title: Albert Lee

text: In 1987, Lee was invited by Gerry Hogan to headline at a steel guitar festival in Newbury, Berkshire. Lee was at first intimidated by the prospect of having to front a band, however, the gig was successful and he toured as Albert Lee & Hogan’s Heroes on a regular basis until 2015. The line up of the band included British musicians Peter Baron on drums, Gerry Hogan on guitar and Brian Hodgson on bass. Pete Wingfield was the original keyboard player, before leaving to be replaced by Elio Pace and later Gavin Povey.


title: Albert Lee

text: They were renowned for attracting celebrities to their gigs. Stars such as Eric Clapton, Tommy Emmanuel, Lonnie Donegan, Dave Edmunds, Nick Lowe, Marty Wilde, Willie Nelson, Nanci Griffith, Don Everly, Emmylou Harris, Sonny Curtis and Rodney Crowell have all jammed with the band at one time or another. In 1988 Lee toured Australia along with Vince Gill, then a comparative unknown, and has returned to tour the country on several subsequent occasions.


title: Albert Lee

text: In the early 2000s Albert Lee toured with Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings. In 2002, Lee appeared at the Concert for George [Harrison]. Also in 2002, Lee received a Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance for "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" from the CD "Earl Scruggs and Friends". In September 2006 Lee took part in "Primal Twang: The Legacy of the Guitar", a documentary about the history of the guitar. Lee appeared at the 2007 Crossroads Guitar Festival on 28 July and performed with Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings at the Ahmet Ertegun tribute show at The O2 in London on 10 December. A new album entitled "Like This" was released in spring 2008 to coincide with their European tour. He lives in Malibu, California.


title: Albert Lee

text: Lee has received many awards as a guitarist, winning five consecutive times "Guitar Player" magazine's "Best Country Guitarist". Lee is known within the music industry for his speed of playing and his technical virtuosity and yet by the same token, one of the most melodic, playing slower passages approximating the sound of the pedal steel guitar with his Music Man and Telecaster guitars which are equipped with B-Benders.


title: Albert Lee

text: He is known as "the guitar player's guitar player". Lee is also referred to as "Mr. Telecaster". A long-time Telecaster player, Lee wrote a foreword to A.R. Duchossoir's book detailing the history of the instrument.


title: Albert Lee

text: Lee's song "Country Boy" helped to redefine country guitar for a whole generation of players, and was later to become a hit for multi-instrumentalist Ricky Skaggs.


title: Albert Lee

text: Despite positive press from "Melody Maker" and "New Musical Express", Lee has never achieved any great commercial success in terms of record sales during his career, but more as a live performer, session player and sideman, perhaps due to his self-effacing stage presence. Lee has been described by his peers, who include Jimmy Page and Ritchie Blackmore, as a complete gentleman who does not know the meaning of the word "ego".


title: Albert Lee

text: After Gram Parsons's death, Emmylou Harris was told that she could gain the backing of a major record label only if she could assemble a really "hot band". Harris did just that, enlisting guitarist James Burton and pianist Glen Hardin, both of whom had played with Elvis Presley and Parsons; she named the band "The Hot Band". When Burton left to return to Elvis Presley, Lee was his replacement. Harris said of him that Lee is "a brilliant guitar player. His sound is unmistakable—often emulated, never equaled. When Saint Peter asks me to chronicle my time down here on earth, I'll be able to say (with pride if that's allowed) that for a while I played rhythm guitar in a band with Albert Lee."


title: Albert Lee

text: In 2017, Lee was honoured with the Trailblazer Lifetime Achievement Award at the UK Americana Awards.


title: Albert Lee

text: Albert Lee owns around 40 guitars, including Don Everly's Gibson J-200. The Gibson Guitar Corporation made one for Don Everly and the other for Phil. The guitars have an all black, high-gloss lacquered finish and are equipped with twin "Everly Brothers" white pickguards. The Everly Brothers' manager Wesley Rose had wanted the guitar to be presented to the Country Music Hall of Fame, but Everly informed him that guitars like that should be played, not kept sitting in a glass case. Don Everly presented it to Lee, along with his Gibson "Everly Brothers" model.


title: Albert Lee

text: Eric Clapton gave Lee the Gibson Les Paul Custom that he played while with Delaney and Bonnie. Lee also plays his signature Music Man (the guitar shown in the photographs) and a 1950s Telecaster (and has versions of both with custom B-Benders), a 1958 Stratocaster and a Martin 000-28 acoustic.


title: Albert Lee

text: Despite his being heavily associated with the Fender Telecaster, guitar manufacturer Ernie Ball Music Man makes a signature Albert Lee guitar, which unlike the Telecaster has three single-coil pickups.


title: Dúnedain

text: In J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth writings, the Dúnedain (; singular: Dúnadan, "Man of the West") were a race of Men, also known as the Númenóreans or "Men of Westernesse" (translated from the Sindarin term). Those who survived the sinking of their island kingdom and came to Middle-earth, led by Elendil and his sons, Isildur and Anárion, settled in Arnor and Gondor.


title: Dúnedain

text: After the Downfall of Númenor, the name Dúnedain was reserved to Númenóreans who were friendly to the Elves: hostile survivors of the Downfall were called Black Númenóreans.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers were two secretive, independent groups of Dúnedain of the North (Arnor) and South (Ithilien, in Gondor) in the Third Age. Like their Númenórean ancestors, they had qualities like those of the Elves, with keen senses and the ability to understand the language of birds and beasts. They were trackers and hardy warriors who defended their respective areas from evil forces.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Dúnedain were descended from the Edain, the Elf-friends: the few tribes of Men of the First Age who sided with the Noldorin Elves in Beleriand. The original leader of the Edain was Bëor the Old, a vassal of the Elf lord Finrod. His people settled in Eldar lands. At the beginning of the Second Age, the Valar gave the Edain Númenor to live on. Númenor was an island-continent located far to the west of Middle-earth, and hence these Edain came to be called Dúnedain: Edain of the West. Their first King was Lord Elros, a half-Elf, and also a descendant of Bëor.


title: Dúnedain

text: These first Dúnedain are the Númenóreans. They became a great civilization, and began maritime pursuits for exploration, trade and power. Some returned to Middle-earth, creating fortress-cities along its western coasts, dominating the lesser men of these areas. In time the Númenóreans split into two rival factions: the Faithful, remaining loyal to Elves, and the King's Men, who were eventually seduced by Sauron.


title: Dúnedain

text: Ultimately Númenor was drowned in a great cataclysm, but a remnant of the Faithful escaped in nine ships. Led by Elendil, they established the Dúnedain kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor in Middle-earth. There is a suggestion, voiced by Faramir, son of the Steward of Gondor, that these descendants of Númenóreans are higher than other Men; but his speech on the matter has been described as "arrogant" and as such not necessarily to be taken literally.


title: Dúnedain

text: Sauron's spirit also escaped, and fled back to Middle-earth, where he again raised mighty armies to challenge Gondor and Arnor. With the aid of Gil-galad and the Elves, Sauron was defeated, and the Third Age began. Sauron vanished into the East for many centuries, and Gondor and Arnor prospered. As Sauron re-formed and gathered strength, a series of deadly plagues came from the East. These struck harder in the North than the South, causing a population decline in Arnor. Arnor fractured into three kingdoms. The chief of the Nine Ringwraiths, the Witch-king of Angmar, assaulted and destroyed the divided Northern Dúnedain kingdoms from his mountain stronghold of Carn Dûm. After their fall, a remnant of the northern Dúnedain became the Rangers of the North, doing what they could to keep the peace in the near-empty lands of their Fathers. The surviving Dúnedain of Arnor retreated to the Angle south of Rivendell, while smaller populations settled in far western Eriador. The fragmentation of the kingdoms has been compared to that of the early Frankish kingdoms.


title: Dúnedain

text: Over the centuries, many southern Dúnedain of Gondor intermarried with other Men. Their lifespan became shorter with each generation. Eventually, even the Kings of Gondor married non-Dúnedain women occasionally. Only in regions such as Dol Amroth did their bloodline remain pure.


title: Dúnedain

text: In the Fourth Age, the Dúnedain of Gondor and Arnor were reunited under King Aragorn II Elessar ("the Dúnadan"), a direct descendant of Elros and Elendil. He married Arwen, reintroducing Elf-blood into his family line.


title: Dúnedain

text: In addition to the Faithful, Men in the South manned Númenórean garrisons at places like Umbar. Many of these folk were turned toward evil by Sauron's teachings, and became known as the Black Númenóreans.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers were grim in life, appearance, and dress, choosing to wear rustic green and brown. The Rangers of the Grey Company were dressed in dark grey cloaks and openly wore a silver brooch shaped like a pointed star during the War of the Ring. They rode rough-haired, sturdy horses, were helmeted and carried shields. Their armament included spears and bows. They spoke Sindarin (or some variation of it) in preference to the Common Speech. They were led by a series of Chieftains, the heirs and direct descendants of Elendil, the first King of Arnor and Gondor; Elendil in turn was descended from Kings of Númenor and the Elf-kings of the First Age.


title: Dúnedain

text: During the War of the Ring, the Rangers of the North were led by Aragorn, but the northern Dúnedain were a dwindling and presumably widely scattered folk: when Halbarad received a message to gather as many of the Rangers as he could and lead them south to Aragorn's aid, only thirty men (the Grey Company) were available at short notice for the journey. The Grey Company met up with Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli at the Fords of Isen in Rohan, and at Pelargir, along with the Dead Men of Dunharrow, they captured the ships of Umbar. The Dead Men then departed and the others continued on to fight in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields. There, Halbarad was killed. They are also mentioned as part of the army Aragorn commanded at the Battle of Morannon.


title: Dúnedain

text: Aranarth would have been King of Arnor at the death of his father Arvedui. When Aranarth was still a youth by the standards of his people, the Witch-king of Angmar destroyed the Northern Kingdom, overrunning Fornost. Most of the people, including Aranarth, fled to Lindon, but the King Arvedui went north to the Ice-Bay of Forochel. At Aranarth's urging, Círdan sent a ship to rescue Arvedui, but this ship never returned. It was later learned that the ship had sunk with Arvedui on board. By right, this made Aranarth now King of Arnor, but since his Kingdom had been destroyed he did not claim the title. Aranarth rode with the army of Gondor under Eärnur and saw the destruction of Angmar. Aranarth's people became known as the Rangers of the North, and he was the first of their Chieftains. In time, their origins were generally forgotten by the common people of Arnor. While the Rangers defended Arnor from the remnants of Angmar's evil, the Wizard Gandalf went to Dol Guldur, and drove out Sauron the Necromancer. Thus began the period known as the Watchful Peace, a time where attacks by the enemy were few and far between. All of Aranarth's successors were raised in Rivendell by Elrond while their fathers lived in the wild; each was given a name with the Kingly prefix of "Ar(a)-", to signify his right to the Kingship of Arnor.


title: Dúnedain

text: Aranarth's line descended father to son to Aragorn II, a protagonist in "The Lord of the Rings". His father Arathorn was killed two years after his birth. He assumed lordship of the Dúnedain of Arnor when he came of age. He was a member of the Fellowship of the Ring and fought in the War of the Ring. He was crowned King Elessar of the Reunited Kingdom of Gondor and Arnor. That same year, Aragorn married Arwen, daughter of Elrond. Their son, Eldarion, succeeded him as king. In Eldarion the two bloodlines of the Half-elven were reunited, Arwen being the daughter of the immortal Elrond and Aragorn the 60th-generation descendant of Elrond's mortal twin brother, Elros.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers of Ithilien, also known as the Rangers of the South and Rangers of Gondor, were an elite group who scouted in and guarded the land of Ithilien. They were formed late in the Third Age by a decree of the Ruling Steward of Gondor, for Ithilien was subject to attack from Mordor and Minas Morgul. One of their chief bases was Henneth Annûn, the Window of the Sunset. These were descendants of those who lived in Ithilien before it was overrun. Like the Rangers of the North, they spoke Sindarin as opposed to the Common Speech. They wore camouflaging green and brown clothing, secretly crossing the Anduin to assault the Enemy. They were skilled with swords and bows or spears.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers of Arnor and their lost realm have been compared to medieval tribes and societies of the real world. Like the Franks after the fall of the Western Roman Empire or the Christianized Anglo-Saxons, the northern Rangers inhabit a "romanized nobility" and keep protecting the borders of the "realms of good" while Gondor in the south is decaying and finally arrives on the verge of destruction. This protection of the weak from evil by Aragorn and his rangers has been identified as an inherently Christian motif in Tolkien's design of his legendarium.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers have been compared to the 'Spoonbills' in John Buchan's 1923 novel "Midwinter", while the Ranger-like 'Lakewalkers' in "The Sharing Knife" by Lois McMaster Bujold have been seen as part of a deliberate commentary on Middle-earth.


title: Dúnedain

text: With the exception of Aragorn, the Rangers of the North are virtually omitted in Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, save for a few mentions in the extended cuts. Arnor is mentioned only in one line in the extended edition of "The Two Towers", when Aragorn explains to Éowyn that he is a "Dúnedain Ranger", of whom few remain because "the North-kingdom was destroyed". There is however an original Ranger of Ithilien named Madril, played by John Bach. He serves as Faramir's lieutenant. He helps defend Osgiliath, but is fatally injured and is eventually killed by Gothmog by a spear-thrust. New Zealand actor Alistair Browning played another Ranger of Ithilien, Damrod.


title: Dúnedain

text: The Rangers are shown as a village community in the 2009 fan film "Born of Hope". The film centres on the relationship of Arathorn and Gilraen, and the infancy of their son Aragorn.


title: Dúnedain

text: Halbarad is featured in "The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game", and, together with his fellow Rangers, in "The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game".


title: Dúnedain

text: Rangers of the North appear in "The Lord of the Rings Online", with Ranger camps and named characters such as Calenglad.


title: Dúnedain

text: Tolkien's Rangers are the primary inspiration for the Dungeons & Dragons character class called "Ranger".


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Noelle is a 2019 American Christmas fantasy comedy film written and directed by Marc Lawrence, produced by Walt Disney Pictures and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film stars Anna Kendrick as Noelle Kringle, the daughter of Kris Kringle. It also stars Bill Hader, Kingsley Ben-Adir, Billy Eichner, Julie Hagerty, and Shirley MacLaine. In the film, when Noelle's brother Nick is stressed from all the pressure of taking over for their father, he leaves and does not return. She must find her brother and bring him back in time for Christmas. It was filmed from October 2017 to January 2018 in British Columbia and Woodstock, Georgia. "Noelle" was released on November 12, 2019, on Disney+, receiving mixed reviews from critics.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: At the North Pole, preparations for the upcoming Christmas are quickly taking place. After the current Santa Claus's death five months prior, his son, Nick Kringle, is having difficulties trying to complete his training in order to become the next Santa. His younger sister, Noelle, who has been placed in charge of distributing and maintaining Christmas spirit, continues to support him, and even suggests taking the weekend off as to avoid the stress and relax before the big day. Complying, Nick takes off overnight with the reindeer, and does not return following the weekend.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: When the reindeer return without Nick and Noelle admits to giving him controversial advice, the elves get angry at her. The elf elders forcibly appoint her cousin Gabriel, the Kringles' tech support, to fill in as the new Santa. Guilt-stricken and forlorn, Noelle deduces that Nick fled to Phoenix, Arizona, and takes off with the Sleigh and reindeer with her childhood nanny Polly.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: They set down in a mall. With the permission of manager Helen Rojas and the customers' support and belief that it was a Christmas exhibit, Noelle sets out into the city to find Nick, leaving Polly to tend to the sleigh and reindeer. She meets and hires Jake Hapman, a private investigator as well as a recently divorced dad, to track down Nick. Noelle also interacts with Jake's enthusiastic son Alex and several other people, discovering that she can understand and communicate in other languages (including American Sign Language), as well as tell the naughty from the nice.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Jake tracks Nick down to a yoga studio, where Nick is enthusiastic to see Noelle yet refuses to return north and become Santa. After a heated argument, Noelle leaves the building. She returns to the mall, where her reindeer friend Snowcone arrives with a letter from Mrs. Claus informing her about the situation back home and ordering her to find and bring Nick back home. During Noelle's time away, Gabriel had used an algorithm to determine that there were only 2,837 "nice" children in the world, much to the horror of the elves and Mrs. Claus.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: With help from Snowcone, Noelle tracks down Nick to a yoga retreat at the Desert Botanical Garden, and convinces him to return. Meeting up with her and Polly at the mall the next day, Noelle has him continue to train by being a mall Santa. While Nick sees the text message being sent to children from Gabriel, Jake discovers that Noelle told Alex about his Christmas wish, something that he finds awkward as his ex-wife remarried. Noelle reveals that she is Santa's daughter, causing him to leave. When Nick is accosted by the actual mall Santa, Noelle intervenes and accidentally hurts a police officer, resulting in her arrest and later hospitalization for psychological evaluation.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: After a visit from Polly, who reveals her identity as an elf, Jake removes Noelle from the hospital and she makes her way back to the North Pole with Nick, Polly, and the reindeer before Christmas Eve. Back home after a meeting with the elders, Nick nominates Noelle as the next Santa, which stirs up controversy throughout the town but unanimously gains agreement from the elders when they determine that there is no rule against a female Santa and they are convinced she naturally has the skills. After a few mishaps, Noelle successfully delivers the presents across the world and drops Jake off at his ex-wife's house to spend time with Alex.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Noelle is celebrated at the North Pole as Gabriel happily returns to tech support while Nick opens up a yoga studio and Polly becomes an elf elder. Noelle admits that she is proud to continue her father's legacy for being the 24th generational Santa and that Christmas will go on.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: On January 11, 2017, it was announced that Anna Kendrick would play the titular role of Santa Claus's daughter, Noelle, and that the movie would be written and directed by Marc Lawrence, and produced by Suzanne Todd for Walt Disney Pictures. In July 2017, Bill Hader joined the cast. In September 2017, Billy Eichner and Shirley MacLaine joined the cast. In October 2017, Julie Hagerty and Maceo Smedley joined the cast. In November 2017, Michael Gross joined the cast.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Principal photography for the film began in late-October 2017 in Vancouver, British Columbia, and later moved to Whistler Olympic Park in early-January 2018, where filming continued until January 19, 2018. The exterior for the shelter in Phoenix was St. James Anglican Church—the church's name can be seen in the Christmas Eve shot. Additional photography also took place in Woodstock, Georgia. Cody Fitzgerald and Clyde Lawrence composed the film's score.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: "Noelle" was originally scheduled to be theatrically released on November 8, 2019, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. On February 8, 2018, it was revealed that the film would be released on Disney+ instead. It was released on November 12, 2019, four days after its original theatrical release date. It was released in the United Kingdom and Latin America on November 27, 2020.


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 55% based on 42 reviews with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: "The always charming Anna Kendrick does her best, but "Noelle"s progressive take on a timeless tale is unfortunately subdued." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 48 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Nick Allen of "Roger Ebert.com" gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, writing, ""Noelle" has more going for it than just being one of the easiest ways for Disney+ to make a good first impression. [...] "Noelle" has plenty of charm—the kind that makes a Christmas story not just simply amiable, but worth a look." Jennifer Green of "Common Sense Media" rated the movie a 3 out of 5 stars and wrote: ""Noelle" is appropriate for the whole family but will likely appeal most to grade-schoolers, who are likely to feel the most connection with its holiday-spirit messages, storylines, and humor, as well as with star Anna Kendrick. [...] The subplots of kids being deemed naughty or nice and families seeking togetherness and well-being over material possessions offer positive messages for all ages." Tim Robey of "The Telegraph" gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated: "It isn’t exactly cinema’s salvation, with a story that’s a near-shameless retread of Jon Favreau’s Elf, this time sticking Anna Kendrick in Will Ferrell’s pointy shoes. But it’s likeable stay-at-home fluff – the kind of thing you could stick on as mood music while you get the decorations out." Matt Fowler of "IGN" rated the film 6.7 out of 10, indicating, ""Noelle" is a bouncy-yet-benign Christmas caper that, despite fun performances, falls short of instant greatness." Gwen Ihnat of "The A.V Club" rated the movie C+ and said: ""Noelle" has a few of those peppermint hot chocolate moments, but thanks to its bizarre warm-weather detour and wasting of a stellar cast, it just barely makes the nice list."


title: Noelle (2019 film)

text: Emily St. James of "Vox" graded the movie 2.5 out of 5, stating, ""Noelle" frequently feels like it’s running in place, frantically throwing shiny objects in your face in the hope you don’t lose interest. But for fans of movie depictions of Christmas, there are worse options. The production design and costumes are sprightly and colorful, and Lawrence is terrific at keeping the story moving, even when it doesn’t seem like it has any reason to keep going." Kate Erbland of "IndieWire" gave the film a C- rating and claimed: "Kendrick is delightful, but this Christmas comedy is a cheap holiday tchotchke with no staying power."


title: Uralkali

text: Uralkali () is a Russian potash fertilizer producer and exporter. It is traded on the Moscow Exchange using the symbol, URKA. The company’s assets consist of five mines and seven ore-treatment mills situated in the towns of Berezniki and Solikamsk (Perm Krai, Russian Federation). Uralkali employs about 12,000 people (in the main production unit).


title: Uralkali

text: The company produces standard and granular potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl in the form of halite), and carnalite. It supplies products (through its own trader Uralkali Trading) to over 60 countries, with the major markets including Brazil, India, China, Southeast Asia, Russia, USA, and Europe. In 2018 Uralkali produced 11.5 million tonnes of potash (KCl)


title: Uralkali

text: Uralkali develops of potassium and magnesium salts, world's second largest in terms of potash ore reserves. The company’s total ore reserves total approximately 8.2 billion tonnes. Uralkali holds the development licences for the Ust-Yayvinsky and Polovodovsky blocks at the Verkhnekamskoye field, which contain ore reserves of 1.291 and 3.074 billion tonnes respectively. Uralkali also holds the development licence for the Romanovsky Block of the Verkhnekamskoye deposit with the estimated reserves of 385 million tonnes of sylvinite ore.


title: Uralkali

text: In December 2010, Uralkali announced plans to buy another Russian potash producer Silvinit; together they would form one of the world's largest potash producers. The merger was finalized in June 2011, with the combined Uralkali accounting for about 20% of the world's potash production.


title: Uralkali

text: On 9 November 2012, Chengdong Investment Corp., a unit of the sovereign wealth fund China Investment Corporation, bought bonds from the shareholders with maturation in 2014 which were exchangeable into a stake in Uralkali. Chengdong would be able to convert its investment into a 12.5 percent stake in Uralkali’s ordinary shares. In September 2013, the bonds were converted and CIC thus acquired a 12.5% stake in the firm, rumoured to be worth around $2 billion.


title: Uralkali

text: In June 2012, Green Patrol, a Russian environmental non-governmental organization, listed Uralkali as one of the top 100 polluters in Russia, based on information gathered during the previous years. An expedition organised into the Perm Krai by Green Patrol in 2010 revealed that Uralkali's sinks contained at least 16 harmful elements (including zinc and ammonium), exceeding the maximum permissible levels by 1,850 times. Furthermore, according to Green Patrol's President Roman Pukalov, Uralkali failed to fully disclose a complete list of harmful elements that it routinely rejected into the local river Kama. Roman Pukalov described Kama water as "very polluted", and declared that small rivers around Berezniki had in fact turned into brine, something he had "never seen anywhere else".


title: Uralkali

text: On 30 July 2013 Uralkali announced that it was pulling out of the Belarusian Potash Company export JV with Belaruskali, through which it exported potash from 2005 to July 2013, and said it would sell the fertilizer on its own. This move sent shares of potash companies tumbling on speculation that potash prices would plunge. This dispute arose over foreign sales and top executives at Uralkali were accused of a criminal scheme. On 26 August Belarus detained the company's CEO Vladislav Baumgertner after inviting him to Minsk for talks. In September 2013 he was moved from solitary confinement and put under house arrest. Uralkali insists that persecution of its employees by Belarusian officials is politically motivated. On 14 October Russia opened a criminal investigation into Vladislav Baumgertner as well, and investigators announced they will request his extradition from Belarus. In November 2013 Vladislav Baumgertner was extradited to Russia and later put under house arrest. In September 2014 he was released on bail.


title: Uralkali

text: In December 2013 Suleiman Kerimov sold his shares (21.75%) to ONEXIM Group, while Dmitry Mazepin's Uralchem acquired 19.99%, both becoming key shareholders in Uralkali.


title: Uralkali

text: In November 2015, Uralkali's board approved its latest share buyback program, a move that was expected to result in the delisting of the company's stock in London. Uralkali, which also trades in Moscow, said it will repurchase as much as 6.5 percent of its shares from the open market by the end of March 2016.


title: Uralkali

text: On 5 October 2016, Russian President Vladimir Putin issued an order asking the General Attorney of the Federation of Russia Yury Chaika to verify the compliance of Uralkali with the legislation governing planning works and mines filling. Results were to be presented on 1 December 2016, but as of end January 2017 the outcome of the investigation has not been published yet.


title: Uralkali

text: In 2021, it was announced that Uralkali would become the title sponsor of Haas F1 Team after Nikita Mazepin, son of Dmitry Mazepin, signed with the team for the 2021 season. Uralkali also sponsors Hitech GP's cars in the GB3 Championship.


title: Uralkali

text: In December 2021, Uralkali bought UPI Norte, Brazilian holding and shareholder of FertGrow S.A., local major distributor of fertilizers.


title: Uralkali

text: In December 2021, Uralkali-Invest of Uralkali made a buyback of 3,4% of equity shares of Uralchem. By the beginning of 2022, the total of 22.36% of Uralkali voting shares is on the balance of Uralkali-Invest. Before in 2021, the investment division of Uralkali has also acquired 18,5% of equity capital of Uralchem from Dmitry Lobiak, Mazepin`s business partner.


title: Uralkali

text: In February 2022, as a consequence of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Haas removed the branding of its sponsor Uralkali from its cars and equipment, before eventually terminating Uralkali's sponsorship contract, as well as Mazepin's driver contract, which was based on the Uralkali deal, in March.


title: Uralkali

text: By 2000, Dmitry Rybolovlev gained complete control over Uralkali, consolidating over 50% of the shares. By October 2006, he became Chairman of the Board of Directors and in June 2010 owned approximately 65.5% of the company's shares. In early 2011, Rybolovlev disposed of his shares.


title: Uralkali

text: As of April 2011, the company was owned by the following Russian businessmen: Suleyman Kerimov (25%), Alexander Nesis (17.7%), Filaret Galchev (15%), and Alexander Mamut (3.5%), while all other shares were in free float.


title: Uralkali

text: At the end of December 2013, 21.75% of the company's shares were held by Mikhail Prokhorov’s ONEXIM Group, 19.99% by Dmitry Mazepin’s Uralchem, 12.5% by the Chinese Chengdong Investment Corporation, and the rest was in free float. On 23 December 2013, Dmitry Osipov, the former deputy board chairman of Uralchem, was appointed chief executive officer of the company.


title: Uralkali

text: As of 7 March 2018, the shareholding structure of PJSC Uralkali was as follows: 5.23% shares were in free float, 20% were owned by Rinsoco Trading Co. Limited (registered in Cyprus and controlled by Dmitry Lobyak), 20.1% belonged to Uralchem (controlled by Dmitry Mazepin), and 54.77% were quasi-treasury shares (on the balance of the subsidiary Uralkali-Technology).


title: Uralkali

text: Vitaly Lauk was appointed as CEO of Uralkali effective 4 December 2020. Since September 2017, Vitaly Lauk has been the Technical Director and member of the Management Board of the company.


title: Uralkali

text: Uralkali develops the Verkhnekamskoye potassium and magnesium salt deposit, one of the world's largest. A substantial part of natural potassium salt is processed into a commercial product, potassium chloride, which is used as a fertiliser applied either directly to the soil or as an ingredient of compound NPK fertilisers. In addition, potash is used in other industries such as chemical, petrochemical, food, and pharmaceutical.


title: Uralkali

text: The company accounts for a significant share of global potassium chloride production with 80% of the company's products being exported overseas. The main buyers are Brazil, India, China, Southeast Asia, Russia, the US and the EU.


title: Uralkali

text: The company’s production volume in 2020 was 11.3 million tonnes of KCl. As of late 2020, Uralkali employed about 12,700 people in the main production unit.


title: Uralkali

text: The company's net revenue for 2020 amounted to $ 2,151 million, while the 2020 EBITDA was $ 1,222 million.


title: Uralkali

text: Uralkali reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 1,704 Kt (-6.3 /-0.4% y-o-y).


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: Dr. Sudhanshu Trivedi (born 20 October 1970) is an Indian politician. A leader of Bharatiya Janata Party and Member of Parliament from Upper House Rajya Sabha, Trivedi is serving as the Senior National Spokesperson of Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: Trivedi had done PhD in Mechanical Engineering and had served as a faculty in Mechanical Engineering department in a couple of Indian Universities including Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramoday Vishwavidyalaya. He also worked as Information Advisor to the former Chief Minister, Uttar Pradesh and also Political Advisor to former BJP National President Rajnath Singh.


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: He is an ardent speaker on the issues of India's National Policy, Society and particularly the Ideological aspects of Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: Trivedi hails from Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. He studied Engineering and holds a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University (previously U.P. Technical University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: He played a role in the 2014 Indian General Elections. He was one of the members of a core team of Media and Communications.


title: Sudhanshu Trivedi

text: In 2019 Lok Sabha election, he was co-incharge for BJP Rajasthan along with Member of Media and Literature Committee. Presently, he is the National Spokesperson of the BJP.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Young Turk Revolution which restored the constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system for the Ottoman parliament. At the same time, a nascent movement called Ottomanism was promoted in an attempt to maintain the unity of the Empire, emphasising a collective Ottoman nationalism regardless of religion or ethnicity. Within the empire, the new constitution was initially seen positively, as an opportunity to modernize state institutions and resolve inter-communal tensions between different ethnic groups.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Despite military reforms, the Ottoman Army met with disastrous defeat in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), resulting in the Ottomans being driven out of North Africa and nearly out of Europe. Continuous unrest leading up to World War I resulted in the 31 March Incident, the 1912 Ottoman coup d'état and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) government became increasingly radicalised during this period, and conducted ethnic cleansing and genocide against the empire's Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek citizens, events collectively referred to as the Late Ottoman genocides. Ottoman participation in World War I ended with defeat and the partition of the empire's remaining territories under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The treaty, formulated at the conference of London, allocated nominal land to the Ottoman state and allowed it to retain the designation of "Ottoman Caliphate" (similar to the Vatican, a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope), leaving it severely weakened. One factor behind this arrangement was Britain's desire to thwart the Khilafat Movement.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The occupation of Constantinople (Istanbul), along with the occupation of Smyrna (Izmir), mobilized the Turkish national movement, which ultimately won the Turkish War of Independence. The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1922. The Sultan was declared "persona non grata" from the lands the Ottoman Dynasty had ruled since 1299.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Europe became dominated by nation states with the rise of nationalism in Europe. The 19th century saw the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire which resulted in the establishment of an independent Greece in 1821, Serbia in 1835, and Bulgaria in 1877-1878. Unlike the European nations, the Ottoman Empire made little attempt to integrate conquered peoples through cultural assimilation. Instead, Ottoman policy was to rule through the millet system, consisting of confessional communities for each religion.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Empire never fully integrated its conquests economically and therefore never established a binding link with its subjects. Between 1828 and 1908, the Empire tried to catch up with industrialization and a rapidly emerging world market by reforming state and society. By virtue of the Treaty of Balta Liman (1838) between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire, the latter “will abolish all monopolies, allow British merchants and their collaborators to have full access to all Ottoman markets and will be taxed equally to local merchants”. As a result of this treaty, “the Ottomans were unable to protect their manufactures or raise revenues for investments in development projects”. This treaty enabled English manufacturers to sell their wares cheaply in the Ottoman Empire, and consequently undermined Ottoman efforts to industrialize. Despite these hurdles, “It speaks to the determination of the Ottomans that they sought to launch an industrial revolution despite their adverse fiscal circumstances. In the decade starting in 1841, the Ottomans had set up to the west of Istanbul a complex of state-owned industries that included spinning and weaving mills, a foundry, steam-operated machine works, and a boatyard for the construction of small steamships. In the words of Edward Clark: “In variety as well as in number, in planning, in investment, and in attention given to internal sources of raw materials these manufacturing enterprises far surpassed the scope of all previous efforts and mark this period as unique in Ottoman history.”


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Capitulations were the main discussion of economic policy during the period. It used to be believed incoming foreign assistance with capitulation could benefit the Empire. Ottoman officials, representing different jurisdictions, sought bribes at every opportunity and withheld the proceeds of a vicious and discriminatory tax system. This ruined every struggling industry by the graft, and fought against every show of independence on the part of Empire's many subject peoples.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottoman public debt was part of a larger scheme of control by the European powers, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to gain advantages that may not have been of the Empire's interest. The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power was extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (or Central bank). The total pre-World War debt of Empire was $716,000,000. France had 60 percent of the total. Germany had 20 percent. The United Kingdom owned 15 percent. The Ottoman Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the Empire. The Council had power over financial affairs; its control even extended to determine the tax on livestock in the districts.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution changed the political structure of the Empire. The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) rebelled against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II to establish the Second Constitutional Era. On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid II capitulated and restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The revolution created multi-party democracy. Once underground, the Young Turk movement declared its parties. Among them was "Union and Progress" (CUP), and the "Ottoman Liberty Party."


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party and ethnic parties which included People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section), Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion), Al-Fatat (also known as the Young Arab Society; "Jam’iyat al-'Arabiya al-Fatat"), Ottoman Party for Administrative Decentralization, and Armenians were organized under the Armenakan, Hunchakian and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF/Dashnak).


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: At the onset, there was a desire to remain unified, and the competing groups wished to maintain a common country. The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO) collaborated with the members of the CUP, and Greeks and Bulgarians joined under the second biggest party, the Liberty Party. The Bulgarian federalist wing welcomed the revolution, and they later joined mainstream politics as the People's Federative Party. The former centralists of the IMRO formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, and, like the PFP, they participated in 1908 Ottoman general election.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The de jure Bulgarian Declaration of Independence on from the Empire was proclaimed in the old capital of Tarnovo by Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, who afterwards took the title "Tsar".


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Bosnian crisis on 6 October 1908 erupted when Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territories formally within the sovereignty of the Empire. This unilateral action was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence (5 October) from the Empire. The Ottoman Empire protested Bulgaria's declaration with more vigour than the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had no practical prospects of governing. A boycott of Austro-Hungarian goods and shops occurred, inflicting commercial losses of over 100,000,000 "kronen" on Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary agreed to pay the Ottomans ₤2.2 million for the public land in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bulgarian independence could not be reversed.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Just after the revolution in 1908, the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece, taking advantage of the revolution as well as the timing of Zaimis's vacation away from the island. 1908 ended with the issue still unresolved between the Empire and the Cretans. In 1909, after the parliament elected its governing structure (first cabinet), the CUP majority decided that if order was maintained and the rights of Muslims were respected, the issue would be solved with negotiations.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: 1908 Ottoman general election was preceded by political campaigns. In the summer of 1908, a variety of political proposals were put forward by the CUP. The CUP stated in its election manifesto that it sought to modernize the state by reforming finance and education, promoting public works and agriculture, and the principles of equality and justice. Regarding nationalism, (Armenian, Kurd, Turkic..) the CUP identified the Turks as the "dominant nation" around which the empire should be organized, not unlike the position of Germans in Austria-Hungary. According to Reynolds, only a small minority in the Empire occupied themselves with Pan-Turkism, at least in 1908.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The election was held in October and November 1908. CUP-sponsored candidates were opposed by the Liberals. The latter became a centre for those opposing the CUP. Sabaheddin Bey, who returned from his long exile, believed that in non-homogeneous provinces a decentralized government was best. The Liberals were poorly organized in the provinces, and failed to convince minority candidates to contest the election under the Liberty Party banner; it also failed to tap into the continuing support for the old regime in less developed areas.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: During September 1908, the important Hejaz Railway opened, construction of which had started in 1900. Ottoman rule was firmly re-established in Hejaz and Yemen with the railroad from Damascus to Medina. Historically, Arabia's interior was mostly controlled by playing one tribal group off against another. As the railroad finished, opposing Wahhabi Islamic fundamentalists reasserted themselves under the political leadership of Abdul al-Aziz Ibn Saud.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Christian communities of the Balkans felt that the CUP no longer represented their aspirations. They had heard the CUP's arguments before, under the Tanzimat reforms:


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The system became multi-headed, with old and new structures coexisting, until the CUP took full control of the government in 1913 and, under the chaos of change, power was exercised without accountability.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Senate of the Ottoman Empire was opened by the Sultan on 17 December 1908. The new year brought the results of 1908 elections. Chamber of Deputies gathered on 30 January 1909. The CUP needed a strategy to realize their Ottomanist ideals.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1909, public order laws and police were unable to maintain order; protesters were prepared to risk reprisals to express their grievances. In the three months following the inauguration of the new regime there were more than 100 strikes, constituting three-quarters of the labor force of the Empire, mainly in Constantinople and Salonika (Thessaloniki). During previous strikes (Anatolian tax revolts in 1905-1907) the Sultan remained above criticism and bureaucrats and administrators were deemed corrupt; this time CUP took the blame. In the parliament the Liberty Party accused the CUP of authoritarianism. Abdul Hamid's Grand Viziers Said and Kâmil Pasha and his Foreign Minister Tevfik Pasha continued in the office. They were now independent of the Sultan and were taking measures to strengthen the Porte against the encroachments of both the Palace and the CUP. Said and Kâmil were nevertheless men of the old regime.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: After nine months into the new government, discontent found expression in a fundamentalist movement which attempted to dismantle Constitution and revert it with a monarchy. The 31 March Incident began when Abdul Hamid promised to restore the Caliphate, eliminate secular policies, and restore the rule of Islamic law, as the mutinous troops claimed. CUP also eliminated the time for religious observance. Unfortunately for the advocates of representative parliamentary government, mutinous demonstrations by disenfranchised regimental officers broke out on 13 April 1909, which led to the collapse of the government. On 27 April 1909 the counter-coup was put down using the 11th Salonika Reserve Infantry Division of the Third Army. Some of the leaders of Bulgarian federalist wing like Sandanski and Chernopeev participated in the march on Capital to depose the "attempt to dismantle constitution". Abdul Hamid II was removed from the throne, and Mehmed V became the Sultan.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: On 5 August 1909, the revised constitution was granted by the new Sultan Mehmed V. This revised constitution, as the one before, proclaimed the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service (allowing Christians into the military for the first time), and political rights. The new constitution was perceived as a big step for the establishment of a common law for all subjects. The position of Sultan was greatly reduced to a figurehead, while still retaining some constitutional powers, such as the ability to declare war. The new constitution, aimed to bring more sovereignty to the public, could not address certain public services, such as the Ottoman public debt, the Ottoman Bank or Ottoman Public Debt Administration because of their international character. The same held true of most of the companies which were formed to execute public works such as Baghdad Railway, tobacco and cigarette trades of two French companies the "Regie Company", and "Narquileh tobacco".


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Italy declared war, the Italo-Turkish War, on the Empire on 29 September 1911, demanding the turnover of Tripoli and Cyrenaica. Italian forces took those areas on 5 November of that year. Although minor, the war was an important precursor of World War I as it sparked nationalism in the Balkan states.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottomans lost their last directly ruled African territory. The Italians also sent weapons to Montenegro, encouraged Albanian dissidents, and seized the Dodecanese. Seeing how easily the Italians had defeated the disorganized Ottomans, the members of the Balkan League attacked the Empire before the war with Italy had ended.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: On 18 October 1912, Italy and the Empire signed a treaty in Ouchy near Lausanne. Often called Treaty of Ouchy, but also named as the First Treaty of Lausanne.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Freedom and Accord Party, successor to the Liberty Party, was in power when the First Balkan War broke out in October. The Party of Union and Progress won landslide the 1912 Ottoman general election. Decentralization (the Liberal Union's position) was rejected and all effort was directed toward streamline of the government, streamlining the administration (bureaucracy), and strengthening the armed forces. The CUP, which got the public mandate from the electorate, did not compromise with minority parties like their predecessors (that is being Sultan Abdul Hamid) had been. The first three years of relations between the new regime and the Great Powers were demoralizing and frustrating. The Powers refused to make any concessions over the Capitulations and loosen their grip over the Empire's internal affairs.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: When the Italian War and the counterinsurgency operations in Albania and Yemen began to fail, a number of high-ranking military officers, who were unhappy with the counterproductive political involvement in these wars, formed a political committee in the capital. Calling themselves the Savior Officers, its members were committed to reducing the autocratic control wielded by the CUP over military operations. Supported by the Freedom and Accord in parliament, these officers threatened violent action unless their demands were met. Said Pasha resigned as Grand Vizier on 17 July 1912, and the government collapsed. A new government, so called the "Great cabinet", was formed by Ahmet Muhtar Pasha. The members of the government were prestigious statesmen, technocrat government, and they easily received the vote of confidence. The CUP excluded from cabinet posts.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottoman Aviation Squadrons established by largely under French guidance in 1912. Squadrons were established in a short time as Louis Blériot and the Belgian pilot Baron Pierre de Caters performed the first flight demonstration in the Empire on 2 December 1909.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century and Montenegro, sought additional territories from the Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace regions, behind their nationalistic arguments. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. On 10 October 1912 the collective note of the powers was handed. CUP responded to demands of European powers on reforms in Macedonia on 14 October.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: While the Powers were asking Empire to reform Macedonia, under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912, between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912, and Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War. A nationalist uprising broke out in Albania, and on 8 October, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, mounted a joint attack on the Empire, starting the First Balkan War. The strong march of the Bulgarian forces in Thrace pushed the Ottoman armies to the gates of Constantinople. The Second Balkan War soon followed. Albania declared independence on 28 November.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The empire agreed to a ceasefire on 2 December, and its territory losses were finalized in 1913 in the treaties of London and Bucharest. Albania became independent, and the Empire lost almost all of its European territory (Kosovo, Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Macedonia and western Thrace) to the four allies. These treaties resulted in the loss of 83 percent of their European territory and almost 70 percent of their European population.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In the two-year period between September 1911 and September 1913 ethnic cleansing sent hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees, or muhacir, streaming into the Empire, adding yet another economic burden and straining the social fabric. During the wars, food shortages and hundreds of thousands of refugees haunted the empire. After the war there was a violent expulsion of the Muslim peasants of eastern Thrace.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was a short-lived agreement signed in July 1913 between the Ottoman sultan Mehmed V and the British over several issues. However the status of Kuwait that came to be the only lasting result, as its outcome was formal independence for Kuwait.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Albania had been under Ottoman rule since about 1478. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian-populated lands during Balkan Wars, the Albanians declared independence. The European Great Powers endorsed an independent Albania in 1913, after the Second Balkan War leaving outside the Albanian border more than half of the Albanian population and their lands, that were partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece. They were assisted by Aubrey Herbert, a British MP who passionately advocated their cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting. Instead the offer went to William of Wied, a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania. Albania's neighbours still cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. Freedom and Accord flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the CUP to seize control of the government.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Freedom and Accord Party presented the peace proposal to the Ottoman government as a collective démarche, which was almost immediately accepted by both the Ottoman cabinet and by an overwhelming majority of the parliament on 22 January 1913. The 1913 Ottoman coup d'état (23 January), was carried out by a number of CUP members led by Ismail Enver and Mehmed Talaat, in which the group made a surprise raid on the central Ottoman government buildings, the Sublime Porte (). During the coup, the Minister of the Navy Nazım Pasha was assassinated and the Grand Vizier, Kâmil Pasha, was forced to resign. The CUP established tighter control over the faltering Ottoman state. The new grand vizier Mahmud Sevket Pasha was assassinated by Freedom and Accord supporters just in 5 months after the coup in June 1913. Cemal Pasha's posting as commendante of Constantinople put the party underground. The execution of former officials had been an exception since the Tanzimat (1840s) period; punishment was usually exile. The public life could not be far more brutish 75 years after the Tanzimat. The Foreign Ministry was always occupied by someone from the inner circle of the CUP except for the interim appointment of Muhtar Bey. Said Halim Pasha who was already Foreign Minister, became Grand Vizier in June 1913 and remained in office until October 1915. He was succeeded in the Ministry by Halil Menteşe.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In May 1913 a German military mission assigned Otto Liman von Sanders to help train and reorganize the Ottoman army. Otto Liman von Sanders was assigned to reorganize the First Army, his model to be replicated to other units; as an advisor [he took the command of this army in November 1914] and began working on its operational area which was the straits. This became a scandal and intolerable for St. Petersburg. The Russian Empire developed a plan for invading and occupying the Black Sea port of Trabzon or the Eastern Anatolian town of Bayezid in retaliation. To solve this issue Germany demoted Otto Liman von Sanders to a rank with which he could barely command an army corps. If there was no solution through Naval occupation of Constantinople, the next Russian idea was to improve the Russian Caucasus Army.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Empire lost territory in the Balkans, where many of its Christian voters were based before the 1914 elections. The CUP made efforts to win support in the Arab provinces by making conciliatory gestures to Arab leaders. Weakened Arab support for Freedom and Accord enabled the CUP to call elections with unionists holding the upper hand. After 1914 elections, the democratic structure had a better representation in the parliament; the parliament that emerged from the elections in 1914 reflected better ethnic composition of the Ottoman population. There were more Arab deputies, which were under-represented in previous parliaments. The CUP had a majority government. Ismail Enver became a Pasha and was assigned as the Minister of War; Ahmet Cemal who was the military governor of Constantinople became Minister of the Navy; and once the postal official Talaat became the Minister of the Interior. These Three Pashas would maintain "de facto" control of the Empire as a military regime and almost as a personal dictatorship under Talaat Pasha during the World War I. Until the 1919 Ottoman general election, any other input into the political process was restricted with the outbreak of the World War I.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Albanians of Tirana and Elbassan, where the Albanian National Awakening spread, were among the first groups to join the constitutional movement, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. However, due to shifting national borders in the Balkans, the Albanians had been marginalized as a nation-less people. The most significant factor uniting the Albanians, their spoken language, lacked a standard literary form and even a standard alphabet. Under the new regime the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language lifted. The new regime also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet. The Albanians refused to submit to the campaign to "Ottomanize" them by force. As a consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting, the Congress of Manastir on 22 November 1908, chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Hauran Druze Rebellion was a violent Druze uprising in the Syrian province, which erupted in 1909. The rebellion was led by the al-Atrash family, in an aim to gain independence. A business dispute between Druze chief Yahia bey Atrash in the village of Basr al-Harir escalated into a clash of arms between the Druze and Ottoman-backed local villagers. Though it is the financial change during second constitutional area; the spread of taxation, elections and conscription, to areas already undergoing economic change caused by the construction of new railroads, provoked large revolts, particularly among the Druzes and the Hauran. Sami Pasha al-Farouqi arrived in Damascus in August 1910, leading an Ottoman expeditionary force of some 35 battalions. The resistance collapsed.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1911, Muslim intellectuals and politicians formed "The Young Arab Society", a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman army not be required to serve in non-Arab regions except in time of war. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Nationalist movement become prominent during this Ottoman period, but it has to be mentioned that this was among Arab nobles and common Arabs considered themselves loyal subjects of the Caliph. Instead of Ottoman Caliph, the British, for their part, incited the Sharif of Mecca to launch the Arab Revolt during the First World War.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1908, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) or Dashnak Party embraced a public position endorsing participation and reconciliation in the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire and the abandonment of the idea of an independent Armenia. Stepan Zorian and Simon Zavarian managed the political campaign for the 1908 Ottoman Elections. ARF field workers were dispatched to the provinces containing significant Armenian populations; for example, Drastamat Kanayan (Dro), went to Diyarbakir as a political organizer. The Committee of Union and Progress could only able to bring 10 Armenian representatives to the 288 seats in the 1908 election. The other 4 Armenians represented parties with no ethnic affiliation. The ARF was aware that the elections were shaky ground and maintained its political direction and self-defence mechanism intact and continued to smuggle arms and ammunition.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: On 13 April 1909, while Constantinople was dealing with the consequences of 31 March Incident, an outbreak of violence, known today as the Adana Massacre, shook in April the ARF-CUP relations to the core. On 24 April the 31 March Incident and suppression of the Adana violence followed each other. The Ottoman authorities in Adana brought in military forces and ruthlessly stamped out both real opponents, while at the same time massacring thousands of innocent people. In July 1909, the CUP government announced the trials of various local government and military officials, for "being implicated in the Armenian massacres.".


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: On 15 January 1912, the Ottoman parliament dissolved and political campaigns began almost immediately. After the election, on 5 May 1912, Dashnak officially severed the relations with the Ottoman government; a public declaration of the Western Bureau printed in the official announcement was directed to "Ottoman Citizens." The June issue of Droshak ran an editorial about it.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In October 1912, George V of Armenia engaged in negotiations with General Illarion Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov to discuss Armenian reforms inside the Russian Empire. In December 1912, Kevork V formed the Armenian National Delegation and appointed Boghos Nubar. The delegation established itself in Paris. Another member appointed to the delegation was James Malcolm who resided in London and became the delegation's point man in its dealings with the British. In early 1913, Armenian diplomacy shaped as Boghos Nubar was to be responsible for external negotiations with the European governments, while the Political Council "seconded by the Constantinople and Tblisi Commissions" were to negotiate the reform question internally with the Ottoman and Russian governments. The Armenian reform package was established in February 1914 based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. The plan called for the unification of the Six Vilayets and the nomination of a Christian governor and religiously balanced council over the unified provinces, the establishment of a second Gendarmerie over Ottoman Gendarmerie commanded by European officers, the legalization of the Armenian language and schools, and the establishment of a special commission to examine land confiscations empowered to expel Muslim refugees. The most important clause was obligating the European powers to enforce the reforms, by overriding the regional governments.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: During the Spring of 1913, the provinces faced increasingly worse relations between Kurds and Armenians that created an urgent need for the ARF to revive its self-defence capability. In 1913, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (followed by other Ottoman political parties) changed its policy and stopped cooperating with the CUP, moving out of the concept of Ottomanism and developing its own kind of nationalism.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: From the end of July to 2 August 1914, the Armenian congress at Erzurum happened. There was a meeting between the Committee of Progress and Union and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Armenian liaisons Arshak Vramian, Zorian and Khatchatour Maloumian and Ottoman liaisons Dr. Behaeddin Shakir, Omer Naji, and Hilmi Bey were accompanied by an international entourage of peoples from the Caucasus. The CUP requested to incite a rebellion of Russian Armenians against the Tsarist regime in Russian Armenia, in order to facilitate the conquest of Transcaucasia in the event of the opening up of the Caucasus Campaign. Around the same time, a representative meeting of Russian Armenians assembled in Tiflis, Russian Armenia. The Tsar asked Armenian's loyalty and support for Russia in the conflict. The proposal was agreed upon and nearly 20,000 Armenians who responded to the call of forming Armenian volunteer units inside the Russian Caucasus Army), of which only 7,000 were given arms. On 2 November, the first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign began (the Bergmann Offensive), and on 16 December 1914, the Ottoman Empire officially dismantled the Armenian reform package.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Ottoman intelligence services detected a plot by Hunchakian operatives to assassinate leading CUP members, and but foiled the plot in a single operation in July 1914. The trials took a year and the participants, named the 20 Hunchakian gallows were executed on 15 June 1915.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The first Kurds to challenge the authority of the Ottoman Empire did so primarily as Ottoman subjects, rather than "national" Kurds. Abdul Hamid responded with a policy of repression, but also of integration, co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents into the Ottoman power structure with prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appeared successful given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye Cavalry.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1908, after the overthrow of Sultan, the Hamidiye was disbanded as an organized force, but as they were "tribal forces" before official recognition by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1892, they stayed as "tribal forces" after dismemberment. The Hamidiye Cavalry is often described as a failure because of its contribution to tribal feuds.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Shaykh Abd al Qadir in 1910 appealed to the CUP for an autonomous Kurdish state in the east. That same year, Said Nursi travelled through the Diyarbakir region and urged Kurds to unite and forget their differences, while still carefully claiming loyalty to the CUP. Other Kurdish Shaykhs in the region began leaning towards regional autonomy. During this time, the Badr Khans had been in contact with discontented Shaykhs and chieftains in the far east of Anatolia ranging to the Iranian border, more in the framework of secession, however. Shaykh Abd al Razzaq Badr Khan eventually formed an alliance with Shaykh Taha and Shaykh Abd al Salam Barzani, another powerful family.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1914, because of the possible Kurdish threat as well as the alliance's dealings with Russia, Ottoman troops moved against this alliance. Two brief and minor rebellions, the rebellions of Barzan and Bitlis, were quickly suppressed.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1914, General Muhammad Sharif Pasha offered his services to the British in Mesopotamia. Elsewhere, members of the Badr Khan family held close relations with Russian officials and discussed their intentions to form an independent Kurdistan.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Yemen Vilayet was a first-level administrative division of the Empire. In the late 19th century, the Zaidis rebelled against the Empire, and Imam Mohammed ibn Yahya laid the foundation of a hereditary dynasty. When he died in 1904, his successor Imam Yahya ibn Mohammed led the revolt against the Empire in 1904–1905, and forced them to grant important concessions to the Zaidis. The Ottoman agreed to withdraw the civil code and restore sharia in Yemen. In 1906, the Idrisi leaders of Asir rebelled against the Ottomans. By 1910 they controlled most of Asir, but they were ultimately defeated by Ottoman Army and Hejazi forces. Ahmed Izzet Pasha concluded a treaty with Imam Yahya in October 1911, by which he was recognized as temporal and spiritual head of the Zaidis, was given the right to appoint officials over them, and collect taxes from them. The Ottomans maintained their system of government in the Sunni-majority parts of Yemen.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In March 1914, the Anglo-Turkish Treaty delimited the border between Yemen and the Aden Protectorate. This was the backdrop to the later division in two Yemeni states (up to 1990).


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The World Zionist Organization was established in Constantinople; Theodor Herzl had tried to set up debt relief for Sultan Abdul Hamid II in exchange for Palestinian lands. Until the First World War its activities focused on cultural matters, although political aims were never absent. Before the First World War, Herzl's attempts to reach a political agreement with the Ottoman rulers of Palestine were unsuccessful. But on 11 April 1909, Tel Aviv was founded on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. The World Zionist Organization supported small-scale settlement in Palestine and focused on strengthening Jewish feeling and consciousness and on building a worldwide federation. At the start of World War I most Jews (and Zionists) supported the German Empire in its war against the Russian Empire. The Balfour Declaration (dated 2 November 1917) and Henry McMahon had exchanged letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca in 1915, a shift to another concept (Jewish national home vs. Jewish state) which is explained under Homeland for the Jewish people.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The interstate system at the beginning of the twentieth century was a multipolar one, with no single or two states pre-eminent. Multipolarity traditionally had afforded the Ottomans the ability to play-off one power against the other. Initially, the CUP and Freedom and Accord turned to Britain. Germany had supported the Hamidian regime and acquired a strong foothold. By encouraging Britain to compete against Germany and France, the Ottomans hoped to break France and Germany's hold and acquire greater autonomy for the Porte. Hostility to Germany increased when her ally Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The pro-Unionist Tanin went so far as to suggest that Vienna's motive in carrying out this act was to strike a blow against the constitutional regime and assist reaction in order to bring about its fall. Two prominent Unionists, Ahmed Riza Pasha and Dr. Nazim Pasha, were sent to London to discuss options of cooperation with Sir Edward Grey and Sir Charles Hardinge.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Foreign Minister Tevfik's successor, Mehmed Rifat Pasha was a career diplomat from a merchant family. The CUP, who were predominantly civilian, resented the intrusion of the army into government.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The CUP, who seized power from Freedom and Accord in January 1913, were more convinced than ever that only an alliance with Britain and the Entente could guarantee the survival of what remained of the Empire. In June, therefore, the subject of an Anglo-Turkish alliance was reopened by Tevfik Pasha, who simply restated his proposal of October 1911. Once again the offer was turned down.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: One way to challenge and undermine the army's position was by attacking Germany in the press and supporting friendship with Germany's rival, Great Britain. But neither Britain nor France responded to CUP's advance of friendship. In fact France resented the government's (Porte) desire to acquire financial autonomy.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In early 1914 the Constantinople was concerned with three main goals. The first was improving relations with Bulgaria; the second was to encourage support from the Germans, and the third was to settle negotiations with Europe about the Armenian reform.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: With regard to the first, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria showed sympathy to one another because they suffered as a result of the territories lost with the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). They also had bitter relations with Greece. They would eventually sign a secret treaty of alliance, and during World War I, fight on the same side.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: With regard to the second, there were three military missions active at the turn of 1914. These were the British Naval Mission led by Admiral Limpus, the French Gendarme Mission led by General Moujen, and the German Military Mission led by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz. The German Military Mission become the most important among these three. The history of German-Ottoman military relations went back to the 1880s. The Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha (12 June 1913 – 4 February 1917) and Ottoman Minister of War Ahmet Izzet Pasha (11 June 1913 – 3 January 1914) were instrumental in developing the initial relations. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered General Goltz to establish the first German mission. General Goltz served two periods within two years. In early 1914, the Ottoman Minister of War became the former military attaché to Berlin, Enver Pasha. About the same time, General Otto Liman von Sanders was nominated to the command of the German 1st Army.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: With regard to the third, an Armenian reform package was negotiated with the Russian Empire. Russia, acting on behalf of the Great Powers, played a crucial role introducing reforms for the Armenian citizens of the Empire. The Armenian reform package, which was solidified in February 1914 and was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Ottoman Empire entered WWI with the attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire was active in the Balkans theatre and Middle Eastern theatre – the latter had five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign, and the Gallipoli Campaign. There were also several minor campaigns: the North African Campaign, the Arab Campaign and the South Arabia Campaign. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 31 October 1918, ending the Ottoman participation in World War I.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Occupation of Constantinople took place in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, ending the Ottoman participation in World War I. The occupation had two stages: the initial occupation took place from 13 November 1918 to 16 March 1920; from 16 March 1920 – Treaty of Sèvres. The year 1918 saw the first time Constantinople had changed hands since the Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine capital in 1453. An Allied military administration was set up early in December 1918. Hagia Sophia was converted back into a cathedral by the Allied administration, and the building was returned temporarily to the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The CUP members were court-martialled during the Turkish courts-martial of 1919–1920 with charges of subversion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Greeks and Armenians. The courts-martial became a stage for political battles. The trials helped Freedom and Accord root out the CUP from the political arena. The fall of the CUP allowed the Palace to regain the initiative once again, though only for less than a year. The British also rounded up a number of members of the Imperial Government and interned them in Malta, only for them to be exchanged in the future for British POWs without further trial. Sir Gough-Calthorpe included only members of the Government of Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Discredited members of the Ottoman regime were resurrected in order to form ephemeral governments and conduct personal diplomacy. Thus, Ahmet Tevfik Pasha formed two ministries between November 1918 and March 1919, to be followed by Abdul Hamid's brother-in-law Damat Ferid Pasha who led three cabinets in seven months. Damad Ferid, having served in diplomatic missions throughout Europe during the Hamidian era, and having been acquainted with European statesmen during his tenure as a Liberal politician, was considered an asset in the negotiations for the very survival of the Ottoman state and dynasty.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: After the war, the doctrine of Ottomanism lost its credibility. As parts of the Empire were integrated into the world economy, certain regions (the Balkans, Egypt, Iraq, and Hijaz) established closer economic links with Paris and London, or even with British India, than with Constantinople, which became known in English as Istanbul around 1930.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire began with the Treaty of London (1915) and continued with mostly bilateral multiple agreements among the Allies. The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice of Mudros. This was followed by the Occupation of Constantinople. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire brought international conflicts which were discussed during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The peace agreement, the Treaty of Sèvres, was eventually signed by the Ottoman Empire (not ratified) and the Allied administration. The result of the Peace Settlement was that every indigenous group of the Empire would acquire its own state.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The text of the Treaty of Sèvres was not made public to the Ottoman public until May 1920. The Allies decided that the Empire would be left only a small area in Northern and Central Anatolia to rule. Contrary to general expectations, the Sultanate along with the Caliphate was not terminated, and it was allowed to retain capitol and a small strip of territory around the city, but not the straits. The shores of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were planned to be internationalised, so that the gates of the Black Sea would be kept open. West Anatolia was to be offered to Greece, and East Anatolia was to be offered to Armenia. The Mediterranean coast, although still a part of the Empire, was partitioned between two zones of influence for France and Italy. The interior of Anatolia, the first seat of Ottoman power six centuries ago, would retain Ottoman sovereignty.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The idea of an independent Armenian state survived the demise of Ottoman Empire through the Democratic Republic of Armenia, later conquered by the Bolsheviks.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: In 1918, Kurdish tribal leader Sharif Pasha pressed the British to adopt a policy supporting autonomous Kurdish state. He suggested that British officials be charged with administering the region. During the Paris Peace Conference, a Kurdo-Armenian peace accord was reached between Sharif Pasha and Armenian representatives at the conference in 1919. The British thought that this agreement would increase the likelihood of independent Kurdish and Armenian states and therefore create a buffer between British Mesopotamia and the Turks.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Arab forces were promised a state that included much of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent; however, the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France provided for the territorial division of much of that region between the two imperial powers.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Allies dictated the terms of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Sèvres. The Turkish nationalist Ottoman Parliament rejected these terms, as they did not conform to the Parliament's own conditions for partition, the "Misak-ı Millî" () published in early 1920. No Ottoman assent was possible while Parliament remained intransigent.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: Following the Conference of London on 4 March 1920, the Allies decided to actively suppress Turkish nationalist opposition to the Treaty. On 14 March 1920, Allied troops moved to occupy key buildings and arrest nationalists in Constantinople. Parliament met a final time on 18 March 1920 before being dissolved by Sultan Mehmed VI on 11 April 1920. Many parliamentarians relocated to Ankara and formed a new government.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Allies were freed to deal with the Sultan directly. Mehmed VI signed the Treaty on 10 August 1920. The Imperial Government in Constantinople attempted and failed to convene the Senate to ratify the treaty; its legitimacy was fatally undermined by the Turkish nationalists' refusal to cooperate. The resulting Turkish War of Independence and the subsequent nationalist victory permanently prevented the Treaty from being ratified.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The Turkish War of Independence ended with the Turkish nationalists in control of much of Anatolia. On 1 November 1922 the Turkish provisional government formally declared the Ottoman Sultanate and, with it, the Ottoman Empire to be abolished. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople and into exile on 17 November 1922. The Allies and Turks met in Lausanne, Switzerland to discuss a replacement for the unratified Treaty of Sèvres.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The resulting Treaty of Lausanne secured international recognition for the new Turkish state and its borders. The Treaty was signed on 24 July 1923 and ratified in Turkey on 23 August 1923. The Republic of Turkey was formally declared on 29 October 1923.


title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

text: The following year on 23 April 1924, the republic declared 150 personae non gratae of Turkey, including the former Sultan, to be "personae non-gratae". Most of these restrictions were lifted on 28 June 1938.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: Claudio Marchisio (; born 19 January 1986) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a midfielder.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: A product of the Juventus youth system, he spent a large portion of his career at his hometown club, with the exception of a season-long loan spell at Empoli, winning seven consecutive Serie A titles between 2012 and 2018, and four consecutive Coppa Italia titles between 2015 and 2018. He was the club's second vice-captain, behind Giorgio Chiellini, before his contract was terminated in 2018 and then signed with Russian club Zenit Saint Petersburg, where he stayed for one season, before retiring from professional football in 2019.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: At the international level, Marchisio has represented Italy at the 2008 Summer Olympics, and at the 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups; he also took part at UEFA Euro 2012, winning a runners-up medal, and at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, where he won a third-place medal. In total, he made 55 appearances for Italy at senior level between 2009 and 2017, scoring five goals.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: After making his breakthrough in the 2008–09 season, Marchisio was often compared to former Juventus and Italian midfielder Marco Tardelli by the Italian press, due to his energy, tenacious style of play, and good reading of the game, as well as his ability to seamlessly switch between offence and defence. His preferred position was in central midfield but his versatility led to him playing in a variety of positions in midfield throughout his career to suit various formations.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: Born in Turin, to a father from Piedmont and a mother from Sicily, Marchisio is the youngest of three children and was raised in the "comuni" of Chieri and Andezeno, where his parents run a family business and continue to reside. His family were Juventus fans and season ticket holders and he used to be a ball boy at the Stadio delle Alpi. As a child, he was interested in various sports and joined the youth football team at Fiat's satellite sports club Sisport, where he was later scouted by Juventus youth coaches at the age of seven. A talented middle-distance runner and skier, he began vocational training as a surveyor after the mandatory schooling age of 16, in case his football career did not work out, but eventually dropped out to concentrate on football.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: While in the youth system, Marchisio played as a forward and as a "trequartista" (offensive midfielder), modeling himself after his childhood hero Alessandro Del Piero, until he was switched to a deeper midfield role at the age of 16, due to his slender physique. During the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons, he was called up to train with the first team numerous times by Fabio Capello and given a squad number. He made the bench for the game away at Cagliari but remained an unused substitute. Later that season, he captained the "Primavera" side to their first Campionato Nazionale Primavera title in 12 years and a runner-up finish at the Viareggio Tournament in his last full season with the "Primavera" squad.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: After being included in the preseason friendlies, Marchisio was promoted to the first team permanently following Juventus' relegation to Serie B due to the "Calciopoli" scandal and given the number 15 shirt. On 19 August 2006, he made his first team debut in the Coppa Italia third round, coming on as a late substitute for Matteo Paro in a 3–0 win over Martina. In September, he captained the "Primavera" team for the last time in the Supercoppa Primavera, thrashing old rivals Internazionale 5–1. He then made his league debut on 28 October against Frosinone as a late substitute for David Trezeguet and made his first start in the following match against Brescia. As the season progressed, he established himself in Didier Deschamps' side and ended the season as first-choice central midfielder. He capped a fine season with an assist for Del Piero's match opener in the 5–1 thrashing of Arezzo, a result which secured immediate promotion to Serie A mathematically.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: On 25 July 2007, Marchisio was loaned out to Empoli for the 2007–08 season with good friend and fellow youth product Sebastian Giovinco to gain first-team experience. He made his Serie A debut on 26 August against Fiorentina and European debut the following month in the UEFA Cup against FC Zürich. Although he did not score any goals, he tallied two vital assists and was a regular starter when available for the Tuscan club under both Luigi Cagni and Alberto Malesani. Unfortunately, Empoli were unable to avoid relegation and he was recalled to Turin by the recently appointed manager Claudio Ranieri.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: After his impressive performances for Empoli, Marchisio returned to Juventus for the 2008–09 campaign and made an impressive Champions League debut, playing the full 90 minutes against Artmedia Petržalka in the Champions League third qualifying round, second leg. In November, former Milan and Fiorentina striker Stefano Borgonovo wrote about him on "La Gazzetta dello Sport": "Marchisio has everything needed to play at the highest level...[He] has personality, reminds me of the great Marco Tardelli." Under Ranieri, he eventually established himself as first-choice due to injuries and lackluster performances from other midfielders. He further established himself in the starting eleven after a man-of-the-match game against Milan in pouring rain that earned him rave reviews from the media. He quickly became a firm favourite amongst the "Bianconeri" fans and they voted him as their Player of the Month for December on the club website. Five days after his 23rd birthday, he scored his first Serie A goal, the match-winner against Fiorentina. Less than a week later, he was rewarded with an improved five-year contract extension. His season was interrupted by a series of minor injuries in April, which resulted in him being sidelined for almost a month, and he returned to the starting eleven for the penultimate matchday away at Siena, marking it with a goal and an assist for captain Alessandro Del Piero's second goal of the match in a 0–3 win and then setting up Vincenzo Iaquinta's opener in a 2–0 home win against Lazio, a result that ensured a second-place finish for the "Bianconieri". When the season ended, he was continuously linked with various clubs, but Director of Sport Alessio Secco ended all speculation by listing him as one of the "untouchable" players. His good performances did not go unnoticed by Italian national team coach Marcello Lippi, who later handed him his senior international debut.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: Marchisio continued to be first choice under Ciro Ferrara and later Alberto Zaccheroni mainly due to his versatility and consistency in midfield. During the beginning of the 2009–10 season, he had a good run of form, winning Man of the Match awards in four consecutive matches and being voted Player of the Month for September by registered members on the club website but picked up a knee injury in the loss to Palermo at the beginning of October. After surgery, he was sidelined for one month and a half and made his comeback as a last-minute substitute in the Champions League group stage tie away at Bordeaux on 25 November. On 5 December 2009, he scored the winner in a 2–1 home win over Internazionale in the Derby d'Italia, where he showed incredible composure to drag the ball with both feet before dinking it over the stranded Júlio César. Three days later, he set up David Trezeguet to score the opening goal of the game in the decisive Champions League 1–4 home loss against Bayern Munich. At the end of the year, he was voted Juventus Player of the Year for 2009 by fans on the club website. In the Europa League round of 16 tie against Fulham on 11 March 2010, he captained the team for the first time when David Trezeguet handed him the captain's armband after being substituted at the 62nd minute, as vice-captains Gianluigi Buffon and Giorgio Chiellini missed the match through injury and Del Piero remained an unused substitute. He scored an equalizer against Catania on the second-last away matchday to keep Juventus in a Europa League spot and, despite Juventus' dismal season, was one of the few players to escape the mass criticism from the press.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: Despite a disappointing 2010 FIFA World Cup campaign, Marchisio began the season as first-choice under new manager Luigi Delneri. After a slow start to the season, he began to thrive in his role as a wide midfielder. In September, he marked his 100th appearance in a Juventus shirt with a goal against Udinese in a 4–0 win. He started his first match as captain against Roma in April. On 17 May 2011, Juventus announced that Marchisio had signed an improved, five-year contract with the club. His semi-bicycle kick goal against Udinese in January was voted Goal of the Season by fans on fansite vecchiasignora.com.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: Marchisio started the 2011–12 season well by scoring Juve's final goal in the opening match of the campaign at the club's new stadium, a 4–1 home win over Parma on 11 September 2011. Under former Juventus legend Antonio Conte, he was played alongside new signings Arturo Vidal and Andrea Pirlo to great effect and were dubbed the "M-V-P" midfield by the press and fans. He scored a late double to break the deadlock in the 2–0 win at home against Milan, the first time he has ever scored more than one goal in a match. On 20 November, he scored in his second consecutive league game and surpassed his personal season record of four goals by scoring the last goal in a 3–0 win over Palermo. He scored his first Coppa Italia goal, the match winning goal against Bologna in extra time to send Juve to the quarter-finals. His good form during the first half of the season earned him a nomination for the Serie A Italian Footballer of the Year award and a place in the Serie A Team of the Year. On 18 March, he ended a three-month goal drought with a header in the 5–0 thrashing at Fiorentina and dedicated it his second son, who was born earlier that week. He scored his ninth goal of the season against Lecce in his 200th career match to take his goal tally for the season into the double figures. The following match, he won his first "Scudetto" after Juve won 2–0 against Cagliari and runners-up Milan lost 4–2 in the Milan Derby against Inter, although Juventus were defeated in the Coppa Italia Final by Napoli. He ended the season with ten goals in league and cup matches.


title: Claudio Marchisio

text: With the departure of captain and club legend Alessandro Del Piero in June 2012, it was speculated that Marchisio would "inherit" the number 10 jersey but he declined, stating that he was a midfielder, not a striker, and had grown accustomed to his number 8. He captained the team on the opening match of the season against Parma in the absence of captain Gianluigi Buffon and first vice-captain Giorgio Chiellini. In November, he scored his first-ever goal in a UEFA club competition in the Champions League group stage home fixture against Nordsjælland. He also assisted Fabio Quagliarella's equaliser against Chelsea. He was one of four Juventus players nominated for the 2012 UEFA Team of the Year and was voted into the Serie A Team of the Year at the Oscar del Calcio awards. Although he played fewer matches compared to last season due to suspension and a minor injury, he contributed crucial goals to his side, including the match winner against Siena and a brace against intercity rivals Torino as Juve won a second consecutive league title. Marchisio also scored in the first leg against Celtic in the Champions League round of 16, which Juventus eventually won 5–0 on aggregate to progress on to the quarter-final stage, where they were eliminated by eventual champions Bayern Munich.