title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Because the set of possible output values of a quantizer is countable, any quantizer can be decomposed into two distinct stages, which can be referred to as the "classification" stage (or "forward quantization" stage) and the "reconstruction" stage (or "inverse quantization" stage), where the classification stage maps the input value to an integer "quantization index" formula_10 and the reconstruction stage maps the index formula_10 to the "reconstruction value" formula_12 that is the output approximation of the input value. For the example uniform quantizer described above, the forward quantization stage can be expressed as


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: This decomposition is useful for the design and analysis of quantization behavior, and it illustrates how the quantized data can be communicated over a communication channel – a "source encoder" can perform the forward quantization stage and send the index information through a communication channel, and a "decoder" can perform the reconstruction stage to produce the output approximation of the original input data. In general, the forward quantization stage may use any function that maps the input data to the integer space of the quantization index data, and the inverse quantization stage can conceptually (or literally) be a table look-up operation to map each quantization index to a corresponding reconstruction value. This two-stage decomposition applies equally well to vector as well as scalar quantizers.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Because quantization is a many-to-few mapping, it is an inherently non-linear and irreversible process (i.e., because the same output value is shared by multiple input values, it is impossible, in general, to recover the exact input value when given only the output value).


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The set of possible input values may be infinitely large, and may possibly be continuous and therefore uncountable (such as the set of all real numbers, or all real numbers within some limited range). The set of possible output values may be finite or countably infinite. The input and output sets involved in quantization can be defined in a rather general way. For example, vector quantization is the application of quantization to multi-dimensional (vector-valued) input data.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) can be modeled as two processes: sampling and quantization. Sampling converts a time-varying voltage signal into a discrete-time signal, a sequence of real numbers. Quantization replaces each real number with an approximation from a finite set of discrete values. Most commonly, these discrete values are represented as fixed-point words. Though any number of quantization levels is possible, common word-lengths are 8-bit (256 levels), 16-bit (65,536 levels) and 24-bit (16.8 million levels). Quantizing a sequence of numbers produces a sequence of quantization errors which is sometimes modeled as an additive random signal called quantization noise because of its stochastic behavior. The more levels a quantizer uses, the lower is its quantization noise power.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: "Rate–distortion optimized" quantization is encountered in source coding for lossy data compression algorithms, where the purpose is to manage distortion within the limits of the bit rate supported by a communication channel or storage medium. The analysis of quantization in this context involves studying the amount of data (typically measured in digits or bits or bit "rate") that is used to represent the output of the quantizer, and studying the loss of precision that is introduced by the quantization process (which is referred to as the "distortion").


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Most uniform quantizers for signed input data can be classified as being of one of two types: "mid-riser" and "mid-tread". The terminology is based on what happens in the region around the value 0, and uses the analogy of viewing the input-output function of the quantizer as a stairway. Mid-tread quantizers have a zero-valued reconstruction level (corresponding to a "tread" of a stairway), while mid-riser quantizers have a zero-valued classification threshold (corresponding to a "riser" of a stairway).


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Mid-tread quantization involves rounding. The formulas for mid-tread uniform quantization are provided in the previous section.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Mid-riser quantization involves truncation. The input-output formula for a mid-riser uniform quantizer is given by:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Note that mid-riser uniform quantizers do not have a zero output value – their minimum output magnitude is half the step size. In contrast, mid-tread quantizers do have a zero output level. For some applications, having a zero output signal representation may be a necessity.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: In general, a mid-riser or mid-tread quantizer may not actually be a "uniform" quantizer – i.e., the size of the quantizer's classification intervals may not all be the same, or the spacing between its possible output values may not all be the same. The distinguishing characteristic of a mid-riser quantizer is that it has a classification threshold value that is exactly zero, and the distinguishing characteristic of a mid-tread quantizer is that is it has a reconstruction value that is exactly zero.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: A dead-zone quantizer is a type of mid-tread quantizer with symmetric behavior around 0. The region around the zero output value of such a quantizer is referred to as the "dead zone" or "deadband". The dead zone can sometimes serve the same purpose as a noise gate or squelch function. Especially for compression applications, the dead-zone may be given a different width than that for the other steps. For an otherwise-uniform quantizer, the dead-zone width can be set to any value formula_18 by using the forward quantization rule


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: where the function is the sign function (also known as the "signum" function). The general reconstruction rule for such a dead-zone quantizer is given by


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: where formula_21 is a reconstruction offset value in the range of 0 to 1 as a fraction of the step size. Ordinarily, formula_22 when quantizing input data with a typical probability density function (PDF) that is symmetric around zero and reaches its peak value at zero (such as a Gaussian, Laplacian, or generalized Gaussian PDF). Although formula_21 may depend on formula_10 in general, and can be chosen to fulfill the optimality condition described below, it is often simply set to a constant, such as formula_25. (Note that in this definition, formula_26 due to the definition of the function, so formula_27 has no effect.)


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: A very commonly used special case (e.g., the scheme typically used in financial accounting and elementary mathematics) is to set formula_28 and formula_29 for all formula_10. In this case, the dead-zone quantizer is also a uniform quantizer, since the central dead-zone of this quantizer has the same width as all of its other steps, and all of its reconstruction values are equally spaced as well.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: A common assumption for the analysis of quantization error is that it affects a signal processing system in a similar manner to that of additive white noise – having negligible correlation with the signal and an approximately flat power spectral density. The additive noise model is commonly used for the analysis of quantization error effects in digital filtering systems, and it can be very useful in such analysis. It has been shown to be a valid model in cases of high resolution quantization (small formula_2 relative to the signal strength) with smooth PDFs.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Additive noise behavior is not always a valid assumption. Quantization error (for quantizers defined as described here) is deterministically related to the signal and not entirely independent of it. Thus, periodic signals can create periodic quantization noise. And in some cases it can even cause limit cycles to appear in digital signal processing systems. One way to ensure effective independence of the quantization error from the source signal is to perform "dithered quantization" (sometimes with "noise shaping"), which involves adding random (or pseudo-random) noise to the signal prior to quantization.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: In the typical case, the original signal is much larger than one least significant bit (LSB). When this is the case, the quantization error is not significantly correlated with the signal, and has an approximately uniform distribution. When rounding is used to quantize, the quantization error has a mean of zero and the root mean square (RMS) value is the standard deviation of this distribution, given by formula_32. When truncation is used, the error has a non-zero mean of formula_33 and the RMS value is formula_34. Although rounding yields less RMS error than truncation, the difference is only due to the static (DC) term of formula_33<nowiki>. The RMS values of the AC error are exactly the same in both cases, so there is no special advantage of rounding over truncation in situations where the DC term of the error can be ignored (such as in AC coupled systems). In either case, the standard deviation, as a percentage of the full signal range, changes by a factor of 2 for each 1-bit change in the number of quantization bits. The potential signal-to-quantization-noise power ratio therefore changes by 4, or </nowiki>formula_36, approximately 6 dB per bit.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: At lower amplitudes the quantization error becomes dependent on the input signal, resulting in distortion. This distortion is created after the anti-aliasing filter, and if these distortions are above 1/2 the sample rate they will alias back into the band of interest. In order to make the quantization error independent of the input signal, the signal is dithered by adding noise to the signal. This slightly reduces signal to noise ratio, but can completely eliminate the distortion.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Quantization noise is a model of quantization error introduced by quantization in the ADC. It is a rounding error between the analog input voltage to the ADC and the output digitized value. The noise is non-linear and signal-dependent. It can be modelled in several different ways.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: In an ideal ADC, where the quantization error is uniformly distributed between −1/2 LSB and +1/2 LSB, and the signal has a uniform distribution covering all quantization levels, the Signal-to-quantization-noise ratio (SQNR) can be calculated from


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: When the input signal is a full-amplitude sine wave the distribution of the signal is no longer uniform, and the corresponding equation is instead


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Here, the quantization noise is once again "assumed" to be uniformly distributed. When the input signal has a high amplitude and a wide frequency spectrum this is the case. In this case a 16-bit ADC has a maximum signal-to-noise ratio of 98.09 dB. The 1.761 difference in signal-to-noise only occurs due to the signal being a full-scale sine wave instead of a triangle or sawtooth.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: For complex signals in high-resolution ADCs this is an accurate model. For low-resolution ADCs, low-level signals in high-resolution ADCs, and for simple waveforms the quantization noise is not uniformly distributed, making this model inaccurate. In these cases the quantization noise distribution is strongly affected by the exact amplitude of the signal.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The calculations are relative to full-scale input. For smaller signals, the relative quantization distortion can be very large. To circumvent this issue, analog companding can be used, but this can introduce distortion.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Often the design of a quantizer involves supporting only a limited range of possible output values and performing clipping to limit the output to this range whenever the input exceeds the supported range. The error introduced by this clipping is referred to as "overload" distortion. Within the extreme limits of the supported range, the amount of spacing between the selectable output values of a quantizer is referred to as its "granularity", and the error introduced by this spacing is referred to as "granular" distortion. It is common for the design of a quantizer to involve determining the proper balance between granular distortion and overload distortion. For a given supported number of possible output values, reducing the average granular distortion may involve increasing the average overload distortion, and vice versa. A technique for controlling the amplitude of the signal (or, equivalently, the quantization step size formula_2) to achieve the appropriate balance is the use of "automatic gain control" (AGC). However, in some quantizer designs, the concepts of granular error and overload error may not apply (e.g., for a quantizer with a limited range of input data or with a countably infinite set of selectable output values).


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: A scalar quantizer, which performs a quantization operation, can ordinarily be decomposed into two stages:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Entropy coding techniques can be applied to communicate the quantization indices from a source encoder that performs the classification stage to a decoder that performs the reconstruction stage. One way to do this is to associate each quantization index formula_10 with a binary codeword formula_56. An important consideration is the number of bits used for each codeword, denoted here by formula_57. As a result, the design of an formula_40-level quantizer and an associated set of codewords for communicating its index values requires finding the values of formula_43, formula_60 and formula_61 which optimally satisfy a selected set of design constraints such as the "bit rate" formula_62 and "distortion" formula_63.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Assuming that an information source formula_64 produces random variables formula_65 with an associated PDF formula_66, the probability formula_67 that the random variable falls within a particular quantization interval formula_49 is given by:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The resulting bit rate formula_62, in units of average bits per quantized value, for this quantizer can be derived as follows:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: A key observation is that rate formula_62 depends on the decision boundaries formula_74 and the codeword lengths formula_75, whereas the distortion formula_63 depends on the decision boundaries formula_74 and the reconstruction levels formula_78.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: After defining these two performance metrics for the quantizer, a typical rate–distortion formulation for a quantizer design problem can be expressed in one of two ways:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Often the solution to these problems can be equivalently (or approximately) expressed and solved by converting the formulation to the unconstrained problem formula_83 where the Lagrange multiplier formula_84 is a non-negative constant that establishes the appropriate balance between rate and distortion. Solving the unconstrained problem is equivalent to finding a point on the convex hull of the family of solutions to an equivalent constrained formulation of the problem. However, finding a solution – especially a closed-form solution – to any of these three problem formulations can be difficult. Solutions that do not require multi-dimensional iterative optimization techniques have been published for only three PDFs: the uniform, exponential, and Laplacian distributions. Iterative optimization approaches can be used to find solutions in other cases.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Note that the reconstruction values formula_78 affect only the distortion – they do not affect the bit rate – and that each individual formula_12 makes a separate contribution formula_87 to the total distortion as shown below:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: This observation can be used to ease the analysis – given the set of formula_74 values, the value of each formula_12 can be optimized separately to minimize its contribution to the distortion formula_63.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: For the mean-square error distortion criterion, it can be easily shown that the optimal set of reconstruction values formula_93 is given by setting the reconstruction value formula_12 within each interval formula_49 to the conditional expected value (also referred to as the "centroid") within the interval, as given by:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The use of sufficiently well-designed entropy coding techniques can result in the use of a bit rate that is close to the true information content of the indices formula_97, such that effectively


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The use of this approximation can allow the entropy coding design problem to be separated from the design of the quantizer itself. Modern entropy coding techniques such as arithmetic coding can achieve bit rates that are very close to the true entropy of a source, given a set of known (or adaptively estimated) probabilities formula_100.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: In some designs, rather than optimizing for a particular number of classification regions formula_40, the quantizer design problem may include optimization of the value of formula_40 as well. For some probabilistic source models, the best performance may be achieved when formula_40 approaches infinity.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: In the above formulation, if the bit rate constraint is neglected by setting formula_84 equal to 0, or equivalently if it is assumed that a fixed-length code (FLC) will be used to represent the quantized data instead of a variable-length code (or some other entropy coding technology such as arithmetic coding that is better than an FLC in the rate–distortion sense), the optimization problem reduces to minimization of distortion formula_63 alone.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The indices produced by an formula_40-level quantizer can be coded using a fixed-length code using formula_107 bits/symbol. For example, when formula_108256 levels, the FLC bit rate formula_62 is 8 bits/symbol. For this reason, such a quantizer has sometimes been called an 8-bit quantizer. However using an FLC eliminates the compression improvement that can be obtained by use of better entropy coding.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Assuming an FLC with formula_40 levels, the rate–distortion minimization problem can be reduced to distortion minimization alone. The reduced problem can be stated as follows: given a source formula_65 with PDF formula_66 and the constraint that the quantizer must use only formula_40 classification regions, find the decision boundaries formula_114 and reconstruction levels formula_115 to minimize the resulting distortion


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Finding an optimal solution to the above problem results in a quantizer sometimes called a MMSQE (minimum mean-square quantization error) solution, and the resulting PDF-optimized (non-uniform) quantizer is referred to as a "Lloyd–Max" quantizer, named after two people who independently developed iterative methods to solve the two sets of simultaneous equations resulting from formula_117 and formula_118, as follows:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: which places each reconstruction value at the centroid (conditional expected value) of its associated classification interval.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Lloyd's Method I algorithm, originally described in 1957, can be generalized in a straightforward way for application to vector data. This generalization results in the Linde–Buzo–Gray (LBG) or k-means classifier optimization methods. Moreover, the technique can be further generalized in a straightforward way to also include an entropy constraint for vector data.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: The Lloyd–Max quantizer is actually a uniform quantizer when the input PDF is uniformly distributed over the range formula_121. However, for a source that does not have a uniform distribution, the minimum-distortion quantizer may not be a uniform quantizer. The analysis of a uniform quantizer applied to a uniformly distributed source can be summarized in what follows:


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: or approximately 6 dB per bit. For example, for formula_126=8 bits, formula_40=256 levels and SQNR = 8×6 = 48 dB; and for formula_126=16 bits, formula_40=65536 and SQNR = 16×6 = 96 dB. The property of 6 dB improvement in SQNR for each extra bit used in quantization is a well-known figure of merit. However, it must be used with care: this derivation is only for a uniform quantizer applied to a uniform source. For other source PDFs and other quantizer designs, the SQNR may be somewhat different from that predicted by 6 dB/bit, depending on the type of PDF, the type of source, the type of quantizer, and the bit rate range of operation.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: However, it is common to assume that for many sources, the slope of a quantizer SQNR function can be approximated as 6 dB/bit when operating at a sufficiently high bit rate. At asymptotically high bit rates, cutting the step size in half increases the bit rate by approximately 1 bit per sample (because 1 bit is needed to indicate whether the value is in the left or right half of the prior double-sized interval) and reduces the mean squared error by a factor of 4 (i.e., 6 dB) based on the formula_133 approximation.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: At asymptotically high bit rates, the 6 dB/bit approximation is supported for many source PDFs by rigorous theoretical analysis. Moreover, the structure of the optimal scalar quantizer (in the rate–distortion sense) approaches that of a uniform quantizer under these conditions.


title: Quantization (signal processing)

text: Many physical quantities are actually quantized by physical entities. Examples of fields where this limitation applies include electronics (due to electrons), optics (due to photons), biology (due to DNA), physics (due to Planck limits) and chemistry (due to molecules).


title: Johnny Devenanzio

text: John Amadeus Devenanzio (born June 22, 1982), also known as Johnny Bananas, is a television personality, best known as a competitor on the MTV reality game show "The Challenge". His first television appearance was on the of "The Real World" in 2006. In 2018, he became the host of "1st Look" on NBC.


title: Johnny Devenanzio

text: Devenanzio is the most decorated and one of the most infamous contestants on "The Challenge". He is known for a multitude of infamous moments on "The Challenge" such as keeping the $275,000 earnings from winning partner, Sarah Rice, in "" and being hoisted on the back of Chris Tamburello during an elimination in "". As of 2022, he has won the most seasons of "The Challenge" with seven seasons and has earned the second highest amount of prize money of all contestants on the competition show accumulating $1,184,720. He also holds the record for the most seasons participated in with twenty seasons. He has also competed in spin-offs of "The Challenge" such as "" and "" respectively.


title: Johnny Devenanzio

text: After filming for the thirty-third season of "The Challenge" had completed, Devenanzio started dating castmate and "" winner Morgan Willett. The couple split in September 2021 after Willett claimed Devenanzio was unfaithful. Devenanzio was previously in a relationship with olympic champion Hannah Teter.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carmen Carrera (born April 13, 1985) is an American reality television personality, model, burlesque performer, and actress, known for appearing on the third season of the Logo reality television series "RuPaul's Drag Race", as well as its spin-off series "RuPaul's Drag U". Carrera is a transgender woman and a transgender rights activist.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera was born in Elmwood Park, New Jersey. In 2011, she appeared in the third season of the reality television competition show, "RuPaul's Drag Race". Carrera is the second contestant in the history of the show (after season three castmate, Shangela) to rejoin the cast after being eliminated, and along with Raja, Manila Luzon, and Delta Work, was part of the clique known as the "Heathers", which took its name from the 1988 film, "Heathers". In episode 10, "RuPaul-a-Palooza", Carrera was eliminated for her performance while lip-syncing to a reggae-inspired cover of RuPaul's song "Superstar". Judges Michelle Visage, Santino Rice, and Billy Brasfield voted to re-invite Carrera to the competition in episode 12, "Jocks in Frocks". Subsequently, Carrera was eliminated in that episode after styling a muscular male athlete in her own signature "nude"-style of drag.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: The November 2011 issue of "W" featured a series of fictional products in realistically styled advertisements as part of an issue-wide art project. Carrera was featured in the series as the face for the fictional fragrance La Femme. In 2011, Carrera, along with third season "Drag Race" contestants Manila Luzon and Shangela Laquifa Wadley, appeared in a television commercial for the travel-related website Orbitz.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera has also been active in AIDS awareness and activism. After being featured in a Gilead Sciences ad titled "Red Ribbon Runway" with fellow "Drag Race" co-stars Manila Luzon, Delta Work, Shangela Laquifa Wadley, and Alexis Mateo, the dress she wore was auctioned by Logo in commemoration of World AIDS Day. Proceeds from the auction were donated to the National Association of People with AIDS.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera appeared as a "drag professor" in two episodes of the second season of "RuPaul's Drag U". In the episode "80s Ladies", she gave singer Stacey Q a confidence-boosting makeover. Carrera appeared in recording artist Lovari's music video for "Take My Pain Away".


title: Carmen Carrera

text: In an episode of the ABC news program "Primetime: What Would You Do?" that aired on May 4, 2012, Carrera portrayed the role of a transgender server working in a New Jersey diner. An actor playing a customer berates Carrera's character regarding his past experience of being served by her when she had presented as male, prompting other customers to come to Carrera's defense. This program also marked the first occasion in which Carrera publicly revealed herself to be transgender.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: On June 11, 2012, Carrera appeared in an episode of the TLC series "Cake Boss", "Bar Mitzvah, Beads & Oh Baby!", in which she unknowingly participated in a prank involving "Cousin Anthony" Bellifemine, the cousin of "Cake Boss" Buddy Valastro, who was set up with a date with Carrera. The punchline of the joke had Valastro tell Bellifemine that "...that's a man, baby!" Carrera, however, originally agreed to appear on the program to promote equality for the transgender community, not aware that she would be involved in a joke. Following the airing of the program, Carrera rebuked the situation on Facebook:


title: Carmen Carrera

text: I owe an apology to the entire LGBT community. It was absolutely not my intention to upset or offend her, or anyone within the community, and I was wrong to use the words I did. I am a supporter of gay rights and equality, and while I regret this situation and my choice of words, I am thankful to have received this feedback and the opportunity to learn from this mistake. I hope that Carmen accepts my sincere regrets.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: The following day, on June 12, 2012, TLC announced that "Bar Mitzvah, Beads & Oh Baby!" had been pulled from rotation indefinitely, with the network planning to re-edit the episode for future broadcasts.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: A petition started requesting that Carrera serve as a model during the 2013 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, but despite media coverage and approximately 45,000 signatures the petition was unsuccessful.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: In March 2014, Carrera openly criticized RuPaul for use of the pejorative "she-male" on a RuPaul's Drag Race episode. She continued to be critical of RuPaul when the issue arose again in 2015, after Logo pulled the "Female or SheMale" game from "DragRace", which prompted RuPaul to defend the use of the word "tranny". Carrera's continued protests led to accusations by others that she was biting the hand that fed her. Carrera responded that, while she appreciates the opportunity to compete on "DragRace", she ultimately earned her status through her efforts and those of her agent, friends, fans, and family, and that she was not beholden to support RuPaul's use of transphobic language.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera was featured in the work of photographer David LaChapelle. She posed for a poster for Life Ball, which has two versions; each depicts her with different genitalia to represent the blurring of gender identity.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: In 2014, Carrera was included as part of the Advocate's annual "40 under 40" list and made a cameo appearance on "Jane the Virgin"s premiere episode.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Also in 2014, Carrera was featured on the fifth anniversary cover of "C☆NDY" magazine along with thirteen other transgender women: Janet Mock, Laverne Cox, Geena Rocero, Isis King, Gisele Alicea, Leyna Ramous, Dina Marie, Nina Poon, Juliana Huxtable, Niki M'nray, Pêche Di, Carmen Xtravaganza and Yasmine Petty.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera was in a domestic partnership with Adrian Torres from 2009, but she announced in 2013 that they had separated. By 2015, the two had reunited, receiving relationship counseling while being filmed for the "Couples Therapy" television show. They wed on June 10, 2015, during filming for the show, which aired as the season finale on December 9, 2015.


title: Carmen Carrera

text: Carrera had publicly identified as a gay man, and continued to present as such during filming of the third season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", but began her gender transition when she concluded filming. She is of Puerto Rican-Peruvian ancestry.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The Microsoft campus is the corporate headquarters of Microsoft, located in Redmond, Washington, United States, a part of the Seattle metropolitan area. Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, shortly before going public on March 13. The headquarters has undergone multiple expansions since its establishment and is presently estimated to encompass over of office space and have over 50,000 employees.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: Additional offices in the Eastside suburbs of Seattle are located in Bellevue and Issaquah. Building 92 on the campus contains a visitor center (with interactive exhibits) and store that are open to the public.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: Microsoft chose to move its headquarters from Bellevue to nearby Redmond in January 1985, selecting a plot of land that would be developed by Wright Runstad & Company. Construction began on August 9, and Microsoft moved into the $25 million facility on February 26, 1986, several weeks before the company's initial public offering. The move generated some concerns about increased traffic congestion on the unfinished State Route 520 freeway between Bellevue and Redmond; a new freeway interchange at Northeast 40th Street would later be built in 2000 to service the campus, after lobbying and partial funding from Microsoft.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The initial campus was situated on a lot with six buildings and was able to accommodate 800 employees, growing to 1,400 by 1988. The site was once home to chicken farms in the 1920s that were ultimately demolished. The campus was originally leased to Microsoft from the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association, a pension fund manager, until it was bought back in 1992. The original buildings were given sequential numbers, with the exception of 7 due to a delay in permitting that became indefinite. A pond between the original buildings was nicknamed "Lake Bill" for Bill Gates and was used for post-project celebrations, namely managers being thrown in after a successful launch.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The first major expansion of the campus came in 1992, bringing the total amount of office space to across of land. Microsoft also announced its intention to contain most of its future growth within Redmond, while retaining some offices in Downtown Bellevue and its Factoria district. The Redmond campus was plagued by hundreds of rabbits who spread around the area in the late 1990s.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: In January 2006, Microsoft announced the purchase of Safeco's Redmond campus after the company had begun consolidating its offices at the Safeco Tower in Seattle's University District a year earlier. The following month, Microsoft announced that it intended to expand its Redmond campus by at a cost of $1 billion and said that this would create space for between 7,000 and 15,000 new employees over the following three years. The campus expansion also included more prominent branding and additional recreation areas.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: In 2009, a shopping mall called "The Commons" was completed on the campus, bringing of retail space as well as restaurants, a soccer field and a pub, to the West Campus.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: In September 2015, "The Seattle Times" reported that Microsoft had hired architecture firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill to begin a multibillion-dollar redesign of the Redmond campus, using an additional permitted by an agreement with the City of Redmond. The City of Redmond had also approved a rezone in February that year to raise the height limit for buildings on the campus from six stories to ten.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: In November 2017, Microsoft announced plans to demolish 12 buildings on the older East Campus and replace them with 18 new buildings, adding to house 8,000 additional employees. The newer buildings would be arranged like an urban neighborhood, centered around a open space with sports fields (including a cricket pitch), retail space, and hiking trails. The program is planned to raise the total number of buildings on the campus to 131. A digital recreation of the future campus was made available in Minecraft Education Edition in November 2018. Demolition of the original buildings, including all of the original X-shaped offices built in the 1980s, began in January 2019 and was completed that September.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The expanded campus, scheduled to open in 2023, will have 17 office buildings and four floors of underground parking with capacity for 6,500 vehicles. A pedestrian bridge will connect the new campus buildings to the Redmond Technology light rail station and the West Campus site. A set of 875 wells to harness geothermal energy will provide heating and cooling to buildings on the campus through of water pipes that comprise a geoexchange system.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The Microsoft campus in Redmond sits on and has 83 buildings. The company has a total of 125 buildings in the Puget Sound region and employs 53,576 people.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The campus is located on both sides of the State Route 520 freeway, which connects it to the cities of Bellevue and Seattle as well as Redmond city center. Microsoft partially covered the cost for an overpass over the freeway at NE 36th Street to relieve congestion on other cross-streets in the area.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: The campus is served by buses to Seattle and other Eastside cities at the Overlake Transit Center, operated by Sound Transit and King County Metro. The RapidRide B Line also runs through the campus, connecting to downtown Bellevue and Redmond. The transit center opened in 2002 and will be the eastern terminus of the East Link light rail extension, scheduled to open in 2023. Microsoft partnered with Sound Transit and the City of Redmond to fund a pedestrian bridge connecting the light rail station to both sides of its campus planned to open in 2020, providing $33.3 million of the cost.


title: Microsoft Redmond campus

text: For employees, Microsoft also operates a commuter bus service called "The Connector" that provides non-stop service from the Redmond campus to neighborhoods in Seattle, the Eastside, and Snohomish County. The shuttles, which began operating in 2007, were targeted in early 2014 as a symbol of gentrification in similar fashion to the San Francisco tech bus protests that same year. The company also runs a shuttle bus service, called the "Shuttle Connect", between buildings on the campus.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: Phaedra Parks (born October 26, 1973) is an American television personality, attorney, mortician, businesswoman, author and actress. Parks is best known for having appeared on the Atlanta installment of Bravo's The Real Housewives franchise, "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" ("RHOA"). She appeared on "RHOA" from its third season to its ninth. Prior to her appearance on the show, Parks was an established attorney, fronting her own legal firm, The Parks Group. In June 2022, she starred on the second season of "The Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip" on Peacock.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: Parks was born in Athens, Georgia, where "RHOA" co-star NeNe Leakes also lived, and attended the same high school as Parks. She is one of four children to pastor parents Regina Bell and Henry Parks. Before undertaking a Juris Doctor at the University of Georgia, she attended the London School of Economics (LSE) and Wesleyan College and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree with honours.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: Parks first appeared on "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" in 2010. She was already an established attorney, with her own legal practice, The Parks Group. Throughout her career, she had represented multiple public figures such as Bobby Brown. In 2006, she was awarded 'Attorney of the Year' and has served on Georgia's Law School Alumni Council, the Grammy Recording Board, UGA Law School Board, and G-Capp. She has served as a legal analyst on shows like Fox News and NBC regarding the Michael Jackson trial. Parks has also acted as a television producer for BET's "The Tiny and Toya Show".


title: Phaedra Parks

text: Her appearance on "The Real Housewives of Atlanta" helped her become nominated as one of Atlanta's top 100 Black women of influence, as her season 3 debut kick-started high publicity and positive attention for Parks. Her seven season stint on the show saw Parks involved in multiple main storylines including the dissolution of her marriage to Apollo Nida and pregnancies resulting in sons Ayden and Dylan. In a 2011 episode of "RHOA", Parks announced her plan to become a mortician. Parks was ultimately fired ahead of the show's tenth season following a damaging rumour she circulated about fellow "RHOA" cast member Kandi Burruss and her husband, Todd Tucker. Following her departure from "RHOA", Bravo tentatively announced a new unscripted series focussed on Parks alone titled, "Rich People's Problems". The show was never released.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: In 2013, Parks released her first book, "Secrets of the Southern Belle: How to Be Nice, Work Hard, Look Pretty, Have Fun and Never Have an Off Moment". In 2020, Parks and then-boyfriend, Medina Islam, appeared on the season two premiere of "Marriage Boot Camp: Hip Hop Edition" She made her acting debut in "Covenant", an eight-episode anthology series on Allblk, in October 2021. She played Bernice Whitfield, the family matriarch. In 2021, it was announced that Parks would be appearing on the second season of "The Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip", the franchise's 'mash-up' series produced by Peacock featuring multiple well-known housewives from the franchise.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: In 2022, alongside Parks' "RHUGT" main cast appearance, she additionally stars in a recurring guest role in "The Real Housewives of Dubai's" first season, as a friend of housewife Caroline Brooks. Shereé Whitfield stated that Parks filmed for Season 14 of "RHOA" at her fashion show, however scenes featuring Parks were never aired. Rumours regarding Parks' return to "RHOA" in a full-time capacity have begun to swirl following executive producer Andy Cohen stating he would love to have her back, following her 2017 firing. Reportedly, her appearances on "RHUGT", "RHOA" and "RHODXB" are to test whether her Bravo comeback appeals to audiences. Kandi Burruss has stated she would leave "RHOA" if Parks returns.


title: Phaedra Parks

text: Between 2009 and 2017, Parks was married to Apollo Nida. Nida was convicted of conspiracy to commit mail, wire, and bank fraud, but Parks has maintained she had no knowledge of his criminal activity. With Nida, she has two children: Ayden (born 2010) and Dylan (born 2013). She dated Medina Islam before breaking up in 2021.


title: Chalerm Yoovidhya

text: Chalerm Yoovidhya (; born 1950) is a Thai billionaire businessman and heir to the Red Bull fortune. , "Forbes" estimates his net worth at US$20.2 billion.


title: Chalerm Yoovidhya

text: Chalerm Yoovidhya is the eldest son of Chaleo Yoovidhya, the originator of Krating Daeng and co-creator of the Red Bull brands of energy drinks. His brother Saravoot Yoovidhya runs Red Bull in Thailand, and is a main board director of Kasikorn Bank.


title: Chalerm Yoovidhya

text: Chalerm is married to Daranee Yoovidhya, with three children, and lives in Bangkok, Thailand. Their children are Varangkana Kritakara, Varit and Vorayuth Yoovidhya.


title: Chalerm Yoovidhya

text: Chalerm and his wife have both been mentioned in connection with the Panama Papers, owning five multi-million-dollar properties in London, via Karnforth Investments which is incorporated in the British Virgin Islands. Their holdings in Red Bull are owned through a complex web of British Virgin Islands companies including Karnforth, Jerrard Company Ltd., and JK Fly. Mossack Fonseca's auditors raised concerns about the arrangements in 2010 and 2013.


title: Alienoid

text: Alienoid () is a 2022 South Korean science fantasy action film directed by Choi Dong-hoon, starring Ryu Jun-yeol, Kim Woo-bin, and Kim Tae-ri. The film depicts an extraordinary story that unfolds as the gates of time open between late Goryeo and the present in 2022, when aliens appear. It was released on July 20, 2022, in IMAX and 4DX formats.


title: Alienoid

text: The Plot of the movie takes place in 3 timelines as explained below. The timelines will be explained linearly instead of the interwoven pattern in the film.


title: Alienoid

text: The film opens with the narrator explaining that Aliens have been locking up their criminals for a long time inside human bodies and humans were unaware of this. In this timeline, monk warriors try to kill an Alien and it's host human woman to no avail. Suddenly a portal opens and a jeep arrives. A flying robot takes form from the jeep and another Humanoid robot emerges from the vehicle, named Thunder and Guard respectively. Guard battles the Alien, who has now returned to its human host body and is successfully able to extract the Alien from its Host. The woman, before succumbing to her battle injuries asks Guard to take care of her baby; but Guard informs her they can't interfere in human affairs. Guard and Thunder both then take their human forms and leave this timeline using The Crystal Knife, which is the source of their powers and which also helps them see through time and space to help them catch escaped Aliens.


title: Alienoid

text: Guard and Thunder return to their intended timeline, where the Narrator explains that Aliens keep escaping their human hosts across time and space, and it was Guard's and Thunder's jobs to track, extract and recontain them. Unbeknownst to Guard though, Thunder secretly took the dead woman's baby and brought it to this timeline. Guard reluctantly agrees to keep her and they proceed to make a mission report. Here it is revealed that the next Alien Prisoners Convoy is set to arrive in 10 years and 8 months, so they have to stay on Earth until at least then.


title: Alienoid

text: Ten years pass. It is 2022 now. The baby, Yian is grown up and Guard (in his human form) pretends to be her father. He has kept the existence of Thunder and his other life a secret from her, though Yian is highly suspicious of this. Thunder informs Guard that the next Prisoner Convoy will finally be arriving within 18 hours at a hospital and will require 107 human hosts. Yian hears this and in the absence of Guard attempts to communicate with Thunder, where he finally appears before her and explains to her that he and Guard came from a far away planet to carry out their duties here. Upon her insistence he informs her that she was brought from 646 years ago into the present.


title: Alienoid

text: The next day, Yian heads to the hospital to record proof of the Alien transference. A spaceship arrives and implant the alien prisoners inside the humans but Yian narrowly escapes after recording the entire scenario. Guard and Thunder bring her back home where they promise to explain her everything. Thunder tells her that they've been locking up their planet's prisoners in humans for ages, and by doing so they get trapped inside the bodies until the human dies and destroys the Alien too. He also tells her that the Aliens can leave their human prisons and take their true form for about 5 minutes, since Earth's atmosphere is too unsuitable for the Aliens to stay out any longer. Such Aliens are called Paros and in case they awaken, it was Guard and Thunder's jobs to contain them before anyone else got hurt.


title: Alienoid

text: The next day, Thunder receives an emergency message stating that a spaceship of armed and escaped alien prisoner is heading for Earth, and that the urgent recovery of a trapped prisoner is required. The person they have to catch is Detective Moon Doseok who was at the hospital during the alien transference. Guard, Thunder and Yian rush to catch Detective Doseok before the Aliens can get to him.


title: Alienoid

text: Moon Doseok feels something is wrong and tries to escape but the Alien from the ship (nickname- Reddo) catches up to him and explains that the leader of the Rebel Aliens, The Controller has been locked inside him and that he must free him from Doseok's body. Guard catches up to them and battles Reddo, where he manages to steal The Crystal Knife from Guard and escapes in his ship to catch Doseok. Thunder informs Guard that the Paro inside Doseok is the Leader of the Rebellion against imprisonment in humans and they must stop his Awakening. Reddo finally catches up to Deseok and despite Guard's efforts to stop him, manages to Awaken The Controller, by plunging the Crystal Knife in Deseok's body. Meanwhile, Reddo,


title: Alienoid

text: in his battle with Guard fatally injures him to the point where Thunder has to emergency recharge Guard and manages to bring his power levels back up temporarily. Once Awakened, The Controller takes his true form and heads to his spaceship, with Thunder on his tail. Once inside, Thunder informs Guard that The Controller plans to unleash Haava, mysterious spheres containing their Homeplanet's atmosphere on Earth, which will result in Earth's atmosphere becoming perfectly breathable to the Aliens and hence they wouldn't require human bodies to survive. Thus all prisoners could be awakened and unleashed at once and the humans would die due to the new toxic atmosphere. Guard rushes to stop The Controller and manages to reverse the Haava release and seal it back safely but not before 2 doses of Haava are released. Despite the destruction and chaos the Haava causes, Thunder and Yian manage to escape safely, while Guard flies the Haava-spaceship back to their house to lure the Aliens in there. In the Haava infested zone, The Controller meets up with two more Aliens and the three hijack an ambulance to get their Haava-spaceship back. Once home, Guard reveals to Yian that it was he who killed her mother in the past to extract the Alien out of her and the only reason he agreed to raise her was so he could blend among the humans without notice. He then orders Thunder to take her away to safety from the impending fight.


title: Alienoid

text: The three Aliens arrive at Guard and Thunder's home where they overpower Guard but Thunder arrives just in time on Yian's requests to return and help her father. Despite their collective efforts though, they realize they cannot stop them. Thus Guard decides to switch times in order to keep the Aliens away from the Haava-spaceship and opens up a portal to the past, where he, Thunder and Yian crash land with the 3 Aliens close in tow.


title: Alienoid

text: A party of 4 humans are on a hilltop when they see a portal open and "a strange carriage fall from the sky"- The Magistrate, Dual Mages of Mount Samgak, and Dogturd. They witness this and ask their servant boy to stay there and leave to see the crash for themselves.


title: Alienoid

text: When they crash, Guard asks Thunder to take them back and leave the Aliens in this timeline but Thunder seems to be fatally wounded and is unable to help. The Collector finds them and battles Guard, almost killing him, before Yian shoots and fatally wounds Doseok, The Collector's host. While he tries to grab Yian he accidentally pushes her and Thunder off a cliff into the river below. Yian loses The Crystal Knife while Thunder converts into his ship form and asks her to find him again so they can "fix this". His host fatally injured, The Collector becomes desperate for a new human body and goes off to find one. Meanwhile, Yian washes ashore and is found by the servant boy who helps her and tells her his name is Mureuk. They camp together but Mureuk sets out to investigate whether the area is safe or not. He stumbles upon The Collector nearby, who transfers himself into Mureuk's body. Mureuk doesn't remember this or any event after.


title: Alienoid

text: Ten years pass. It is 1391 now. Mureuk has grown into a young Magic learner who possesses a magic fan with his two loyal companions, Right Paw and Left Paw. He is a bounty hunter who one day gets a bounty to find a certain "Heavenly Knife". He takes on the bounty and decides to go talk to Dogturd who tells him that one day a strange knife washed up in one of the fishermen's nets with mystical properties. It was supposedly invulnerable. He then tells him that knife was bought by The Magistrate a long time ago. Mureuk finds the Magistrate but realizes another strange man is after the Knife too. In the ensuing battle, Dogturd, takes the Knife and runs away while The Strange Man fatally wounds the Magistrate and goes off in pursuit of Dogturd himself. Mureuk chases the Man too but finds himself simply outmatched. When he comes to near the riverbank, he sees a weird looking glowing rock jutting out of the water. It is in fact Thunder in his ship form, probably lying dormant without his power source, The Knife. Mureuk also discovers a strange veiled woman near the ship who flees immediately.


title: Alienoid

text: Meanwhile, The Dual Mages of Mount Samgak are investigating the scene where The Magistrate was murdered and The Knife was stolen. They decide to go to The Monk Guru at Milbon Temple for further counsel. Mureuk gathers from the locals the address where the Strange Man lived and goes there to investigate. There he sees pictures of spaceships and aliens and Thunder. He also sees a bounty notice ordering the search for The Knife, and the notice is stamped by The Milbon Temple. At the temple, the Dual Mages inform the Guru that Dogturd has stolen the Knife and enlist the help of The Milbon Temple to find the Knife together. Mureuk on his search for The Knife follows Dogturd to a wedding where he meets a young woman called Lee Ahn, wielding a gun and wearing a watch. She is Yian grown up 10 years later. She is also looking for The Knife, possibly to revive Thunder and get back to her timeline. Before she could steal the Knife, The Dual Mages arrive and hypnotize the owner of the storehouse to bring them the Knife. Lee Ahn rushes to fight them and successfully manages to steal the Knife from them. In an effort to take back the Knife, both the Mages get themselves cut on the Blade, allowing Lee Ahn to escape, but she is knocked out by the Monk Guru, who takes The Knife for himself, and takes an unconscious Lee Ahn prisoner.


title: Alienoid

text: When Lee Ahn wakes up, the Monk Guru comes to meet her who reveals he is in fact one of the Aliens who came into this timeline along with her and tells her he only needs to find the ship now in order to get back. It is later shown The Strange Man and The Monk Guru, both being Aliens are waiting to find their leader, The Controller to finally try to get back. They plan on doing so by locating the last human who saw them the day they came in this timeline, Dogturd; since The Magistrate was struck by the Knife and wasn't awakened and the Dual Mages were cut by the blade but they weren't awoken too. The Monk Guru then receives a report that the ship was confirmed to have resurfaced. Having both The Knife and The Ship now, The Aliens only need their Leader to move ahead with their plan to get back. Since the Mages and Lee Ahn served no use to him now, The Monk Guru orders that poisoned food be served to them. Lee Ahn apparently dies and Mureuk decides to steal The Knife for his bounty. He then realizes the food was poisoned and rushes some of the Mages' antidote to Lee Ahn who he saves in time, but not before being seriously wounded by the Monk Guru himself. Lee Ahn is sealed in a coffin which she escapes from, and Mureuk is dumped in the river, where he resurrects miraculously, owing partially to his magic abilities and partially to the Controller's powers. Meanwhile, The Dual Mages investigate the Monk Guru's chambers to find out why he wanted them dead. There they find his destroyed records and realize he's been looking for the fourth human who saw the portal. Now having been double crossed by The Monk Guru, The Mages join forces with Lee Ahn and Mureuk and together the four of them battle the two Aliens. During the battle, Lee Ahn is able to take the Knife and lure one of the Aliens away while the other Alien is killed by forcing him out of his human host for more than five minutes. Lee Ahn manages to escape her pursuer Alien while in the end of the film it is revealed to the others that Mureuk was the host of The Controller all along.


title: Alienoid

text: The film was shot as one but will be released in two sequential parts. Ryu Jun-yeol and Kim Tae-ri stars in both parts while Kim Woo-bin and So Ji-sub appears only in the first part.


title: Alienoid

text: Due to the complexity and the length of the narrative, Choi Dong-hoon spent two and half years writing the script, pre-production took a year and 13 months went to filming. Choi revealed that while writing the script, he had specific actors in mind, and to his surprise, all of his envisioned stars accepted their roles.


title: Alienoid

text: While Choi Dong-hoon was in charge of screenplay and direction, Jang Young-gyu and Kim Tae-kyung were in charge of music and cinematography respectively. Yoo Sang-seop and Ryu Seong-cheol served as martial arts directors. Two art directors, Ryu Seong-hee and Lee Ha-jun, participated in the project; Ryu in charge of Goryeo setting and Lee in charge of the present day. Dexter Studio was in charge of the CG.


title: Alienoid

text: Filming began in March 2020. Both first and second part were filmed simultaneously for 13 months. Filming concluded in April 2021. Filming reportedly took place in Andong, North Gyeongsang Province. Production cost of making the two parts was estimated to be 40 billion won.


title: Alienoid

text: "Alienoid" was released on July 20, 2022, in IMAX and 4DX formats in South Korea by CJ E&M. Well Go USA acquired North American rights to distribute the film.


title: Alienoid

text: The film was selected as the closing film at the 21st New York Asian Film Festival, where it was screened at Lila Acheson Wallace Auditorium, Asia Society on July 31 for its North American premiere. It is also invited to the 26th Fantasia International Film Festival and will be screened for its Canadian Premiere on August 1, 2022.


title: Alienoid

text: The film received a mixed reception from South Korean film critics; some praising the unique worldview "Alienoid" presented, while others pointing out the potential for confusion in terms of its characters and lore and the distraction caused by mixing too many different elements. However, many audiences seemed to appreciate the director's attempt to create something new. "Alienoid" was frequently compared with director Choi Dong-hoon's previous film "" (2009) which deals with similar concepts of Taoists and time travel.


title: Alienoid

text: Kim Soo-young in her review for "Korea Economic Daily" stated that despite it feels bit burdensome and awkward at the beginning to accept the vast worldview of two completely different times and spaces, each busy following the narrative within it, the story flows smoothly in the latter part, creating a strong sense of immersion. Jo Hyun-na of "Cine21" wrote that the characters, settings and production designs such as space ships lacked novelty, but praised the performance of actors. Choi Young-joo writing for "No Cut News" praised the director for his ability to combine different genres calling it "a challenge that should be taken at least once" though it seems excessive at times. "My Daily"'s Kim Nara wrote that despite having powerful cast, the film didn't meet expectations of the audience, and the director Choi Dong-hoon's own distinct color which was shown in his previous works is rarely seen in "Alienoid". Won Jong-bin of "Oh My News" called the film "disappointing" in terms of film's rhythm, characters, narrative, and setting, but praised the performance of actors, especially those who played characters in Goryeo Dynasty. Kim Boram writing for "Yonhap News" praised the performance of Ryu Jun-yeol, Kim Woo-bin and Kim Tae-ri, but stated that the story seems "cut and dried."


title: Alienoid

text: The film was released on 1959 screens on July 20, 2022. The opening recorded 158,162 admissions and topped the South Korean box office. The film surpassed 1 million admissions in 7 days of release. , it is the 9th highest-grossing Korean film of 2022 with gross of US$11.2 million and 1.5 million admissions according to the Korean Film Council.


title: Alienoid

text: The film became a box-office failure, due to high production cost which required about 7 million (South Korean) admission to cross the break-even point.


title: Alienoid

text: In June 2022, while promoting "Alienoid" Choi Dong-hoon hinted "While Part 1 follows characters in the present-day era who go back in time to the Goryeo Kingdom, Part 2 will center on ancient Taoists traveling through time and space in an effort to obtain the divine sword." The second installment is scheduled for release in 2023.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on mathematical aspects of computer science such as the theory of computation, lambda calculus, and type theory.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:


title: Theoretical computer science

text: While logical inference and mathematical proof had existed previously, in 1931 Kurt Gödel proved with his incompleteness theorem that there are fundamental limitations on what statements could be proved or disproved.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Information theory was added to the field with a 1948 mathematical theory of communication by Claude Shannon. In the same decade, Donald Hebb introduced a mathematical model of learning in the brain. With mounting biological data supporting this hypothesis with some modification, the fields of neural networks and parallel distributed processing were established. In 1971, Stephen Cook and, working independently, Leonid Levin, proved that there exist practically relevant problems that are NP-complete – a landmark result in computational complexity theory.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: With the development of quantum mechanics in the beginning of the 20th century came the concept that mathematical operations could be performed on an entire particle wavefunction. In other words, one could compute functions on multiple states simultaneously. This led to the concept of a quantum computer in the latter half of the 20th century that took off in the 1990s when Peter Shor showed that such methods could be used to factor large numbers in polynomial time, which, if implemented, would render some modern public key cryptography algorithms like RSA insecure.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Modern theoretical computer science research is based on these basic developments, but includes many other mathematical and interdisciplinary problems that have been posed, as shown below:


title: Theoretical computer science

text: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for calculations. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: An algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty), the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Automata theory is the study of "abstract machines" and "automata", as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science, under discrete mathematics (a section of mathematics and also of computer science). "Automata" comes from the Greek word αὐτόματα meaning "self-acting".


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Automata Theory is the study of self-operating virtual machines to help in the logical understanding of input and output process, without or with intermediate stage(s) of computation (or any function/process).


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error-correction and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as information theory, electrical engineering, mathematics, and computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction (or detection) of errors in the transmitted data.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computational biology involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems. The field is broadly defined and includes foundations in computer science, applied mathematics, animation, statistics, biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, genetics, genomics, ecology, evolution, anatomy, neuroscience, and visualization.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computational biology is different from biological computation, which is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering using bioengineering and biology to build computers, but is similar to bioinformatics, which is an interdisciplinary science using computers to store and process biological data.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other. A computational problem is understood to be a task that is in principle amenable to being solved by a computer, which is equivalent to stating that the problem may be solved by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other complexity measures are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computational geometry is a branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms that can be stated in terms of geometry. Some purely geometrical problems arise out of the study of computational geometric algorithms, and such problems are also considered to be part of computational geometry.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: The main impetus for the development of computational geometry as a discipline was progress in computer graphics and computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), but many problems in computational geometry are classical in nature, and may come from mathematical visualization.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Other important applications of computational geometry include robotics (motion planning and visibility problems), geographic information systems (GIS) (geometrical location and search, route planning), integrated circuit design (IC geometry design and verification), computer-aided engineering (CAE) (mesh generation), computer vision (3D reconstruction).


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Theoretical results in machine learning mainly deal with a type of inductive learning called supervised learning. In supervised learning, an algorithm is given samples that are labeled in some


title: Theoretical computer science

text: useful way. For example, the samples might be descriptions of mushrooms, and the labels could be whether or not the mushrooms are edible. The algorithm takes these previously labeled samples and


title: Theoretical computer science

text: uses them to induce a classifier. This classifier is a function that assigns labels to samples including the samples that have never been previously seen by the algorithm. The goal of the supervised learning algorithm is to optimize some measure of performance such as minimizing the number of mistakes made on new samples.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computational number theory, also known as algorithmic number theory, is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations. The best known problem in the field is integer factorization.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties (called adversaries). More generally, it is about constructing and analyzing protocols that overcome the influence of adversaries and that are related to various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Modern cryptography is heavily based on mathematical theory and computer science practice; cryptographic algorithms are designed around computational hardness assumptions, making such algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary. It is theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. These schemes are therefore termed computationally secure; theoretical advances, e.g., improvements in integer factorization algorithms, and faster computing technology require these solutions to be continually adapted. There exist information-theoretically secure schemes that cannot be broken even with unlimited computing power—an example is the one-time pad—but these schemes are more difficult to implement than the best theoretically breakable but computationally secure mechanisms.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: A data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, databases use B-tree indexes for small percentages of data retrieval and compilers and databases use dynamic hash tables as look up tables.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Storing and retrieving can be carried out on data stored in both main memory and in secondary memory.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Distributed computing studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a software system in which components located on networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages. The components interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications, and blockchain networks like Bitcoin.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: A computer program that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many alternatives for the message passing mechanism, including RPC-like connectors and message queues. An important goal and challenge of distributed systems is location transparency.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Information-based complexity (IBC) studies optimal algorithms and computational complexity for continuous problems. IBC has studied continuous problems as path integration, partial differential equations, systems of ordinary differential equations, nonlinear equations, integral equations, fixed points, and very-high-dimensional integration.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematics based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics, electrical engineering, and computer science involving the quantification of information. Information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography, neurobiology, the evolution and function of molecular codes, model selection in statistics, thermal physics, quantum computing, linguistics, plagiarism detection, pattern recognition, anomaly detection and other forms of data analysis.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP files), lossy data compression (e.g. MP3s and JPEGs), and channel coding (e.g. for Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)). The field is at the intersection of mathematics, statistics, computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical engineering. Its impact has been crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones, the development of the Internet, the study of linguistics and of human perception, the understanding of black holes, and numerous other fields. Important sub-fields of information theory are source coding, channel coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, information-theoretic security, and measures of information.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Machine learning is a scientific discipline that deals with the construction and study of algorithms that can learn from data. Such algorithms operate by building a model based on inputs and using that to make predictions or decisions, rather than following only explicitly programmed instructions.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Machine learning can be considered a subfield of computer science and statistics. It has strong ties to artificial intelligence and optimization, which deliver methods, theory and application domains to the field. Machine learning is employed in a range of computing tasks where designing and programming explicit, rule-based algorithms is infeasible. Example applications include spam filtering, optical character recognition (OCR), search engines and computer vision. Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining, although that focuses more on exploratory data analysis. Machine learning and pattern recognition "can be viewed as two facets of


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Parallel computing is a form of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which are then solved "in parallel". There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction level, data, and task parallelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, mainly in high-performance computing, but interest in it has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption (and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly in the form of multi-core processors.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Parallel computer programs are more difficult to write than sequential ones, because concurrency introduces several new classes of potential software bugs, of which race conditions are the most common. Communication and synchronization between the different subtasks are typically some of the greatest obstacles to getting good parallel program performance.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: The maximum possible speed-up of a single program as a result of parallelization is known as Amdahl's law.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically legal strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically illegal strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will execute on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: A quantum computer is a computation system that makes direct use of quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum computers are different from digital computers based on transistors. Whereas digital computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum computation uses qubits (quantum bits), which can be in superpositions of states. A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal quantum computer. Quantum computers share theoretical similarities with non-deterministic and probabilistic computers; one example is the ability to be in more than one state simultaneously. The field of quantum computing was first introduced by Yuri Manin in 1980 and Richard Feynman in 1982. A quantum computer with spins as quantum bits was also formulated for use as a quantum space–time in 1968.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: , quantum computing is still in its infancy but experiments have been carried out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of qubits. Both practical and theoretical research continues, and many national governments and military funding agencies support quantum computing research to develop quantum computers for both civilian and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or algebraic computation is a scientific area that refers to the study and development of algorithms and software for manipulating mathematical expressions and other mathematical objects. Although, properly speaking, computer algebra should be a subfield of scientific computing, they are generally considered as distinct fields because scientific computing is usually based on numerical computation with approximate floating point numbers, while symbolic computation emphasizes "exact" computation with expressions containing variables that have not any given value and are thus manipulated as symbols (therefore the name of "symbolic computation").


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Software applications that perform symbolic calculations are called "computer algebra systems", with the term "system" alluding to the complexity of the main applications that include, at least, a method to represent mathematical data in a computer, a user programming language (usually different from the language used for the implementation), a dedicated memory manager, a user interface for the input/output of mathematical expressions, a large set of routines to perform usual operations, like simplification of expressions, differentiation using chain rule, polynomial factorization, indefinite integration, etc.


title: Theoretical computer science

text: Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a VLSI device. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most ICs had a limited set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI allows IC makers to add all of these circuits into one chip.


title: Prophets in Judaism

text: According to the Talmud, there were 48 prophets and 7 prophetesses of Judaism. The last Jewish prophet is believed to have been Malachi. In Jewish tradition it is believed that the period of prophecy, called "Nevuah", ended with Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi at which time the "Shechinah departed from Israel".


title: Prophets in Judaism

text: Although the Talmud states that only “48 prophets and 7 prophetesses prophesied to Israel”, it does not mean that there were only 55 prophets. The Talmud challenges this with other examples, and concludes by citing a Baraita tradition that the number of prophets in the era of prophecy was double the number of Israelites who left Egypt (600,000 males). The 55 prophets are recorded, because they made prophecies that have eternal relevance for future generations and not just for their own generation, or own ecstatic encounter with God. Hebrew scripture makes references to groups of such ecstatic prophets, for example concerning King Saul:


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Honeymoon is the fourth studio album by American singer-songwriter Lana Del Rey. It was released on September 18, 2015, by Polydor Records and Interscope Records, and was produced by Del Rey alongside longtime collaborators Rick Nowels and Kieron Menzies. The album marked a departure from the more guitar-driven instrumentation of Del Rey's previous album "Ultraviolence" and a return to the baroque pop of "Born to Die" and "Paradise". Lyrically, the album touches on themes of tortured romance, resentment, lust, escapism, and violence.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Upon release, "Honeymoon" received mostly positive reviews from music critics, appearing on the 2015 best albums lists of many publications. At the time of its release, several critics considered the album Del Rey's best album to date. The album debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 116,000 units in first week, and peaking at number one in Australia, Greece and Ireland. The album was supported by the release of two singles: "High by the Beach", and "Music to Watch Boys To".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Del Rey finished the recording of her third studio album, "Ultraviolence", in March 2014, and by June of the same year she had begun working on a follow-up idea stating that the process was "growing into something I really like. I'm kind of enjoying sinking into this more noirish feel for this one. It's been good".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: In a December 2014 interview with "Galore Magazine", Del Rey revealed she had begun working on a new album.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: In January 2015, Lana Del Rey announced via "Billboard" that she had begun work on her fourth studio album, announcing she was going to release an album entitled "Honeymoon" sometime that same year.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: During the time of the announcement, Del Rey also said that she had written and recorded nine songs that could possibly be featured on the album and stated that she was covering Nina Simone's "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood". During the interview with "Billboard", Del Rey stated that the album would be different from her previous release, "Ultraviolence" (2014), but similar to her first major release, "Born to Die" (2012), and the extended play "Paradise" (2012).


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: During the album's recording process it was reported that producer Mark Ronson had collaborated with Del Rey for "Honeymoon", but their writing sessions did not produce any material for the album.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: In December 2014, Del Rey stated to "Grazia" magazine that she wanted to introduce orchestrations with monumental choruses with a touch of subdued grudge for the album, during the recording sessions she played ten songs to Mark Ronson and stated that the album would be exploring a sound close to the golden age of jazz.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Besides working with Ronson, Del Rey also worked with Dan Heath and Rick Nowels, with the pair Del Rey began writing small pieces for independent films continuing to state that "Dan Heath and Rick Nowels are two of my dearest friends and producers and we are always up to something". Heath would eventually not feature on the album; however, Rick Nowels went on to co-produce and co-write each song with Del Rey.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: In January 2015, Del Rey confirmed the song "Music to Watch Boys To" which was initially intended to be the title for the whole album, she also revealed that she wrote it in a visual, noirish way saying "the title (of the song) lends itself to a visual of shadows of men passing by, this girl's eyes, her face. I can definitely see things". The same month, Del Rey stated she was aiming to record a few more songs to tie the project together. "High by the Beach" was recorded as one of the last tracks for the album. Its development started with its chorus, which was inspired by a period when Lana Del Rey frequently drove by the beach.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Musically, "Honeymoon" has been variously described as a retro-styled work of "grand, cinematic baroque pop", "elegantly melancholy dream pop", and a return to "the cinematic trip hop" of Del Rey's debut album "Born to Die" and incorporates elements of trap, blues, downtempo pop, and jazz. The album's production was noted as containing sighs, whispers, subtly layered vocals, melodies that lazily unwind, decaying synths, echoing guitar lines, strings, hazes and restrained drum patterns. Built over chopped-and-screwed samples, hints of jazz and Morricone-like soundscapes, "Honeymoon" has been characterized as Del Rey's most sophisticated album. According to Nick Levine of "Time Out", "Honeymoon" was seen as a departure from the "grungy" tones of "Ultraviolence" opting for a "glossier" production, which was characterized as containing swirls of cinematic strings, twangy guitars and exquisitely miserable melodies. Andy Gill of "The Independent" noted Del Rey's vocals as being "multi-layered cooing", airy and ethereal. Gill continued in-depth to say:


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "Honeymoon" finds Del Rey reverting, after the more atomised, individual characters of last year's "Ultraviolence", to a composite persona closer to the dissolute subject of her "Born to Die" debut. Not only does her vocal delivery remain the same throughout, but also its protagonist's "voice"; while the emotional impact of what might sometimes be traumatic developments seems somehow damped, as if experienced through a narcotised haze. Happy or sad, angry or apologetic, dominant or submissive, it's apparently all the same to Del Rey, who floats through these songs with a weird indifference.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Lyrically, "Honeymoon" features content that touches upon tortured romance, bitterness, lust and violence. It also features lyrical content involving eroticism, drugs, mythology, and "the American soul".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: The album opens with the title track, a baroque pop and blue-eyed soul song. "The Verge" described the song as containing "sweeping strings and stuttering snares" that "float through the background of the song". "Time" called the song "characteristically broody" and "cinematic", and suggested it "leans closer to the sounds of her breakthrough LP "Born to Die" than the material she cooked up with the Black Keys' Dan Auerbach".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "Music to Watch Boys To" contains a "narcotic haze" according to Alex Hudson of "Exclaim!"; Hudson stated that the song is built over a synth orchestrations, with flute-like sounds and "crawling" beats that serve as "the sultry backdrop for the vocalist cooing breathily about pink flamingos and creepy, destructive romance". "Terrence Loves You" has been described as "hypnotic", with Del Rey singing over piano, strings, and a "moaning" saxophone. The song contains an interpolation of the song "Space Oddity" by English singer-songwriter David Bowie from his eponymous second studio album. The song opens with isolated guitar notes plucked and dropped, before moving into the distance as piano chords appear, followed by violins, and Del Rey's vocals. The chorus is delivered in an operatic style and lyrically talks about strength in the face of abandonment. Throughout the chorus there is brief saxophone sections inserted and David Bowie references with lyrics such as "Ground control to Major Tom/Can you hear me all night long?".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "God Knows I Tried" features guitar backing with layered harmonised vocals, with lyrics that touch upon Del Rey being wounded by "Mr. Wrong" as well as touching upon themes of domestic violence. "High by the Beach" is a hip hop-influenced synth-led, trap-pop song. Relatively upbeat and structurally sedate, it serves as a combination of all Del Rey's musical styles, particularly recalling the hip hop and trip hop influences of "Born to Die" (2012). It is more uptempo and pop-indebted than her previous releases, and is based around laidback, airy electronic production and a swooning orchestral arrangement. The song comprises a slow and clear trap beat, prominent, dreamy synth beeps, hip hop-influenced percussions and Roland TR-808 drums; in contrast with brooding, eerie organ instrumentation, pertaining to an additional slow and airy feel. The drums were noted to put emphasis on its hi-hat. "Freak" contains a steady bass thump and lyrics about drugs that have been compared to the work of the Weeknd. Amy Davidson of Digital Spy noted the song had a similar "sultriness" to that of "High by the Beach", Davidson continued to call the song a "slow motion" and compared it to a '90s R&B song. A reviewer from "The Guardian" noted the song to contain trip hop beats with lyrics that celebrate California.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "Art Deco" is a slow jazz-styled ballad with hazy beats and saxophone riffs, the lyrics of the song contain "hollowness and American ennui". "Art Deco" was rumored to be about rapper Azealia Banks. Del Rey dismissed these allegations in an interview with "NME", saying that the song "is actually about a group of teenagers who go out every night."


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: The eighth track on the album is an interlude entitled "Burnt Norton (Interlude)", the short spoken-word piece features Del Rey reciting an extract of the first poem from T. S. Eliot's "Four Quartets", which speaks about the nature of time, and meditates on the idea of fate, with an underlying suggestion our present experiences are out of our control. The words are recited over an art rock instrumental production. "Religion" was noted as being one of Del Rey's most optimistic love songs, however the song was also noted for still be "tinged with the singer's favourite kind of noirish self-destruction". Lyrics that were noted for being optimistic were; "Everything is bright now" but this lyric is immediately followed with resignation "No need to survive now". "Salvatore" mixes violins, military drumbeats and verses sung in Italian which have been described as evoking "1940s Italy via Frank Sinatra". Lyrically, the track was seen as a sequel to "Summertime Sadness" with lyrics such as "Summer's hot but I've been cold without you". "Salvatore" was described as a two-step song by Nina Corcoran of "Consequence of Sound", Corcoran noted the song sound as being "straight out of a resort hotel ballroom" before to continuing to describe the track as having jazz drums with "clean and rich" production.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "The Blackest Day" is a post-breakup ballad, that primarily deals with the stages of grief. The first verse explores themes of denial, apparent in lyrics such as "I don't really wanna break up, we got it going on". The second stage of grief, anger, is exemplified by the tone of the bridge: "You should've known better, than to have, to let her, get you under her spell of the weather". The second verse shows Del Rey bargaining: "Carry me home, don't wanna talk about the things to come/Just put your hands up in the air, the radio on", before Del Rey reaches the point of acceptance in the outro: "I'm on my own again". "24" is a cinematic song that received comparison to the James Bond theme songs, due to its musical style and lyrics which were noted as being sung from the perspective of a Bond girl. "Swan Song" is a smooth, elegant theatrical song, that contains humming and low beats, with tragic lyrics that hear Del Rey repeatedly whisper "I will never sing again" and contains themes of Del Rey pleasing to run away from responsibility. The album closes with a cover of Nina Simone's "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood", which showcase Del Rey's operatic readings of classical '60s Hollywood melodrama and contains organ riffs.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: The album's cover artwork was photographed by Del Rey's sister, Caroline "Chuck" Grant, and features Del Rey posed on a Starline tour bus, a sightseeing bus system in Los Angeles that tours the city. As part of a promotional gimmick, the 1-800 phone number displayed on the side of the bus was answered with clips of tracks from the album when called, and on some occasions, Del Rey herself answered the phone to talk with fans.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Originally, Del Rey had collaborated with photographer Neil Krug on a cover for the album, and taken a series of photos. "The pictures were perfect, but something was missing," Del Rey commented in a 2015 interview. "Maybe it was the need for movement and motion or the search for a single frame that felt extra graphic." The liner notes to the CD and vinyl releases, however, still feature additional photography by Krug.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: In addition to compact disc, the album was also released as a double LP pressed on black vinyl. An exclusive limited edition double LP was also released by Urban Outfitters, pressed on translucent red vinyl; the release also features alternate cover art showing a close-up of Del Rey wearing a sun hat, taken by Krug.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Lana Del Rey suggested in May 2015 that "Honeymoon" would be released in September, and confirmed on August 14 that the release date was scheduled for September 18. In June 2015, she had created a separate Instagram account solely for the album with the username "honeymoon". She unveiled the track listing through her main Instagram account on August 20, the day before the record was made available for preorder on the iTunes Store. Unlike her previous studio albums, which were released in several deluxe versions with extended track listings, "Honeymoon" is packaged as a single 14-track recording.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: The album's title track was released to YouTube on July 14, 2015, accompanied by a video with a short clip of Del Rey along with the song's lyrics, as well as releasing the album artwork, tracklist and pre-order.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Del Rey also released a promotional single, "Terrence Loves You", on August 21, 2015. The song had previously been accessible by calling Del Rey's Honeymoon Hotline, via the number present on the album cover. Additionally, the Honeymoon Hotline played the track "Burnt Norton (Interlude)" upon immediate connection to the number. The hotline would provide weekly updates on the album, as well as lectures chosen by Del Rey. On September 9, Apple Music's Beats Radio 1 station premiered "Music to Watch Boys To" two days ahead of its release as the third promotional single. The following day, Del Rey released a sampler of "Honeymoon", which included the tracks "Terrence Loves You", "Music to Watch Boys To", "Freak", and "High by the Beach".


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: Del Rey did not promote the album with television performances or interviews, instead relying on a couple of print interviews, music videos, fan meets, and social media. Urban Outfitters held an early listening event on September 12 in select stores. Post the listening session, low-quality recordings of all the tracks from the album were leaked onto the Internet. On September 15, BBC Radio 1 premiered "Salvatore" and briefly interviewed Del Rey for Huw Stephens' (in place of Annie Mac's) Hottest Record In The World show. Following the release of "Honeymoon", Del Rey hosted 3 meet-and-greets in late September at select Urban Outfitters stores to promote the record. On February 9, 2016, she held a music video premiere for the song "Freak" at The Wiltern, in Los Angeles.


title: Honeymoon (Lana Del Rey album)

text: "Honeymoon" received positive reviews upon release. At the review aggregate website Metacritic, it has scored a 78 out of 100, based on 31 critics, becoming Del Rey's most acclaimed album of her career at the time.