title: Chris Barrie

text: Barrie's TV work includes "Britain's Greatest Machines with Chris Barrie", screened on the National Geographic channel from 4 June 2009. Each of the four episodes features some of the most notable air, sea, and land vehicles and equipment of the 1930s, 1950s, 1960s, and 1980s, respectively. The second series of four episodes was transmitted in February 2010, with the 1910s, 1920s, 1940s, and early steam trains as the subjects of each episode.


title: Chris Barrie

text: Barrie has also hosted the television series "Chris Barrie's Massive Engines" and "Chris Barrie's Massive Machines" on the Discovery Channel, later shown on Channel 5 and released on DVD. The latest in this series "Massive Speed with Chris Barrie" was shown on Discovery Channel from November 2006. In 2006, he appeared as a regular team captain in the BBC Two quiz show "Petrolheads" and was the star of the British crime/comedy/drama film "Back In Business", in which he played Tom Marks.


title: Chris Barrie

text: Barrie's interests include vintage motorbikes and collecting fast cars. In 1995, he released a video called "Chris Barrie's Motoring Wheel Nuts", a showcase for his personal car collection. His current classic car collection consists of a Triumph TR2, MGB-GT, Wolseley 1500 and a Jaguar XJ6 (his everyday car).


title: Chris Barrie

text: He has been married twice: first to Monica De Meo from 1987 to 1990 and then to Alecks (1997–present) with whom he has two sons. He lives in Cookham, Berkshire.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Holly Ffion Humberstone (born 17 December 1999) is an English singer-songwriter from Grantham, England. In 2021, she signed a recording contract with Interscope and Polydor Records. Her first EP following the signings, "The Walls Are Way Too Thin", was released on 12 November 2021. Humberstone won the Brit Award for Rising Star at the 2022 Brit Awards.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Humberstone is from Grantham and is one of four sisters. Both her parents are medics. She studied at the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Humberstone started writing songs at a young age. She has discussed growing up in a small town, stating there was "no music scene growing up in rural Lincolnshire, so I just really did my own thing" in an interview with "The Telegraph". Humberstone was formerly a violinist for the Lincolnshire Youth Symphony Orchestra and was first spotted by a manager whilst performing on her local "BBC Music Introducing" radio show.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Humberstone performed at Glastonbury Festival 2019 on the "BBC Music Introducing" stage. Her debut single "Deep End" was then released on 30 January 2020. Her second single, "Falling Asleep at the Wheel", was released on 19 March, while her third single, "Overkill", was released on 26 June. On 30 July 2020, she released a cover of "Fake Plastic Trees" by the English rock band Radiohead. Her debut EP, also titled "Falling Asleep at the Wheel", was released on 14 August, which contained her three previous singles, alongside the tracks "Vanilla", "Drop Dead" and "Livewire". On 9 December 2020, she was included in Vevo DSCVR's Artists to Watch 2021. She performed her song "Vanilla" on the channel.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: In March 2021, ahead of the release of her single "Haunted House" and her second EP, Humberstone signed with Polydor Records in the United Kingdom and Darkroom/Interscope Records in the United States. She also signed a publishing deal with Universal Music Publishing Group.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: On 13 October 2021, Humberstone performed "Scarlett" from her EP, "The Walls Are Way Too Thin", on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". On 9 December 2021, it was announced that Humberstone had been awarded the Brit Award for Rising Star, which recognises pop's most promising new acts to watch. Sam Fender surprised Humberstone with the award whilst they were recording an acoustic duet of his song "Seventeen Going Under". On 21 January 2022, she released the single "London is Lonely" from her forthcoming debut studio album set to be released in 2023.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Humberstone was the opening act for Girl in Red's Make It Go Quiet Tour of North America in March 2022, and was also the opening act for the second half of the North American leg of Olivia Rodrigo's Sour Tour. Humberstone also performed on the Future Sounds stage at BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend 2022 in Coventry. Sleep Tight, her second single from the forthcoming debut studio album, was released on 29 April 2022. On 25 June 2022 Humberstone performed on the John Peel stage at Glastonbury. Since then she performed as an opening act for the George Ezra Concert in Finsbury Park, London, on Sunday 17 July.


title: Holly Humberstone

text: Humberstone music has been described as pop, synth-pop, and indie rock. Her music style has been compared to artists such as Lorde and Bon Iver given its intimate and atmospheric style. Humberstone cites Damien Rice, Ben Howard, Phoebe Bridgers, and HAIM as musical inspirations. Rice's debut studio album "O" (2002) is considered by Humberstone to be her 'first favourite album'. She has stated she mostly identifies with "female writers who overshare", and has described her own musical style as "quite self-exposing".


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: François Landriault-Barbeau (born July 5, 1985), known professionally as François Arnaud, is a Canadian film and television actor. He is best known for his roles as Cesare Borgia on Showtime's period drama series "The Borgias", Manfred Bernardo on NBC's "Midnight, Texas", and Tommy Castelli on Lifetime's "UnReal".


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud was born and raised in Montreal, Quebec. The first play he saw was 'Curano' at age nine. He was so inspired that he went home and tried to learn the monologues. He auditioned for drama school with a play called 'The Bull' written by a Canadian. In 2007, Arnaud trained at the Conservatoire d'art dramatique in Montreal.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud started his career in his home country by landing a role in a comedy series called "Taxi 0-22" and guest starring in several other Canadian shows. He also starred as Antonin Rimbaud in the French-Canadian film "I Killed My Mother", directed by Xavier Dolan. Arnaud received a VFCC Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Canadian Film for the role, and credits this with getting an agent in Hollywood which helped him audition for bigger parts.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud became known for his performance as Cesare Borgia in the Showtime series "The Borgias" which filmed in Hungary.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: He portrayed Oscar in the NBC drama series "Blindspot". He also starred in "Midnight, Texas" portraying the role of a troubled psychic, Manfred Bernardo from 2017 to 2018. The show filmed in Albuquerque and Arnaud enjoyed exploring the mountains and waterfalls near by during his five months there.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: In 2016, Arnaud filmed "Permission" in New York City. Later, Arnaud filmed sci-fi thriller "Origami", a French-Canadian movie that was shot in his home town of Montreal. The movie was so physically and psychologically exhausting for Arnaud that he couldn't work for a month so took respite in a cabin in the woods.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud featured in an episode of Emmy and Golden Globe Award winning show, "Schitt's Creek" as Sebastien Raine, David's ex-boyfriend and photographer.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: In 2019, the movie "Rapid Eye Movement" was released which saw Arnaud playing a radio DJ whose ratings are falling so he plays a stunt by going without sleep to break a world record. Arnaud shot this in Times Square in a glass booth where he interacted with passersby. Also in 2019, Arnaud started shooting a psychological thriller called 'Home' about a young couple dealing with raising a newborn. He plays opposite Emily Hampshire, whom he met while working on "Schitt's Creek", and cast because Emily would only accept her role if Arnaud would be allowed to play her husband.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: On 20 September 2020, Arnaud came out as bisexual on his Instagram. Arnaud has previously dated Holliday Grainger, Evelyne Brochu and Sarah Gadon.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud confesses to being a complete skeptical atheist that doesn't believe in the supernatural, but still doesn't want it to get close to him. He regularly experiences sleep paralysis. He has a tattoo of a house on his back which is based on a drawing by Egon Schiele from 1912 called "House with Bell Tower".


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud enjoys reading Sally Rooney novels such as "Normal People" and "Conversations with Friends" because they have the best ending sentences.


title: François Arnaud (actor)

text: Arnaud can speak English, French and learnt Spanish in high school. He travelled to Latin America and had a Chilean girlfriend that helped him get a good handle of the Spanish language, he didn't use the language for a decade before working on "The Borgias" which required it.


title: Vera Putina

text: Vera Nikolaevna Putina (; born 6 September 1926) is a woman who has since 1999 stated that Vladimir Putin ("Vova") is her son. The woman's claims contrast with Putin's official biography, which states that Putin's parents died before he became president. "The Telegraph" concluded that while the woman might be simply wrong or part of a public relations effort, the story "identifies the holes in the known story of Mr Putin's past". The official story is that Putin's parents were already in their forties when Putin was born, which leaves a gap of over ten years since the births of their previous sons, Albert and Viktor, neither of whom survived childhood. Details of the first ten years of Putin's life are scarce in his autobiography, especially when compared with other world leaders."


title: Vera Putina

text: Putina lives in the village of Metekhi, about 18 kilometers east of Gori, Georgia. Putina says that Putin's father is a Russian mechanic, Platon Privalov, who got Vera pregnant while he was married to another woman. A "Vladimir Putin" was registered at Metekhi school in 1959–1960. Records show that his stated nationality is Georgian. Putina married a Georgian soldier Giorgi Osepahvili. Her husband pressured her to abandon her son, Putin. In December 1960, she delivered "Vova" back to his grandparents in Russia. Putina believes that the St. Petersburg-based "parents" referred to in Putin's official biography adopted her son from his grandparents.


title: Vera Putina

text: Through her contacts, she learned that Putin had become a KGB officer. In 1999, she spotted Putin on television.


title: Vera Putina

text: Putina says that Russian and Georgian people visited her village to pressure her to remain silent. A school teacher, who says she taught Putin, stated that she too had been threatened. Putina says she is ready to do DNA tests. Russian journalist Artyom Borovik's plane crash coincided with the documentary he was making about Putin's childhood, including a report about Vera Putina. Italian journalist Antonio Russo was reportedly also interested in Vera Putina before he was murdered.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: Naval Air Station North Island or NAS North Island , at the north end of the Coronado peninsula on San Diego Bay in San Diego, California, is part of the largest aerospace-industrial complex in the United States Navy – Naval Base Coronado (NBC), and the home port of several aircraft carriers of the United States Navy.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: The commanding officer of NAS North Island (NASNI) is also the Commanding Officer, Naval Base Coronado (NBC). As such, he or she commands or administers NASNI and seven other naval facilities: Naval Amphibious Base Coronado (NABC); Outlying Field Imperial Beach; Silver Strand Training Complex; Remote Training Site, Warner Springs; Mountain Warfare Training Camp Michael Monsoor; Camp Morena; and Naval Auxiliary Landing Facility San Clemente Island. NBC, with only its commands in the metropolitan San Diego area, brackets the city of Coronado from the entrance to San Diego Bay to the Mexican border. NAS North Island itself is host to 23 aviation squadrons and 80 additional tenant commands and activities—one of which, the Fleet Readiness Center Southwest, is San Diego's largest aerospace employer.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: NAS North Island also operates two other airfields in the Southern California region. One is Naval Auxiliary Landing Facility (NALF) San Clemente Island, located approximately northwest of San Diego in the Channel Islands. The other is Naval Outlying Landing Field (NOLF) Imperial Beach. Formerly an independent naval air station, NOLF Imperial Beach is located in the city of Imperial Beach, on the U.S.-Mexico border, south of NAS North Island. The air station was known as Ream Field in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: NAS North Island resembles a small city in its facility content and its operations. It has its own police and fire departments, as well as advanced military security stations. It has large factory-type buildings which comprise the Naval Aviation Depot, employing 3,300 civilians, and its own commissary, Navy Exchange, and housing units. Recreation facilities include officer, chief petty officer and enlisted clubs, movie theater, golf course, tennis courts, bowling alley, parks and beaches.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: Its airfield has over 230 stationed aircraft, and its quay wall is homeport to two aircraft carriers: and . Additionally, the base is home to the Navy's only Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles, "Mystic" (DSRV-1) and "Avalon" (DSRV-2). The DSRV motor vessel support ships are also homeported here.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: With all the ships in port, the population of the station is nearly 35,000 active duty military, selected reserve military, and civilian personnel.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: Department of Defense (DoD) contractors perform transportation flights from the air station to NALF San Clemente Island. Contractors also provide tactical training warfare for the DoD in joint efforts with the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. These aircraft include C-26 Metroliner, Learjet, Gulfstream, and Twin Otter aircraft.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: North Island was commissioned a Naval Air Station in 1917, called Naval Air Station San Diego until 1955. On August 15, 1963, the station was granted official recognition as the "Birthplace of Naval Aviation" by resolution of the House Armed Services Committee.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: The U.S. Navy's first aviator, Lieutenant Theodore Ellyson, and many of his colleagues were trained at North Island starting as early as 1911. This was just eight years after Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first manned aircraft at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. At that time, North Island was an uninhabited sand flat. It had been used in the late 19th century for horseback riding and hunting by guests of J. D. Spreckels's resort hotel, the Hotel del Coronado.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: North Island derived its name from the original geography. In the nineteenth century it was referred to as North Coronado Island, because it was separated from South Coronado (now the city of Coronado) by a shallow bay known as the Spanish Bight, which was later filled in 1945 during World War II. In 1886, North Coronado Island and South Coronado were purchased by a developer to become a residential resort. South Coronado, which is not an island but the terminus of a peninsula known as the Silver Strand, became the city of Coronado.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: However, North Coronado was never developed. Instead, Glenn Curtiss opened a flying school and held a lease to the property until the beginning of World War I. Curtiss invited both the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy to use the site for aviation training, with the Navy being the first to open a station in 1912. However the Navy abandoned its camp and did not return for five years, while the Army established an aviation school in 1913 at the southern end of the island. In 1917, Congress appropriated the land, and two airfields were commissioned on its sandy flats. The Navy started with a tent city known as "Camp Trouble". As its name suggests, things did not always go well in the early days. The Navy shared North Island with the Army's Signal Corps, Air Service, and Air Corp's Rockwell Field until 1937, when the Army left and the Navy expanded its operations to cover the whole of North Island.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: In 1914, then-unknown aircraft builder Glenn Martin took off and demonstrated his pusher aircraft over the island with a flight that included the first parachute jump in the San Diego area. The jump was made by a ninety-pound civilian woman named Tiny Broadwick. Other aviation milestones originating at North Island included the first seaplane flight in 1911, the first mid-air refueling, and the first non-stop transcontinental flight, both in 1923. One of history's most famous aviation feats was the flight of Charles A. Lindbergh from New York to Paris in May 1927. That flight originated at Rockwell Field on North Island on May 10, 1927, when Lindbergh began the first leg of his journey. Forefathers of today's "Blue Angels", the three-plane "Sea Hawks" from VF-6B, the "Felix the Cat" squadron, were thrilling audiences with flight demonstrations as early as 1928. They demonstrated the training skills of Navy fighter and bomber pilots and on many occasions, flew their aircraft in formation with the wings tethered together.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: The list of American military pilots trained at North Island reads like the Who's Who of aviation; however, the U.S. was not the only country interested in aviation early in the twentieth century. Six years before the Naval Air Station was commissioned, Glenn Curtiss trained the first group of Japanese aviators at his flying school on North Island. Among them were a Lieutenant Yamada, later the head of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Naval Aviation arm in World War II and Chikuhei Nakajima, founder of Nakajima Aircraft Company.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: Even the base's first commanding officer, Lieutenant Commander Earl Winfield Spencer Jr., USN, added a degree of celebrity to North Island. His wife was Wallis Warfield, a prominent socialite who was to remarry twice and finally become Wallis Warfield Spencer Simpson Windsor, better known as the Duchess of Windsor, for whom King Edward VIII abdicated his throne in 1936.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: During World War II, North Island was the major continental U.S. base supporting the operating forces in the Pacific. Those forces included over a dozen aircraft carriers, the Coast Guard, Army, Marines, and Seabees. The city of Coronado became home to most of the aircraft factory workers and dependents of the mammoth base which was operating around the clock. Major USO entertainment shows and bond drives were held weekly at the Ship's Service auditorium, which was later replaced by the 2,100 seat Lowry Theater. Famous people stationed here or on ships home ported here during the war years included Douglas Fairbanks Jr., Guy Madison, future television cowboy star of the 1950s and 1960s as Wild Bill Hickok, was at that time Seaman Bob Mosely, a lifeguard at the NAS crews' pool. Stars like the Marx Brothers and Bob Hope appeared regularly at USO shows at the auditorium.


title: Naval Air Station North Island

text: NAS North Island features some of the warmest winter temperatures anywhere on the west coast of the continental United States. Under the Köppen climate classification system, it is classified as a semi-arid climate ("BSh" or warm steppe).


title: Lev Landau

text: Lev Davidovich Landau (; 22 January 1908 – 1 April 1968) was a Soviet physicist of Jewish descent who made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.


title: Lev Landau

text: His accomplishments include the independent co-discovery of the density matrix method in quantum mechanics (alongside John von Neumann), the quantum mechanical theory of diamagnetism, the theory of superfluidity, the theory of second-order phase transitions, the Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductivity, the theory of Fermi liquids, the explanation of Landau damping in plasma physics, the Landau pole in quantum electrodynamics, the two-component theory of neutrinos, and Landau's equations for "S" matrix singularities. He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity that accounts for the properties of liquid helium II at a temperature below ().


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau was born on 22 January 1908 to Jewish parents in Baku, the Russian Empire, in what is now Azerbaijan. Landau's father, David Lvovich Landau, was an engineer with the local oil industry, and his mother, Lyubov Veniaminovna Garkavi-Landau, was a doctor. Both came to Baku from Mogilev and both graduated the Mogilev gymnasium. He learned differential calculus at age 12 and integral calculus at age 13. Landau graduated in 1920 at age 13 from gymnasium. His parents considered him too young to attend university, so for a year he attended the Baku Economical Technical School. In 1922, at age 14, he matriculated at the Baku State University, studying in two departments simultaneously: the Departments of Physics and Mathematics, and the Department of Chemistry. Subsequently, he ceased studying chemistry, but remained interested in the field throughout his life.


title: Lev Landau

text: In 1924, he moved to the main centre of Soviet physics at the time: the Physics Department of Leningrad State University, where he dedicated himself to the study of theoretical physics, graduating in 1927. Landau subsequently enrolled for post-graduate studies at the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute where he eventually received a doctorate in Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1934. Landau got his first chance to travel abroad during the period 1929–1931, on a Soviet government—People's Commissariat for Education—travelling fellowship supplemented by a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship. By that time he was fluent in German and French and could communicate in English. He later improved his English and learned Danish.


title: Lev Landau

text: After brief stays in Göttingen and Leipzig, he went to Copenhagen on 8 April 1930 to work at the Niels Bohr's Institute for Theoretical Physics. He stayed there until 3 May of the same year. After the visit, Landau always considered himself a pupil of Niels Bohr and Landau's approach to physics was greatly influenced by Bohr. After his stay in Copenhagen, he visited Cambridge (mid-1930), where he worked with Paul Dirac, Copenhagen (September to November 1930), and Zurich (December 1930 to January 1931), where he worked with Wolfgang Pauli. From Zurich Landau went back to Copenhagen for the third time and stayed there from 25 February until 19 March 1931 before returning to Leningrad the same year.


title: Lev Landau

text: Between 1932 and 1937, Landau headed the Department of Theoretical Physics at the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology, and he lectured at the University of Kharkiv and the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute. Apart from his theoretical accomplishments, Landau was the principal founder of a great tradition of theoretical physics in Kharkiv, Ukraine, sometimes referred to as the "Landau school". In Kharkiv, he and his friend and former student, Evgeny Lifshitz, began writing the "Course of Theoretical Physics", ten volumes that together span the whole of the subject and are still widely used as graduate-level physics texts. During the Great Purge, Landau was investigated within the UPTI Affair in Kharkiv, but he managed to leave for Moscow to take up a new post.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau developed a famous comprehensive exam called the "Theoretical Minimum" which students were expected to pass before admission to the school. The exam covered all aspects of theoretical physics, and between 1934 and 1961 only 43 candidates passed, but those who did later became quite notable theoretical physicists.


title: Lev Landau

text: In 1932, Landau computed the Chandrashekhar limit; however, he did not apply it to white dwarf stars.


title: Lev Landau

text: From 1937 until 1962, Landau was the head of the Theoretical Division at the Institute for Physical Problems.


title: Lev Landau

text: On 27 April 1938, Landau was arrested for a leaflet which compared Stalinism to German Nazism and Italian Fascism. He was held in the NKVD's Lubyanka prison until his release, on 29 April 1939, after Pyotr Kapitsa, an experimental low-temperature physicist and the founder and head of the institute, wrote a letter to Joseph Stalin in which he personally vouched for Landau's behaviour and threatened to quit the institute if Landau was not released. After his release, Landau discovered how to explain Kapitsa's superfluidity using sound waves, or phonons, and a new excitation called a roton.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau led a team of mathematicians supporting Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb development. He calculated the dynamics of the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb, including predicting the yield. For this work Landau received the Stalin Prize in 1949 and 1953, and was awarded the title "Hero of Socialist Labour" in 1954.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau's students included Lev Pitaevskii, Alexei Abrikosov, Aleksandr Akhiezer, Igor Dzyaloshinskii, Evgeny Lifshitz, Lev Gor'kov, Isaak Khalatnikov, Roald Sagdeev and Isaak Pomeranchuk.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau's accomplishments include the independent co-discovery of the density matrix method in quantum mechanics (alongside John von Neumann), the quantum mechanical theory of diamagnetism, the theory of superfluidity, the theory of second-order phase transitions, the Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductivity, the theory of Fermi liquids, the explanation of Landau damping in plasma physics, the Landau pole in quantum electrodynamics, the two-component theory of neutrinos, the explanation of flame instability (the Darrieus-Landau instability), and Landau's equations for S matrix singularities.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity that accounts for the properties of liquid helium II at a temperature below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C)."


title: Lev Landau

text: In 1937, Landau married Kora T. Drobanzeva from Kharkiv. Their son Igor (1946–2011) became a theoretical physicist. Lev Landau believed in "free love" rather than monogamy and encouraged his wife and his students to practise "free love". However, his wife was not enthusiastic.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau was an atheist. In 1957, a lengthy report to the CPSU Central Committee by the KGB recorded Landau's views on the 1956 Hungarian Uprising, Vladimir Lenin and what he termed "red fascism".


title: Lev Landau

text: On 7 January 1962, Landau's car collided with an oncoming truck. He was severely injured and spent two months in a coma. Although Landau recovered in many ways, his scientific creativity was destroyed, and he never returned fully to scientific work. His injuries prevented him from accepting the 1962 Nobel Prize for physics in person.


title: Lev Landau

text: Throughout his life Landau was known for his sharp humour, as illustrated by the following dialogue with a psychologist, Alexander Luria, who tried to test for possible brain damage while Landau was recovering from the car crash:


title: Lev Landau

text: In 1965 former students and co-workers of Landau founded the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics, located in the town of Chernogolovka near Moscow, and led for the following three decades by Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov.


title: Lev Landau

text: In June 1965, Lev Landau and Yevsei Liberman published a letter in the "New York Times", stating that as Soviet Jews they opposed U.S. intervention on behalf of the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau died on 1 April 1968, aged 60, from complications of the injuries sustained in the car accident he was involved in six years earlier. He was buried at the Novodevichy cemetery.


title: Lev Landau

text: The highest prize in theoretical physics awarded by the Russian Academy of Sciences is named in his honour:


title: Lev Landau

text: On 22 January 2019, Google celebrated what would have been Landau's 111th birthday with a Google doodle.


title: Lev Landau

text: The Landau-Spitzer Award (American Physical Society), which recognizes outstanding contributions to plasma physics and European-United States collaboration, is named in-part in his honor.


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau kept a list of names of physicists which he ranked on a logarithmic scale of productivity ranging from 0 to 5. The highest ranking, 0, was assigned to Isaac Newton. Albert Einstein was ranked 0.5. A rank of 1 was awarded to the founding fathers of quantum mechanics, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Satyendra Nath Bose, Paul Dirac and Erwin Schrödinger, and others, while members of rank of 5 were deemed "pathologists". Landau ranked himself as a 2.5 but later promoted to a 2. David Mermin, writing about Landau, referred to the scale, and ranked himself in the fourth division, in the article "My Life with Landau: Homage of a 4.5 to a 2".


title: Lev Landau

text: Landau wrote his first paper "", co-authored with Dmitri Ivanenko in 1926, when he was 18 years old. His last paper titled "Fundamental problems" appeared in 1960 in an edited version of tributes to Wolfgang Pauli. A complete list of Landau's works appeared in 1998 in the Russian journal "Physics-Uspekhi". Landau would allow himself to be listed as a co-author of a journal article on two conditions: 1) he brought up the idea of the work, partly or entirely, and 2) he performed at least some calculations presented in the article. Consequently, he removed his name from numerous publications of his students where his contribution was less significant.


title: Herkimer diamond

text: Herkimer diamonds are double-terminated quartz crystals discovered within exposed outcrops of dolomite in and around Herkimer County, New York and the Mohawk River Valley. Not actually diamonds, the "diamond" in their name is due to both their clarity and natural faceting - crystals possess double termination points and 18 total faces (six on each point, six around the center). Because the first discovery sites were in the village of Middleville and in the city of Little Falls, respectively, the crystal is also known as a Middleville diamond or a Little Falls diamond.


title: Herkimer diamond

text: Herkimer diamonds became widely recognized after workmen discovered them in large quantities while cutting into the Mohawk River Valley dolomite in the late 18th century. Geologists discovered exposed dolomite in Herkimer County outcroppings and began mining there, leading to the "Herkimer diamond" moniker. Double-point quartz crystals may be found in sites around the world, but only those mined in Herkimer County can be given this name.


title: Herkimer diamond

text: The geologic history of these crystals began about 500 million years ago in a shallow sea which was receiving sediments from the ancient Adirondack Mountains to the north. The calcium and magnesium carbonate sediments accumulated and lithified to form the dolomite bedrock currently known as the Little Falls Formation and formerly as the Little Falls Dolostone. While buried, cavities were formed by acidic waters forming the vugs in which the quartz crystals formed. While the dolomite unit is Cambrian in age, the quartz within the vugs is interpreted to have formed during the Carboniferous Period. Waxy organic material, silicon dioxide and pyrite (iron sulfide) was present as minor constituents of rock made of dolomite and calcite. As sediment buried the rock and temperatures rose, crystals grew in the cavities very slowly, resulting in quartz crystals of exceptional clarity. Inclusions can be found in these crystals that provide clues to the origins of the Herkimer diamonds. Found within the inclusions are solids, liquids (salt water or petroleum), gases (most often carbon dioxide), two- and three-phase inclusions, and negative (uniaxial) crystals. A black hydrocarbon is the most common solid inclusion.


title: The Red Tour

text: The Red Tour was the third concert tour by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, in support of her fourth studio album, "Red" (2012). The tour started on March 13, 2013, at CenturyLink Center in Omaha, Nebraska and concluded on June 12, 2014 at Singapore Indoor Stadium in Singapore. The tour received 1.7 million attendees and grossed $150.2 million in revenue.


title: The Red Tour

text: The tour received positive reviews from music critics, many praising Swift's performances. As well as being Swift's most successful tour at the time, the Red Tour also received four tour award nominations, of which it won one.


title: The Red Tour

text: On October 25, 2012, in partnership with ABC News on the prime-time TV special "All Access Nashville with Katie Couric – A Special Edition of 20/20", Swift announced that she would launch a North American stadium and arena tour in early 2013 in support of her fourth studio album, "Red" (2012).


title: The Red Tour

text: Swift told "Billboard": "Of course, you know the tour will be a big representation of this record". "I'm so excited to see what songs the fans like the most and which ones jump to the forefront, because that's the first step. We always see which songs are really the passionate songs and the ones the fans are freaking out over the most, and those are the ones that are definitely in the set list. I can't wait for that."


title: The Red Tour

text: Swift used Lenny Kravitz's version of "American Woman" as her entrance song. She sang a cover of The Lumineers's "Ho Hey" nightly, intertwined with her own "Stay Stay Stay".


title: The Red Tour

text: On May 24, 2014, BEC-Tero, who had been acting as a promoter for the Bangkok stop of the show, announced that the show had been canceled due to the current political unrest in the area. Swift took to Twitter to express her sadness over the cancellation, stating "I'm so sad about the concert being canceled... [S]ending my love to the fans in Thailand."


title: The Red Tour

text: The tour received positive reviews from many music critics, with many citing Swift's atmospheric performances as a specific area of praise. Writing for the Rolling Stone, Rob Sheffield praised Swift's "emotional excess [and] musical reach", stating "...[n]o other pop auteur can touch her right now." Rebbeca Nicholson of The Guardian gave a 5-star review, stating Swift was "staggeringly nice" and a "consummate crowd pleaser". Digital Spy contributor Emma Dibdin stated the tour combined "whimsical spectacle with Swift's trademark emotional intimacy," and that it "capitalises on exactly what makes Swift such a powerful figure for her audience, the sincere blend of aspirational and relatable." In a more negative review, Rebecca Ford of the Hollywood Reporter stated that the intros before specific songs that, while "an appropriate fit for the audience," felt long and "brought down the energy of the show." Ford also mentioned that while Swift's voice "has gotten stronger over the years... [it] still has a habit of faltering or being too soft to hear over the band."


title: The Red Tour

text: Swift became the first solo female artist in 20 years to headline a national stadium tour through Australia, with the last being Madonna's The Girlie Show in 1993. Swift performed to a crowd of over 40,900 fans at the Sydney Football Stadium in Sydney, Australia, becoming the first female artist in history to sell out the stadium since it was opened in 1988.


title: The Red Tour

text: The Red Tour also became the highest-grossing tour by a country artist in history at the time, bringing in $150 million and surpassing the prior record held by Tim McGraw and Faith Hill's co-headlining Soul2Soul II Tour, which earned $141 million.


title: The Red Tour

text: The following set list is representative of the show on March 13, 2013, in Omaha, Nebraska. It is not representative of all concerts throughout the tour.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: Presidential elections were held in France on 21 April 2002, with a runoff election between the top two candidates, incumbent Jacques Chirac of the Rally for the Republic and Jean-Marie Le Pen of the National Front, on 5 May. This presidential contest attracted a greater than usual amount of international attention because of far-right candidate Le Pen's unexpected appearance in the runoff election.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: Chirac ran for a second term, reduced to five years instead of seven previously by a 2000 referendum, emphasising a strong economy (mostly unaffected by downturns in Germany and the United States). It was widely expected that Chirac and Lionel Jospin, the outgoing cohabitation Prime Minister and nominee of the Socialist Party, would be the most popular candidates in the first round, thus going on to face each other in the runoff, with opinion polls showing a hypothetical Chirac versus Jospin second round too close to call. However, Jospin unexpectedly finished in third place behind Le Pen. Journalists and politicians claimed polls had failed to predict Le Pen's second-place finish in the general election, though his strong stance could be seen in the week prior to the election. This led to serious discussions about polling techniques and the climate of French politics.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: Although Le Pen's political party, the National Front, described itself as mainstream conservative, non-partisan observers largely agreed in defining it as a far-right and nationalist party. As a protest, almost all French political parties called for their supporters to vote against Le Pen, most notably the Socialists, who were traditionally billed as the archrivals to Chirac's party. Chirac thus went on to win in the largest landslide in a presidential election in French history (greater even than that of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte in 1848, the first by direct ballot), winning over 82% of the vote.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: The National Front would not appear again in the second round of the presidential election until 2017. After Chirac's victory, no French President would win a second term until Emmanuel Macron in 2022.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: The 2002 election was the first for which the President would be elected to a five-year, instead of a seven-year, term.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: In the months before the election, the campaign had increasingly focused on questions of law and order, with a particular focus on crimes committed by young people, especially those of foreign origin. Lionel Jospin was, at the time, Prime Minister of France; the Jospin government was criticised for its "softness" on crime by its political opponents. Reporting on the TF1 and France2 television channel and other media also emphasized the alleged crime wave.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: The first round of the election (on 21 April), which saw an exceptional number of 16 candidates, came as a shock to many commentators, almost all of whom had expected the second ballot to be between Jacques Chirac and Lionel Jospin. Indeed, it was this very expectation that led to Jospin's downfall, with a plethora of "small party" left candidates (independent socialists and republicans, Green, Communist, Trotskyist, radical etc.) all intending to support him in the second round, but to raise their profile in the first, like Jean-Pierre Chevènement and Christiane Taubira. They cumulatively took enough votes away from Jospin to (unintentionally) prevent him from reaching the second round, which he could have won. Instead Jean-Marie Le Pen faced Chirac in the second ballot. The election brought the opinion polls and two-round voting system into question as well as raising many concerns about apathy and the way in which the left had become so divided as a result of the over democratical refusal of Jospin to strategically ask the nearest small parties of his own government coalition to withdraw, like the preceding leaders of the left had done for such an election.


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: There was a widespread stirring of national public opinion, and more than one million people in France took part in street rallies, in an expression of fierce opposition to Le Pen's ideas. Some held up protest signs stating "I'm ashamed to be French," which parodied Le Pen's party slogan, "Proud to be French." Spontaneous street protests began in the night from 21 to 22 April, then on 22 April and 23, then as follows:


title: 2002 French presidential election

text: The choice between Chirac, who was under suspicion for actions carried out whilst he was mayor of Paris but benefited from Presidential immunity as long as he stayed president, and Le Pen, a nationalist often accused of racism and antisemitism, was one that many found tough. Some people suggested going to vote with a clothes peg on their noses to express disgust when voting for Chirac, but this may have been illegal, because it is prohibited to advertise one's vote inside the voting precinct. In the days before the second ballot, a memorable poster was put up of Chirac with the slogan "Vote for the Crook, not the Fascist". Chirac defeated Le Pen by a landslide.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Jessica Beth Savitch (February 1, 1947 – October 23, 1983) was an American television journalist, best known for being the weekend anchor of "NBC Nightly News" and daily newsreader for NBC News during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Savitch was one of the first women to anchor an evening network newscast solo, following in the footsteps of Marlene Sanders of ABC News and Catherine Mackin of NBC News. She also hosted PBS's public affairs program "Frontline" from its January 1983 debut until her death as a passenger in an automobile accident later that year.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Shortly before her death in October 1983, Savitch also became known for her performance during a broadcast of "NBC News Digest" in which her delivery was erratic and she appeared to be under the influence of an illicit substance. The incident caused widespread speculation that she was abusing drugs. Savitch died three weeks later by drowning when a car in which she was a passenger was accidentally driven into a canal during a heavy rainstorm. No drugs and very little alcohol were present in her system at the time of her death.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In life, Savitch was renowned for her audience appeal and her skill as an on-camera news reader, although she drew criticism for her relative lack of journalism experience. Prior to joining NBC News, she was a popular local anchorwoman in Philadelphia and before that, while working at a Houston television station, she was the first female news anchor in the South. Posthumously, Savitch became the subject of two biographies and a television film, "Almost Golden: The Jessica Savitch Story", as well as television documentaries. The 1996 feature film "Up Close and Personal" starring Michelle Pfeiffer and Robert Redford was very loosely based on her life. Savitch's experiences as a pioneer anchorwoman also helped inspire Will Ferrell to make the 2004 film "".


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Jessica Savitch was born February 1, 1947, in Wilmington, Delaware. She was the eldest daughter of Florence (née Goldberger), a navy nurse, and David Savitch, who ran a clothing store. Her father was of Slavic Jewish heritage and her maternal grandfather was of German and Russian Jewish heritage. Her maternal grandmother was of Italian American heritage and was Catholic. In 1959, after her father died at the age of 33, her family moved from Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, to Margate City, New Jersey. According to her two biographers, Gwenda Blair and Alanna Nash, Savitch was haunted throughout her life by her father's untimely death, and pursued a career partly to compensate for his loss.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: While attending Atlantic City High School, Savitch got a job co-hosting a show for teenagers on radio station WOND in Pleasantville. She enjoyed the work and soon became a newsreader and disc jockey for WOND as well. She was the first female disc jockey in the Pleasantville area. Following high school, Savitch attended Ithaca College in Ithaca, New York, as a communications major. According to Savitch, the school's discriminatory attitudes against women prevented her from getting the experience she wanted on the college-owned radio and television stations, so she sought opportunities in nearby Rochester. There, she did on-camera and voiceover commercial work, and while still attending college became a popular top 40 disc jockey known as "Honeybee" at WBBF (now WROC-AM). She graduated from Ithaca College in 1968.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In 1969, Savitch was hired as an administrative assistant at WCBS, the CBS Radio flagship news station in New York City, where she also did freelance production work. WCBS refused to hire her as a reporter because she had no professional experience. She used the WCBS-TV facilities to make a television audition tape and sent copies to many television stations around the country, seeking an on-air position.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Despite her lack of broadcast news experience, Savitch was hired by KHOU-TV in Houston as the station's first female reporter. Dick John, the manager who hired her, said he did so because he was impressed with her ambition as well as her copywriting and speaking skills. KHOU had also been ordered to hire a female reporter in order to avoid any legal challenge to its broadcast license based on gender discrimination. When Savitch arrived at KHOU, she was the only female working in the news department other than one secretary and faced a work environment hostile to females, although some male colleagues did help her learn the basics of her job. Because KHOU was non-union, she participated in many aspects of production as well as reporting on camera. A few months after joining KHOU, she auditioned for and won a weekend anchor shift, becoming the first female news anchor in the South and beginning to develop the severe, mannered style of news delivery for which she later became known. Her report on a train derailment and fire received national exposure on the "CBS Evening News" with Walter Cronkite.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In 1972, Savitch joined KYW-TV, then the NBC affiliate (now CBS O&O) in Philadelphia, as a general assignment reporter and weekend anchor under a five-year contract. Unlike KHOU, KYW was unionized, so Savitch was not permitted to do work other than on-camera newsreading and reporting. At the time KYW hired Savitch, it was under pressure from the Philadelphia chapter of the National Organization for Women (NOW) to place more women in then-non-traditional roles on the local news or else face a possible legal challenge to its broadcast license. When she was initially unable to obtain a weeknight anchor shift, Savitch attempted to break her KYW contract and take a job offered by CBS in New York. KYW refused to release her from her contract but agreed to raise her salary and (partly to satisfy NOW) make her a weeknight anchor. She soon began to anchor noon news broadcasts as well, and eventually became part of a popular team of three anchors with Mort Crim and Vince Leonard on the 11:00pm news. Philadelphia viewers responded enthusiastically to her on-camera presence, which was perceived as "magical" and triggering an "almost emotional bond" with the audience.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: At KYW, Savitch won recognition for her multi-part feature stories on unusual (for that time) subjects such as rape and childbirth, the latter of which featured a live television broadcast of a birth during the holiday season. Savitch often personalized her stories by becoming part of the story herself, such as completing the Philadelphia police academy training as part of a series on women in police work, and serving as an undercover decoy for two weeks as part of her series on rape. Her rape series, entitled "Rape: The Ultimate Violation", won a Clarion Award for excellence from Women in Communications, Inc., and helped bring about legislative changes in several states.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: As a result of her KYW work, Savitch became a local celebrity in Philadelphia and was sometimes mobbed walking down the street. Male viewers schemed to meet her, and female viewers copied her hairstyle. Despite her local acclaim, Savitch aspired to leave local news and become a network correspondent. In 1976, she came to the attention of NBC executives while reporting from a presidential campaign debate between President Gerald Ford and Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter held at Philadelphia's Walnut Street Theatre. An audio line failed, delaying the debate and leaving Savitch to fill 27 minutes of air time before the audio could be restored. Impressed with her performance, NBC offered her a three-year contract starting in September 1977 as a Washington, D.C. correspondent and anchor. Savitch did her last newscast for KYW in August 1977.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch got along well with some members of the KYW staff, including her regular location shooting crew and her co-anchor Mort Crim. Crim later admitted that he was initially "not nice to her" due to his own male chauvinism, but the two later became good friends. (Crim delivered the eulogy at her memorial service after her death.) However, other staff members found Savitch difficult, especially towards the end of her KYW contract when she was planning to leave for NBC. Shortly before she left KYW, Savitch exploded in an angry tantrum during a commercial break because the pages of her news script had been provided out of order. The crew recorded it without sound, added background music from Aram Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance", and circulated the resulting tape to industry contacts, causing the tape of Savitch's tantrum to arrive at NBC before she began her new job and present her in a negative light to her new colleagues.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch joined NBC News in 1977 as a weekend anchor for "NBC Nightly News". In order to counter criticism that she had been hired for her looks and promoted ahead of skilled journalists, NBC also assigned her to do reporting work, including a brief stint as U.S. Senate correspondent. Savitch was an extremely competent anchor, but had relatively little reporting experience and struggled as correspondent. By 1979 she was demoted from the Senate assignment due to poor performance. Thereafter, although she was a general assignment reporter and helped to cover the 1980 Republican and Democratic conventions, she was primarily known as an anchor.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch was the network's second woman to anchor a weekend national newscast; Catherine Mackin had previously anchored NBC's Sunday evening newscast beginning in December 1976, before she left for ABC News the following year. Savitch later became the first woman to anchor the weeknight edition of "NBC Nightly News", periodically substituting for the regular anchors John Chancellor and David Brinkley. She was also assigned to anchor short NBC News updates (initially called "NBC News Update", later called "NBC News Capsule" and "NBC News Digest") that ran approximately one minute and aired between regular prime time programs each evening, drawing a high number of viewers. She began to fill more roles in NBC's news programming, serving as a regular panel member on "Meet The Press", contributing to the news magazine programs "Prime Time Saturday" and "Prime Time Sunday", and contributing commentary to the NBC Radio Network. She substituted as anchor on the "Today" and "Tomorrow" shows. She was offered the anchor position for an early-morning news program "Early Today" but turned it down.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: As a network anchor, Savitch had a charismatic presence and became very popular with network affiliates and viewers. A 1982 "TV Guide" poll named her the fourth most trusted news anchor in the country, above many of the most established male anchors of the period. Another 1982 poll named her the "sexiest" female anchor in the country. Affiliates agreed to run the "NBC News Update" segments largely because she would be presenting them. Her success influenced numerous aspiring female newscasters to model themselves after her look and delivery. In 1980, she was one of the twelve most popular speakers in the United States.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch constantly worked on improving her news reading delivery, using a voice coach and other techniques. NBC executives and colleagues praised her skillful narration of film showing the murders of Congressman Leo Ryan and several others in a mass shooting by members of the Peoples Temple at Jonestown. There had not been time to view the film prior to its broadcast, and Savitch had to improvise her narration while viewing the graphic film for the first time.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In January 1983, in addition to her work for NBC, Savitch began hosting a new public affairs documentary program on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), "Frontline". She continued as host until her death later that year, at which time Judy Woodruff took over as host.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Despite Savitch's competence and success as an anchor, by 1983 NBC was beginning to shift its focus to other female anchors, particularly Connie Chung. In June 1983, NBC removed Savitch from her regular Saturday evening anchor slot and replaced her with Chung, who also accepted the "Early Today" position that Savitch had rejected. From then until her death in October 1983, Savitch's only regular appearances on NBC were on the "NBC News Digest" segments. Savitch began feeling anxious about her job and showed signs of emotional instability.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: On October 3, 1983, during an "NBC News Digest" segment, Savitch was largely incoherent on the air, slurring her speech, deviating from her script and ad-libbing her report. She performed a later segment the same evening without issues. Savitch's flawed delivery fueled speculation that she was using drugs, specifically cocaine. However, she blamed the problems on a teleprompter malfunction, while her agent said it was due to the effects of pain medication in relation to recent facial reconstructive surgery following a boating accident.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: While some of Savitch's colleagues said they had seen evidence of drug use, other friends and associates expressed skepticism that she had a drug problem. NBC correspondent Linda Ellerbee later said that she had asked network management to intervene, telling them, "You have to do something. This woman [Savitch] is in trouble." Ellerbee said that a network vice president responded, "We're afraid to do anything. We're afraid she'll kill herself on our time." When management failed to act, Ellerbee and other correspondents had tried to reach out to Savitch, who died before anything could be done.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Although Savitch biographer Gwenda Blair wrote that Savitch's poor performance on the October 3 segment effectively ended her network career, a "People" magazine article published after her death said that her NBC contract had actually been renewed (although the renewal was for just one year rather than her previous three-year contracts), that she would have reclaimed a spot as a substitute Sunday anchor for "NBC Nightly News" in January 1984, and that she was set to appear on another season of "Frontline".


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch was married twice and had no children. Her first marriage in 1980 to Philadelphia advertising executive Melvin "Mel" Korn ended in divorce after eleven months. Korn reportedly divorced Savitch after learning that she had a significant drug problem.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch's second marriage in March 1981 to Dr. Donald Payne, her gynecologist, lasted only a few months. It ended when Payne, who had substance abuse problems of his own and suffered from depression, died of suicide by hanging in their Washington, D.C. townhouse. Savitch, who was in New York at the time, found his body when she returned to the house. Although she was upset by his death, Savitch returned to her work at NBC three weeks later.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch had a long-term intermittent relationship over many years with TV news executive Ron Kershaw, who himself had substance abuse problems and physically abused Savitch during their relationship. In the early 1970s, while she was working for CBS in New York City, Savitch also had a romantic relationship with CBS News journalist Ed Bradley, who was then a WCBS radio reporter. According to Bradley, after the relationship ended they continued to have a "non-romantic, social, and professional relationship" until her death.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: According to her biographers Blair and Nash, Savitch was a driven perfectionist who constantly battled insecurities about her appearance and ability, suffered from social anxiety, and tended to isolate herself from network colleagues. Both biographers also write that Savitch had a problem with cocaine that eventually affected her career. Biographers have also asserted that Savitch was bisexual and had romantic relationships with women as well as men. These assertions were disputed by Savitch's family and some of her friends after her death.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch's friend, WNBC anchor Sue Simmons, said in a 2013 retrospective article marking the 30th anniversary of Savitch's death, "When the books and the movie came out [after her death], they made her out to be this troubled character. Nobody ever talked about her big heart, her loyalty, her sense of humor, and her fabulousness as a person."


title: Jessica Savitch

text: On October 23, 1983, twenty days after her problematic NBC broadcast, Savitch had dinner with Martin Fischbein, vice president of the "New York Post", at the Chez Odette restaurant in New Hope, Pennsylvania. Savitch and Fischbein had been dating for a few weeks. After their meal, they began to drive home about 7:15 p.m., with Fischbein behind the wheel and Savitch in the back seat with her dog, Chewy. Fischbein may have missed posted warning signs in a heavy rainfall. He drove out of the wrong exit from the restaurant and up the towpath of the old Pennsylvania Canal's Delaware Division on the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware River. The station wagon veered too far to the left and went over the edge into the shallow water of the canal. After falling approximately fifteen feet and landing upside down in four to five feet of water, the car sank into deep mud that sealed the doors shut. Savitch and Fischbein were trapped inside as water poured in. A local resident found the wreck at about 11:30 that night. Fischbein's body was still strapped behind the wheel, with Savitch and her dog in the back seat.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: After autopsies, the Bucks County coroner ruled that both Savitch and Fischbein had died from asphyxiation by drowning. Neither Savitch nor Fischbein had any drugs other than alcohol in their system at the time of death, and they had consumed only small amounts of alcohol—about half a glass of wine each. According to the New Hope police chief, a similar death had occurred at the same spot some years before.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch's family and a group of her friends later sued the "New York Post" (whose insurance covered the leased car Fischbein was driving), Fischbein's estate, Chez Odette, and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for damages in Savitch's death. The suit was settled for $8 million, most of which was paid by the "Post". Some of the money was used to establish scholarships for women studying for careers in broadcasting or journalism at Ithaca College and other institutions.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In 1979, Savitch received an honorary doctorate in humane letters from Ithaca College, her "alma mater". She was elected to the college's board of trustees in 1980.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia posthumously inducted Savitch into their Hall of Fame in 2006.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Jessica Savitch published her own autobiography, "Anchorwoman", in 1982. After her death, two posthumous biographies were written about her. According to "The Washington Post", each of her biographers interviewed over 300 people in order to write their respective books. Although both biographies contain similar material, Savitch's family and friends have challenged as untrue portions of the books regarding her reporting skills and controversial aspects of her personal life (see Personal life).


title: Jessica Savitch

text: The first biography, "Almost Golden: Jessica Savitch and the Selling of Television News" (Simon & Schuster, 1988) by Gwenda Blair, told Savitch's story within the broader context of the history of network news. It was later made into a Lifetime Network made-for-TV movie starring Sela Ward, called "Almost Golden: The Jessica Savitch Story". When first aired, "Almost Golden" earned the second-highest rating ever for a cable television film up to that point. The television film was criticized for omitting or downplaying controversial aspects of Savitch's life and career that were discussed at length in Blair's book.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: The second, "Golden Girl: The Story of Jessica Savitch" (Dutton, 1988) by Alanna Nash, became the basis of the 1996 theatrical film "Up Close & Personal" starring Michelle Pfeiffer and Robert Redford. "Up Close and Personal" was originally intended as a biographical film about Savitch. However, the plot of the movie was substantially changed to become a love story quite different from Savitch's life. According to Nash and John Gregory Dunne (who worked on the screenplay and wrote the book "Monster: Living Off the Big Screen" about the making of the film), this was because the filmmakers, including The Walt Disney Company that was financing the film, considered Savitch's life story too downbeat to be popular at the box office. Many reviews of the movie discuss how the film departed, probably for commercial reasons, from Savitch's actual biography.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: Savitch's life was also examined in several television documentaries. The A&E series "Biography" featured an episode about Savitch, which inspired Will Ferrell to make "" (basing the Ron Burgundy character on Savitch's friend Mort Crim). Lifetime also aired a documentary entitled "Intimate Portrait: Jessica Savitch" that was based on the perspectives of Savitch biographer Alanna Nash.


title: Jessica Savitch

text: In episode 2 of season 2 of "Only Murders in the Building", Oliver Putnam states that he had an affair with Savitch in the eighties and she left him for Ed Bradley.


title: History of the internal combustion engine

text: Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, the English inventor John Barber patented a gas turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal-combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel (petroleum) and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens designed the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year, the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built and patented a hydrogen and oxygen powered internal-combustion engine. The fuel was stored in a balloon and the spark was electrically ignited by a hand-operated trigger. Fitted to a crude four-wheeled wagon, François Isaac de Rivaz first drove it 100 meters in 1813, thus making history as the first car-like vehicle known to have been powered by an internal-combustion engine. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially in the U.S.; one of his engines pumped water on the Croydon Canal from 1830 to 1836. He also demonstrated a boat using his engine on the Thames in 1827, and an engine-driven carriage in 1828. Father Eugenio Barsanti, an Italian engineer, together with Felice Matteucci of Florence invented the first real internal combustion engine in 1853. Their patent request was granted in London on June 12, 1854, and published in London's Morning Journal under the title "Specification of Eugene Barsanti and Felix Matteucci, Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gasses". In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nicolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fueled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nicolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-stroke cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world's first jet aircraft. In 1954 German engineer Felix Wankel patented a "pistonless" engine using an eccentric rotary design.


text: Early internal combustion engines were started by hand cranking. Various types of starter motor were later developed. These included:


text: Electric starters are now almost universal for small and medium-sized engines, while pneumatic starters are used for large engines.


text: The first piston engines did not have compression, but ran on an air-fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression of the fuel charge prior to combustion.


text: The problem of ignition of fuel was handled in early engines with an open flame and a sliding gate. To obtain a faster engine speed Daimler adopted a Hot Tube ignition which allowed 600 rpm immediately in his 1883 horizontal cylinder engine and very soon after over 900 rpm. Most of the engines of that time could not exceed 200 rpm due to their ignition and induction systems.


text: The first practical engine, Lenoir's, ran on illuminating gas (coal gas). It wasn't until 1883, that Daimler created an engine that ran on liquid petroleum, a fuel called Ligroin which has a chemical makeup of Hexane-N. The fuel is also known as petroleum naphtha.


text: Otto's first engines were push engines which produced a push through the entire stroke (like a Diesel). Daimler's engines produced a rapid pulse, more suitable for mobile engine use.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach's formula_1), also known as tau-equivalent reliability (formula_2) or coefficient alpha (coefficient formula_1), is a reliability coefficient that provides a method of measuring internal consistency of tests and measures. Numerous studies warn against using it unconditionally, and note that reliability coefficients based on structural equation modeling (SEM) are in many cases a suitable alternative.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: As with previous studies, Cronbach (1951) published an additional method to derive Cronbach's alpha. His interpretation was more intuitively attractive than those of previous studies and became quite popular.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Novick and Lewis (1967) proved the necessary and sufficient condition for formula_4 to be equal to reliability, and named it the condition of being essentially tau-equivalent.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Cronbach (1978) mentioned that the reason Cronbach (1951) received a lot of citations was "mostly because [he] put a brand name on a common-place coefficient". He explained that he had originally planned to name other types of reliability coefficients (e.g., inter-rater reliability or test-retest reliability) in consecutive Greek letter (e.g., formula_5, formula_6, formula_7), but later changed his mind.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Cronbach and Schavelson (2004) encouraged readers to use generalizability theory rather than formula_4. He opposed the use of the name Cronbach's alpha. He explicitly denied the existence of studies that had published the general formula of KR-20 prior to Cronbach (1951).


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: In order to use Cronbach’s alpha as a reliability coefficient, the data from the measure must satisfy the following conditions.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Cronbach’s alpha is calculated by taking the score from each scale item and correlating them with the total score for each observation and then comparing that with the variance for all individual item scores. Cronbach’s alpha is best understood as a function of the number of questions or items in a measure, the between pairs of items average covariance, and the overall variance of the total measured score.formula_9formula_10 the number of items in the measure


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: By definition, reliability cannot be less than zero and cannot be greater than one. Many textbooks mistakenly equate formula_4 with reliability and give an inaccurate explanation of its range. formula_4 can be less than reliability when applied to data that are not tau-equivalent. Suppose that formula_15 copied the value of formula_16 as it is, and formula_17 copied by multiplying the value of formula_16 by -1. The covariance matrix between items is as follows, formula_19.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Negative formula_4 can occur for reasons such as negative discrimination or mistakes in processing reversely scored items.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Unlike formula_4, SEM-based reliability coefficients (e.g., formula_22) are always greater than or equal to zero.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: This anomaly was first pointed out by Cronbach (1943) to criticize formula_4, but Cronbach (1951) did not comment on this problem in his article, which discussed all conceivable issues related formula_4 and he himself described as being "encyclopedic".


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: This anomaly also originates from the fact that formula_4 underestimates reliability. Suppose that formula_15 copied the value of formula_16 as it is, and formula_17 copied by multiplying the value of formula_16 by two. The covariance matrix between items is as follows, formula_30.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Many textbooks refer to formula_4 as an indicator of homogeneity between items. This misconception stems from the inaccurate explanation of Cronbach (1951) that high formula_4 values show homogeneity between the items. Homogeneity is a term that is rarely used in the modern literature, and related studies interpret the term as referring to uni-dimensionality. Several studies have provided proofs or counterexamples that high formula_4 values do not indicate uni-dimensionality. See counterexamples below.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Uni-dimensionality is a prerequisite for formula_4. You should check uni-dimensionality before calculating formula_4, rather than calculating formula_4 to check uni-dimensionality.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: The term internal consistency is commonly used in the reliability literature, but its meaning is not clearly defined. The term is sometimes used to refer to a certain kind of reliability (e.g., internal consistency reliability), but it is unclear exactly which reliability coefficients are included here, in addition to formula_4. Cronbach (1951) used the term in several senses without an explicit definition. Cho and Kim (2015) showed that is formula_4 is not an indicator of any of these.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Removing an item using "alpha if item deleted" may result in 'alpha inflation,' where sample-level reliability is reported to be higher than population-level reliability. It may also reduce population-level reliability. The elimination of less-reliable items should be based not only on a statistical basis but also on a theoretical and logical basis. It is also recommended that the whole sample be divided into two and cross-validated.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: The most frequently cited source of how high reliability coefficients should be is Nunnally's book. However, his recommendations are cited contrary to his intentions. What he meant was to apply different criteria depending on the purpose or stage of the study. However, regardless of the nature of the research, such as exploratory research, applied research, and scale development research, a criterion of 0.7 is universally used. 0.7 is the criterion he recommended for the early stages of a study, which most studies published in the journal are not. Rather than 0.7, the criterion of 0.8 referred to applied research by Nunnally is more appropriate for most empirical studies.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: His recommendation level did not imply a cutoff point. If a criterion means a cutoff point, it is important whether or not it is met, but it is unimportant how much it is over or under. He did not mean that it should be strictly 0.8 when referring to the criteria of 0.8. If the reliability has a value near 0.8 (e.g., 0.78), it can be considered that his recommendation has been met.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Nunnally's idea was that there is a cost to increasing reliability, so there is no need to try to obtain maximum reliability in every situation.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Measurements with perfect reliability lack validity. For example, a person who take the test with the reliability of one will get a perfect score or a zero score, because the examinee who gives the correct answer or incorrect answer on one item will give the correct answer or incorrect answer on all other items. The phenomenon in which validity is sacrificed to increase reliability is called attenuation paradox.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: A high value of reliability can be in conflict with content validity. For high content validity, each item should be constructed to be able to comprehensively represent the content to be measured. However, a strategy of repeatedly measuring essentially the same question in different ways is often used only for the purpose of increasing reliability.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: When the other conditions are equal, reliability increases as the number of items increases. However, the increase in the number of items hinders the efficiency of measurements.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Despite the costs associated with increasing reliability discussed above, a high level of reliability may be required. The following methods can be considered to increase reliability.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: formula_2 is used in an overwhelming proportion. A study estimates that approximately 97% of studies use formula_2 as a reliability coefficient.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: However, simulation studies comparing the accuracy of several reliability coefficients have led to the common result that formula_2 is an inaccurate reliability coefficient.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Methodological studies are critical of the use of formula_2. Simplifying and classifying the conclusions of existing studies are as follows.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Existing studies are practically unanimous in that they oppose the widespread practice of using formula_2 unconditionally for all data. However, different opinions are given on which reliability coefficient should be used instead of formula_2.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Different reliability coefficients ranked first in each simulation study comparing the accuracy of several reliability coefficients.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: However, there is no consensus on which of the several SEM-based reliability coefficients (e.g., unidimensional or multidimensional models) is the best to use.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Some people suggest formula_57 as an alternative, but formula_57 shows information that is completely different from reliability. formula_57 is a type of coefficient comparable to Revelle's formula_5. They do not substitute, but complement reliability.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: Among SEM-based reliability coefficients, multidimensional reliability coefficients are rarely used, and the most commonly used is formula_61.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: General-purpose statistical software such as SPSS and SAS include a function to calculate formula_2. Users who don't know the formula of formula_2 have no problem in obtaining the estimates with just a few mouse clicks.


title: Cronbach's alpha

text: SEM software such as AMOS, LISREL, and MPLUS does not have a function to calculate SEM-based reliability coefficients. Users need to calculate the result by inputting it to the formula. To avoid this inconvenience and possible error, even studies reporting the use of SEM rely on formula_2 instead of SEM-based reliability coefficients. There are a few alternatives to automatically calculate SEM-based reliability coefficients.


title: Scapular

text: The scapular (from Latin "scapulae", "shoulders") is a Western Christian garment suspended from the shoulders. There are two types of scapulars, the monastic and devotional scapular, although both forms may simply be referred to as "scapular". As an object of popular piety, it serves to remind the wearers of their commitment to live a Christian life.


title: Scapular

text: The "monastic scapular" appeared first, perhaps as early as the 7th century in the Order of Saint Benedict. It is a length of cloth suspended both front and back from the shoulders of the wearer, often reaching to the knees. It may vary in shape, color, size and style. Monastic scapulars originated as aprons worn by medieval monks, and were later extended to habits for members of religious organizations, orders or confraternities. Monastic scapulars now form part of the habit of monks and nuns in many Christian orders.


title: Scapular

text: The "devotional scapular" is a much smaller item and evolved from the monastic scapular. These may also be worn by individuals who are not members of a monastic order. The devotional scapular typically consists of two small (usually rectangular) pieces of cloth, wood or laminated paper, a few inches in size, which may bear religious images or text. These are joined by two bands of cloth and the wearer places one square on the chest, rests the bands one on each shoulder and lets the second square drop down the back.


title: Scapular

text: In many cases, both forms of the scapular come with a set of promises for the faithful who wear them. Some of the promises are rooted in tradition.


title: Scapular

text: The scapular may have emerged from an apron-like piece of cloth worn by monks. Item 55 of the Rule of Saint Benedict, dating to the 7th century refers to the use of the scapular. In the Catholic Church the key elements of a monk's habit eventually became the tunic, the cincture, the scapular and the hood. A nun's clothing included the tunic, the scapular and the head veil. Some authors interpret the scapular as a symbolic apron based on the fact that monks and nuns, when engaged on some manual labor, tend to cover it with a protective apron or carefully tuck it up or throw the front length back over their shoulder to prevent it from getting in the way.


title: Scapular

text: Today, the monastic scapular is part of the garb, the habit, of many Christian religious orders, of both monks and nuns. It is an outer garment about the width of the chest, from shoulder to shoulder. It hangs down in the front and back almost to the feet, but is open on the sides (it was originally joined by straps at the waist). It is related to the "analavos" worn in the Eastern tradition.


title: Scapular

text: Historically, the monastic scapular was at times referred to as "scutum" (i.e. shield), as it was laid over the head, which it originally covered and protected with one portion (from which the hood afterwards developed). A specific aspect of the use of the monastic scapular from its earliest days was obedience and the term "jugum Christi", i.e. "yoke of Christ", was used to refer to it. The term "yoke of Christ" signified obedience and removing a scapular was like removing the yoke of Christ, i.e. rebelling against authority. For instance, the Carmelite constitution of 1281 prescribed that the scapular should be worn to bed under penalty of serious fault, and the constitution of 1369 included automatic excommunication for a Carmelite saying Mass without a scapular.


title: Scapular

text: Over the centuries the religious orders adapted the basic scapular as they considered appropriate for themselves, as a result of which there are now several distinct designs, colors, shapes and lengths in use. The Carthusians and others attached a hood to their scapular, rather than keeping the former a separate item of their habit, while some, like the Dominican Order or Carmelites, wear it beneath another layer, like a shoulder cape or capuce (that is, the "hood"). The color selection could change over time; for instance, prior to 1255, the Augustinian scapulars for novices were black and those of the lay brethren were white, but thereafter all scapulars but those of the lay brethren had to be white.


title: Scapular

text: In some cases the monastic scapular was used to distinguish the rank or level of the wearer within a religious order. In some Byzantine monastic practices, two levels of fully professed monk or nun exist: those of the "little habit" and those other of the "great habit", these being more senior and not having to do manual labor. In these cases, the "great habit" was simply distinguished from the "little habit" by the addition of a scapular decorated with the instruments of the Passion.


title: Scapular

text: Just as the stole is the vestment that came to mark the office of a priest, the monastic scapular became the equivalent for those in the monastic life and even today, a long scapular identifies its wearer as a member of a religious order. It is a symbol of the confraternal way, combining in itself the principle of "ora et labora" (prayer and work), and so the form was later adopted by pious laity who wished to have an open sign of their devotion.


title: Scapular

text: Some authors suggest that the tradition of wearing a reduced form of a non-monastic scapular started in the 11th century with Saint Peter Damian and the monastic scapular was gradually transformed from an item of clothing that was part of the habit of monks and nuns to a smaller item that expressed devotion by individuals, called oblates, who lived in the world, but wished to be affiliated with a monastery.


title: Scapular

text: In the Middle Ages, it became common for Christian faithful to share in the spirituality of the new mendicant orders in an auxiliary sense, sometimes called Third Orders because they were founded after the initial orders of the friars and nuns. Although these people (called Tertiaries) were permitted to wear the "tertiary habit", because they had not taken religious vows they were not usually permitted to wear the full habit of the order. With time, it was considered a high honor and great privilege to be granted a small cloth attached by bands which would be worn over the torso in the same manner as the full monastic scapular. Confraternities came to be formed in which people would be granted the wearing of this item as a mark of their sharing in the good works of a particular order. Among Franciscans, they were known as "Cordbearers", due to their also wearing a small cord around the waist in imitation of the one worn by the friar.


title: Scapular

text: After the disruptions of religious life during the period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions of France and Italy, wearing of the tertiary habit became prohibited. Thus it eventually became common that a smaller form of an order's scapular would be bestowed upon the non-monastic. Rather than a full length of cloth, it consisted of two rectangles (several inches wide, and much larger than a modern devotional scapular) of wool joined by bands in some fashion. These are still worn today by the "Third Order" members of the Franciscans, Carmelites, and Dominicans. In order to gain the benefits of the order, the members must wear these scapulae constantly. However, in 1883 in his ""Constitution On the Law of the Franciscan Third Order"" called "Misericors Dei Filius", Pope Leo XIII declared that wearing either these medium-sized scapulae of the "Third Order" or the miniature forms of the smaller devotional scapular entitled the wearer equally to gain the indulgences associated with the order.


title: Scapular

text: Some religious orders still give a short version (sometimes called the "reduced scapular", but this usage is archaic) of their large scapular to non-monastics that are spiritually affiliated with them. Such short scapulars are designed to be unobtrusive and can be worn under regular clothing at home and at work.


title: Scapular

text: Devotional scapulars are objects of popular piety, primarily worn by Roman Catholics, as well as some Anglicans and Lutherans, designed to show the wearer's pledge to a confraternity, a saint, or a way of life, as well as reminding the wearer of that promise. Some devotional scapulars bear images, or verses from scripture.


title: Scapular

text: Devotional scapulars typically consist of two rectangular pieces of cloth, wool or other fabric that are connected by bands. One rectangle hangs over the chest of the wearer, while the other rests on the back, with the bands running over the shoulders. Some scapulars have extra bands running under the arms and connecting the rectangles to prevent them from getting dislodged underneath the wearer's top layer of clothes.


title: Scapular

text: The roots of devotional scapulars can be traced to the gathering of laity into confraternities for spiritual direction, whereby the faithful would be assigned some badge or token of affiliation and devotion. The image or message on the scapular usually reflects the order's focus, tradition or favored devotion. Devotional scapulars and the indulgences attached to them grew along with the growth of Catholic confraternities during the 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Scapular

text: The fact that specific promises and indulgences were attached to the wearing of scapulars helped increase their following, as was seen with the early example of the Brown Scapular, habit of the Carmelites. This promise was based on the Carmelite tradition that the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to St. Simon Stock at Cambridge, England in 1251 in answer to his appeal for help for his oppressed order and recommended the Brown Scapular of the Our Lady of Mount Carmel to him and promised salvation for the faithful who wore it piously. Regardless of the scholarly debates regarding the exact origin of the Brown Scapular, it is clear that it has been a part of the Carmelite habit since the late 13th century.


title: Scapular

text: The Blue Scapular of the Immaculate Conception that dates to 1617 was eventually granted a significant number of indulgences, and many graces were promised to those who would honor the Immaculate Conception by wearing the Blue Scapular and live chastely according to their state in life. In 1885 Pope Leo XIII approved the Scapular of the Holy Face, (also known as "The Veronica") and elevated the "Priests of the Holy Face" to an archconfraternity. He also approved the Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel and the Scapular of St. Joseph, both in 1893, and the Scapular of the Sacred Heart in 1900. In 1611, the Servite Order's confraternity and their Black Scapular of the Seven Sorrows of Mary received indulgences from Pope Paul V.


title: Scapular

text: During the 19th century, a number of other Scapulars were approved. The green Scapular of the Immaculate Heart of Mary was approved by Pope Pius IX in 1877 and the white Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel received the approval of Leo XIII in 1893 for the purpose of invoking Mary's guidance upon its wearer. The black Scapular of Our Lady Help of the Sick, (for the Confraternity founded by St. Camillus de Lellis) was approved by Pius IX in 1860. In 1863 he also approved the Green Scapular, which is not from a Confraternity but an image inspired by a vision of the Blessed Mother experienced by Sr. Justine Bisqueyburu from the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul.


title: Scapular

text: By the early 20th century the devotional scapular had gained such a strong following among Catholics worldwide that Joseph Hilgers, in the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1912 stated: "Like the rosary, [the Brown Scapular] has become the badge of the devout Catholic". In the 1917 reported apparitions of Our Lady of Fátima the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared "with a Rosary in one hand and a scapular in the other". Sister Lúcia (one of the three Fátima children visionaries) stated that the Virgin Mary told her: ""The Rosary and the Scapular are inseparable"". In the United States "Scapular Magazine" helped enroll one million Americans to pray the Rosary based on the Fatima messages.


title: Scapular

text: While a number of scapulars (e.g. the Scapular of the Holy Face, also known as "The Veronica") are entirely Christocentric, the most widespread scapulars (including the Brown Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and the Blue Scapular of the Immaculate Conception) relate to Marian devotions and consecrations. John Paul II stated that he received his first Brown Scapular of Mount Carmel at age ten when his Marian devotion was taking shape and he continued to wear it into his papacy.


title: Scapular

text: Of all the types recognized by the Roman Catholic Church the best-known, and perhaps the most popular, is the Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, sometimes referred to as the Brown Scapular from the color of its bands. The wearing of a devotional scapular has been viewed as a "constant meditation" by Bishop Leo De Goesbriand: "Wherever I am, whatever I am doing, Mary never sees me without seeing upon my body an evidence of my devotion to her." This scapular, with its history in Britain, along with the Scapular of Our Lady of Walsingham are also popular devotions in the Anglican Church. The Green Scapular, "instituted for the conversion of those without faith" is another popular scapular among the Christian community.


title: Scapular

text: Scapular wearing is sometimes found in Protestant churches including Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian Churches. Instructions are provided in United Methodist Church allowing scapular to be worn over the alb by anyone lay or clergy, not as a pastoral stole or chasuble, either colored for the Church season or not.


title: Scapular

text: Some Anglican churches use the scapular to designate the difference of vestments between choristers boys and girls, a tradition that continues in Church of South India for women and men.


title: Scapular

text: Lutheran churches sometimes use scapulars as vestments for both men and women servers over cassocks which are regarded as clerical clothing not vestments. Scapulars in Protestant churches do not necessarily have the same meaning as in Catholic church.


title: Scapular

text: Though each scapular has its own particular qualifications and usage, the Roman Catholic Church has set down certain rules that pertain to all its types, be they monastic or devotional. A scapular associated with a confraternity must be invested by an ordained representative of that group. A scapular associated with a mystery or devotion may simply be blessed by a priest and given to the wearer. To receive the benefits or indulgences granted the scapular generally must be worn constantly. It may be placed aside for a time but, during that period, the wearer does not receive the scapular's benefits. Should the wearer take up the wearing of it again, the benefits are again conferred.


title: Scapular

text: A devotional scapular must be in good repair with both bands intact. Multiple scapulae may be worn on the same bands, but the bands must be the color of those prescribed by the scapular with the most preeminence, and that scapular must be foremost with the others behind in order of precedence. If a scapular becomes damaged to the point where it cannot be in good repair, it must be replaced. However, it is not necessary for the wearer to be reinvested as it is the devotion of the wearer, not the object itself, that confers the benefit of the scapular.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: Makonnen Kamali Sheran (born April 12, 1989), better known by his stage name iLoveMakonnen (often stylized as ILOVEMAKONNEN), is an American rapper, singer, and record producer. Makonnen is best known for his 2014 hit "Tuesday" which featured Canadian rapper Drake.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: Makonnen Kamali Sheran was born on April 12, 1989, in South Los Angeles, California, and was named after Makonnen, father of Ras Teferi who was later crowned as Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I. His father is a first generation immigrant from Belize who worked as an electrician and his mother was a nail instructor who worked in the beauty business for over 30 years. In an interview, he described himself as mixed with African American, Indian, Irish, Belgian, German and Chinese heritage.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: Growing up in Los Angeles, he moved to the Atlanta area when he was 13 years old, due to his parents' divorce. There, he witnessed the death of a close friend in his senior year in high school.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: Makonnen started making songs on his computer and uploading them to MySpace. On this website, he met rising musicians, such as Adele. Makonnen also created a blog, where he would post interviews with musicians such as Lil B and Soulja Boy Tell'em.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: After a period under house arrest following the accidental fatal shooting of a friend, he enrolled in a cosmetology school and became a part of a group called Phantom Posse. In January 2012, Makonnen met Atlanta producer Mike Will Made It and formed a brief professional relationship with him. However, because of Mike Will's busy schedule, the two were not able to meet often, and soon were separated from each other.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: In March 2014, record producer Mike Will Made It would reply to Makonnen and brought him to the DTP studios, where he played some of his songs towards a fellow producer Metro Boomin. Metro instantly liked Makonnen and stayed in touch with him. Later, after recording six songs together, Metro brought these fellow Atlanta producers Sonny Digital and 808 Mafia, who were all unusually impressed with him. Two days later, Makonnen recorded the song, titled "Don't Sell Molly No More" with Sonny Digital, which would later launch his music career. Sonny Digital introduced him to the other Atlanta producers such as DJ Spinz, Dun Deal and St. Louis producer Cammy Recklezz. He started gaining local fame within the community with songs such as "Living on the Southside", "Sneaky Lady" and "My New Friend". Makonnen was then featured on Mike Will's mixtape, titled Ransom.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: In July 2014, the singer released his self-titled EP "iLoveMakonnen", which included the singles "Tuesday" and "I Don't Sell Molly No More". The latter reached pop singer Miley Cyrus, who shared it on her Instagram. The post got over 210,000 likes and counting, that brought a lot of new fans to Makonnen. On August 15, 2014, "Vice" included his song "Whip It" in their Staff Picks for the Week list, commenting: "Makonnen's voice is incredible! ... How could you not have a good time listening to this song? If there is anyone I trust to teach me how to whip it, it is definitely my friend Makonnen."


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: In August 2014, after hearing "Tuesday", Drake asked one of the song's producers, Sonny Digital, if he could remix the song. Makonnen agreed to send it to Drake, but didn't think much of it. However, two days later Drake released a remix. Makonnen later commented: "Yeah, I surprised. Shocking. Drake listens to Makonnen. It was great. I was excited. Surprised, shocked. Just overwhelmed." The remix, simply titled "Tuesday" went viral and led to increased media interest in iLoveMakonnen.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: In August 2014, Makonnen was featured in "XXL"s The Come Up section, which focuses on new artists. He later stated he was not looking for a major label deal and instead planned to go touring and record music independently: "I'm not too thirsty to sign a deal. Cause a label will really just take all your free music down and you have to be somebody's bitch." On September 1, 2014, it was announced that Makonnen had signed to Drake's label OVO Sound, which is distributed by Warner Bros. Records.


title: ILoveMakonnen

text: In an interview with "The Fader" in December 2015, more than a year after signing to Drakes OVO Sound, Makonnen said the label delayed tracks from "I LOVE MAKONNEN 2" from coming out. The song "Second Chance," for example, was finished in January 2015 and intended for a summer release, but ended up being self-released by Makonnen in November 2015. Makonnen said, "Second Chance was supposed to be that summer banger this summer. That was supposed to be out, touching people and hitting them this summer. By the time next year they'll be ready for something else. It's all late. People are doubting me, doubting what the fuck I said when I made the fucking song. You wait a year later and it's whatever. Hopefully, it's worked right. The song is structured properly. Everything is all there for proper radio play to just spin it over and over to people. Who knows? I don't know what the fuck they want."