title: Environmental law

text: The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation makes regulation regarding "conservation of natural resources, including the subsoil, water bodies, forests located in designated conservation areas, fauna and their habitat, in the field of hunting, hydrometeorology and related areas, environmental monitoring and pollution control, including radiation monitoring and control, and functions of public environmental policy making and implementation and statutory regulation."


title: Environmental law

text: Singapore is a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity; with most of its CBD obligations being overseen by the National Biodiversity Reference Centre, a division of its National Parks Board (NParks). Singapore is also a signatory of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Animals, with its obligations under that treaty also being overseen by NParks. The Parliament of Singapore has enacted numerous pieces of legislation to fulfil its obligations under these treaties, such as the Parks and Trees Act, Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act, and Wildlife Act. The new Wildlife (Protected Wildlife Species) Rules 2020 marks the first instance in Singapore's history that direct legal protection has been offered for specific named species, as listed in Parts 1-5 of the Rules' schedule.


title: Environmental law

text: Vietnam is currently working with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on dioxin remediation and technical assistance in order to lower methane emissions. In March 2002, the U.S and Vietnam signed the U.S.-Vietnam Memorandum of Understanding on Research on Human Health and the Environmental Effects of Agent Orange/Dioxin.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Rarámuri or Tarahumara are a group of indigenous people of the Americas living in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. They are renowned for their long-distance running ability.


title: Rarámuri

text: Originally inhabitants of much of Chihuahua, the Rarámuri retreated to the high sierras and canyons such as the Copper Canyon in the Sierra Madre Occidental on the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. The area of the Sierra Madre Occidental which they now inhabit is often called the Sierra Tarahumara because of their presence.


title: Rarámuri

text: Estimates put the Rarámuri population in 2006 at between 50,000 and 70,000 people. Most still practise a traditional lifestyle, including inhabiting natural shelters (caves or cliff overhangs). Staple crops are corn and beans; however, many of the Rarámuri still practise transhumance, raising cattle, sheep, and goats. Almost all Rarámuri migrate from one place to another during the course of a year.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Rarámuri language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan family. Although it is in decline under pressure from Spanish, it is still widely spoken. In the Rarámuri language, the endonymic term "rarámuri" refers specifically to the men; women are referred to as "mukí" (individually), and as "omugí" or "igómale" (collectively).


title: Rarámuri

text: The Rarámuri are believed to be descended from a people of the Mogollon culture. The Rarámuri repulsed and were never conquered by the Spanish conquistadors or fully converted by the Jesuit missionaries. When the Spanish arrived in the 1500s, they called this native people the "Tarahumara". By the early 17th century, the Spanish had established mines in Tarahumara territory and made some slave raids to obtain workers for the mines. Jesuit Juan Fonte established a mission, San Pablo Balleza, at the southern end of Tarahumara territory, expanding from missionary work with the Tepehuan to the south. The Tepehuan's violent resistance to Spanish incursion in the Tepehuan revolt of 1616 killed Fonte and seven other Jesuit missionaries, closing the mission for over a decade.


title: Rarámuri

text: The discovery of the mines of Parral, Chihuahua, in 1631 increased Spanish presence in Tarahumara lands, bringing more slave raids and Jesuit missionaries. Missions were established at Las Bocas, Huejotitlan, San Felipe and Satevo. In 1648, the Tarahumara waged war against the Spanish. They gathered at Fariagic and then destroyed the mission of San Francisco de Borja. Two of the leaders of this attack were captured by the Spanish and executed. Shortly afterward, the Spanish established Villa de Aguilar in the heart of the upper Tarahumara country.


title: Rarámuri

text: From then on, the Tarahumara split into two groups. Those in the lower missions continued to move into the general Catholic population and largely lost their tribal identity. Those in the upper areas went to war under the leadership of Tepóraca and others, driving the Jesuits and Spanish settlers from the area. The Jesuits returned in the 1670s and ultimately baptized thousands of Tarahumara, but these people have retained a separate identity. Tepóraca was executed by the Spanish in 1690. From 1696 to 1698, the Tarahumara again waged war against the Spanish, but were defeated. An important 1691 Jesuit report concerned the resistance of the Tarahumara to evangelization, "Historia de la tercera rebelión tarahumara".


title: Rarámuri

text: By 1753, the Jesuits turned over the lower Tarahumara missions to secular priests, and in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled in Spanish territories. Most missions in Tarahumara country ceased to operate or were turned over to Franciscans. Despite devoted and enthusiastic efforts, the Franciscans could not match the Jesuits’ feats, and the missions declined. The Jesuits reestablished the missions in the early 20th century.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Tarahumara word for themselves, "Rarámuri", means "runners on foot" or "those who run fast" in their native tongue according to some early ethnographers like Norwegian Carl Lumholtz, though this interpretation has not been fully agreed upon. With widely dispersed settlements, these people developed a tradition of long-distance running up to in one session, over a period of two days through their homeland of rough canyon country, for inter-village communication, transportation, and hunting.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Tarahumara's use of huaraches, their traditional form of sandals, when running has been the subject of a lot of scientific study, as well as journalistic discourse. In his book, "", author Christopher McDougall argues in favor of the endurance running hypothesis and the barefoot running movement based on his time with the Tarahumara people and their running in huaraches. Tarahumara sandals has become a byword in many US minimalist running circles with many companies starting since McDougall's book popularized the style.


title: Rarámuri

text: Their long-distance running tradition also has ceremonial and competitive aspects. Often, men kick wooden balls as they run in "foot throwing", "rarajipari", competitions, and women use a stick and hoop. The foot-throwing races are relays where the balls are kicked by the runners and relayed to the next runner while teammates run ahead to the next relay point. These races can last anywhere from a few hours to a couple of days without a break.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Tarahumara commonly hunt with bow and arrows but are also known for their ability to run down deer and wild turkeys. Anthropologist Jonathan F. Cassel describes the Tarahumaras’ hunting abilities: "the Tarahumara literally run the birds to death in what is referred to as persistence hunting. Forced into a rapid series of takeoffs, without sufficient rest periods between, the heavy-bodied bird does not have the strength to fly or run away from the Tarahumara hunter."


title: Rarámuri

text: The Rarámuri religion is a mélange of indigenous customs and Roman Catholicism. During the late 1600s and early 1700s, there was strong Jesuit mission activity, which was met by resistance. Later, when the Jesuit order was expelled, the Rarámuri were left free to interpret, modify, maintain or promulgate Catholic beliefs, symbols and practices with little outside intervention .


title: Rarámuri

text: While native religious elements have been maintained, there are Spanish Catholic ritual elements, demonstrating "a genuine integration with vital cultural interests". The beings of most importance are: God ("Riosi"), God's wife, who is the Christian Virgin Mary transformed, and the devil ("Riablo)". "Riosi" is thought to be the indigenous deity "Onoruame" ("Great Father"), and the Virgin Mary is "Iyeruame" ("Great Mother"). The indigenous counterparts of Father-Sun and Mother Moon overlap, respectively, with these concepts of God and God's wife.


title: Rarámuri

text: Another reported variation is that God has a wife who lives with him in heaven, along with their sons, the so-called "sukristo" (from Spanish "Jesucristo") and their daughters, the "Santi". These beings have a direct link with the physical world through Catholic iconography, crucifixes and saints’ medallions, respectively.


title: Rarámuri

text: Although "Riablo" aligns with the devil, the Rarámuri do not believe in a being that embodies Evil wholly. Instead it is tainted through its ties with the "Chabochi" (non-Rarámuri). The Devil is said to sometimes collaborate with God to arrange fitting punishments and can be appeased through sacrifices. In some cases, the Devil can be persuaded to act as a benevolent entity.


title: Rarámuri

text: Some Rarámuri religious practices have the sense of "konema" (i.e., feeding God), the sense of returning to God a little of the much that he has given is prevalent.


title: Rarámuri

text: Some Tarahumaras maintain a belief that the afterlife is a mirror image of the mortal world and that good deeds should be performed—not for spiritual reward—but for the improvement of life on earth.


title: Rarámuri

text: Music and dance are highly integrated into Tarahumara social life. The classical pianist Romayne Wheeler writes that "Music sanctifies the moment in the life of all the Tarahumaras," and "All of our actions have musical meaning." During the end of the year cycle, the Tarahumaras play violins which are masterfully carved but not varnished. The tunes are known as "matachín" pieces and are danced by dancers lavishly dressed in colorful attire resembling North African garments and accompanied by rattles ("sáuraka"). During Lent they play three-holed flutes of river cane, together with drums.


title: Rarámuri

text: Staple crops of the Tarahumara are maize, beans, greens, squash, and tobacco. Chilli, potatoes, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes appear in Mexicanized regions. Corn is planted in February and March using oxen which are often loaned as not everyone owns one. Corn begins to flower in August; by November it is harvested and cooked or stored. Common corn dishes are "pinole", tortillas, "esquiate", atole, tamales, and boiled and roasted ears. Beans are one of the Tarahumaras’ essential protein-rich foods and are usually served fried after being boiled. Tamales and beans are a common food which the Tarahumara carry with them on travels. Wheat and fruits were introduced by missionaries and are a minor source of nutrition. The fruits grown by the Tarahumara include apples, apricots, figs, and oranges.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Tarahumaras also eat meat, but this constitutes less than 5% of their diet. Most of the meats that they consume are fish, chicken, and squirrels. On ceremonial occasions, domesticated animals such as cows, sheep, and goats are killed and eaten.


title: Rarámuri

text: The Tarahumara practice persistence hunting of deer and wild turkeys by following them at a steady pace for one or two days until the animal drops from exhaustion.


title: Rarámuri

text: According to William Connors, a dietary researcher, their traditional diet was found to be linked to their low incidence of diseases such as Type 2 Diabetes. However, the Tarahumaras' health is transitioning in regions where processed goods have begun to replace their traditional staples.


title: Rarámuri

text: "Tesgüino" is a fermented drink made year round from sprouted corn. Sometimes it is also made with still-green stalks, fruits of certain cactuses, shrubs, wheat, and trees when corn is sparse. The process begins by malting the corn and spreading it in a shallow basket covered with pine needles each day for four or five days. It is kept moist until the corn sprouts by which time the starch in the corn has been converted into smaller sugars. It is then mashed and boiled for eight hours. Varied herbs are ground up and mixed with water into a paste which is then fermented overnight by a fire. Then the paste is combined with the corn liquid and fermented for another three to four days. Partaking of the alcoholic beverage usually takes place soon after its preparation, as the "tesgüino" can spoil within 24 hours.


title: Rarámuri

text: Gatherings for celebrations, races, and religious ceremonies often take place with tesgüinadas, a Tarahumara-style beer festival. These gatherings take place all year around, but most happen in winter, and are the social events between the neighboring Tarahumara people. Tesgüinada events include rain fiestas, harvest ceremonies, curing fiestas, Guadalupe Fiesta, Holy Week, races, and Sunday gatherings. Some of these events take place during and after communal activates, for example when neighbors help one another's families with their fields or building large structures like granaries, houses, and corrals. The harvest and rain ceremonies take place during the farming months to ensure a good crop season. These events also require either a shaman, "curandero", or chanter. The job of the shaman and "curandero" are purely religious, as the "curandero" is there to diagnose and to heal the sick of the community, and chanters lead the tesgüinadas in chants and rhythms to accompany the ceremonies.


title: Rarámuri

text: Tesgüinadas are an important aspect of Tarahumara culture as it is often the only time when men have intercourse with their wives. They act as a social lubricant, as Tarahumara are very shy and private. Anthropologist John Kennedy describes the institution of tesgüinada as an important social fabric to Tarahumara culture which he calls the "tesgüino network". He also states that "the average Tarahumara spends at least 100 days per year directly concerned with tesgüino and much of this time under its influence or aftereffects."


title: Rarámuri

text: The religious role of tesgüino is a very important aspect to tesgüinada. Before one can drink an olla of tesgüino they must dedicate it to Onorúame. During the curing ceremonies, the olla must rest in front of a cross until the ceremony is over. At age 14, a boy is allowed to drink tesgüino for the first time after a short sermon about his manly responsibilities. These rituals can sometimes last as long as 48 hours. Tesgüinadas are usually accompanied by dancing and the playing of fiddles, flutes, drums and guitars.


title: Rarámuri

text: Logging has occurred since the end of the 1800s when the first loggers arrived. Later, liberalization of laws in the 1990s resulted in the exhaustion of resources. In 1995, it was declared that "after hundred years of logging, only two percent (300,000 acres) of these unique forests remains", leaving one of the most biologically diverse ecosystem in North America, containing hundreds of medicinal plant, oak and pine species in danger of extinction. The Mexican Commission of Solidarity and Defense of Human Rights produced a report in 2000 noting the lack of studies by the government on how lumber production affected the ecosystem. Similarly, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) boosted foreign investment which resulted in the privatization of communal land, and market-based mechanisms of environmental regulation.


title: Rarámuri

text: In January 2017, Isidro Baldenegro López (2005 recipient of the Goldman Environmental Prize) a community leader of the Tarahumara, was shot and killed in Mexico. Baldenegro spent much of his life defending the ancient forests of the Sierra Madre region from the devastating effects of logging.


title: Rarámuri

text: Drought has also been affecting the region for ten years and has worsened in recent years. During 2011, it was the driest year in Mexico on record, with just 12 inches of rain, compared to a historic average of 21 inches. The most severely hit area was the Sierra Madre region. Agricultural losses in Chihuahua are estimated at $25 million; 180,000 cattle have already died, as a result of the growing lack of precipitation in the region.


title: Rarámuri

text: Due to the lack of water, crops were destroyed and famine spread. Combined with freezing temperatures of a cold front, living conditions have become poor for the Rarámuri. Their dependence on the environment worsens the situation, as they lack employment opportunities to generate income in non-farming activities. Moreover, increased contact with the outside world might be damaging as it creates dependency. These indigenous people face extreme poverty, as reflected in the Mexican Human Development Index (HDI) which in the Sierra Madre is the lowest in the country: 49.1% below national average. Alberto Herrera, the Mexican director of Amnesty International stated that the indigenous people in his country have endured "permanent discrimination, exclusion and marginalization."


title: Rarámuri

text: Mining dates to 950 AD with the Toltec and Mayan civilizations. Since the Spanish conquest, thousands of tons of mercury and lead have been released in the Mexican mining belt, which stretches from Oaxaca to Sonora in the northwest. The Sierra Madre part of this belt is one of the world's most prolific gold and silver mining districts. Georgius Agricola mentioned in 1556 that mining led to deforestation, the disappearance of wildlife and watershed contamination. Large areas were deforested to exploit metal deposits. Reforms in the 1990s allowed foreign ownership, and resulted in reopening of mines and increased mining. According to the Secretaría de Economía, 204 mining companies with direct foreign investment had 310 ongoing projects in Mexico in 2006. In 2010, Mexico's mining output reached high levels: 19% of the world's silver production was extracted here, and the mining belt was the world's most productive district as it was historically. The environmental impacts are dramatic, resulting in landscape change and the spread of heavy metals.


title: Rarámuri

text: Drug violence, cultivation and trade in this region has affected the lifestyle of the Rarámuri, given the proximity of the people and the Sierra Madre, one of the most productive drug growing regions on Earth. Logging is not only controlled by the Mexican government, but also practiced illegally by loggers and drug lords who use the forests to grow marijuana or opium or as space for their operations. Drug cartels usually have links with logging companies who launder money earned in the drug trade. Narco-trafficking weighs heavily on the Tarahumara, as the drug lords force the farmers to grow drugs instead of their own crops. Cartels have exploited the Tarahumaras' reputation as long-distance runners by forcing them into running illegal drugs into the United States.


title: Rarámuri

text: The conditions of violence that are lived urges the Raramuri population to flee from their place of origin, often intimidated by criminal groups and extraction companies both Mexican and foreign.


title: Rarámuri

text: The remote terrain of the Sierra Madre has long served as a refuge of the Tarahumara. However, roads and tourism have expanded, bringing opportunities for some but problems for others. Ironically, the Rarámuri themselves seldom have sought this publicity. In the 1800s, attempts were made to build a railway. Currently, this line is used by the train Chihuahua Pacífico or El Chepe to transport tourists, lured by false representations of the area as pure and pristine, to sightseeing locales. It stops near many Tarahumara villages, attracting visitors expecting to see primitive natives (the legend of the Tarahumara). Along with new auto roads, railways built into the area have developed logging and tourism, which have accelerated the rate of modernization among the Rarámuri.


title: Lil Baby discography

text: The discography of American rapper Lil Baby consists of four studio albums, six mixtapes (including two collaborative mixtapes), and 86 singles (including 57 as a featured artist).


title: McBurney's point

text: McBurney's point is the name given to the point over the right side of the abdomen that is one-third of the distance from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus (navel). This is near the most common location of the appendix.


title: McBurney's point

text: McBurney's point is located one third of the distance from the right anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus (navel). This point roughly corresponds to the most common location of the base of the appendix, where it is attached to the cecum.


title: McBurney's point

text: Deep tenderness at McBurney's point, known as McBurney's sign, is a sign of acute appendicitis. The clinical sign of referred pain in the epigastrium when pressure is applied is also known as Aaron's sign. Specific localization of tenderness to McBurney's point indicates that inflammation is no longer limited to the lumen of the bowel (which localizes pain poorly), and is irritating the lining of the peritoneum at the place where the peritoneum comes into contact with the appendix. Tenderness at McBurney's point suggests the evolution of acute appendicitis to a later stage, and thus, the increased likelihood of rupture. Other abdominal processes can also sometimes cause tenderness at McBurney's point. Thus, this sign is highly useful but neither necessary nor sufficient to make a diagnosis of acute appendicitis. The anatomical position of the appendix is highly variable (for example in retrocaecal appendix, an appendix behind the caecum), which also limits the use of this sign, as many cases of appendicitis do not cause point tenderness at McBurney's point. For most open appendectomies (as opposed to laparoscopic appendectomies), the incision is made at McBurney's point.


title: McBurney's point

text: A pseudoaneurysm in the aorta may be treated surgically, with an incision made between McBurney's point and the lower intercostal spaces.


title: McBurney's point

text: McBurney's point is named after American surgeon Charles McBurney (1845–1913). McBurney himself did not locate his point in a precise way in his original article.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Petrified Forest National Park is an American national park in Navajo and Apache counties in northeastern Arizona. Named for its large deposits of petrified wood, the park covers about , encompassing semi-desert shrub steppe as well as highly eroded and colorful badlands. The park's headquarters is about east of Holbrook along Interstate 40 (I-40), which parallels the BNSF Railway's Southern Transcon, the Puerco River, and historic U.S. Route 66, all crossing the park roughly east–west. The site, the northern part of which extends into the Painted Desert, was declared a national monument in 1906 and a national park in 1962. The park received 644,922 recreational visitors in 2018.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Averaging about in elevation, the park has a dry windy climate with temperatures that vary from summer highs of about to winter lows well below freezing. More than 400 species of plants, dominated by grasses such as bunchgrass, blue grama, and sacaton, are found in the park. Fauna include larger animals such as pronghorns, coyotes, and bobcats, many smaller animals, such as deer mice, snakes, lizards, seven kinds of amphibians, and more than 200 species of birds, some of which are permanent residents and many of which are migratory. About one third of the park is designated wilderness—.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The Petrified Forest is known for its fossils, especially fallen trees that lived in the Late Triassic Epoch, about 225 million years ago. The sediments containing the fossil logs are part of the widespread and colorful Chinle Formation, from which the Painted Desert gets its name. Beginning about 60 million years ago, the Colorado Plateau, of which the park is part, was pushed upward by tectonic forces and exposed to increased erosion. All of the park's rock layers above the Chinle, except geologically recent ones found in parts of the park, have been removed by wind and water. In addition to petrified logs, fossils found in the park have included Late Triassic ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and many other plants as well as fauna including giant reptiles called phytosaurs, large amphibians, and early dinosaurs. Paleontologists have been unearthing and studying the park's fossils since the early 20th century.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The park's earliest human inhabitants arrived at least 8,000 years ago. By about 2,000 years ago, they were growing corn in the area and shortly thereafter building pit houses in what would become the park. Later inhabitants built above-ground dwellings called pueblos. Although a changing climate caused the last of the park's pueblos to be abandoned by about 1400 CE, more than 600 archeological sites, including petroglyphs, have been discovered in the park. In the 16th century, Spanish explorers visited the area, and by the mid-19th century a U.S. team had surveyed an east–west route through the area where the park is now located and noted the petrified wood. Later, roads and a railway followed similar routes and gave rise to tourism and, before the park was protected, to large-scale removal of fossils. Theft of petrified wood remains a problem in the 21st century.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Petrified Forest National Park straddles the border between Apache County and Navajo County in northeastern Arizona. The park is about long from north to south, and its width varies from a maximum of about in the north to a minimum of about along a narrow corridor between the north and south, where the park widens again to about .


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: I-40, former U.S. Route 66, the BNSF Railway, and the Puerco River bisect the park generally east–west along a similar route. Adamana, a ghost town, is about west of the park along the BNSF tracks. Holbrook, about west of park headquarters along I-40, is the nearest city. Bisecting the park north–south is Park Road, which runs between I-40 near park headquarters on the north and U.S. Route 180 on the south. Historic Highway 180, an earlier alignment of the modern route, crosses the southern edge of the park. Like Route 66, it has deteriorated and is closed. Many unpaved maintenance roads, closed to the public, intersect Park Road at various points.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The fee area of the park owned by NPS covers about . The Navajo Nation borders the park on the north and northeast. State-owned land, federal land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, and private land, much of it used for cattle ranching, adjoin the other borders. The park’s elevation above sea level varies from a low of along the Puerco River to a high of at Pilot Rock; the average elevation is about . The terrain varies from gentle hills and major petrified wood deposits in the south to eroded badlands in the north. Most of the park's intermittent streams—including Lithodendron Wash, Dead Wash, Ninemile Wash, and Dry Wash—empty into the Puerco River. In the southern part of the park, Cottonwood Wash and Jim Camp Wash flow into the Little Colorado River.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Petrified Forest National Park is known for its fossils, especially of fallen trees that lived in the Late Triassic Epoch of the Mesozoic era, about 225-207 million years ago. During this period, the region that is now the park was near the equator on the southwestern edge of the supercontinent Pangaea, and its climate was humid and sub-tropical. What later became northeastern Arizona was a low plain flanked by mountains to the south and southeast and a sea to the west. Streams flowing across the plain from the highlands deposited inorganic sediment and organic matter, including trees as well as other plants and animals that had entered or fallen into the water. Although most organic matter decays rapidly or is eaten by other organisms, some is buried so quickly that it remains intact and may become fossilized. Within the park, the sediments containing the fossil logs for which the park is named are part of the Chinle Formation.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The colorful Chinle, which appears on the surface in many parts of the southwestern United States and from which the Painted Desert gets its name, is up to thick in the park. It consists of a variety of sedimentary rocks including beds of soft, fine-grained mudstone, siltstone, and claystone—much of which is bentonite—as well as harder sandstone and conglomerate, and limestone. Exposed to wind and water, the Chinle usually erodes differentially into badlands made up of cliffs, gullies, mesas, buttes, and rounded hills. Its bentonite clay, which swells when wet and shrinks while drying, causes surface movement and cracking that discourages plant growth. Lack of plant cover makes the Chinle especially susceptible to weathering.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: About 60 million years ago, tectonic movements of the Earth's crust began to uplift the Colorado Plateau, of which the Painted Desert is part. Eventually parts of the plateau rose to above sea level. This warping of the Earth's surface led to the gradual and continuing destruction of the plateau by erosion. An unconformity (break in the rock record) of about 200 million years occurs within the park, where erosion has removed all the rock layers above the Chinle except geologically recent ones. The Bidahochi Formation, laid down only 4 to 8 million years ago, rests directly atop the Chinle, and rocks laid down in the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and much of the Tertiary are absent.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: During the period of the Bidahochi deposition, a large lake basin covered much of northeastern Arizona. The older (lower) layers of the formation consist of fluvial and lacustrine (lake-related) deposits of silt, sand, and clay. The younger (upper) Bidahochi contains ash and lava from volcanoes that erupted nearby and as far away as southwestern Nevada. Although much of the Bidahochi has since eroded, a small part of it outcrops in the northern part of the park—on Pilot Rock in the park’s wilderness section and along the rim of the Painted Desert between Pintado and Tawa points. Exposed by erosion of the Bidahochi are volcanic landforms called maars (flat-bottomed, roughly circular volcanic craters of explosive origin). A maar vent can be seen from the Pintado Point lookout.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: During the Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago up to today), deposits of windblown sand and alluvium covered much of the Chinle and Bidahochi. Older dunes range in age from 500,000 years at higher elevations in the northern part of the park to about 10,000 years in sandy drainage areas such as Lithodendron Wash. Stabilized by grasses and other vegetation, young dunes of about 1,000 years old are found throughout the park.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: During the Late Triassic, downed trees accumulating in river channels in what became the park were buried periodically by sediment containing volcanic ash. Groundwater dissolved silica (silicon dioxide) from the ash and carried it into the logs, where it formed quartz crystals that gradually replaced the organic matter. Traces of iron oxide and other substances combined with the silica to create varied colors in the petrified wood.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park's petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these permineralized fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, pine-cones, pollen grains, spores, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as compression fossils, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Much of the park’s petrified wood is from "Araucarioxylon arizonicum", an extinct conifer tree, while some found in the northern part of the park is from "Woodworthia arizonica" and "Schilderia adamanica" trees. At least nine species of fossil trees from the park have been identified; all are extinct. The park has many other kinds of fossils besides trees. The Chinle, considered to be one of the richest Late Triassic fossil-plant deposits in the world, contains more than 200 fossil plant taxa. Plant groups represented in the park include lycophytes, ferns, cycads, conifers, ginkgoes, as well as unclassified forms. The park has also produced one of the most diverse assemblages of fossil vertebrates from the Late Triassic. Among the groups represented are early theropod dinosaurs, crocodile-line archosaurs, temnospondyl amphibians, lissamphibians, non-archosauromorph diapsids, and other dinosauromorphs and archosauromorphs. Dicynodonts are extremely rare despite being abundantly represented at the "Placerias" Quarry near St. Johns. Fossil invertebrates include freshwater snails and clams. The oldest fossil crayfish, "Enoploclytia porteri", was also described from the park, although it is not considered a crayfish proper (instead placed in Erymidae).


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Petrified Forest National Park has a cold semi-arid climate ("BSk"). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the plant hardiness zone at the Painted Desert Visitor Center is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of .


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Winter winds can reach . Summer breezes are lighter, but the average wind causes frequent sandstorms and dust devils, some of which reach altitudes of several thousand feet.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Rain is heaviest from July through September, when 42 percent of the park's annual average precipitation falls. August is the wettest month. At an elevation of more than , Petrified Forest National Park has a chance of light snow from October through March, although snow cover rarely persists. The annual average relative humidity of the area is below 50 percent and at times less than 15 percent.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: More than 1200 archeological sites have been found inside the boundaries of Petrified Forest National Park. Evidence suggests that the earliest inhabitants of the park arrived over 12,000 years ago. Clovis and Folsom-type spear points made from Petrified wood are among the earliest artifacts of Paleoindians found in the park. Between , the Archaic Period, nomadic groups established seasonal camps in the Petrified Forest from which they hunted game such as rabbits, pronghorn antelope, and deer and harvested seeds from Indian ricegrass and other wild plants. By at least and through the Basketmaker II period (–) Basketmaker II Ancestral Puebloan farmers began to grow corn. Between population size grew rapidly. Many families built houses in the Petrified Forest and for the first time began to stay there year-round.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: During the Basketmaker III period, , families occupied shallow subterranean pit structures, at first on mesas or other vantage points and later at the base of bluffs and in lowlands, where the soil was better. Settlement patterns shifted and population size grew during the Pueblo I era between 700 and 900 CE and for the first time large groups of families aggregated together and formed large villages. During this period, each household built large well-insulated subterranean residential pit structures to keep warm during the cold winter months and several adjacent above ground rooms made from stone and jacal similar to adobe—used for food storage and daily activities during the warmer months. During the early Pueblo II period () Ancestral Pueblo farmers began constructing above-ground masonry architecture (for example Agate House, a small masonry structure built from petrified wood that is open to the public) signaling a greater degree of residential permanence. During the Late Pueblo II and Early Pueblo III periods 1050–1225 local population size grew rapidly. Similar to much of the Ancestral Pueblo world, population density increased rapidly at this time and nearly 1,000 sites dating to this period have been identified in the park at a wide variety of locations—at the mouths of washes, near seeps, and on moisture-holding sand dunes.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Between 1250 and 1450 CE Ancestral Pueblo families gathered into large apartment building-like masonry structures (also known as pueblos) with several hundred people living together in close quarters These large villages were often located near important water sources. Ancestral Pueblo people constructed more than two of these large pueblos, one called Stone Axe, about east of the park, and the other at Puerco Pueblo, which overlooks the Puerco River near the middle of the park. There they built roughly 200 rooms around an open plaza. Some rooms had no windows or doors and could be entered by climbing a ladder and descending through a hole in the roof. At its peak, perhaps 200 people lived in this pueblo. Over time, however, Ancestral Pueblo families undertook migrations and joined rapidly growing towns on the Hopi Mesas in Northern Arizona and at the Pueblo of Zuni in northern New Mexico, where the descendants of the ancient Petrified Forest farmers still live today. Some researchers have argued that a persistently dry climate led to out-migration, and the last residents Puerco Pueblo in about 1380 CE.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: At Puerco Pueblo and many other sites within the park, petroglyphs—images, symbols, or designs—have been scratched, pecked, carved, or incised on rock surfaces, often on a patina known as desert varnish. Most of the petroglyphs in Petrified Forest National Park are thought to be between 650 and 2,000 years old.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: From the 16th through the 18th centuries, explorers looking for routes between Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande to the southeast and other Spanish colonies on the Pacific coast to the west passed near or through the area, which they called "El Desierto Pintado", the Painted Desert. However, the park's oldest Spanish inscriptions, left by descendants of the region's early Spanish colonists, date only to the late 19th century.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: After the Southwest became part of the U.S., explorers continued to look for good east–west routes along the 35th parallel. In 1853, a crew led by U.S. Army Lieutenant Amiel Whipple surveyed along a sandy wash in the northern part of the Petrified Forest. So impressed was Whipple by the petrified wood along the banks of the arroyo that he named it Lithodendron Creek (Stone Tree Creek). Geologist Jules Marcou, a member of the Whipple expedition, observed that the petrified trees were from the Triassic.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: A slightly later route along the parallel was a wagon road, built between 1857 and 1860, that involved experimental use of camels as transport. In the late 19th century, settlers and private stagecoach companies followed similar east–west routes. Homesteaders who stayed in the area developed cattle ranches on the grasslands, and cattle grazed in the Petrified Forest until the mid-20th century.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Also close to the 35th parallel was the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. Its opening in the early 1880s led to the founding of towns like Holbrook and Adamana. Visitors could stop at the Adamana train station, book a hotel room, and take a tour of what was then called the Chalcedony Forest. Over the years, the line changed hands, becoming the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, and then the BNSF. More than 60 BNSF trains, mostly carrying freight, pass through the park every day. U.S. Route 66, a former transcontinental auto highway developed in 1926 from part of the National Old Trails Road, ran parallel to the railroad tracks until it was decommissioned in 1985. The park has preserved within its boundaries a small grassy section of the road. Interstate 40, which crosses the park, replaced the older highway.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Increasing tourist and commercial interest in petrified wood during the late 19th century began to alarm residents of the region. In 1895, the Arizona Territorial Legislature asked the U.S. Congress to create a petrified forest national park. Although this first attempt failed, in 1906 the Antiquities Act signed by President Theodore Roosevelt was used to create the Petrified Forest National Monument as the second national monument. Between 1934 and 1942, the federal Civilian Conservation Corps built road, trails, and structures in the monument, and the government acquired additional land in the Painted Desert section. The monument became a national park in 1962. Six years after the signing of the Wilderness Act in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson, wilderness areas (where human activity is limited), were designated in the park. In 2004, President George W. Bush signed a bill authorizing the eventual expansion of the park from 93,353 acres (about 146 mi or 378 km) to 218,533 acres (about 341 mi or 884 km). Theft of petrified wood is still a problem. Despite a guard force of seven National Park Service rangers, fences, warning signs, and the threat of a $325 fine, an estimated of the fossil wood is stolen from the Petrified Forest every year.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Jessee Walter Fewkes, the first archeologist to visit Puerco Ruin, predicted in the late 19th century that it would yield many artifacts. Conservationist John Muir conducted the first excavations of the ruin in 1905–06. Although he did not publish his findings, he urged the federal government to preserve Petrified Forest. Professional archeological work in the park began in the early 20th century when Walter Hough conducted excavations at Puerco Ruin and other sites. In 1919, a phytosaur skull was discovered near Blue Mesa in the Petrified Forest and sent to the Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley, California. In 1921, Annie Alexander, founder of the museum, visited Blue Mesa to collect more of the phytosaur and other specimens; this led to further excavations by paleontologist Charles Camp. Since then, more than 250 fossil sites have been documented in the park. In the 1930s, the Civil Works Administration funded research in the park by archeologists H.P. Mera and C.B. Cosgrove. A National Park Service resurvey of the Petrified Forest in the early 1940s identified most of the large sites with stone ruins, and subsequent surveys since 1978 have identified a total of more than 600 artifact sites, many of them small. Research in paleontology and archeology continues at the park in the 21st century.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Petrified Forest National Park encompasses two classifications; a Grama Bouteloua/Galleta Hilaria (plant) Steppe ("53") potential vegetation type with a Desert Grassland ("12") vegetation form and a Juniper/Pinyon pine (23) vegetation type with a Great Basin montane forest/Southwest Forest (4) vegetation form.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: A 2005 survey found that 447 species of flora, of which 57 species are invasive, occur in the park. Although the park is known for its fossils and eroded badlands, its main environment is semi-desert shrub steppe. Protected from development and overgrazing for many years, the park has some of the best grassland in northeastern Arizona. In the northern part of the park, the volcanic soils of the Bidahochi Formation support abundant plant life along the Painted Desert rim. In contrast to the relatively bare badlands below, the rim is covered with shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The dominant plants in the park include more than 100 grass species, many native to the region. Growing among the grasses are flowering species such as evening primrose, mariposa lily, and blue flax, and shrubs such as sagebrush, saltbush, and rabbitbrush. Among the wide variety of grasses are native perennial bunchgrass, blue grama, sacaton, sideoats grama, bearded sprangletop, and bush muhly. Invasive species that crowd out slower-spreading natives include annual lovegrass and brome (cheat grass).


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Trees and shrubs grow in riparian zones along the park's washes. Willows and cottonwoods are the larger plants, joined by rushes and sedges. Here the invasive Eurasian tamarisk, also known as saltcedar, threatens native plants by crowding, using most of the available water, and increasing soil salinity by exuding salt through its leaves.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Some of the larger animals roaming the grasslands include pronghorns, black-tailed jackrabbits (hares), Gunnison's prairie dogs, coyotes, bobcats and foxes. Pronghorns, the fastest land animals in North America, are capable of sprints. They are the second fastest land animal on Earth. The blood vessels in the huge, thin-walled ears of the jackrabbits act as heat exchangers. These hares are known for their bursts of speed, long leaps, and zigzag routes, all of which protect them from being eaten by golden eagles and other predators. The prairie dogs live in large colonies or "towns", near which many other species find food and shelter. Coyotes dine largely on rodents but also eat fruits, reptiles, insects, small mammals, birds, and carrion.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Bobcats and bullsnakes hunt smaller animals, such as deer mice and white-tailed antelope squirrels in the park's riparian zones. Western pipistrelle bats feast on insects, and pallid bats eat beetles, centipedes, cicadas, praying mantises, scorpions, and other arthropods. On the Painted Desert rim, small animals find food and shelter among the denser foliage, and mule deer sometimes frequent the area.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: More than 16 kinds of lizards and snakes live in various habitats in the park and consume large quantities of insects, spiders, scorpions, other reptiles, and small mammals. The collared lizard, which occurs in every habitat, is the largest and most often seen. Plateau striped whiptails, a species consisting entirely of females, prefer grasslands and developed areas. Side-blotched lizards live in rocky areas of the park but are seldom seen. Gopher snakes, which sometimes imitate rattlesnakes when disturbed, are among the most common snakes in the park. The Western rattlesnake, the only venomous snake found in the park, prefers grasslands and shrub areas.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Seven kinds of amphibians, which drink no water but absorb it through their permeable skins, have been identified in Petrified Forest National Park. Tiger salamanders, found in grassland and near major drainages, are the only salamander species known in Arizona. Woodhouse’s toads, which are seldom seen, are the largest toads in the park. They like grasslands, riparian corridors, and developed areas. Red-spotted toads, most active in the rainy season, July through September, are found in rocky areas near streams and in canyons. The Great Plains toad, the most common toad in the park, prefers grasslands. Resident spadefoot toads include the New Mexico, plains, and Couch's varieties.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: A survey conducted in 2006 identified 216 species of birds known to have occurred in Petrified Forest National Park since the park became a protected area in 1906. Of those, 33 species breed within the park, 6 other species probably do, and 18 species live in the park year-round. Thirty-five species live in the park only during the summer and 11 species only during the winter. The greatest diversity of birds occurs during fall and winter migrations.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Raptors, songbirds, and ground birds are found in the park's grassland, while the Puerco River's riparian corridor is a good place for year-round residents as well as migrants such as warblers, vireos, avocets, and killdeer. Developed areas around the visitor center and museum attract western tanagers, hermit warblers, house finches, and others. Occasional shorebirds and eastern birds also visit the park.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Birds commonly seen in the park include the common raven and the western meadowlark, known for its charming song. Anna's hummingbird, which can hover and fly backwards as well as forwards, is among the smallest birds in the park. The largest is the golden eagle, with a wingspan of up to .


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The park is open every day except Christmas on a schedule that varies slightly with the seasons. In 2010, it and its Painted Desert Visitor Center and Rainbow Forest Museum were open from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. from May 9 through September 6 but opened as early as 8 a.m. and closed as late as 5 p.m. during other parts of the year. The Painted Desert Inn (a historic museum and bookstore) is open from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. year-round except Christmas. Park clocks are always set to Mountain Standard Time, as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The Painted Desert Visitor Center, designed by modernist architect Richard Neutra, is part of the Painted Desert Community Complex Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Eight other sites within the park are also on the National Register, including the Painted Desert Inn and associated cabins, the Agate House Pueblo, the Painted Desert Petroglyphs and Ruins Archeological District, Newspaper Rock Petroglyphs Archeological District, Puerco Ruin and Petroglyphs, the Flattop Site (an archeological site), the Twin Buttes Archeological District, and the 35th Parallel Route (also known as the Beale Camel Trail). The Painted Desert Inn was upgraded to a National Historic Landmark in 1987.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The visitor center, which is near the north entrance to the park, offers visitor information and shows a 20-minute orientation movie, "Timeless Impressions", once every half-hour. It has a bookstore, exhibits, a restaurant open from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m., a gift shop, a gas station, a post office open from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. Monday through Friday, a postal drop box, and public restrooms. The Rainbow Forest Museum complex north of the park's south entrance offers services including information and "Timeless Impressions" showings once every half-hour. It has a bookstore, fossil exhibits, an interactive Triassic Virtual Tour, limited food service, a gift shop, and public restrooms. The Painted Desert Inn, north of the Painted Desert Visitor Center, offers visitor information. It has a bookstore, museum exhibits (including the building itself), and public restrooms.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: No campgrounds or overnight lodging are available in the park, although nearby communities such as Holbrook offer motels and other accommodations. Overnight parking is not allowed except in the case of backpackers with wilderness hiking permits. Sightseeing is available by private automobile, motorcycle, commercial tour, bicycle, and hiking. The park road, parking lots, and turn-outs are big enough to accommodate large recreational vehicles. Off-road vehicle travel, including by mountain bike, is not allowed. With a few exceptions such as unpaved Old Highway 66, bicycles must stay on paved roads such as the main park road and stay off trails and unpaved surfaces.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: The park's seven maintained hiking trails, some paved, vary in length from less than to nearly . Pets are allowed on these trails if kept on a leash, but bicycles are not. These named trails are Painted Desert Rim, Puerco Pueblo, Blue Mesa, Crystal Forest, Giant Logs, Long Logs, and Agate House. There are also nine recently developed day-hike routes on unpaved and largely unmarked routes called "Off the Beaten Path" hikes. Hikers and backpackers may also visit the park's wilderness areas. Free permits are required for overnight stays; they are issued from the Painted Desert Visitor Center, Painted Desert Inn, and Rainbow Forest Museum. Most backpackers enter the wilderness at the north end of the park, where parking and an access trail are available at Painted Desert Inn. Group camping is limited to eight people. Horseback riding is allowed in the wilderness areas; water for horses is available at the service station near the Painted Desert Visitor Center. Riders and hikers are asked to travel along dry washes as much as possible to reduce the impact on fragile desert soils.


title: Petrified Forest National Park

text: Rangers offer a variety of programs about the park. Regularly scheduled events include a Painted Desert Inn tour, a Triassic program at the Rainbow Forest Museum sunroom, a talk or walk along the Giant Logs Trail behind the museum, and a Puerco Pueblo guided walk. The park hosts special events related to Earth Science Week and National American Indian Heritage Month. On Saturdays from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day at the Painted Desert Inn, artisans from the region give cultural demonstrations related to ancient peoples, intertribal relationships, and European-descent cultures. For students and teachers, the rangers offer educational materials and field-trip talks. In some years during the summer months, artists-in-residence work in the park.


title: Rotary cannon

text: A rotary cannon, rotary autocannon, rotary gun or Gatling cannon, is any large-caliber multiple-barreled automatic firearm that uses a Gatling-type rotating barrel assembly to deliver a sustained saturational direct fire at much greater rates of fire than single-barreled autocannons of the same caliber. The loading, firing and ejection functions are performed simultaneously in different barrels as the whole assembly rotates, and the rotation also permits the barrels some time to cool. The rotating barrels on nearly all modern Gatling-type guns are powered by an external force such as an electric motor, although internally powered gas-operated versions have also been developed.


title: Rotary cannon

text: The cyclic multi-barrel design synchronizes the firing/reloading sequence. Each barrel fires a single cartridge when it reaches a certain position in the rotation, after which the spent casing is ejected at a different position and then a new round is loaded at another position. During the cycle, the barrel has more time to dissipate some heat away to the surrounding air.


title: Rotary cannon

text: Due to the usually cumbersome size and weight of rotary cannon, they are typically mounted on weapons platforms such as vehicles, aircraft, or ships, where they are often used in close-in weapon systems.


title: Rotary cannon

text: In 1852 a revolving barrel gun with a unique method of ignition was proposed by an Irish immigrant to America by the name of Delany.


title: Rotary cannon

text: The Gatling gun was another gun to use rotating barrels. It was designed by the American inventor Dr. Richard J. Gatling in 1861 and patented in 1862. Hand cranked and hopper fed, it could fire at a rate of 200 rounds per minute. The Gatling gun was a field weapon, first used in warfare during the American Civil War and subsequently by European and Russian armies.


title: Rotary cannon

text: The design was steadily improved; by 1876 the Gatling gun had a theoretical rate of fire of 1,200 rounds per minute, although 400 rounds per minute was more readily achievable in combat. By 1893, the M1893 Gatling gun could fire 800 to 900 rounds per minute.


title: Rotary cannon

text: Ultimately the Gatling's weight and cumbersome artillery carriage hindered its ability to keep up with infantry forces over difficult ground and was superseded by lighter and more mobile machine guns such as the Maxim gun. All models of Gatling guns were declared obsolete by the U.S. Army in 1911, after 45 years of service.


title: Rotary cannon

text: After the Gatling gun was replaced in service by newer recoil- or gas-operated non-rotating machine guns, the approach of using multiple rotating barrels fell into disuse for many decades. However, some examples were developed during the interwar years but only existed as prototypes, or rarely used. During World War I, Imperial Germany worked on the Fokker-Leimberger, an externally powered 12-barrel Gatling gun that could fire more than 7,200 7.92×57mm rounds per minute.


title: Rotary cannon

text: After World War II, the U.S. Army Air Force determined that an automatic cannon of improved design with an extremely high rate of fire was required to achieve a sufficient number of large-caliber hits on fast-moving enemy jet aircraft. Using experience gained from 20mm MG 151 and 30mm MK 108 cannon used by "Luftwaffe" aircraft, a larger-caliber cannon shell for the new gun was deemed desirable, as it contained room for an explosive with more destructive force than the .30 and .50 caliber machine gun cartridges previously employed, and thus capable of destroying aircraft with only a few hits on target.


title: Rotary cannon

text: In June 1946, the General Electric Company was awarded a U.S. military defense contract to develop an aircraft gun with a high rate of fire which GE termed "Project Vulcan". While researching prior work, ordnance engineers recalled the experimental electrically driven Gatling weapons of the turn of the 20th century. In 1946, a Model 1903 Gatling gun borrowed from a museum was set up with an electric motor drive and test-fired by General Electric engineers. The 40-year-old design briefly managed a rate of fire of 5,000 rounds per minute.


title: Rotary cannon

text: In 1949 General Electric began testing the first model of its modified Gatling design, now called the "Vulcan Gun". The first prototype was designated the T45 (Model A). It fired ammunition at about 2,500 rounds per minute, from six barrels driven by an electric motor. In 1950, GE delivered ten initial model A .60 cal. T45 guns for evaluation. Thirty-three model C T45 guns were delivered in 1952 in three calibers: .60 cal., 20mm, and 27mm, for additional testing. After extensive testing, the T171 20mm gun was selected for further development. In 1956, the T171 20mm gun was standardized by the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force as the M61 20mm Vulcan aircraft gun.


title: Rotary cannon

text: One of the main reasons for the resurgence of the electrically or hydraulically powered multiple-barrel design is the weapon's tolerance for continuous high rates of fire. For example, 1000 rounds per minute of continuous fire from a conventional single-barrel weapon ordinarily results in rapid barrel heating followed by stoppages caused by overheating. In contrast, a five-barreled machine gun firing 1000 rounds per minute fires only 200 rounds per barrel per minute, an acceptable rate of fire for continuous use. The only limiting factor is the rate at which loading and extraction can occur. In a single-barrel design, these tasks must alternate; a multiple-barrel design allows them to occur simultaneously, using different barrels at different points in the cycle. The design also solves the problem of defective ammunition, which can cause a normal machinegun to malfunction when a cartridge fails to load, fire, or eject from the weapon. As it is powered by an independent source, the gun simply ejects the defective round along with the rest of the cartridges while continuing to operate.


title: Rotary cannon

text: The "M61 Vulcan" 20 mm autocannon is the best-known of a family of weapons designed by General Electric and currently manufactured by General Dynamics. The M61 is a six-barreled 20mm rotary cannon that fires at up to 6,600 rounds per minute. Similar systems are available in calibers ranging from 5.56 mm to 30 mm (the prototype T249 Vigilante AA platform featured a 37 mm chambering).


title: Rotary cannon

text: Another multi-barrel design is the hydraulically driven GAU-8 Avenger 30 mm autocannon, carried on the A-10 Thunderbolt II (Warthog) attack aircraft, a heavily armored close air-support aircraft. It is a seven-barreled cannon designed for tank-killing and is currently the largest bore multi-barrel weapon active in the U.S. arsenal, and heaviest autocannon ever mounted into an aircraft, outweighing the WW II German "Bordkanone" BK 7,5 75mm aircraft-mount, tank-killing single barrel autocannon by some 630 kg (1,389 lb), with ammunition.


title: Rotary cannon

text: The Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-23 and GSh-6-30 are Russian gas-powered rotary cannon with maximum cyclic rates of 9,000 to 10,000 rounds per minute.


title: Rotary cannon

text: While electric motors were used to rotate the Vulcan barrels, a few examples of self-operated Gatling-derived weapons use the blow-forward, recoil or gas impulse from their ammunition. The Bangerter machine gun uses a blow-forward operation and is the most complex example. The Slostin machine gun uses a similar operation but with gas pistons on each barrels. The GShG-7.62 machine gun and GSh-6-23, both use a more effective, simpler gas piston drive in the center of the barrel cluster.


title: Rotary cannon

text: During the Vietnam War, the 7.62 mm caliber M134 Minigun was originally created to arm rotary-wing aircraft, and could be fitted to various helicopters as either a crew-served or a remotely operated weapon. With a rate of fire from 2,000 to 6,000 rounds per minute from a 4,000-round linked belt, the Minigun proved to be one of the most effective non-explosive projectile weapons ever built and is still used in helicopters today.


title: Rotary cannon

text: As the GAU-2B/A, the Minigun was also used on the U.S. Air Force AC-47, AC-119 and Lockheed AC-130 gunships. The AC-47 was known during the Vietnam War as "Puff the Magic Dragon" and was said to be "the only thing that scared the VC". This weapon was also used on selected USAF helicopters. With sophisticated navigation and target identification tools, Miniguns can be used effectively even against concealed targets. The crew's ability to concentrate the Minigun's fire very tightly produces the appearance of the 'Red Tornado' from the light of the tracers, as the gun platform circles a target at night.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Day Shift is a 2022 American supernatural action comedy film starring Jamie Foxx as a blue-collar father whose pool-cleaning job is a front for his work as a vampire hunter. The film is directed by J. J. Perry in his directorial debut, with a screenplay by Tyler Tice and Shay Hatten, based on a story by Tice. The film's cast also includes Dave Franco, Natasha Liu Bordizzo, Meagan Good, Karla Souza, Steve Howey, Scott Adkins, and Snoop Dogg.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Netflix released "Day Shift" on its streaming service on August 12, 2022. The film received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Bud Jablonski is a blue-collar dad who provides for his family apparently working as a pool cleaner. His real job is hunting and killing vampires.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: While at work Bud sees a man leaving the house where he's working. He silently breaks into the house where he encounters two vampires, an elderly woman and a younger man, who lives there. Following a lengthy fight, he kills the vampires and pulls out their fangs with pliers. Bud tries to sell the fangs at a pawn shop, but the prices that Troy, the owner, offers are not enough to help him with his money troubles. Bud's ex-wife Jocelyn is planning to move to Florida with their daughter, who attends a private school with high fees. In order to pay the tuition, cover his debts, and buy his daughter braces, Bud is forced to return to the vampire hunting union.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Bud enlists his old army friend, "Big" John Elliot, to help him rejoin the union. The union boss, Ralph Seeger, initially refuses, citing how Bud had been previously kicked out of the union due to his risky and aggressive hunting style. He eventually is given a final chance but must work under strict conditions: He must only work the day shift, which does not pay well, and must be supervised by a union rep named Seth. Seth is tasked to look for, and report, any violations committed by Bud. Meanwhile, a vampire named Audrey finds the vampires that Bud killed. While searching for the man who killed the older of the two vampires, Audrey finds, tortures, and interrogates Troy. Before she kills him, she reveals that humans used to worship vampires as gods and plans to restore the old order by building homes and using them to establish vampire colonies so she can build an army.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Bud and Seth go hunting, and although Bud violates several union protocols, Seth does not report them after learning of Bud's aim to support his family with his earnings. After they find and destroy an unusual nest of vampires, Audrey contacts Bud and threatens his family, revealing that the elderly vampire was her daughter. Bud rushes to his ex-wife to save her while being pursued by vampires but fails to get there in time. His family is taken hostage by Audrey, and Seth is turned into a vampire. Now set on rescuing his family, Bud and Seth recruit Bud's neighbor, an outcast vampire named Heather, to help them assault Audrey's stronghold.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: At the stronghold, they are joined by Big John. During the fight, John gets bitten and chooses to sacrifice himself so that Bud can save his family. Bud is no match for Audrey's superior speed and physical strength, but through a clever trick, he gains the upper hand, kills her, and saves his family. When Seeger arrives with backup from the union and tries to use Bud's numerous violations to kick him out, Seth uses his extensive knowledge of loopholes in the union's rules to prevent him from doing so. As the Jablonski family drives away, Big John climbs out of a manhole in the street showing that he survived the explosion.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: "Day Shift" is the directorial debut of second-unit director J. J. Perry. Tyler Tice wrote the script, and Shay Hatten provided a rewrite. Chad Stahelski, Jason Spitz, Jamie Foxx, Shaun Redick Yvette Yates Redick, Datari Turner, and Peter Baxter produced. Netflix announced the film on October 20, 2020, by revealing Foxx had joined the cast. Additional cast members were announced in April 2021. Principal photography was scheduled to take place in Los Angeles, California, between April 19 and August 22, 2021.


title: Day Shift (film)

text: On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 56% of 132 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The critical consensus reads, "Game stars and an appealingly goofy premise aren't enough to make up for "Day Shift" uninspired action-comedy hijinks." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Michael Ordoña of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film a "damned delight" and said: "One would be tempted to call it the best horror comedy of 2022 so far, but it mixes so many genres it's more like 2022's best horror-buddy-cop-cartel-drama-bounty-hunter-martial-arts-action comedy (so far)." Lovia Gyarkye of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "a rambunctious, strange and occasionally humorous action-thriller-comedy".


title: Day Shift (film)

text: Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" found the film agreeable at first but "until it starts to be just convoluted enough to give you a headache, especially when the rules are applied as inconsistently as they are here". Peter Travers of ABC News wrote: "A slumming Jamie Foxx is cool to the max as a vampire hunter gunning down bloodsuckers in sunny LA. But you leave this goofy but mostly godawful action-comedy feeling pummeled, beaten down by an avalanche of sound and fury signifying the usual nothing." Brian Lowry of CNN wrote: "It's the kind of star-driven vehicle that yields obvious benefits to Netflix even if, qualitatively speaking, it doesn't deserve to see the light of day."


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: The Burkina Faso national football team (French: " Équipe de football du Burkina Faso"), represents Burkina Faso in men's international football and is controlled by the Burkinabé Football Federation. They were known as the Upper Volta national football team until 1984, when Upper Volta became Burkina Faso. They finished fourth in the 1998 Africa Cup of Nations, when they hosted the tournament. Their best ever finish in the tournament was the 2013 edition, reaching the final.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: Their first international match was played on April 13, 1960, in the Jeux de la Communauté in Madagascar and ended with a 5–4 victory against Gabon.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: The country made their first appearance in the Africa Cup of Nations in 1978, but it was not until 1996 that they returned to the biennial tournament. They subsequently qualified for five consecutive tournaments between 1996 and 2004, reaching the semi-finals under coach Philippe Troussier when the tournament was held on home soil in 1998.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: Burkina Faso played in Group B of the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations alongside Ghana and Ivory Coast in a three-team group due to Togo's withdrawal. Although they drew their first match against Ivory Coast and needed just a draw against Ghana to progress, the Burkinabe lost 1–0 and failed to qualify for the knock-out stage of the tournament. Burkina Faso took part in the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations, losing all three of their matches and subsequently firing coach Paulo Duarte. Belgian coach Paul Put was announced as new coach in March 2012.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: Burkina Faso finished first of their group, but lost to Nigeria in the final of 2013 Africa Cup of Nations.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: Burkina Faso first entered the World Cup in the 1978 qualifying tournament, beating Mauritania in the preliminary round before losing 1–3 against Ivory Coast. They next entered World Cup qualifying in 1990, losing in the first round to Libya 2–3. Burkina Faso withdrew from the 1994 competition but returned in 1998, beating Mauritania again to make it to the final qualifying group stage, however they failed to obtain a single point, finishing bottom of their group. They beat Ethiopia in 2002 to again make it to the qualifying group stage, but did not advance, only winning one game against Malawi.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: The team had a strong showing in the 2014 World Cup qualification campaign, reaching the final round of qualifying where it faced Algeria. It won 3–2 in Ouagadougou, but lost 1–0 in Blida. Despite the 3-3 aggregate, Burkina Faso narrowly missed out on the 2014 World Cup due to the away goals rule.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: The team is nicknamed "Les Etalons", which means "The Stallions". It is in reference to the legendary horse of Princess Yennenga. Supporters of the team at times include a percussion band, which often mimics the sounds of galloping horses at matches.


title: Burkina Faso national football team

text: The following is a list of match results from the previous twelve months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.


title: One Piece (season 6)

text: The sixth season of the "One Piece" anime series, split into two "Sky Island" chapters, was produced by Toei Animation, and directed by Konosuke Uda based on Eiichiro Oda's manga by the same name. It was licensed by Funimation as the first season after 4Kids Entertainment dropped their heavily edited dubbing. The sixth season deals primarily with the Straw Hat Pirates's exploration of the legendary Skypiea, a land of winged humanoids built upon clouds, where they face off against Eneru and his henchmen.


title: One Piece (season 6)

text: The sixth season originally ran from February 9, 2003 through June 13, 2004 on Fuji TV and contained 52 episodes. The English version ran from September 29, 2007 through March 15, 2008 on Cartoon Network, airing just the first 24 in the US. Australia, however, continued to air new episodes and concluded the season on January 7, 2009. English broadcasts of the season used the name translations established by 4Kids for the first 31 episodes; episodes 32 onward, and Home Media releases of the entire season, use Funimation's uncut naming scheme instead.


title: One Piece (season 6)

text: The season uses six pieces of theme music: two opening themes and four ending themes. The opening theme by The Babystars in Japanese and Vic Mignogna in English is used until episode 168, followed by "Bon Voyage" by Bon-Bon Blanco for the rest of the season. The ending theme "Free Will" by Ruppina in Japanese and Kristine Sa in English is used until episode 156, followed by Ruppina's "Faith" until episode 168 in Japanese, with Caitlin Glass performing the English version, "A to Z" by ZZ in Japanese and Vic Mignogna in English until episode 181 and by shela in Japanese and Stephanie Young in English for the rest of the season. Funimation's dub uses English versions of these songs.


title: One Piece (season 6)

text: In North America, this season was recategorized as the majority of ""Season Three"" for its DVD release by Funimation Entertainment. The Australian "Season Three" sets were renamed "Collection 12" through "15".


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Kesha v. Dr. Luke refers to a series of lawsuits and countersuits between the singer Kesha Rose Sebert (Kesha) and the music producer Lukasz Sebastian Gottwald (Dr. Luke). Sebert filed a civil suit against Gottwald in October 2014 for infliction of emotional distress, sex-based hate crimes and employment discrimination. Gottwald filed a lawsuit in New York Supreme Court in which he sued Sebert and her mother, Rosemary Patricia "Pebe" Sebert, for defamation and breach of contract.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Gottwald has denied all of the allegations. In the legal documents filed in support of his defamation suit against Sebert, he claims that Sebert and her mother made "defamatory statements in an attempt to extort Gottwald [Dr. Luke] into releasing Kesha from her exclusive recording agreement". This New York lawsuit resulted in the staying of a California lawsuit where Kesha claimed Dr. Luke was guilty of sexual harassment, misogyny, civil harassment, violation of California's laws against unfair business practices, infliction of emotional distress (both intentional and negligent) and negligent retention and supervision. In her New York counter-claim Kesha alleges that Dr. Luke "sexually, physically, verbally and emotionally" abused her since the beginning of their professional relationship. The suit alleged he drugged and raped her on two occasions, made threats against Kesha and her family, and called her derogatory names.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: On February 19, 2016, Kesha's request for a preliminary injunction was denied. Kesha appealed the decision the following month. On April 6, 2016, New York Justice Shirley Kornreich dismissed all of Kesha's counter-claims against Dr. Luke. Kesha and her legal team appealed the injunction decision, and on June 7, 2016, Kesha was recorded in a deposition stating all the allegations' details.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: In September 2013, a fan of Kesha's set up a petition to "free" the singer from Dr. Luke's management, accusing Luke of "stunting" the singer's creative growth as an artist, receiving over 10,000 signatures. It was later revealed on "" that Kesha herself had little creative control over her album "Warrior", and that certain songs were omitted from the album against her wishes. Kesha had written over 70 songs that were intended for "Warrior", but Dr. Luke scrapped many of them. The co-director of "My Crazy Beautiful Life", Steven Greenstreet, tweeted a picture in November of front row fans at one of Kesha's concerts carrying banners labelled, "F**k Dr. Luke." Kesha's mother Pebe blamed Dr. Luke for her lack of creative input and said that she hoped that Kesha would be dropped from RCA Records.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: In October 2014, Kesha sued Dr. Luke for sexual assault and battery, sexual harassment, gender violence, emotional abuse, and violation of California business practices which had occurred over 10 years working together. She states that Dr. Luke repeatedly drugged her, had sexual contact with her, with and without her consent, and that his abuse caused her eating disorder. Kesha asked the court to break her contract with Dr. Luke. In response, Dr. Luke filed a countersuit against Kesha alleging defamation, accusing her, her mother, and her management of fabricating the abuse claims to break her contract with him. In November, Dr. Luke asked the judge to dismiss Kesha's accusation of sexually abusing her. In early December, Dr. Luke filed a defamation lawsuit against Kesha's lawyer, Mark Geragos, accusing him of implications that Luke had raped Lady Gaga. Gaga's team denied any such incident. (Kesha has also accused Dr. Luke of raping Katy Perry. Perry has strongly denied this, and a judge ruled it did not happen.) Later in December, Luke's lawyers amended the official complaint in the defamation lawsuit to introduce additional items, including a handwritten birthday card from Kesha back in 2009. Luke's attorney claimed the card is from several years after Kesha claims he started abusing her. Other additions included several emails between Dr. Luke and Kesha's mother, where the latter wrote to him, "You are part of our family." Dr. Luke further accused Jack Rovner, president of Vector Management, of "longstanding antipathy" towards him, alleging Rovner wants more money and control of Kesha's career.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: On February 18, 2015, during New York Fashion Week, Kesha wore a Discount Universe dress with the words "You Will Never Own Me" on the front of the garment, which at least one media source speculated to be an obvious jab at Dr. Luke amid Kesha's recovery. On June 9, 2015, it was reported that Kesha amended her complaint against Dr. Luke and added a suit against Sony Music Entertainment, with Kesha's lawyer claiming "Dr. Luke's proclivity for abusive conduct was open and obvious to [Sony Music Entertainment] executives, who either knew of the conduct and turned a blind eye, failed to investigate Dr. Luke's conduct, failed to take any corrective action, or actively concealed Dr. Luke's abuse." Kesha sought an injunction with Sony against working and releasing music with Dr. Luke and for greater artistic freedom. Kesha's lawyer, Mark Geragos, responded about the injunction saying "She cannot work with music producers, publishers, or record labels to release new music. With no new music to perform, Kesha cannot tour. Off the radio and stage and out of the spotlight, Kesha cannot sell merchandise, receive sponsorships, or get media attention. Her brand value has fallen, and unless the Court issues this injunction, Kesha will suffer irreparable harm, plummeting her career past the point of no return."


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Before her legal battle against Dr. Luke, Kesha had previously sworn under oath in 2011 that the producer had never assaulted or drugged her in a deposition for a lawsuit against her former managers at DAS Communications. This was a key piece of evidence that played a role in the court denying the injunction. Kesha and her lawyers claimed the statements made in the deposition were false and the result of fear, being abused, bullying and rape trauma (C-PTSD) syndrome.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: On February 19, 2016, New York Supreme Court Judge Shirley Kornreich ruled against Kesha's request for a preliminary injunction that would release her from her contract with Kemosabe Records, a label owned by Lukasz Gottwald, also known as Dr. Luke, under the umbrella of Sony Music Entertainment. The decision was made after the judge told her lawyer, Mark Geragos, that he was essentially "asking the court to decimate a contract that was heavily negotiated and typical for the industry". Further, in 2011, Kesha went on record saying that Dr. Luke had never drugged or touched her during a deposition in a case against her former managers at DAS Communications. According to the defense, Gottwald had already invested $60 million in her career and also offered to allow the singer to fulfill her contract and record without his involvement. The judge also cited what she felt was vagueness in Kesha's counterclaims, referring to the lack of documentation or hospital records supporting the alleged attack.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: The verdict sparked protests outside the courtroom by Kesha's supporters, and started the "#FreeKesha" movement online. Responding to the online campaign, Dr. Luke tweeted, "I didn't rape Kesha and I have never had sex with her. Kesha and I were friends for many years and she was like my little sister." He further added that the lawsuit was "motivated by money." On February 24, 2016, Scott A. Edelman, an attorney representing Sony stated, "Sony is doing everything it can to support the artist in these circumstances, but is legally unable to terminate the contract to which it is not a party." The reason being that Kasz Money, a company of Dr. Luke, signed the initial contract with Kesha in 2005. The company licensed the contract to various Sony Music subsidiaries such as RCA/Jive and Kemosabe Records but retained its ownership. On March 21, Kesha appealed the denial.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Reports were made of an alleged offer made to Kesha after the ruling. Kesha made social media posts stating that she was offered freedom from the recording contract with the condition that she retract the rape and drug allegations and publicly apologize for lying. According to posts Kesha made, she rejected the settlement and said the truth cannot be retracted. A spokesperson for Dr. Luke denies that a settlement was ever offered.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: On April 6, 2016, New York Judge Shirley Kornreich dismissed Kesha's claims of sexual assault, sexual harassment, and gender violence.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: "While Kesha's [claim] alleges that she was sexually, physically and verbally abused by Gottwald for a decade, she describes only two specific instances of physical/sexual abuse," Kornreich wrote. "And the most recent event described was alleged to have happened in 2008 and so falls outside of the statute of limitations." Kornreich dismissed Kesha's hate crime claim because the filings "do not allege that Gottwald harbored animus toward women or was motivated by gender animus when he allegedly behaved violently toward Kesha ... Every rape is not a gender-motivated hate crime." Kesha's claim of intentional infliction of emotional distress was dismissed by Kornreich because "claims of insults about her value as an artist, her looks, and her weight are insufficient to constitute extreme, outrageous conduct intolerable in civilized society."


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: More than 18 months after first filing charges, Kesha dropped her sexual abuse case in Los Angeles (while continuing her New York suit) clarifying that "this lawsuit [has been] so heavy on my once free spirit, and I can only pray to one day feel that happiness again."


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: She stated she wanted to release music for her fans. Kesha finally released the single "Praying" on July 6, 2017, on Dr. Luke's record label Kemosabe Records, with a third album, "Rainbow" released on August 11, 2017, also released on Kemosabe.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Critics of presiding Judge Shirley Kornreich have highlighted the Judge's marriage to lawyer Ed Kornreich, who is a partner in Proskauer Rose, the law firm that represents Sony/RCA.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: A judge refused to amend her original case in March 2017, noting that Kesha had entered a contract after the time period that the singer alleges that abusive behavior began and contradicting the assertion that any alleged abuse would have been unforeseeable and suggesting that Dr. Luke's alleged abusive behavior would have been foreseeable.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: The judge ruled that Kesha "made a false statement to Lady Gaga about Gottwald that was defamatory per se." and that "There is no evidence whatsoever that [Dr. Luke] raped Katy Perry." The ruling stated that Kesha breached her contract with KMI, Dr. Luke's record label, and as a result of that she is obligated to pay KMI "pre-judgment interest of $373,671.88."


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: A divided panel of New York state Supreme Court Appellate Division judges ruled that Dr. Luke wasn’t a public figure, stating: "Although he is an acclaimed music producer and well known in the entertainment industry, he is not a household name”. This ruling was significant, because public figures must meet a high legal standard to prove they’ve been defamed.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: In an oral argument, the judge ruled that New York's recently established free speech law applies to this case. As a result, Dr. Luke must prove that Kesha acted in malice and the singer will be able to seek damages for the battle if she wins the trial.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Before the February 2020 ruling against Kesha, numerous celebrities commented on the conflict. For example, in 2016 George Takei wrote, "This ruling is an unfortunate and troubling example of favoring corporations over people." Producer Brad Walsh tweeted "Forcing a woman to work with her rapist, or to work to profit her rapist, is a failure of justice." Also in 2016 Lena Dunham wrote an article, expressing her solidarity with Kesha.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Several musicians also voiced their support for Kesha through Twitter. Miley Cyrus and Margaret Cho posted a picture of Fiona Apple holding a placard reading, "Kesha—I am so angry for you. They were wrong. I'm so sorry" on Instagram. Jack Antonoff and Zedd also offered to produce and work with Kesha, with the latter of the two eventually producing her song "True Colors". While accepting a trophy at the Brit Awards, Adele stated, "I'd also like to take this moment to publicly support Kesha." Singer-songwriter Taylor Swift donated $250,000 to help with any of Kesha's financial needs, something fellow singer Demi Lovato publicly criticized. Lady Gaga, Iggy Azalea, Lilly Singh, Alessia Cara, Ariana Grande, Lily Allen, Kelly Clarkson, Lorde, Haim, Marina Diamandis, and other artists supported Kesha through social media.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: American magazine "The Atlantic" criticized Dr. Luke's presence in mainstream music following the lawsuits, writing that Doja Cat's rise has signalled a quick rehabilitation of Dr Luke's career while originally the same industry was slow to react to the original allegations.


title: Kesha v. Dr. Luke

text: Conversely, TV host Wendy Williams sided against Kesha in the ruling, saying in an interview, "Unfortunately business is business, and it sounds like it's fair. If everybody complained because somebody allegedly sexually abused them and was ripping them off, then contracts would be broken all the time." However, after Kesha posted an Instagram post, in which she claimed that she had been "offered contractual freedom from Dr. Luke if she would recant her sexual abuse allegations, but that she refused", Williams changed her mind and apologized to Kesha, explaining "unfortunately a lot of people lie about rape so I was just being skeptical".


title: Cargill family

text: The Cargill family, also known as the Cargill-MacMillan family, refers to the multi-generational descendants of the American business executive William Wallace Cargill (December 15, 1844 – October 17, 1909) and his son-in-law John H. MacMillan Sr. The Cargill-MacMillan family is the fourth-wealthiest family in America. Descendants of Cargill and MacMillan have owned common equity in the "agribusiness giant" Cargill Inc, one of the largest privately owned corporations in the United States, for over 140 years. William Cargill founded the Cargill company as an Iowa grain storage business in 1865, during the post–Civil War period, and was its CEO for almost 40 years. Following the death of William Cargill in 1909, his son-in-law John MacMillan steered the company out of a debt crisis and into stability. The two branches of the family—the MacMillans and the Cargills—continue to be represented on the board of directors of Cargill Incorporated. The most recent family members appointed to the board are fifth generation.


title: Cargill family

text: By 2019, twenty-three Cargill-MacMillan family members owned 88% of the family company, which reported $113.5 billion in revenue in 2019. The "family reportedly keeps 80% of Cargill Inc.'s net income inside the company for reinvestment annually." "Forbes" listed the family's estimated net worth as $38.8 billion and the source of their wealth as Cargill Inc. Each year, the Cargill-MacMillan family takes about eighteen percent of the "net profits as dividends".


title: Cargill family

text: The exact wealth of the family is unknown, as the Cargill company is a privately owned business entity with no obligation to disclose exact ownership. With fourteen billionaires in the family in 2019, the Cargill family has more individual billionaires among its members than any other family anywhere in the world, making them the family with the most wealthy members in history.


title: Cargill family

text: While the "low-profile family" owns Cargill, and there are six family members on the 17-member board, family members have not been part of running the company since 1995, when Whitney MacMillan, who had served as Cargill's chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) since 1976, stepped down as chief executive in 1995.


title: Cargill family

text: The family was also the majority owner of The Mosaic Company, the largest producer of potash and phosphate fertilizer in the United States. In 2011, they sold their sixty-four-percent stake in Mosaic for $24.3 billion.


title: Cargill family

text: In 2012, the unknown heiress Margaret Anne Cargill, posthumously earned the #1 spot in the Chronicle of Philanthropy's annual list of America's 50 most generous donors. Margaret Anne Cargill, who died in 2006, had bequeathed all her shares in the Cargill conglomerate to two non-profits, but the funds could not be liquidated from the private company. When Cargill sold Mosaic, the charities received shares of the public Mosaic stock. This represents about $6 billion, which would make these two charities "two of the wealthiest grant makers in the United States."


title: Cargill family

text: The family-owned Cargill Inc., expanded from a "small-scale frontier enterprise"—a grain storage business—with William Cargill's acquisition in 1865 of a "grain flat house" (a warehouse at the end of a railway line in Iowa) into a "complex international organization and a successful competitor in global markets." W. W. Cargill, the "son of Scottish sea captain", was twenty-one years old when he founded the company. He remained as Cargill CEO for 35–40 years. By 1900, the Cargill Elevator Company was a major Midwestern force. Cargill's wealth increased, as the Great Plains were transformed into a breadbasket, providing grain to the country, and the railroads expanded east to west in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.


title: Cargill family

text: In 2019, Forbes described Cargill Inc as an "international producer and distributor of agricultural products such as sugar, refined oil, chocolate and turkey" that also "provides risk management, commodities trading and transportation services." Cargill had 160,000 employees.


title: Cargill family

text: When W. W. Cargill died in 1909, Cargill Inc faced a "fiscal crisis". As the new President of Cargill Elevator Company, John H. MacMillan, Sr.—Edna Cargill's husband—was able to reassure the company's creditors. He saved the company from bankruptcy and created a work environment that fostered a loyal and dedicated workforce. The second generation of the Cargill family branched into the Cargills and the MacMillans.


title: Cargill family

text: In 1936, when Cargill Incorporated was formed with the merger of various Cargill businesses, John MacMillan, Sr. handed the presidency to a third generation of the Cargill-MacMillan family, his son John MacMillan, Jr. By this time, Cargill Inc had offices in Canada and Italy, as well as many subsidiaries across the United States. John MacMillan, Jr. was described as "mercurial", "innovating", and "difficult". His strategies were sometimes "under the scrutiny of the government". The success of the company under his tenure from 1936 to 1960 was due in large part to the team he formed with a second-generation family member, MacMillan Jr's uncle, Austin Cargill, who had joined the company in 1913, and Cargill MacMillan Sr. (1900–1968). Until 1960, when Edwin Kelm was named as president of Cargill Inc, the company's history had been marked by "family complexity". Starting in 1960, "family complexity" ceased to dominate and was "replaced by a generalized professionalism." The involvement of the family was more in the role of ownership, instead of management and directing.


title: Cargill family

text: Cargill MacMillan Jr. (1927–2011), Cargill MacMillan Sr.'s (1900–1968) oldest son and the great-grandson of W. W. Cargill, worked at Cargill for 38 years and retired in 1988. He served on the board of directors from 1963 to 1996. His estimated net worth was $2.6 billion when he died. John Hugh MacMillan worked for Cargill Inc for 35 years, from 1955 until his retirement in 1990. He served on the board of directors for many years.


title: Cargill family

text: His brother Whitney MacMillan, who was Cargill's chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) from 1976 to 1995, was described by "Forbes" as the "patriarch of the Cargill-MacMillan clan" who "led the company to become a global conglomerate" in his tenure as CEO. He is "generally credited with successfully running Cargill "when the company realized much of its growth." He was the last Cargill "family member to serve as chief executive officer".


title: Cargill family

text: In the mid-1990s, "family factions" made an agreement, which is in the company's bylaws, stipulating that only six members of the family sit on Cargill's 17-person board: four Macmillans and two Cargills.


title: Cargill family

text: From 1999 until his retirement in 2007, a nonfamily member, American investor and businessman, Warren Staley, was CEO of Cargill, Inc. of Minneapolis, Minnesota. His career at Cargill spanned almost four decades. A "Star Tribune" article at the time of his retirement, said that prior to Staley's tenure, Cargill was considered to be "the agricultural industry's version of the CIA". The article described how Cargill had changed in the 1990s as technology improved and global markets became more open, with Cargill expanding into commodity trading and investments "from Vietnam to Argentina."


title: Cargill family

text: In a 2007 "Forbes" article on "The Richest People You've Never Heard of", Cargill Inc was 90 percent owned by the Cargill-MacMillan family and was still the "largest private company in America". The remaining 10 percent was owned by Cargill employees. In 2008 the company employed over 150,000 people in 68 countries, and earned revenues of $106.30 billion.


title: Cargill family

text: By 2009, the Cargill family had "owned common equity in the company for over 140 years." As the world economy collapsed and the price of fertilizer decreased, the "food family's fortune" suffered. Their 2009 annual earnings dropped 15% to $3.3 billion. Cargill Inc revenues remained at $117 billion.


title: Cargill family

text: By 2009, the family company, Cargill Inc controlled "food from stable to table" including "animal feed, meat, [and] crops" and operated "large commodity trading and risk management operations".


title: Cargill family

text: According to a March 2, 2015 article in the "Business Insider", Cargill Inc had "75 businesses employing 143,000 people in 67 countries" with a yearly revenue in 2013 of over $134 billion. The Cargill family had at least 14 billionaires. The Cargill company and family—who had at least 14 billionaires—were "famously quiet", living "extremely private lives, many of them on ranches and farms in Montana," according to "Forbes".


title: Cargill family

text: In 2016, there were major changes in Cargill Inc. under non-family Cargill CEO David MacLennan, which included streamlining the company, making major cuts and divestments, restructuring, and acquisitions. A new generation of the Cargill family was appointed to the board of directors, according to the "Wall Street Journal".


title: Cargill family

text: By July 2019, "Business Insider" ranked the Cargill-MacMillan family as the fourth richest billionaire family in the United States. The magazine listed the family's estimated net worth as $38.8 billion and the source of their wealth as Cargill Inc. By 2019, "23 members of the Cargill-MacMillan family own 88% of [Cargill Inc]. The company "generates $108 billion in annual revenues". Fourteen of the family members were still billionaires in 2019. The "family reportedly keeps 80% of Cargill Inc.'s net income inside the company for reinvestment annually."