starts convulsing in pain after absorbing both entities. Managing to take control of them, he sends them into Valentina, overloading her and destroying her ring. However, when he recovers, he cannot repeat the same attack against Black Lantern Cliff Steele before Black Lanterns Celsius and Tempest attack. Robotman comments that the combined form of both entities is partially similar to Rebis.


title: Negative Man

text: It is revealed that Larry’s original body was destroyed in the Codsville explosion and that the "Negative" is in fact Larry (mind, consciousness, and soul); when he found himself without a physical body, Larry took solace in Valentina Vostok, but only temporarily, until The Chief cloned him a new body. When one of the bodies expires, Larry takes residence in a genetically altered, brain-dead donor body. In the transaction Larry obtains the memories and experiences of every host and the experience can be maddening to him, so Larry constantly reminds himself that he is Larry Trainor.


title: Negative Man

text: While part of Caulder's second wave of the Doom Patrol, Negative Man and the team went on a mission to capture the Ring of Volthoom which had attached itself onto a woman named Jessica Cruz. Their mission put them in opposition to the Justice League, but was revealed by Lex Luthor that Niles caused Larry and every one else on the team's respective accidents, forcing them to lose morale and give up.


title: Negative Man

text: Some time later, Larry was mysteriously beamed to what was known as "The Negative Space" and separated from his negative spirit Keeg Bovo. After being sent back to Earth, Larry was reunited with his fellow former Doom and contacted by Keeg Bovo, who invited Larry to return to the Negative Space for trial. Trainor, Bovo, and Robotman went to the Negative Space and, despite Trainor being sentenced to continue being connected to Bovo, Robotman talked the council out of their decision, stating it was only fair for Larry to decide if he wanted to continue the connection or be normal. Larry chose to continue being Negative Man and accepted Bovo, knowing that in this way he could continue helping people. As a parting gift, the council modifies his abilities so that whenever the Negative Spirit is released and Larry is unconscious he experiences an entire normal human lifecycle, as a way to allow him to have the chance to feel normal. Many different negative spirits are seen at the trial.


title: GPS signals

text: GPS signals are broadcast by Global Positioning System satellites to enable satellite navigation. Receivers on or near the Earth's surface can determine location, time, and velocity using this information. The GPS satellite constellation is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2SOPS) of Space Delta 8, United States Space Force.


title: GPS signals

text: GPS signals include ranging signals, used to measure the distance to the satellite, and navigation messages. The navigation messages include "ephemeris" data, used to calculate the position of each satellite in orbit, and information about the time and status of the entire satellite constellation, called the "almanac".


title: GPS signals

text: There are four GPS signal specifications designed for civilian use. In order of date of introduction, these are: L1 C/A, L2C, L5 and L1C. L1 C/A is also called the "legacy signal" and is broadcast by all currently operational satellites. L2C, L5 and L1C are "modernized signals," and only broadcast by newer satellites (or not yet at all), and , none are yet considered to be fully operational for civilian use. In addition, there are "restricted signals" with published frequencies and chip rates but encrypted coding intended to be used only by authorized parties. Some limited use of restricted signals can still be made by civilians without decryption; this is called "codeless" and "semi-codeless" access, and is officially supported.


title: GPS signals

text: The interface to the User Segment (GPS receivers) is described in the Interface Control Documents (ICD). The format of civilian signals is described in the Interface Specification (IS) which is a subset of the ICD.


title: GPS signals

text: The GPS satellites (called "space vehicles" in the GPS interface specification documents) transmit simultaneously several ranging codes and navigation data using binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).


title: GPS signals

text: Only a limited number of central frequencies are used; satellites using the same frequency are distinguished by using different ranging codes; in other words, GPS uses code-division multiple access. The ranging codes are also called "chipping codes" (in reference to CDMA/DSSS), "pseudorandom noise" and "pseudorandom binary sequences" (in reference to the fact that it is predictable, but statistically it resembles noise).


title: GPS signals

text: Some satellites transmit several BPSK streams at the same frequency in quadrature, in a form of quadrature amplitude modulation. However, unlike typical QAM systems where a single bit stream is split in two half-symbol-rate bit streams to improve spectral efficiency, in GPS signals the in-phase and quadrature components are modulated by separate (but functionally related) bit streams.


title: GPS signals

text: Satellites are uniquely identified by a serial number called "space vehicle number" (SVN) which does not change during its lifetime. In addition, all operating satellites are numbered with a "space vehicle identifier" (SV ID) and "pseudorandom noise number" (PRN number) which uniquely identifies the ranging codes that a satellite uses. There is a fixed one-to-one correspondence between SV identifiers and PRN numbers described in the interface specification. Unlike SVNs, the SV ID/PRN number of a satellite may be changed (also changing the ranging codes it uses). At any point in time, any SV ID/PRN number is in use by at most a single satellite. A single SV ID/PRN number may have been used by several satellites at different points in time and a single satellite may have used different SV ID/PRN numbers at different points in time. The current SVNs and PRN numbers for the GPS constellation may be found at NAVCEN.


title: GPS signals

text: The original GPS design contains two ranging codes: the "coarse/acquisition" (C/A) code, which is freely available to the public, and the restricted "precision" (P) code, usually reserved for military applications.


title: GPS signals

text: The C/A PRN codes are Gold codes with a period of 1023 chips transmitted at 1.023 Mchip/s, causing the code to repeat every 1 millisecond. They are exclusive-ored with a 50 bit/s navigation message and the result phase modulates the carrier as previously described. These codes only match up, or strongly autocorrelate when they are almost exactly aligned. Each satellite uses a unique PRN code, which does not correlate well with any other satellite's PRN code. In other words, the PRN codes are highly orthogonal to one another. The 1 ms period of the C/A code corresponds to 299.8 km of distance, and each chip corresponds to a distance of 293 m. (Receivers track these codes well within one chip of accuracy, so measurement errors are considerably smaller than 293 m.)


title: GPS signals

text: The C/A codes are generated by combining (using "exclusive or") 2-bit streams generated by maximal period 10 stage linear-feedback shift registers (LFSR). Different codes are obtained by selectively delaying one of those bit streams. Thus:


title: GPS signals

text: The arguments of the functions therein are the number of "bits" or "chips" since their epochs, starting at 0. The epoch of the LFSRs is the point at which they are at the initial state; and for the overall C/A codes it is the start of any UTC second plus any integer number of milliseconds. The output of LFSRs at negative arguments is defined consistent with the period which is 1,023 chips (this provision is necessary because "B" may have a negative argument using the above equation).


title: GPS signals

text: The delay for PRN numbers 34 and 37 is the same; therefore their C/A codes are identical and are not transmitted at the same time (it may make one or both of those signals unusable due to mutual interference depending on the relative power levels received on each GPS receiver).


title: GPS signals

text: The P-code is a PRN sequence much longer than the C/A code: 6.187104 · 10 chips (773,388 MByte). Even though the P-code chip rate (10.23 Mchips/s) is ten times that of the C/A code, it repeats only once per week, eliminating range ambiguity. It was assumed that receivers could not directly acquire such a long and fast code so they would first "bootstrap" themselves with the C/A code to acquire the spacecraft ephemerides, produce an approximate time and position fix, and then acquire the P-code to refine the fix.


title: GPS signals

text: Whereas the C/A PRNs are unique for each satellite, each satellite transmits a different segment of a master P-code sequence approximately 2.35 · 10 chips long (235,000,000,000,000 bits, ~26.716 terabytes). Each satellite repeatedly transmits its assigned segment of the master code, restarting every Sunday at 00:00:00 GPS time. (The GPS epoch was Sunday January 6, 1980 at 00:00:00 UTC, but GPS does not follow UTC leap seconds. So GPS time is ahead of UTC by an integer number of seconds.)


title: GPS signals

text: The P code is public, so to prevent unauthorized users from using or potentially interfering with it through spoofing, the P-code is XORed with "W-code", a cryptographically generated sequence, to produce the "Y-code". The Y-code is what the satellites have been transmitting since the anti-spoofing module was set to the "on" state. The encrypted signal is referred to as the "P(Y)-code".


title: GPS signals

text: The details of the W-code are secret, but it is known that it is applied to the P-code at approximately 500 kHz, about 20 times slower than the P-code chip rate. This has led to semi-codeless approaches for tracking the P(Y) signal without knowing the W-code.


title: GPS signals

text: In addition to the PRN ranging codes, a receiver needs to know the time and position of each active satellite. GPS encodes this information into the "navigation message" and modulates it onto both the C/A and P(Y) ranging codes at 50 bit/s. The navigation message format described in this section is called LNAV data (for "legacy navigation").


title: GPS signals

text: An ephemeris is valid for only four hours; an almanac is valid with little dilution of precision for up to two weeks. The receiver uses the almanac to acquire a set of satellites based on stored time and location. As each satellite is acquired, its ephemeris is decoded so the satellite can be used for navigation.


title: GPS signals

text: The navigation message consists of 30-second "frames" 1,500 bits long, divided into five 6-second "subframes" of ten 30-bit words each. Each subframe has the GPS time in 6-second increments. Subframe 1 contains the GPS date (week number) and satellite clock correction information, satellite status and health. Subframes 2 and 3 together contain the transmitting satellite's ephemeris data. Subframes 4 and 5 contain "page" 1 through 25 of the 25-page almanac. The almanac is 15,000 bits long and takes 12.5 minutes to transmit.


title: GPS signals

text: A frame begins at the start of the GPS week and every 30 seconds thereafter. Each week begins with the transmission of almanac page 1.


title: GPS signals

text: There are two navigation message types: LNAV-L is used by satellites with PRN numbers 1 to 32 (called "lower PRN numbers") and LNAV-U is used by satellites with PRN numbers 33 to 63 (called "upper PRN numbers"). The 2 types use very similar formats. Subframes 1 to 3 are the same while subframes 4 and 5 are almost the same. Each message type contains almanac data for all satellites using the same navigation message type, but not the other.


title: GPS signals

text: Each subframe begins with a Telemetry Word (TLM) that enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. Next is the handover word (HOW) giving the GPS time (actually the time when the first bit of the next subframe will be transmitted) and identifies the specific subframe within a complete frame. The remaining eight words of the subframe contain the actual data specific to that subframe. Each word includes 6 bits of parity generated using an algorithm based on Hamming codes, which take into account the 24 non-parity bits of that word and the last 2 bits of the previous word.


title: GPS signals

text: After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange.


title: GPS signals

text: GPS time is expressed with a resolution of 1.5 seconds as a week number and a time of week count (TOW). Its zero point (week 0, TOW 0) is defined to be 1980-01-06T00:00Z. The TOW count is a value ranging from 0 to 403,199 whose meaning is the number of 1.5 second periods elapsed since the beginning of the GPS week. Expressing TOW count thus requires 19 bits (2 = 524,288). GPS time is a continuous time scale in that it does not include leap seconds; therefore the start/end of GPS weeks may differ from that of the corresponding UTC day by an integer number of seconds.


title: GPS signals

text: In each subframe, each hand-over word (HOW) contains the most significant 17 bits of the TOW count corresponding to the start of the next following subframe. Note that the 2 least significant bits can be safely omitted because one HOW occurs in the navigation message every 6 seconds, which is equal to the resolution of the truncated TOW count thereof. Equivalently, the truncated TOW count is the time duration since the last GPS week start/end to the beginning of the next frame in units of 6 seconds.


title: GPS signals

text: Each frame contains (in subframe 1) the 10 least significant bits of the corresponding GPS week number. Note that each frame is entirely within one GPS week because GPS frames do not cross GPS week boundaries. Since rollover occurs every 1,024 GPS weeks (approximately every 19.6 years; 1,024 is 2), a receiver that computes current calendar dates needs to deduce the upper week number bits or obtain them from a different source. One possible method is for the receiver to save its current date in memory when shut down, and when powered on, assume that the newly decoded truncated week number corresponds to the period of 1,024 weeks that starts at the last saved date. This method correctly deduces the full week number if the receiver is never allowed to remain shut down (or without a time and position fix) for more than 1,024 weeks (~19.6 years).


title: GPS signals

text: The "almanac" consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes). The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric delay error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as GNSS augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver.


title: GPS signals

text: Satellite data is updated typically every 24 hours, with up to 60 days data loaded in case there is a disruption in the ability to make updates regularly. Typically the updates contain new ephemerides, with new almanacs uploaded less frequently. The Control Segment guarantees that during normal operations a new almanac will be uploaded at least every 6 days.


title: GPS signals

text: Satellites broadcast a new ephemeris every two hours. The ephemeris is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 4 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because as the receiver hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks; however, the ephemeris data requires 18 to 36 seconds before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate.


title: GPS signals

text: For the ranging codes and navigation message to travel from the satellite to the receiver, they must be modulated onto a carrier wave. In the case of the original GPS design, two frequencies are utilized; one at 1575.42 MHz (10.23 MHz × 154) called L1; and a second at 1227.60 MHz (10.23 MHz × 120), called L2.


title: GPS signals

text: The C/A code is transmitted on the L1 frequency as a 1.023 MHz signal using a bi-phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation technique. The P(Y)-code is transmitted on both the L1 and L2 frequencies as a 10.23 MHz signal using the same BPSK modulation, however the P(Y)-code carrier is in quadrature with the C/A carrier (meaning it is 90° out of phase).


title: GPS signals

text: Besides redundancy and increased resistance to jamming, a critical benefit of having two frequencies transmitted from one satellite is the ability to measure directly, and therefore remove, the ionospheric delay error for that satellite. Without such a measurement, a GPS receiver must use a generic model or receive ionospheric corrections from another source (such as the Wide Area Augmentation System or WAAS). Advances in the technology used on both the GPS satellites and the GPS receivers has made ionospheric delay the largest remaining source of error in the signal. A receiver capable of performing this measurement can be significantly more accurate and is typically referred to as a "dual frequency receiver".


title: GPS signals

text: Having reached full operational capability on July 17, 1995 the GPS system had completed its original design goals. However, additional advances in technology and new demands on the existing system led to the effort to "modernize" the GPS system. Announcements from the Vice President and the White House in 1998 heralded the beginning of these changes and in 2000, the U.S. Congress reaffirmed the effort, referred to as "GPS III".


title: GPS signals

text: The project involves new ground stations and new satellites, with additional navigation signals for both civilian and military users, and aims to improve the accuracy and availability for all users. A goal of 2013 was established with incentives offered to the contractors if they can complete it by 2011.


title: GPS signals

text: Modernized GPS civilian signals have two general improvements over their legacy counterparts: a dataless acquisition aid and forward error correction (FEC) coding of the NAV message.


title: GPS signals

text: A dataless acquisition aid is an additional signal, called a pilot carrier in some cases, broadcast alongside the data signal. This dataless signal is designed to be easier to acquire than the data encoded and, upon successful acquisition, can be used to acquire the data signal. This technique improves acquisition of the GPS signal and boosts power levels at the correlator.


title: GPS signals

text: The second advancement is to use forward error correction (FEC) coding on the NAV message itself. Due to the relatively slow transmission rate of NAV data (usually 50 bits per second), small interruptions can have potentially large impacts. Therefore, FEC on the NAV message is a significant improvement in overall signal robustness.


title: GPS signals

text: One of the first announcements was the addition of a new civilian-use signal, to be transmitted on a frequency other than the L1 frequency used for the coarse/acquisition (C/A) signal. Ultimately, this became the L2C signal, so called because it is broadcast on the L2 frequency. Because it requires new hardware on board the satellite, it is only transmitted by the so-called Block IIR-M and later design satellites. The L2C signal is tasked with improving accuracy of navigation, providing an easy to track signal, and acting as a redundant signal in case of localized interference. L2C signals have been broadcast beginning in April 2014 on satellites capable of broadcasting it, but are still considered pre-operational. , L2C is broadcast on 23 satellites and is expected on 24 satellites by 2023.


title: GPS signals

text: Unlike the C/A code, L2C contains two distinct PRN code sequences to provide ranging information; the "civil-moderate" code (called CM), and the "civil-long" length code (called CL). The CM code is 10,230 bits long, repeating every 20 ms. The CL code is 767,250 bits long, repeating every 1,500 ms. Each signal is transmitted at 511,500 bits per second (bit/s); however, they are multiplexed together to form a 1,023,000-bit/s signal.


title: GPS signals

text: CM is modulated with the CNAV Navigation Message (see below), whereas CL does not contain any modulated data and is called a "dataless sequence". The long, dataless sequence provides for approximately 24 dB greater correlation (~250 times stronger) than L1 C/A-code.


title: GPS signals

text: When compared to the C/A signal, L2C has 2.7 dB greater data recovery and 0.7 dB greater carrier-tracking, although its transmission power is 2.3 dB weaker.


title: GPS signals

text: The civil-moderate and civil-long ranging codes are generated by a modular LFSR which is reset periodically to a predetermined initial state. The period of the CM and CL is determined by this resetting and not by the natural period of the LFSR (as is the case with the C/A code). The initial states are designated in the interface specification and are different for different PRN numbers and for CM/CL. The feedback polynomial/mask is the same for CM and CL. The ranging codes are thus given by:


title: GPS signals

text: The initial states are described in the GPS interface specification as numbers expressed in octal following the convention that the LFSR state is interpreted as the binary representation of a number where the output bit is the least significant bit, and the bit where new bits are shifted in is the most significant bit. Using this convention, the LFSR shifts from most significant bit to least significant bit and when seen in big endian order, it shifts to the right. The states called "final state" in the IS are obtained after cycles for CM and after cycles for LM (just before reset in both cases).


title: GPS signals

text: The feedback bit mask is 100100101001001010100111100. Again with the convention that the least significant bit is the output bit of the LFSR and the most significant bit is the shift-in bit of the LFSR, 0 means no feedback "into" that position, and 1 means feedback "into" that position.


title: GPS signals

text: The CNAV data is an upgraded version of the original NAV navigation message. It contains higher precision representation and nominally more accurate data than the NAV data. The same type of information (time, status, ephemeris, and almanac) is still transmitted using the new CNAV format; however, instead of using a frame / subframe architecture, it uses a new pseudo-packetized format made of 12-second 300-bit "messages" analogous to LNAV frames. While LNAV frames have a fixed information content, CNAV messages may be of one of several defined types. The type of a frame determines its information content. Messages do not follow a fixed schedule regarding which message types will be used, allowing the Control Segment some versatility. However, for some message types there are lower bounds on how often they will be transmitted.


title: GPS signals

text: In CNAV, at least 1 out of every 4 packets are ephemeris data and the same lower bound applies for clock data packets. The design allows for a wide variety of packet types to be transmitted. With a 32-satellite constellation, and the current requirements of what needs to be sent, less than 75% of the bandwidth is used. Only a small fraction of the available packet types have been defined; this enables the system to grow and incorporate advances without breaking compatibility.


title: GPS signals

text: CNAV messages begin and end at start/end of GPS week plus an integer multiple of 12 seconds. Specifically, the beginning of the first bit (with convolution encoding already applied) to contain information about a message matches the aforesaid synchronization. CNAV messages begin with an 8-bit preamble which is a fixed bit pattern and whose purpose is to enable the receiver to detect the beginning of a message.


title: GPS signals

text: Since the FEC encoded bit stream runs at 2 times the rate than the non FEC encoded bit as already described, then formula_10. FEC encoding is performed independently of navigation message boundaries; this follows from the above equations.


title: GPS signals

text: An immediate effect of having two civilian frequencies being transmitted is the civilian receivers can now directly measure the ionospheric error in the same way as dual frequency P(Y)-code receivers. However, users utilizing the L2C signal alone, can expect 65% more position uncertainty due to ionospheric error than with the L1 signal alone.


title: GPS signals

text: A major component of the modernization process is a new military signal. Called the Military code, or M-code, it was designed to further improve the anti-jamming and secure access of the military GPS signals.


title: GPS signals

text: Very little has been published about this new, restricted code. It contains a PRN code of unknown length transmitted at 5.115 MHz. Unlike the P(Y)-code, the M-code is designed to be autonomous, meaning that a user can calculate their position using only the M-code signal. From the P(Y)-code's original design, users had to first lock onto the C/A code and then transfer the lock to the P(Y)-code. Later, direct-acquisition techniques were developed that allowed some users to operate autonomously with the P(Y)-code.


title: GPS signals

text: A little more is known about the new navigation message, which is called "MNAV". Similar to the new CNAV, this new MNAV is packeted instead of framed, allowing for very flexible data payloads. Also like CNAV it can utilize Forward Error Correction (FEC) and advanced error detection (such as a CRC).


title: GPS signals

text: The M-code is transmitted in the same L1 and L2 frequencies already in use by the previous military code, the P(Y)-code. The new signal is shaped to place most of its energy at the edges (away from the existing P(Y) and C/A carriers). It does not work at every satellite, and M-code was switched off for SVN62/PRN25 on 05 April 2011.


title: GPS signals

text: In a major departure from previous GPS designs, the M-code is intended to be broadcast from a high-gain directional antenna, in addition to a full-Earth antenna. This directional antenna's signal, called a spot beam, is intended to be aimed at a specific region (several hundred kilometers in diameter) and increase the local signal strength by 20 dB, or approximately 100 times stronger. A side effect of having two antennas is that the GPS satellite will appear to be two GPS satellites occupying the same position to those inside the spot beam. While the whole Earth M-code signal is available on the Block IIR-M satellites, the spot beam antennas will not be deployed until the Block III satellites are deployed, which began in December 2018.


title: GPS signals

text: An interesting side effect of having each satellite transmit four separate signals is that the MNAV can potentially transmit four different data channels, offering increased data bandwidth.


title: GPS signals

text: The modulation method is binary offset carrier, using a 10.23 MHz subcarrier against the 5.115 MHz code. This signal will have an overall bandwidth of approximately 24 MHz, with significantly separated sideband lobes. The sidebands can be used to improve signal reception.


title: GPS signals

text: The L5 signal provides a means of radionavigation secure and robust enough for life critical applications, such as aircraft precision approach guidance. The signal is broadcast in a frequency band protected by the ITU for aeronautical radionavigation services. It was first demonstrated from satellite USA-203 (Block IIR-M), and is available on all satellites from GPS IIF and GPS III. L5 signals have been broadcast beginning in April 2014 on satellites that support it. , 16 GPS satellites are broadcasting L5 signals, and the signals are considered pre-operational, scheduled to reach 24 satellites by approximately 2027.


title: GPS signals

text: The L5 band provides additional robustness in the form of interference mitigation, the band being internationally protected, redundancy with existing bands, geostationary satellite augmentation, and ground-based augmentation. The added robustness of this band also benefits terrestrial applications.


title: GPS signals

text: Two PRN ranging codes are transmitted on L5 in quadrature: the in-phase code (called "I5-code") and the quadrature-phase code (called "Q5-code"). Both codes are 10,230 bits long, transmitted at 10.23 MHz (1 ms repetition period), and are generated identically (differing only in initial states). Then, I5 is modulated (by exclusive-or) with navigation data (called L5 CNAV) and a 10-bit Neuman-Hofman code clocked at 1 kHz. Similarly, the Q5-code is then modulated but with only a 20-bit Neuman-Hofman code that is also clocked at 1 kHz.


title: GPS signals

text: The I5-code and Q5-code are generated using the same structure but with different parameters. These codes are the combination (by exclusive-or) of the output of 2 differing linear-feedback shift registers (LFSRs) which are selectively reset.


title: GPS signals

text: "A" and "B" are maximal length LFSRs. The modulo operations correspond to resets. Note that both are reset each millisecond (synchronized with C/A code epochs). In addition, the extra modulo operation in the description of "A" is due to the fact it is reset 1 cycle before its natural period (which is 8,191) so that the next repetition becomes offset by 1 cycle with respect to "B" (otherwise, since both sequences would repeat, I5 and Q5 would repeat within any 1 ms period as well, degrading correlation characteristics).


title: GPS signals

text: The L5 CNAV data includes SV ephemerides, system time, SV clock behavior data, status messages and time information, etc. The 50 bit/s data is coded in a rate 1/2 convolution coder. The resulting 100 symbols per second (sps) symbol stream is modulo-2 added to the I5-code only; the resultant bit-train is used to modulate the L5 in-phase (I5) carrier. This combined signal is called the L5 Data signal. The L5 quadrature-phase (Q5) carrier has no data and is called the L5 Pilot signal. The format used for L5 CNAV is very similar to that of L2 CNAV. One difference is that it uses 2 times the data rate. The bit fields within each message, message types, and forward error correction code algorithm are the same as those of L2 CNAV. L5 CNAV messages begin and end at start/end of GPS week plus an integer multiple of 6 seconds (this applies to the beginning of the first bit to contain information about a message, as is the case for L2 CNAV).


title: GPS signals

text: Broadcast on the L5 frequency (1176.45 MHz, 10.23 MHz × 115), which is an aeronautical navigation band. The frequency was chosen so that the aviation community can manage interference to L5 more effectively than L2.


title: GPS signals

text: L1C is a civilian-use signal, to be broadcast on the L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz), which contains the C/A signal used by all current GPS users. The L1C signals will be broadcast from GPS III and later satellites, the first of which was launched in December 2018. , L1C signals are not yet broadcast, and only four operational satellites are capable of broadcasting them. L1C is expected on 24 GPS satellites in the late 2020s.


title: GPS signals

text: L1C consists of a pilot (called L1C) and a data (called L1C) component. These components use carriers with the same phase (within a margin of error of 100 milliradians), instead of carriers in quadrature as with L5. The PRN codes are 10,230 bits long and transmitted at 1.023 Mbit/s. The pilot component is also modulated by an overlay code called L1C (a secondary code that has a lower rate than the ranging code and is also predefined, like the ranging code). Of the total L1C signal power, 25% is allocated to the data and 75% to the pilot. The modulation technique used is BOC(1,1) for the data signal and TMBOC for the pilot. The time multiplexed binary offset carrier (TMBOC) is BOC(1,1) for all except 4 of 33 cycles, when it switches to BOC(6,1).


title: GPS signals

text: The L1C pilot and data ranging codes are based on a Legendre sequence with length used to build an intermediate code (called a "Weil code") which is expanded with a fixed 7-bit sequence to the required 10,230 bits. This 10,230-bit sequence is the ranging code and varies between PRN numbers and between the pilot and data components. The ranging codes are described by:


title: GPS signals

text: According to the formula above and the GPS IS, the first formula_37 bits (equivalently, up to the insertion point of formula_31) of formula_14 and formula_16 are the first bits the corresponding Weil code; the next 7 bits are formula_31; the remaining bits are the remaining bits of the Weil code.


title: GPS signals

text: The IS asserts that formula_45. For clarity, the formula for formula_14 does not account for the hypothetical case in which formula_47, which would cause the instance of formula_31 inserted into formula_14 to wrap from index to 0.


title: GPS signals

text: The overlay codes are 1,800 bits long and is transmitted at 100 bit/s, synchronized with the navigation message encoded in L1C.


title: GPS signals

text: For PRN numbers 1 to 63 they are the truncated outputs of maximal period LFSRs which vary in initial conditions and feedback polynomials.


title: GPS signals

text: For PRN numbers 64 to 210 they are truncated Gold codes generated by combining 2 LFSR outputs (formula_50 and formula_51, where formula_1 is the PRN number) whose initial state varies. formula_50 has one of the 4 feedback polynomials used overall (among PRN numbers 64–210). formula_51 has the same feedback polynomial for all PRN numbers in the range 64–210.


title: GPS signals

text: The L1C navigation data (called CNAV-2) is broadcast in 1,800 bits long (including FEC) frames and is transmitted at 100 bit/s.


title: GPS signals

text: The frames of L1C are analogous to the messages of L2C and L5. While L2 CNAV and L5 CNAV use a dedicated message type for ephemeris data, all CNAV-2 frames include that information.


title: GPS signals

text: The common structure of all messages consists of 3 frames, as listed in the adjacent table. The content of subframe 3 varies according to its page number which is analogous to the type number of L2 CNAV and L5 CNAV messages. Pages are broadcast in an arbitrary order.


title: GPS signals

text: The time of messages (not to be confused with clock correction parameters) is expressed in a different format than the format of the previous civilian signals. Instead it consists of 3 components:


title: GPS signals

text: TOI is the only content of subframe 1. The week number and ITOW are contained in subframe 2 along with other information.


title: GPS signals

text: Subframe 1 is encoded by a modified BCH code. Specifically, the 8 least significant bits are BCH encoded to generate 51 bits, then combined using exclusive or with the most significant bit and finally the most significant bit is appended as the most significant bit of the previous result to obtain the final 52 bits. Subframes 2 and 3 are individually expanded with a 24-bit CRC, then individually encoded using a low-density parity-check code, and then interleaved as a single unit using a block interleaver.


title: GPS signals

text: All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random noise (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code which is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to the user.


title: GPS signals

text: where formula_56 and formula_57 represent signal powers; formula_58 and formula_59 represent codes with/without data formula_60. This is a formula for the ideal case (which is not attained in practice) as it does not model timing errors, noise, amplitude mismatch between components or quadrature error (when components are not exactly in quadrature).


title: GPS signals

text: A GPS receiver processes the GPS signals received on its antenna to determine position, velocity and/or timing. The signal at antenna is amplified, down converted to baseband or intermediate frequency, filtered (to remove frequencies outside the intended frequency range for the digital signal that would alias into it) and digitalized; these steps may be chained in a different order. Note that aliasing is sometimes intentional (specifically, when undersampling is used) but filtering is still required to discard frequencies not intended to be present in the digital representation.


title: GPS signals

text: For each satellite used by the receiver, the receiver must first acquire the signal and then track it as long as that satellite is in use; both are performed in the digital domain in by far most (if not all) receivers.


title: GPS signals

text: Acquiring a signal is the process of determining the frequency and code phase (both relative to receiver time) when it was previously unknown. Code phase must be determined within an accuracy that depends on the receiver design (especially the tracking loop); 0.5 times the duration of code chips (approx. 0.489 µs) is a representative value.


title: GPS signals

text: Tracking is the process of continuously adjusting the estimated frequency and phase to match the received signal as close as possible and therefore is a phase locked loop. Note that acquisition is performed to start using a particular satellite, but tracking is performed as long as that satellite is in use.


title: GPS signals

text: In this section, one possible procedure is described for L1 C/A acquisition and tracking, but the process is very similar for the other signals. The described procedure is based on computing the correlation of the received signal with a locally generated replica of the ranging code and detecting the highest peak or lowest valley. The offset of the highest peak or lowest valley contains information about the code phase relative to receiver time. The duration of the local replica is set by receiver design and is typically shorter than the duration of navigation data bits, which is 20 ms.


title: GPS signals

text: Acquisition of a given PRN number can be conceptualized as searching for a signal in a bidimensional search space where the dimensions are (1) code phase, (2) frequency. In addition, a receiver may not know which PRN number to search for, and in that case a third dimension is added to the search space: (3) PRN number.


title: GPS signals

text: If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks which satellites to listen for by their PRNs. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode and cycles through the PRN numbers until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then decode the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern.


title: GPS signals

text: The simplest way to acquire the signal (not necessarily the most effective or least computationally expensive) is to compute the dot product of a window of the digitalized signal with a set of locally generated replicas. The locally generated replicas vary in carrier frequency and code phase to cover all the already mentioned search space which is the Cartesian product of the frequency search space and the code phase search space. The carrier is a complex number where real and imaginary components are both sinusoids as described by Euler's formula. The replica that generates the highest magnitude of dot product is likely the one that best matches the code phase and frequency of the signal; therefore, if that magnitude is above a threshold, the receiver proceeds to track the signal or further refine the estimated parameters before tracking. The threshold is used to minimize false positives (apparently detecting a signal when there is in fact no signal), but some may still occur occasionally.


title: GPS signals

text: Using a complex carrier allows the replicas to match the digitalized signal regardless of the signal's carrier phase and to detect that phase (the principle is the same used by the Fourier transform). The dot product is a complex number; its magnitude represents the level of similarity between the replica and the signal, as with an ordinary correlation of real-valued time series. The argument of the dot product is an approximation of the corresponding carrier in the digitalized signal.


title: GPS signals

text: As an example, assume that the granularity for the search in code phase is 0.5 chips and in frequency is 500 Hz, then there are 1,023/0.5=2,046 code phases and 10,000 Hz/500 Hz=20 frequencies to try for a total of 20×2,046=40,920 local replicas. Note that each frequency bin is centered on its interval and therefore covers 250 Hz in each direction; for example, the first bin has a carrier at −4.750 Hz and covers the interval −5,000 Hz to −4,500 Hz. Code phases are equivalent modulo 1,023 because the ranging code is periodic; for example, phase −0.5 is equivalent to phase 1,022.5.


title: GPS signals

text: The following table depicts the local replicas that would be compared against the digitalized signal in this example. "•" means a single local replica while "..." is used for elided local replicas:


title: GPS signals

text: As an improvement over the simple correlation method, it is possible to implement the computation of dot products more efficiently with a Fourier transform. Instead of performing one dot product for each element in the Cartesian product of code and frequency, a single operation involving FFT and covering all frequencies is performed for each code phase; each such operation is more computationally expensive, but it may still be faster overall than the previous method due to the efficiency of FFT algorithms, and it recovers carrier frequency with a higher accuracy, because the frequency bins are much closely spaced in a DFT.


title: GPS signals

text: Specifically, for all code phases in the search space, the digitalized signal window is multiplied element by element with a local replica of the code (with no carrier), then processed with a discrete Fourier transform.


title: GPS signals

text: Given the previous example to be processed with this method, assume real-valued data (as opposed to complex data, which would have in-phase and quadrature components), a sampling rate of 5 MHz, a signal window of 10 ms, and an intermediate frequency of 2.5 MHz. There will be 5 MHz×10 ms=50,000 samples in the digital signal, and therefore 25,001 frequency components ranging from 0 Hz to 2.5 MHz in steps of 100 Hz (note that the 0 Hz component is real because it is the average of a real-valued signal and the 2.5 MHz component is real as well because it is the critical frequency). Only the components (or bins) within 5 kHz of the central frequency are examined, which is the range from 2.495 MHz to 2.505 MHz, and it is covered by 51 frequency components. There are 2,046 code phases as in the previous case, thus in total 51×2,046=104,346 complex frequency components will be examined.


title: GPS signals

text: Likewise, as an improvement over the simple correlation method, it is possible to perform a single operation covering all code phases for each frequency bin. The operation performed for each code phase bin involves forward FFT, element-wise multiplication in the frequency domain. inverse FFT, and extra processing so that overall, it computes circular correlation instead of circular convolution. This yields more accurate "code phase determination" than the simple correlation method in contrast with the previous method, which yields more accurate "carrier frequency determination" than the previous method.


title: GPS signals

text: Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds. Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine when the received satellite's PRN code begins. Unlike the earlier computation of offset in which trials of all 1,023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver observes two quantities, phase error and received frequency offset. The correlation of the received PRN code with respect to the receiver generated PRN code is computed to determine if the bits of the two signals are misaligned. Comparisons of the received PRN code with receiver generated PRN code shifted half a pulse width early and half a pulse width late are used to estimate adjustment required. The amount of adjustment required for maximum correlation is used in estimating phase error. Received frequency offset from the frequency generated by the receiver provides an estimate of phase rate error. The command for the frequency generator and any further PRN code shifting required are computed as a function of the phase error and the phase rate error in accordance with the control law used. The Doppler velocity is computed as a function of the frequency offset from the carrier nominal frequency. The Doppler velocity is the velocity component along the line of sight of the receiver relative to the satellite.


title: GPS signals

text: As the receiver continues to read successive PRN sequences, it will encounter a sudden change in the phase of the 1,023-bit received PRN signal. This indicates the beginning of a data bit of the navigation message. This enables the receiver to begin reading the 20 millisecond bits of the navigation message. The TLM word at the beginning of each subframe of a navigation frame enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. The HOW word then enables the receiver to determine which specific subframe is being transmitted. There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data before computing the intersections of sphere surfaces.


title: GPS signals

text: After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds.


title: GPS signals

text: Then the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the navigation message is used to calculate precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message. A more sensitive receiver will potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a less sensitive receiver, especially in a noisy environment.


title: Jamie Cook

text: Jamie Robert Cook (born 8 July 1985) is an English guitarist and songwriter. He is best known as the guitarist and a founding member of the indie rock band Arctic Monkeys, with whom he has recorded seven studio albums.


title: Jamie Cook

text: Jamie Cook attended Ecclesfield Secondary School in Chapeltown, Sheffield. Originally a next door neighbour of fellow band member Alex Turner, Cook and the other band members picked up their respective instruments and formed the Arctic Monkeys in 2002. He is the son of an engineer.


title: Jamie Cook

text: At the start of the band's career, Cook would join Matt Helders and Andy Nicholson in backing vocals for songs such as "Fake Tales of San Francisco", but has gradually shied away from singing duties, leaving them to the other three members of the group.


title: Jamie Cook

text: Cook is considered to be the "indie music fanatic" of the group, enjoying The Smiths, The Strokes, Oasis, and Queens of the Stone Age.


title: Jamie Cook

text: Cook was also instrumental in the minimal exposure of the band's sixth album, Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino, prior to its release. He was also the first band member to help Turner develop the somewhat autobiographical album from a potential solo record into a bona-fide Arctic Monkeys one, further indicating his behind-the-scenes importance to the band.


title: Jamie Cook

text: Cook began dating model Katie Downes in 2006. They became engaged in 2012 and were married on 31 May 2014. They have a son, Forrest (b. 2015), and a daughter, Bonnie (b. 2019).


title: Jamie Cook

text: When touring to promote their 2006 debut, Cook's setup was fairly simple. His main guitar was a Fender Telecaster 62 reissue. His pedals were an MXR Distortion +, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff, Electro-Harmonix Pulsar and, at least for a while, he could be seen using a T-Rex Dr. Swamp twin distortion pedal. He also had a Boss TU-2 Chromatic Tuner. His amplifier was a Hiwatt Custom 50-Watt 2×12 Combo.


title: Jamie Cook

text: From 2007's "Favourite Worst Nightmare" onwards, he has had quite an elaborate pedalboard. The pedals used have almost changed altogether—he stuck to his MXR Distortion +, and has added an Electro-Harmonix Little Big Muff, Electro-Harmonix HOG, Electro-Harmonix Pulsar Tremolo, Electro-Harmonix Deluxe Memory Man, a Boss LS-2 Line Selector, a Guyatone distortion and an expression pedal for the HOG all this was changed to an Ernie Ball volume pedal, which can be seen used when playing the Arctic Monkeys song "Nettles" live. His main guitar is now a 1975 Gibson ES-335TD. He has been seen using several different Bad Cat amplifiers, including a Bad Cat Hot Cat 30 R, in addition to his Hiwatt amplifiers. For the "Suck It and See" tour, a Rosewell Bluesman 30 and an Audio Kitchen Big Chopper was used.


title: Jamie Cook

text: On the Australia and New Zealand tour of "Humbug", Cook was seen using a Fender Starcaster. His Gibson 335TD has been changed from a Frequensator tailpiece to a Bigsby. His pedalboard has changed quite considerably since the "Favourite Worst Nightmare" tour. It now consists of an Electro-Harmonix Pulsar (without stereo), Electro-Harmonix Memory Man, Boss RE-20, Boss TU-2, Death By Audio Fuzz Gun, Z.Vex Super Duper, Fulltone OCD, Demeter Fuzzullator, Boss LS-2, Ernie Ball VP Junior. He was also seen using a Gibson SG standard on stage live at Glastonbury in June 2013.


title: Ibutamoren

text: Ibutamoren () (developmental code names MK-677, MK-0677, LUM-201, L-163,191; former tentative brand name Oratrope) is a potent, long-acting, orally-active, selective, and non-peptide agonist of the ghrelin receptor and a growth hormone secretagogue, mimicking the growth hormone (GH)-stimulating action of the endogenous hormone ghrelin. It has been shown to increase the secretion of several hormones including GH and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and produces sustained increases in the plasma levels of these hormones without affecting cortisol levels.


title: Ibutamoren

text: Ibutamoren has been shown to sustain activation of the GH–IGF-1 axis and to increase lean body mass with no change in total fat mass or visceral fat. It is under investigation as a potential treatment for reduced levels of these hormones, such as in children or elderly adults with growth hormone deficiency, and human studies have shown it to increase both muscle mass and bone mineral density, making it a promising potential therapy for the treatment of frailty in the elderly. As of June 2017, ibutamoren is in the preclinical stage of development for growth hormone deficiency.


title: Ibutamoren

text: In a small study of 14 subjects, MK-677 dosed at 25mg/day at bedtime was shown to increase REM sleep by 20% and 50% in young and older subjects respectively. Treatment with MK-677 also resulted in an approximate 50% increase in stage IV sleep in young subjects.


title: Ibutamoren

text: Since MK-677 is still an Investigational New Drug, it has not yet been approved to be marketed for consumption by humans in the United States. However, it has been used experimentally by some in the bodybuilding community. Since it chemically mimics the hormone ghrelin, it functions as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system and crosses the blood-brain-barrier. According to some recent research and discussion, there is a concern that its particularly longer half-life might over-stimulate the ghrelin receptors in the brain.


title: European integration

text: European integration is the process of industrial, economic, political, legal, social, and cultural integration of states wholly or partially in Europe or nearby. European integration has primarily come about through the European Union and its policies.


title: European integration

text: In antiquity, the Roman Empire brought about integration of multiple European and Mediterranean territories. The numerous subsequent claims of succession of the Roman Empire, even the iterations of the Classical Empire and its ancient peoples, have occasionally been reinterpreted in the light of post-1950 European integration as providing inspiration and historical precedents. Of those in importance would have to include the Holy Roman Empire, the Hanseatic League, the Peace of Westphalia, the Napoleonic Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Unification of Germany, Italy, and The Balkans.


title: European integration

text: Following the catastrophe of the First World War, thinkers and visionaries from a range of political traditions again began to float the idea of a politically unified Europe. In the early 1920s a range of internationals were founded (or re-founded) to help like-minded political parties to coordinate their activities. These ranged from the Comintern (1919), to the Labour and Socialist International (1921) to the Radical and Democratic Entente of centre-left progressive parties (1924), to the Green International of farmers' parties (1923), to the centre-right International Secretariat of Democratic Parties Inspired by Christianity (1925). While the remit of these internationals was global, the predominance of political parties from Europe meant that they facilitated interaction between the adherents of a given ideology, across European borders. Within each political tradition, voices emerged advocating not merely the cooperation of various national parties, but the pursuit of political institutions at the European level.


title: European integration

text: One of the first to articulate this view was Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, who outlined a conservative vision of European unity in his Pan-Europa manifesto (1923). The First Paneuropean Congress took place in Vienna in 1926, and the association possessed 8000 members by the time of the Wall Street Crash. The aim was for a specifically Christian, and by implication Catholic, Europe. The British civil servant and future Conservative minister Arthur Salter published a book advocating "The" "United States of Europe" in 1933.


title: European integration

text: In contrast the Soviet commissar (minister) Leon Trotsky raised the slogan "For a Soviet United States of Europe" in 1923, advocating a Europe united along communist principles.


title: European integration

text: Among liberal-democratic parties, the French centre-left undertook several initiatives to group like-minded parties from the European states. In 1927, the French politician Emil Borel, a leader of the centre-left Radical Party and the founder of the Radical International, set up a French Committee for European Cooperation, and a further twenty countries set up equivalent committees. However, it remained an elite venture: the largest committee, the French one, possessed fewer than six-hundred members, two-thirds of whom were parliamentarians. Two centre-left French prime ministers went further. In 1929 Aristide Briand gave a speech in the presence of the League of Nations Assembly in which he proposed the idea of a federation of European nations based on solidarity and in the pursuit of economic prosperity and political and social co-operation. In 1930, at the League's request, Briand presented a "Memorandum on the organisation of a system of European Federal Union". The next year the future French prime minister Édouard Herriot published his book "The United States of Europe". Indeed, a template for such a system already existed, in the form of the 1921 Belgian and Luxembourgish customs and monetary union.


title: European integration

text: Support for the proposals by the French centre-left came from a range of prestigious figures. Many eminent economists, aware that the economic race-to-the-bottom between states was creating ever greater instability, supported the view: these included John Maynard Keynes. The French political scientist and economist Bertrand Jouvenel remembered a widespread mood after 1924 calling for a "harmonisation of national interests along the lines of European union, for the purpose of common prosperity". The Spanish philosopher and politician, Ortega y Gasset, expressed a position shared by many within Republican Spain: "European unity is no fantasy, but reality itself; and the fantasy is precisely the opposite: the belief that France, Germany, Italy or Spain are substantive & independent realities." Eleftherios Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece, outlined his government's support in a 1929 speech by saying that "the United States of Europe will represent, even without Russia, a power strong enough to advance, up to a satisfactory point, the prosperity of the other continents as well".


title: European integration

text: Between the two world wars, the Polish statesman Józef Piłsudski envisaged the idea of a European federation that he called "Międzymorze" ("Intersea" or "Between-seas"), known in English as "Intermarum", which was a Polish-oriented version of Mitteleuropa.


title: European integration

text: The Great Depression, the rise of fascism and communism and subsequently World War II prevented the inter war movements from gaining further support: between 1933 and 1936 most of Europe's remaining democracies became dictatorships, and even Ortega's Spain and Venizelos's Greece had both been plunged into civil war. But although the supporters of European unity, whether social-democratic, liberal or Christian-democratic, were out of power during the 1930s and unable to put their ideas into practice, many would find themselves in power in the 1940s and 1950s, and better-placed to put into effect their earlier remedies against economic and political crisis.


title: European integration

text: At the end of World War II, the continental political climate favoured unity in democratic European countries, seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of nationalism which had devastated the continent. In a speech delivered on 19 September 1946 at the University of Zürich in Switzerland, Winston Churchill postulated a United States of Europe. The same speech however contains remarks, less often quoted, which make it clear that Churchill did not initially see Britain as being part of this United States of Europe:


title: European integration

text: European integration scholars Thomas Diez and Antje Wiener identify the general tendencies in the development of European integration theory and suggest to divide theories of integration into three broad phases, which are preceded by a normative proto-integration theory period. There's a gradual shift from theories studying European integration as sui generis towards new approaches that incorporate theories of International Relations and Comparative politics.


title: European integration

text: The question of how to avoid wars between the nation-states was essential for the first theories. Federalism and functionalism proposed the containment of the nation-state, while transactionalism sought to theorise the conditions for the stabilisation of the nation-state system. Early federalism was more like a political movement calling for European federation by various political actors, for example, Altiero Spinelli calling for a federal Europe in his Ventotene Manifesto, and Paul Valéry envisioning European civilization for unity. State sovereignty was an issue for federalists who hoped political organizations at higher regional level would solve the issue. Representative scholar of functionalism is David Mitrany, who also sees states and their sovereignty as core problem that one should restrain states to prevent future wars. However, Mitrany disagreed with regional integration as he viewed it as mere replication of state-model. Transactionalism, on the other hand, sees increased cross-border exchanges as promoting regional integration so that the risk of war is reduced.


title: European integration

text: European integration theory initially focused on explaining integration process of supranational institution-building. One of the most influential theories of European integration is neofunctionalism, influenced by functionalist ideas, developed by Ernst B. Haas (1958) and further investigated by Leon Lindberg (1963). This theory focuses on spillovers of integration, where well-integrated and interdependent areas led to more integration. Neofunctionalism well captures the spillover from the European Coal and Steel Community to the European Economic Community established in the 1957 Treaties of Rome. Transfers of loyalties from the national level to the supranational level is expected to occur as integration progresses.


title: European integration

text: The other big influential theory in Integration Studies is Intergovernmentalism, advanced by Stanley Hoffmann after the Empty Chair Crisis by French President Charles De Gaulle in the 1960s. Intergovernmentalism and later, Liberal Intergovernmentalism, developed in the 1980s by Andrew Moravcsik focus on governmental actors' impacts that are enhanced by supranational institutions but not restrained from them. The important debate between neofunctionalism and (liberal) intergovernmentalism still remains central in understanding the development and setbacks of the European integration.


title: European integration

text: As the empirical world has changed, so have the theories and thus the understanding of European Integration. The second generation of integration theorists focused on the importance of institutions and their impacts on both integration process and European governance development. The second phase brought in perspectives from comparative politics in addition to traditional International Relations theoretical references. Studies attempted to understand what kind of polity the EU is and how it operates. For example, new theory multi-level governance (MLG) was developed to understand the workings and development of the EU.


title: European integration

text: The third phase of integration theory marked a return of International Relations theory with the rise of critical and constructivist approaches in the 1990s. Perspectives from social constructivists, post-structuralists, critical theories, feminist theories are incorporated in integration theories to conceptualize European integration process of widening and deepening.


title: European integration

text: Various federalist organisations have been created over time supporting the idea of a federal Europe. These include the Union of European Federalists, the European Movement International, the European Federalist Party, and Volt Europa. The Union of European Federalists (UEF) is a European non-governmental organisation, campaigning for a Federal Europe. It consists of 20 constituent organisations and it has been active at the European, national and local levels for more than 50 years. The European Movement International is a lobbying association that coordinates the efforts of associations and national councils with the goal of promoting European integration, and disseminating information about it. The European Federalist Party is a pro-European, pan-European and federalist political party which advocates further integration of the EU and the establishment of a Federal Europe. Its aim is to gather all Europeans to promote European federalism and to participate in all elections all over Europe. It has national sections in 15 countries. Volt Europa is a pan-European and European federalist political movement that also serves as the pan-European structure for subsidiary parties in EU member states. It is present in 29 countries and participates in elections all over the EU on the local, national and European level.


title: European integration

text: There are various agreements with overlapping membership. Several countries take part in a larger number of agreements than others.


title: European integration

text: Fourteen states are part of the Eurozone and NATO. These are Belgium, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain.


title: European integration

text: Of these states several take part in further organisations, or have other basic structural things in common, but some are outside.


title: European integration

text: France is part of all of these groups, and Belgium and Germany take part in all where at least half of the 14 member states participate.


title: European integration

text: Some agreements that are mostly related to countries of the European continent, are also valid in territories outside the continent.


title: European integration

text: Not listed below are agreements if their scope is beyond geographic Europe only because the agreement includes:


title: European integration

text: Several regional integration efforts have effectively promoted intergovernmental cooperation and reduced the possibility of regional armed conflict. Other initiatives have removed barriers to free trade in European regions, and increased the free movement of people, labour, goods, and capital across national borders.


title: European integration

text: Since the end of the Second World War, the following organisations have been established in the Nordic region: