title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: The Underground Railroad is a historical fiction novel by American author Colson Whitehead, published by Doubleday in 2016. The alternate history novel tells the story of Cora, a slave in the Antebellum South during the 19th century, who makes a bid for freedom from her Georgia plantation by following the Underground Railroad, which the novel depicts as a rail transport system with safe houses and secret routes. The book was a critical and commercial success, hitting the bestseller lists and winning several literary awards, including the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, the National Book Award for Fiction, the Arthur C. Clarke Award, and the 2017 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence. A TV miniseries adaptation, written and directed by Barry Jenkins, was released in May 2021.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: The book alternates between the perspective of the lead character, Cora, and chapters told from a different character's perspective. The featured characters are: Ajarry, Cora's grandmother; Ridgeway, a slave catcher; Stevens, a South Carolina doctor conducting a social experiment; Ethel, the wife of a North Carolina station agent; Caesar, a fellow slave who escapes the plantation with Cora; and Mabel, Cora's mother. The chapter locations are: Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Indiana, and (an undefined) "North".


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: Cora is a slave on a plantation in Georgia and an outcast after her mother Mabel ran off without her. She resents Mabel for escaping, although it is later revealed that her mother tried to return to Cora but died from a snake bite and never reached her. Caesar approaches Cora about a plan to flee. Reluctant at first, she eventually agrees as her situation with her master and fellow slaves worsens. During their escape, they encounter a group of slave catchers, who capture Cora's young friend Lovey. Cora is forced to kill a twelve-year-old boy to protect herself and Caesar, eliminating any possibility of merciful treatment should she be recaptured. With the help of an inexperienced abolitionist, Cora and Caesar find the Underground Railroad, depicted as a literal underground train system that runs throughout the south, transporting runaways northwards. They take a train to South Carolina.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: Upon learning of their escape, Ridgeway begins a hunt for the pair, largely in revenge for Mabel, who is the only escapee he has ever failed to capture. Cora and Caesar have taken up comfortable residence in South Carolina under assumed names. South Carolina is enacting a program where the government owns former slaves but employs them, provides medical treatment, and gives them communal housing. The two enjoy their time there and put off the decision to leave until Cora learns of plans to sterilize black women and use black men as test subjects in an experiment to track the spread and degenerative effects of syphilis. Ridgeway arrives before the two can leave and Cora is forced to return to the Railroad alone. She later learns that Caesar was killed by an angry mob after having been caught and jailed by Ridgeway.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: Cora eventually arrives in a closed-down station in North Carolina. She is found by Martin, the son of the station's former operator. North Carolina has recently decided to abolish slavery, using indentured servants instead, and violently executes any runaway slaves found in the state (as well as some freedmen). Martin, terrified of what the North Carolinians might do to an abolitionist, hides Cora in his attic for several months. Cora becomes ill and is reluctantly treated by Martin's wife, Ethel. While Cora is down from the attic, a raid is conducted on the house, and she is recaptured by Ridgeway, while Martin and Ethel are executed by the mob.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: Ridgeway takes Cora back toward Georgia, detouring through Tennessee to return another slave to his master. While stopped in Tennessee, Ridgeway's traveling party is attacked by the free-born Royal and two escaped slaves, who release Cora. Cora travels to a farm in Indiana owned by a free black man named Valentine, along with Royal. The farm is populated by a number of freedmen and escapees, living and working in harmony. Royal, an operator on the Railroad, begins a romantic relationship with Cora, although she remains hesitant because of a rape by other slaves in her childhood.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: A small faction of freedmen, fearing that their peaceful life will be ruined by the presence of escaped slaves, oppose the harboring of non-members of the community. Eventually, the farm is burned and many people, including Royal, are killed in a raid by white Hoosiers. Various theories are held concerning the source of the attack. Ridgeway recaptures Cora and forces her to take him to a closed-down Railroad station nearby. When they arrive, she pushes him down a flight of stairs, severely injuring him. When last seen, he is whispering thoughts on the "American imperative" to Homer, who writes them in his journal. Cora then runs off down the tracks. Eventually, she emerges from underground to find a caravan traveling out West. She is given a ride by one of the wagons' black drivers.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: In the "Acknowledgments", Whitehead mentions two famous escaped slaves: "Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs, obviously." While in Jacobs's native North Carolina, Cora has to hide in an attic where, like Jacobs, she is not able to stand, but like her can observe the outside life through a hole that "had been carved from the inside, the work of a previous occupant". Martin Ebel, who observed this parallel in a review for the Swiss "Tages-Anzeiger", also observes that the "Freedom Trail", where the victims of North Carolinian lynchings hang from trees, has a historic predecessor in the crosses the Romans raised along the Appian Way to kill the slaves who had joined Spartacus' slave rebellion, written on by Arthur Koestler in his novel "The Gladiators". Ridgeway reminds Ebel of inspector Javert, the hero's merciless persecutor in Victor Hugo's "Les misérables".


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: In "The New Yorker", Kathryn Schulz likens Ridgeway to both Captain Ahab of "Moby-Dick" and the slave catcher August Pullman of the television series "Underground": "Ridgeway ... and August Pullman, in "Underground," are Ahab-like characters, privately and demonically obsessed with tracking down specific fugitives". Both Ahab and Ridgeway have a soft spot for a black boy: Ahab for the cabin-boy Pip, and Ridgeway for 10-year-old Homer, whom he bought as a slave and set free the next day.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: In Whitehead's North Carolina, all blacks have been "abolished". Martin Ebel observes the parallel to the Nazi exterminations of Jews and also the parallel between Cora's concealment and Anne Frank's. Another parallel to literature on Nazi Germany may be found in the erection of three gallows by Cora's plantation master. He had the three gallows erected for Cora and her two fellow fugitives to put them to a cruel death as soon as each is returned. In Anna Seghers's novel "The Seventh Cross", written in exile between 1938 and 1942, seven prisoners escape from a concentration camp, and the camp commander has a cross erected for each of them to be tortured there after being returned.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: The novel received positive reviews from critics. Reviewers praised it for its commentary on the past and present of the United States.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: In 2019, "The Underground Railroad" was ranked 30th on "The Guardian"s list of the 100 best books of the 21st century. The novel was voted the greatest of its decade in "Paste" and was third place (along with Jennifer Egan's "A Visit from the Goon Squad") in a list by Literary Hub.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: The novel has received a number of awards, including the 2017 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the 2016 National Book Award for Fiction. The previous book to win both the Pulitzer and the National Book prizes was "The Shipping News", by E. Annie Proulx, in 1993. While awarding the Pulitzer Prize, the committee recognized this novel for a "smart melding of realism and allegory that combines the violence of slavery and the drama of escape in a myth that speaks to contemporary America". "The Underground Railroad" was also awarded the Arthur C. Clarke Award for science fiction literature and the 2017 Andrew Carnegie Medal for Excellence, and was longlisted for the 2017 Man Booker Prize. When "The Underground Railroad" was published in the United States in August 2016, it was selected for Oprah's Book Club.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: On August 5, 2020, a crater on Pluto's moon Charon was named Cora, after the character in the novel, by the International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature.


title: The Underground Railroad (novel)

text: It was announced in March 2017 that Amazon was making a limited drama series based on "The Underground Railroad", written and directed by Barry Jenkins. The series was released on Amazon Prime Video on May 14, 2021.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: The modern conception of affect developed in the 19th century with Wilhelm Wundt. The word comes from the German "Gefühl", meaning "feeling."


title: Affect (psychology)

text: A number of experiments have been conducted in the study of social and psychological affective preferences (i.e., what people like or dislike). Specific research has been done on preferences, attitudes, impression formation, and decision-making. This research contrasts findings with recognition memory (old-new judgments), allowing researchers to demonstrate reliable distinctions between the two. Affect-based judgments and cognitive processes have been examined with noted differences indicated, and some argue affect and cognition are under the control of separate and partially independent systems that can influence each other in a variety of ways (Zajonc, 1980). Both affect and cognition may constitute independent sources of effects within systems of information processing. Others suggest emotion is a result of an anticipated, experienced, or imagined outcome of an adaptational transaction between organism and environment, therefore cognitive appraisal processes are keys to the development and expression of an emotion (Lazarus, 1982).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affective states vary along three principal dimensions: valence, arousal, and motivational intensity.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: It is important to note that arousal is different from motivational intensity. While arousal is a construct that is closely related to motivational intensity, they differ in that motivation necessarily implies action while arousal does not.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect is sometimes used to mean affect display, which is "a facial, vocal, or gestural behavior that serves as an indicator of affect" (APA 2006).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect can influence cognitive scope (the breadth of cognitive processes). Initially, it was thought that positive affects broadened whereas negative affects narrowed cognitive scope. However, evidence now suggests that affects high in motivational intensity narrow cognitive scope whereas affects low in motivational intensity broaden it. The construct of cognitive scope could be valuable in cognitive psychology.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: According to a research article about affect tolerance written by psychiatrist Jerome Sashin, "Affect tolerance can be defined as the ability to respond to a stimulus which would ordinarily be expected to evoke affects by the subjective experiencing of feelings." Essentially it refers to one's ability to react to emotions and feelings. One who is low in affect tolerance would show little to no reaction to emotion and feeling of any kind. This is closely related to alexithymia.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: "Alexithymia is a subclinical phenomenon involving a lack of emotional awareness or, more specifically, difficulty in identifying and describing feelings and in distinguishing feelings from the bodily sensations of emotional arousal" At its core, alexithymia is an inability for an individual to recognize what emotions they are feeling—as well as an inability to describe them. According to Dalya Samur and colleagues, people with alexithymia have been shown to have correlations with increased suicide rates, mental discomfort, and deaths.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect tolerance factors, including anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, and emotional distress tolerance, may be helped by mindfulness. Mindfulness refers to the practice of being hyper aware of one's own feelings, thoughts, sensations, and the stimulus of the environment around you—not in an anxiety-inducing way, but in a gentle and pleasant way. Mindfulness has been shown to produce "increased subjective well-being, reduced psychological symptoms and emotional reactivity, and improved behavioral regulation."


title: Affect (psychology)

text: The affective domain represents one of the three divisions described in modern psychology: the other two being the behavioral, and the cognitive. Classically, these divisions have also been referred to as the "ABC's of psychology", However, in certain views, the "cognitive" may be considered as a part of the affective, or the "affective" as a part of the cognitive; it is important to note that "cognitive and affective states … [are] merely analytic categories."


title: Affect (psychology)

text: "Affect" can mean an instinctual reaction to stimulation that occurs before the typical cognitive processes considered necessary for the formation of a more complex emotion. Robert B. Zajonc asserts this reaction to stimuli is primary for human beings and that it is the dominant reaction for non-human organisms. Zajonc suggests that affective reactions can occur without extensive perceptual and cognitive encoding and be made sooner and with greater confidence than cognitive judgments (Zajonc, 1980).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Many theorists (e.g. Lazarus, 1982) consider affect to be post-cognitive: elicited only after a certain amount of cognitive processing of information has been accomplished. In this view, such affective reactions as liking, disliking, evaluation, or the experience of pleasure or displeasure each result from a different prior cognitive process that makes a variety of content discriminations and identifies features, examines them to find value, and weighs them according to their contributions (Brewin, 1989). Some scholars (e.g. Lerner and Keltner 2000) argue that affect can be both pre- and post-cognitive: initial emotional responses produce thoughts, which produce affect. In a further iteration, some scholars argue that affect is necessary for enabling more rational modes of cognition (e.g. Damasio 1994).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: A divergence from a narrow reinforcement model of emotion allows other perspectives about how affect influences emotional development. Thus, temperament, cognitive development, socialization patterns, and the idiosyncrasies of one's family or subculture might interact in nonlinear ways. For example, the temperament of a highly reactive/low self-soothing infant may "disproportionately" affect the process of emotion regulation in the early months of life (Griffiths, 1997).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Some other social sciences, such as geography or anthropology, have adopted the concept of affect during the last decade. In French psychoanalysis a major contribution to the field of affect comes from André Green. The focus on affect has largely derived from the work of Deleuze and brought emotional and visceral concerns into such conventional discourses as those on geopolitics, urban life and material culture. Affect has also challenged methodologies of the social sciences by emphasizing somatic power over the idea of a removed objectivity and therefore has strong ties with the contemporary non-representational theory.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect has been found across cultures to comprise both positive and negative dimensions. The most commonly used measure in scholarly research is the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The PANAS is a lexical measure developed in a North American setting and consisting of 20 single-word items, for instance "excited", "alert", "determined" for positive affect, and "upset", "guilty", and "jittery" for negative affect. However, some of the PANAS items have been found either to be redundant or to have ambiguous meanings to English speakers from non-North American cultures. As a result, an internationally reliable short-form, the I-PANAS-SF, has been developed and validated comprising two 5-item scales with internal reliability, cross-sample and cross-cultural factorial invariance, temporal stability, convergent and criterion-related validities.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Mroczek and Kolarz have also developed another set of scales to measure positive and negative affect. Each of the scales has 6 items. The scales have shown evidence of acceptable validity and reliability across cultures.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: In relation to perception, a type of non-conscious affect may be separate from the cognitive processing of environmental stimuli. A monohierarchy of perception, affect and cognition considers the roles of arousal, attention tendencies, affective primacy (Zajonc, 1980), evolutionary constraints (Shepard, 1984; 1994), and covert perception (Weiskrantz, 1997) within the sensing and processing of preferences and discriminations. Emotions are complex chains of events triggered by certain stimuli. There is no way to completely describe an emotion by knowing only some of its components. Verbal reports of feelings are often inaccurate because people may not know exactly what they feel, or they may feel several different emotions at the same time. There are also situations that arise in which individuals attempt to hide their feelings, and there are some who believe that public and private events seldom coincide exactly, and that words for feelings are generally more ambiguous than are words for objects or events. Therefore, non-conscious emotions need to be measured by measures circumventing self-report such as the Implicit Positive and Negative Affect Test (IPANAT; Quirin, Kazén, & Kuhl, 2009).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affective responses, on the other hand, are more basic and may be less problematic in terms of assessment. Brewin has proposed two experiential processes that frame non-cognitive relations between various affective experiences: those that are prewired dispositions (i.e. non-conscious processes), able to "select from the total stimulus array those stimuli that are causally relevant, using such criteria as perceptual salience, spatiotemporal cues, and predictive value in relation to data stored in memory" (Brewin, 1989, p. 381), and those that are automatic (i.e. subconscious processes), characterized as "rapid, relatively inflexible and difficult to modify... (requiring) minimal attention to occur and... (capable of being) activated without intention or awareness" (1989 p. 381).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Arousal is a basic physiological response to the presentation of stimuli. When this occurs, a non-conscious affective process takes the form of two control mechanisms: one mobilizing and the other immobilizing. Within the human brain, the amygdala regulates an instinctual reaction initiating this arousal process, either freezing the individual or accelerating mobilization.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: The arousal response is illustrated in studies focused on reward systems that control food-seeking behavior (Balleine, 2005). Researchers have focused on learning processes and modulatory processes that are present while encoding and retrieving goal values. When an organism seeks food, the anticipation of reward based on environmental events becomes another influence on food seeking that is separate from the reward of food itself. Therefore, earning the reward and anticipating the reward are separate processes and both create an excitatory influence of reward-related cues. Both processes are dissociated at the level of the amygdala, and are functionally integrated within larger neural systems.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Cognitive scope can be measured by tasks involving attention, perception, categorization and memory. Some studies use a flanker attention task to figure out whether cognitive scope is broadened or narrowed. For example, using the letters "H" and "N" participants need to identify as quickly as possible the middle letter of 5 when all the letters are the same (e.g. "HHHHH") and when the middle letter is different from the flanking letters (e.g. "HHNHH"). Broadened cognitive scope would be indicated if reaction times differed greatly from when all the letters were the same compared to when the middle letter is different. Other studies use a Navon attention task to measure difference in cognitive scope. A large letter is composed of smaller letters, in most cases smaller "L"'s or "F"'s that make up the shape of the letter "T" or "H" or vice versa. Broadened cognitive scope would be suggested by a faster reaction to name the larger letter, whereas narrowed cognitive scope would be suggested by a faster reaction to name the smaller letters within the larger letter. A source-monitoring paradigm can also be used to measure how much contextual information is perceived: for instance, participants are tasked to watch a screen which serially displays words to be memorized for 3 seconds each, and also have to remember whether the word appeared on the left or the right half of the screen. The words were also encased in a colored box, but the participants did not know that they would eventually be asked what color box the word appeared in.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Motivation intensity refers to the strength of urge to move toward or away from a particular stimulus.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Anger and fear affective states, induced via film clips, conferred more selective attention on a flanker task compared to controls as indicated by reaction times that were not very different, even when the flanking letters were different from the middle target letter. Both anger and fear have high motivational intensity because propulsion to act would be high in the face of an angry or fearful stimulus, like a screaming person or coiled snake. Affects high in motivational intensity, thus, narrow cognitive scope making people able to focus more on target information. After seeing a sad picture, participants were faster to identify the larger letter in a Navon attention task, suggesting more global or broadened cognitive scope. The sad emotion is thought to sometimes have low motivational intensity. But, after seeing a disgusting picture, participants were faster to identify the component letters, indicative of a localized more narrow cognitive scope. Disgust has high motivational intensity. Affects high in motivational intensity, thus, narrow cognitive scope making people able to focus more on central information. whereas affects low in motivational intensity broadened cognitive scope allowing for faster global interpretation. The changes in cognitive scope associated with different affective states is evolutionarily adaptive because high motivational intensity affects elicited by stimuli that require movement and action should be focused on, in a phenomenon known as goal-directed behavior. For example, in early times seeing a lion (fearful stimulus) probably elicited a negative but high motivational affective state (fear) in which the human being was propelled to run away. In this case the goal would be to avoid getting killed.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Moving beyond just negative affective states, researchers wanted to test whether or not the negative or positive affective states varied between high and low motivational intensity. To evaluate this theory, Harmon-Jones, Gable and Price created an experiment using appetitive picture priming and the Navon task, which would allow them to measure the attentional scope with the detection of the Navon letters. The Navon task included a neutral affect comparison condition. Typically, neutral states cause broadened attention with a neutral stimulus. They predicted that a broad attentional scope could cause a faster detection of global (large) letters, whereas a narrow attentional scope could cause a faster detection of local (small) letters. The evidence proved that the appetitive stimuli produced a narrowed attentional scope. The experimenters further increased the narrowed attentional scope in appetitive stimuli by telling participants they would be allowed to consume the desserts shown in the pictures. The results revealed that their hypothesis was correct in that the broad attentional scope led to quicker detection of global letters and the narrowed attentional scope led to quicker detection of local letters.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Researchers Bradley, Codispoti, Cuthbert and Lang wanted to further examine the emotional reactions in picture priming. Instead of using an appetitive stimulus they used stimulus sets from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). The image set includes various unpleasant pictures such as snakes, insects, attack scenes, accidents, illness, and loss. They predicted that the unpleasant picture would stimulate a defensive motivational intensity response, which would produce strong emotional arousal such as skin gland responses and cardiac deceleration. Participants rated the pictures based on valence, arousal and dominance on the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) rating scale. The findings were consistent with the hypothesis and proved that emotion is organized motivationally by the intensity of activation in appetitive or defensive systems.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Prior to research in 2013, Harmon-Jones and Gable performed an experiment to examine whether neural activation related with approach-motivation intensity (left frontal-central activity) would trigger the effect of appetitive stimuli on narrowed attention. They also tested whether individual dissimilarities in approach motivation are associated with attentional narrowing. In order to test the hypothesis, the researchers used the same Navon task with appetitive and neutral pictures in addition to having the participants indicate how long since they had last eaten in minutes. To examine the neural activation, the researchers used an electroencephalography and recorded eye movements in order to detect what regions of the brain were being used during approach motivation. The results supported the hypothesis suggesting that the left frontal-central hemisphere is relative for approach-motivational processes and narrowed attentional scope. Some psychologists were concerned that the individuals who were hungry had an increase in the left frontal-central due to frustration. This statement was proved false because the research shows that the dessert pictures increase positive affect even in the hungry individuals. The findings revealed that narrowed cognitive scope has the ability to assist us in goal accomplishment.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Later on, researchers connected motivational intensity to clinical applications and found that alcohol-related pictures caused narrowed attention for persons who had a strong motivation to consume alcohol. The researchers tested the participants by exposing them to alcohol and neutral pictures. After the picture was displayed on a screen, the participants finished a test evaluating attentional focus. The findings proved that exposure to alcohol-related pictures led to a narrowing of attentional focus to individuals who were motivated to use alcohol. However, exposure to neutral pictures did not correlate with alcohol-related motivation to manipulate attentional focus. The Alcohol Myopia Theory (AMT) states that alcohol consumption reduces the amount of information available in memory, which also narrows attention so only the most proximal items or striking sources are encompassed in attentional scope. This narrowed attention leads intoxicated persons to make more extreme decisions than they would when sober. Researchers provided evidence that substance-related stimuli capture the attention of individuals when they have high and intense motivation to consume the substance. Motivational intensity and cue-induced narrowing of attention has a unique role in shaping people's initial decision to consume alcohol. In 2013, psychologists from the University of Missouri investigated the connection between sport achievement orientation and alcohol outcomes. They asked varsity athletes to complete a Sport Orientation Questionnaire which measured their sport-related achievement orientation on three scales—competitiveness, win orientation, and goal orientation. The participants also completed assessments of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. The results revealed that the goal orientation of the athletes were significantly associated with alcohol use but not alcohol-related problems.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: In terms of psychopathological implications and applications, college students showing depressive symptoms were better at retrieving seemingly "nonrelevant" contextual information from a source monitoring paradigm task. Namely, the students with depressive symptoms were better at identifying the color of the box the word was in compared to nondepressed students. Sadness (low motivational intensity) is usually associated with depression, so the more broad focus on contextual information of sadder students supports that affects high in motivational intensity narrow cognitive scope whereas affects low in motivational intensity broaden cognitive scope.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: The motivational intensity theory states that the difficulty of a task combined with the importance of success determine the energy invested by an individual. The theory has three main layers. The innermost layer says human behavior is guided by the desire to conserve as much energy as possible. Individuals aim to avoid wasting energy so they invest only the energy that is required to complete the task. The middle layer focuses on the difficulty of tasks combined with the importance of success and how this affects energy conservation. It focuses on energy investment in situations of clear and unclear task difficulty. The last layer looks at predictions for energy invested by a person when they have several possible options to choose at different task difficulties. The person is free to choose among several possible options of task difficulty. The motivational intensity theory offers a logical and consistent framework for research. Researchers can predict a person's actions by assuming effort refers to the energy investment. The motivational intensity theory is used to show how changes in goal attractiveness and energy investment correlate.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Mood, like emotion, is an affective state. However, an emotion tends to have a clear focus (i.e., its cause is self-evident), while mood tends to be more unfocused and diffuse. Mood, according to Batson, Shaw and Oleson (1992), involves tone and intensity and a structured set of beliefs about general expectations of a future experience of pleasure or pain, or of positive or negative affect in the future. Unlike instant reactions that produce affect or emotion, and that change with expectations of future pleasure or pain, moods, being diffuse and unfocused and thus harder to cope with, can last for days, weeks, months or even years (Schucman, 1975). Moods are hypothetical constructs depicting an individual's emotional state. Researchers typically infer the existence of moods from a variety of behavioral referents (Blechman, 1990). Habitual negative affect and negative mood is characteristic of high neuroticism.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Positive affect and negative affect (PANAS) represent independent domains of emotion in the general population, and positive affect is strongly linked to social interaction. Positive and negative daily events show independent relationships to subjective well-being, and positive affect is strongly linked to social activity. Recent research suggests that high functional support is related to higher levels of positive affect. In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner found support for the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins. The exact process through which social support is linked to positive affect remains unclear. The process could derive from predictable, regularized social interaction, from leisure activities where the focus is on relaxation and positive mood, or from the enjoyment of shared activities. The techniques used to shift a negative mood to a positive one are called mood repair strategies.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect display is a critical facet of interpersonal communication. Evolutionary psychologists have advanced the hypothesis that hominids have evolved with sophisticated capability of reading affect displays.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Emotions are portrayed as dynamic processes that mediate the individual's relation to a continually changing social environment. In other words, emotions are considered to be processes of establishing, maintaining, or disrupting the relation between the organism and the environment on matters of significance to the person.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Most social and psychological phenomena occur as the result of repeated interactions between multiple individuals over time. These interactions should be seen as a multi-agent system—a system that contains multiple agents interacting with each other and/or with their environments over time. The outcomes of individual agents' behaviors are interdependent: Each agent's ability to achieve its goals depends on not only what it does but also what other agents do.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Emotions are one of the main sources for the interaction. Emotions of an individual influence the emotions, thoughts and behaviors of others; others' reactions can then influence their future interactions with the individual expressing the original emotion, as well as that individual's future emotions and behaviors. Emotion operates in cycles that can involve multiple people in a process of reciprocal influence.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Affect, emotion, or feeling is displayed to others through facial expressions, hand gestures, posture, voice characteristics, and other physical manifestation. These affect displays vary between and within cultures and are displayed in various forms ranging from the most discrete of facial expressions to the most dramatic and prolific gestures.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Observers are sensitive to agents' emotions, and are capable of recognizing the messages these emotions convey. They react to and draw inferences from an agent's emotions. The emotion an agent displays may not be an authentic reflection of his or her actual state (See also Emotional labor).


title: Affect (psychology)

text: Emotion may affect not only the person at whom it was directed, but also third parties who observe an agent's emotion. Moreover, emotions can affect larger social entities such as a group or a team. Emotions are a kind of message and therefore can influence the emotions, attributions and ensuing behaviors of others, potentially evoking a feedback process to the original agent.


title: Affect (psychology)

text: People may not only react emotionally, but may also draw inferences about emotive agents such as the social status or power of an emotive agent, his competence and his credibility. For example, an agent presumed to be angry may also be presumed to have high power.


title: Liga de Expansión MX

text: The Liga de Expansión MX, also known as Liga de Desarrollo (Liga BBVA Expansión MX for sponsorship reasons), is a Mexican football league founded in 2020 as part of the Mexican Football Federation's "Stabilization Project", which has the primary objective of rescuing the financially troubled teams from the Ascenso MX and prevent the disappearance of a second-tier league in Mexico, for which there will be no promotion and relegation until further notice. The project also attempts for Liga MX and former Ascenso MX teams to consolidate stable projects with strong administration, finances, and infrastructure.


title: Liga de Expansión MX

text: On 20 February 2020, the presidents of the Liga MX clubs, the Ascenso MX clubs and Mexican Football Federation executives had a meeting, in which different topics were discussed with the intent of strengthening the two main leagues in the country.


title: Liga de Expansión MX

text: On 26 June 2020, the league was officially presented, with the participation of 16 teams: Alebrijes de Oaxaca, Atlante, Atlético Morelia, Cancún, Celaya, Cimarrones de Sonora, Correcaminos UAT, Dorados de Sinaloa, Leones Negros UdeG, Mineros de Zacatecas, Tampico Madero, and Venados F.C. as Ascenso MX teams. Pumas Tabasco and Tapatío entered to the league as Liga MX affiliates. Finally, on 17 July 2020, Tepatitlán and Tlaxcala were invited as Liga Premier expansion teams.


title: Combat medic

text: A combat medic, or healthcare specialist, is responsible for providing emergency medical treatment at a point of wounding in a combat or training environment, as well as primary care and health protection and evacuation from a point of injury or illness. Additionally, medics may also be responsible for the creation, oversight, and execution of long-term patient care plans in consultation with or in the absence of a readily-available physician or advanced practice provider. Combat medics may be used in hospitals and clinics, where they have the opportunity to work in additional roles such as operating medical and laboratory equipment and performing and assisting with procedures.


title: Combat medic

text: All military medical training in the United States takes place at Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas. Here, among other medical jobs, Army Combat Medics, Air Force Medical Technicians, and Navy Hospital Corpsman complete their respective medical training programs. While there are similarities in the training and skills, each branch also incorporates training specific to their services needs and mission.


title: Combat medic

text: Although Combat Medics are certified at the EMT-B (Emergency Medical Technician, Basic) level upon graduation, their scope of practice often parallels and sometimes surpasses that of a paramedic. Their scope is expanded upon by the medical provider(s) assigned to the unit, who oversees the protocols and training of assigned medical personnel. Army medics follow a career progression sequence, wherein each rank above Specialist/Corporal (E4) comes with additional required knowledge, skills, and competencies.


title: Combat medic

text: Medics remain very versatile and may even diagnose illnesses and perform procedures usually performed by Advanced Practice Providers (Physician Assistants/Nurse Practitioners), and Physicians. Combat Paramedic Course, Prolonged Field Care Course, Flight Medic/Critical Care Course, and advanced Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) such as cadaver labs are some of the educational opportunities available to medics as they progress, which include the use of goats as training aids due to their similarity to human physiology.


title: Combat medic

text: Although most of the training translates into civilian certifications/licenses, medics often train and practice on skills and with medications outside of their civilian counterparts' scope of practice. Many programs are dedicated to and who provide preference for military medics transitioning into Paramedic, Registered Nurse (RN), and Physician Assistant (PA) educations.


title: Combat medic

text: Medics may also be assigned to combat support hospital units, forward surgical teams, and military treatment facilities and clinics where they can fulfill almost any role, from administrative duties to laboratory and medical equipment operations.


title: Combat medic

text: When assigned to non-medical field units such as infantry, armored cavalry, artillery, combat engineers and military police, the personnel of the medical platoon are organic to the Headquarters and Headquarters Company/Detachment. The platoon is usually composed of three sections: Ambulance/Evac Section, Combat Medic/Line Medic Section, and the BAS/Treatment section. Each section is led by team leader, and the scope of practice all falls under the medical providers.


title: Combat medic

text: Ambulance/Evac medics function just like a civilian ambulance would. They are responsible for responding to and transporting patients from a point of injury to, as well as between medical care facilities.


title: Combat medic

text: The Battalion Aid Station (BAS)/Medics function similar to an urgent care/ small emergency department depending on size and resources. Under the direction of the medical provider and team leaders or sergeants, they intake, triage, and stabilize or treat patients for transfer to another tier or discharge. Battalion Aid Stations are more mobile than Combat Support Hospitals, but have less resources available. They are intended to move as the unit advances, whereas a Combat Support Hospital would have a more long-term fixed position.


title: Combat medic

text: Line medics are the most independent of the 3. Although they belong to Headquarters, they are attached to other platoons within a company and oversee the medical care of the soldiers assigned to them which can be anywhere from 30 to 60 Soldiers. They become a part of the group they are assigned to an with the exception of a few tasks, they do everything that their assigned soldiers do from training to missions. They are the ones who would be the first to treat an injured person and direct their immediate medical care, and are often the first to recognize when something is wrong with one of their soldiers because they spend so much time with them. They may also be the subject matter expert in advising leaders of medical planning for missions. Their co-location with the troops they are assigned allows them to easily monitor ongoing health.


title: Combat medic

text: Being a line medic requires them to carry whatever a regular soldier carries, in addition to an aid bag and other medical supplies. These medics must be very physically fit, and able to function well in highly stressful tactical situations. They are expected to be very independent and function on their own as extensions of the provider. They make field diagnosis and manage the conditions appropriately, deferring to the provider when necessary.


title: Combat medic

text: In the U.S. armed forces, service members in line units often refer to their assigned combat medic or hospital corpsman as "Doc."


title: Combat medic

text: In 1864, sixteen European states adopted the first-ever Geneva Convention to save lives and alleviate the suffering of wounded and sick persons in the battlefield, as well as to protect trained medical personnel as non-combatants, in the act of rendering aid.


title: Combat medic

text: Chapter IV, Article 25 of the Geneva Convention states that: "Members of the armed forces specially trained for employment, should the need arise, as hospital orderlies, nurses or auxiliary stretcher-bearers, in the search for or the collection, transport or treatment of the wounded and sick shall likewise be respected and protected if they are carrying out these duties at the time when they come into contact with the enemy or fall into his hands."


title: Combat medic

text: Article 29 reads: "Members of the personnel designated in Article 25 who have fallen into the hands of the enemy, shall be prisoners of war, but shall be employed on their medical duties insofar as the need arises."


title: Combat medic

text: According to the Geneva Convention, knowingly firing at a medic wearing clear insignia is a war crime.


title: Combat medic

text: In modern times, most combat medics carry a personal weapon, to be used to protect themselves and the wounded or sick in their care. By convention this is limited to small arms (including rifles). During World War II, for example, Allied medics serving the European and Mediterranean areas usually carried the M1911A1 pistol while those serving the Pacific theater carried pistols or M1 carbines. The German medics (Sanitätssoldaten) in medical units were issued with standard Kar98K, while the infantry level stretcher-bearers (Krankenträgeren) and medical NCOs (Sanitätsunteroffiziere) were issued Luger or Walther pistols. When and if they use their arms offensively, they then sacrifice their protection under the Geneva Conventions. In today's combat environment, many times non-conventional forces do not follow the Geneva Conventions, and actually deliberately target medical personnel identified by their equipment or insignia. Consequently, based on the tactical environment medics in some armies carry an M4 in addition to their pistol.


title: Combat medic

text: The Roman Army used combat medics which were referred to as Capsarii after the box (capsa) of bandages which they carried. Forts could also have hospitals integrated into their designs.


title: Combat medic

text: Surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey directed the Grande Armée of Napoleon to develop mobile field hospitals, or "ambulances volantes" ('flying ambulances'), in addition to a corps of trained and equipped soldiers ("infirmiers tenues de service") to aid those on the battlefield. Before Larrey's initiative in the 1790s, wounded soldiers were either left amid the fighting until the combat ended or their comrades would carry them to the rear line.


title: Combat medic

text: During the American Civil War, musicians had the double duty of acting as stretcher-bearers to move the wounded to field hospitals and assisting surgeons operating on patients. However, the results of using musicians as medical assistants were uneven, and while some became adept in the role others were more hindrance than help. Surgeon (Major) Jonathan Letterman, Medical Director of the Army of the Potomac, realized a need for an integrated medical treatment and evacuation system, equipped with dedicated vehicles, organizations, facilities, and personnel. The Letterman plan for a dedicated ambulance corps was first implemented in September 1862 at the Battle of Antietam, Maryland, where it proved its worth. Soon the U.S. Ambulance Corps became an integral part of the Union Army. The Confederate States Army also implemented an ambulance corps, but it was plagued with shortages of men and materiel, making its job more difficult.


title: Combat medic

text: The United States Army's need for medical and scientific specialty officers to support combat operations resulted in the creation of two temporary components: the U.S. Army Ambulance Service, established on June 23, 1917, and the Sanitary Corps, established on June 30, 1917. Officers of the Sanitary Corps served in medical logistics, hospital administration, patient administration, resource management, x-ray, laboratory engineering, physical reconstruction, gas defense, and venereal disease control. They were dedicated members of the medical team that enabled American generals to concentrate on enemy threats rather than epidemic threats. On August 4, 1947, Congress created the Navy Medical Service Corps.


title: Combat medic

text: In the United States, a report entitled "Accidental Death and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society (1966)", was published by National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council. Better known as "The White Paper" to emergency providers, it revealed that soldiers who were seriously wounded on the battlefields of Vietnam had a better survival rate than those individuals who were seriously injured in motor vehicle accidents on California freeways. Early research attributed these differences in outcome to a number of factors, including comprehensive trauma care, rapid transport to designated trauma facilities, and a new type of medical corpsman, one who was trained to perform certain critical advanced medical procedures such as fluid replacement and airway management, which allowed the victim to survive the journey to definitive care.


title: Combat medic

text: The International Committee of the Red Cross, a private humanitarian institution based in Switzerland, provided the first official symbol for medical personnel. The first Geneva convention, originally called for "Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field", officially adopted the red cross on a field of white as the identifying emblem. This symbol was meant to signify to enemy combatants that the medic qualifies as a non-combatant, at least while providing medical care. Islamic countries use a Red Crescent instead. During the 1876–1878 war between Russia and Turkey, the Ottoman Empire declared that it would use a red crescent instead of a red cross as its emblem, although it agreed to respect the red cross used by the other side. Although these symbols were officially sponsored by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the Magen David Adom (Red Star of David, MDA), Israel's emergency relief service, used the Magen David (a red star of David on a white background). Israeli medics still wear the Magen David. To enable the MDA to become a fully recognized and participating member of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Protocol III was adopted. It is an amendment to the Geneva Conventions relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem and authorizes the use of a new emblem, known as the third protocol emblem or the Red Crystal. For indicative use on foreign territory, any national society can incorporate its unique symbol into the Red Crystal. Under Protocol III, the MDA will continue to employ the red Magen David for domestic use, and will employ the Red Crystal on international relief missions.


title: Combat medic

text: Medical personnel from most western nations carry weapons for protection of themselves and their patients but remain designated non-combatants, wearing the red cross, crescent or crystal. In the United States Armed Forces, MEDEVAC Vehicles will display a large Red Cross on a white background; however, ground forces do not display this due to increased targeting of medical personnel by insurgents in Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Combat medic

text: Traditionally, most United States medical personnel also wore a distinguishing red cross, to denote their protection as non-combatants under the Geneva Convention. This practice continued into World War II. However, the enemies faced by professional armies in more recent conflicts are often insurgents who either do not recognize the Geneva Convention or choose not to adhere to it, and thus readily engage all personnel, irrespective of non-combatant status. As their non-combatant status is not respected, many US medics no longer wear non-combatant markings. This can enable medics to be used as medically trained soldiers, fighting aggressively rather than just in self-defence. Combat Medics in the United States Army and United States Navy Hospital Corpsmen are virtually indistinguishable from regular combat troops, except for the extra medical equipment they carry.


title: Combat medic

text: The modern-day interpretation of the U.S. Army doctrine requires medics to carry one primary weapon and, if possible, a secondary weapon. It is also common to find American combat medics who are no longer wearing the red or white cross because it is considered unethical to do so when the combat medic is carrying a weapon and could engage in actual combat.


title: Combat medic

text: In the U.S. Navy, enlisted medical personnel are known as corpsmen, not medics. The colloquial form of address for a Hospital Corpsman and Army Medics is "Doc". In the Army and U.S. Marine Corps, this term is generally used as a sign of respect. The U.S. Navy deploys FMF Hospital Corpsman attached to U.S. Marine Corps units as part of the Fleet Marine Force. Since the U.S. Marine Corps is part of the Department of the Navy, it relies on Navy corpsmen and other Naval medical personnel for medical care.


title: Combat medic

text: U.S. Air Force aerospace medical services technicians have frequently served attached to U.S. Army units in recent conflicts. Though all combat medical personnel are universally referred to as "medic", within different branches of the U.S. military, the skill level, quality of training and scope of work performed by medics varies from branch to branch and unit to unit.


title: Combat medic

text: As a result of the 2005 BRAC, the U.S. Department of Defense has moved most medical training for all branches of the armed forces to Fort Sam Houston of Joint Base San Antonio. A new Medical Education and Training Campus was constructed and the Air Force's 937th Training Group and Naval Hospital Corps School were relocated to Fort Sam Houston, joining the Army's existing Army Medical Department Center & School. Although each service has some training particular to its branch, the bulk of the course material and instruction is shared between medical personnel of the different services.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: In computer science, Backus–Naur form () or Backus normal form (BNF) is a metasyntax notation for context-free grammars, often used to describe the syntax of languages used in computing, such as computer programming languages, document formats, instruction sets and communication protocols. It is applied wherever exact descriptions of languages are needed: for instance, in official language specifications, in manuals, and in textbooks on programming language theory.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Many extensions and variants of the original Backus–Naur notation are used; some are exactly defined, including extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) and augmented Backus–Naur form (ABNF).


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Symbols that never appear on a left side are "terminals". On the other hand, symbols that appear on a left side are "non-terminals" and are always enclosed between the pair <>.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Note that many things (such as the format of a first-name, apartment number, ZIP-code, and Roman numeral) are left unspecified here. If necessary, they may be described using additional BNF rules.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: The idea of describing the structure of language using rewriting rules can be traced back to at least the work of Pāṇini, an ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian and a revered scholar in Hinduism who lived sometime between the 6th and 4th century BC. His notation to describe Sanskrit word structure is equivalent in power to that of Backus and has many similar properties.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: In Western society, grammar was long regarded as a subject for teaching, rather than scientific study; descriptions were informal and targeted at practical usage. In the first half of the 20th century, linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield and Zellig Harris started attempts to formalize the description of language, including phrase structure.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Meanwhile, string rewriting rules as formal logical systems were introduced and studied by mathematicians such as Axel Thue (in 1914), Emil Post (1920s–40s) and Alan Turing (1936). Noam Chomsky, teaching linguistics to students of information theory at MIT, combined linguistics and mathematics by taking what is essentially Thue's formalism as the basis for the description of the syntax of natural language. He also introduced a clear distinction between generative rules (those of context-free grammars) and transformation rules (1956).


title: Backus–Naur form

text: John Backus, a programming language designer at IBM, proposed a metalanguage of "metalinguistic formulas"


title: Backus–Naur form

text: to describe the syntax of the new programming language IAL, known today as ALGOL 58 (1959). His notation was first used in the ALGOL 60 report.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: As proposed by Backus, the formula defined "classes" whose names are enclosed in angle brackets. For example, codice_1. Each of these names denotes a class of basic symbols.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Further development of ALGOL led to ALGOL 60. In the committee's 1963 report, Peter Naur called Backus's notation "Backus normal form". Donald Knuth argued that BNF should rather be read as "Backus–Naur form", as it is "not a normal form in the conventional sense",


title: Backus–Naur form

text: unlike, for instance, Chomsky normal form. The name "Pāṇini Backus form" was also once suggested in view of the fact that the expansion "Backus normal form" may not be accurate, and that Pāṇini had independently developed a similar notation earlier.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Another example from the ALGOL 60 report illustrates a major difference between the BNF metalanguage and a Chomsky context-free grammar. Metalinguistic variables do not require a rule defining their formation. Their formation may simply be described in natural language within the <> brackets. The following ALGOL 60 report section 2.3 comments specification, exemplifies how this works:


title: Backus–Naur form

text: For the purpose of including text among the symbols of a program the following "comment" conventions hold:


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Equivalence here means that any of the three structures shown in the left column may be replaced, in any occurrence outside of strings, by the symbol shown in the same line in the right column without any effect on the action of the program.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Naur changed two of Backus's symbols to commonly available characters. The codice_2 symbol was originally a codice_3. The codice_4 symbol was originally the word "" (with a bar over it).


title: Backus–Naur form

text: BNF is very similar to canonical-form boolean algebra equations that are, and were at the time, used in logic-circuit design. Backus was a mathematician and the designer of the FORTRAN programming language. Studies of boolean algebra is commonly part of a mathematics curriculum. Neither Backus nor Naur described the names enclosed in codice_5 as non-terminals. Chomsky's terminology was not originally used in describing BNF. Naur later described them as classes in ALGOL course materials. In the ALGOL 60 report they were called metalinguistic variables. Anything other than the metasymbols codice_2, codice_4, and class names enclosed in codice_5 are symbols of the language being defined. The metasymbol codice_2 is to be interpreted as "is defined as". The codice_4 is used to separate alternative definitions and is interpreted as "or". The metasymbols codice_5 are delimiters enclosing a class name. BNF is described as a metalanguage for talking about ALGOL by Peter Naur and Saul Rosen.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: In 1947 Saul Rosen became involved in the activities of the fledgling Association for Computing Machinery, first on the languages committee that became the IAL group and eventually led to ALGOL. He was the first managing editor of the Communications of the ACM. BNF was first used as a metalanguage to talk about the ALGOL language in the ALGOL 60 report. That is how it is explained in ALGOL programming course material developed by Peter Naur in 1962. Early ALGOL manuals by IBM, Honeywell, Burroughs and Digital Equipment Corporation followed the ALGOL 60 report using it as a metalanguage. Saul Rosen in his book describes BNF as a metalanguage for talking about ALGOL. An example of its use as a metalanguage would be in defining an arithmetic expression:


title: Backus–Naur form

text: The first symbol of an alternative may be the class being defined, the repetition, as explained by Naur, having the function of specifying that the alternative sequence can recursively begin with a previous alternative and can be repeated any number of times. For example, above codice_12 is defined as a codice_13 followed by any number of codice_14.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: In some later metalanguages, such as Schorre's META II, the BNF recursive repeat construct is replaced by a sequence operator and target language symbols defined using quoted strings. The codice_15 and codice_16 brackets were removed. Parentheses codice_17codice_18 for mathematical grouping were added. The codice_12 rule would appear in META II as


title: Backus–Naur form

text: These changes enabled META II and its derivative programming languages to define and extend their own metalanguage, at the cost of the ability to use a natural language description, metalinguistic variable, language construct description. Many spin-off metalanguages were inspired by BNF. See META II, TREE-META, and Metacompiler.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: A BNF class describes a language construct formation, with formation defined as a pattern or the action of forming the pattern. The class name expr is described in a natural language as a codice_13 followed by a sequence codice_14. A class is an abstraction; we can talk about it independent of its formation. We can talk about term, independent of its definition, as being added or subtracted in expr. We can talk about a term being a specific data type and how an expr is to be evaluated having specific combinations of data types, or even reordering an expression to group data types and evaluation results of mixed types. The natural-language supplement provided specific details of the language class semantics to be used by a compiler implementation and a programmer writing an ALGOL program. Natural-language description further supplemented the syntax as well. The integer rule is a good example of natural and metalanguage used to describe syntax:


title: Backus–Naur form

text: There are no specifics on white space in the above. As far as the rule states, we could have space between the digits. In the natural language we complement the BNF metalanguage by explaining that the digit sequence can have no white space between the digits. English is only one of the possible natural languages. Translations of the ALGOL reports were available in many natural languages.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: The origin of BNF is not as important as its impact on programming language development. During the period immediately following the publication of the ALGOL 60 report BNF was the basis of many compiler-compiler systems.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Some, like "A Syntax Directed Compiler for ALGOL 60" developed by Edgar T. Irons and "A Compiler Building System" Developed by Brooker and Morris, directly used BNF. Others, like the Schorre Metacompilers, made it into a programming language with only a few changes. codice_22 became symbol identifiers, dropping the enclosing <,> and using quoted strings for symbols of the target language. Arithmetic-like grouping provided a simplification that removed using classes where grouping was its only value. The META II arithmetic expression rule shows grouping use. Output expressions placed in a META II rule are used to output code and labels in an assembly language. Rules in META II are equivalent to a class definitions in BNF. The Unix utility yacc is based on BNF with code production similar to META II. yacc is most commonly used as a parser generator, and its roots are obviously BNF.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: The original BNF did not use quotes as shown in codice_23 rule. This assumes that no whitespace is necessary for proper interpretation of the rule.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: codice_24 represents the appropriate line-end specifier (in ASCII, carriage-return, line-feed or both depending on the operating system). codice_25 and codice_26 are to be substituted with a declared rule's name/label or literal text, respectively.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: In the U.S. postal address example above, the entire block-quote is a syntax. Each line or unbroken grouping of lines is a rule; for example one rule begins with codice_27. The other part of that rule (aside from a line-end) is an expression, which consists of two lists separated by a pipe codice_4. These two lists consists of some terms (three terms and two terms, respectively). Each term in this particular rule is a rule-name.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: There are many variants and extensions of BNF, generally either for the sake of simplicity and succinctness, or to adapt it to a specific application. One common feature of many variants is the use of regular expression repetition operators such as codice_29 and codice_30. The extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) is a common one.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Another common extension is the use of square brackets around optional items. Although not present in the original ALGOL 60 report (instead introduced a few years later in IBM's PL/I definition), the notation is now universally recognised.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Augmented Backus–Naur form (ABNF) and Routing Backus–Naur form (RBNF) are extensions commonly used to describe Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) protocols.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Parsing expression grammars build on the BNF and regular expression notations to form an alternative class of formal grammar, which is essentially analytic rather than generative in character.


title: Backus–Naur form

text: Many BNF specifications found online today are intended to be human-readable and are non-formal. These often include many of the following syntax rules and extensions:


title: Immanuel

text: Immanuel (, meaning, "God is with us"; also , ; and or in Koine Greek of the New Testament) is a Hebrew name that appears in the Book of Isaiah (7:14) as a sign that God will protect the House of David.


title: Immanuel

text: The Gospel of Matthew () interprets this as a prophecy of the birth of the Messiah and the fulfillment of Scripture in the person of Jesus. "Immanuel" "God (El) with us" is one of the "symbolic names" used by Isaiah, alongside Shearjashub, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, or Pele-joez-el-gibbor-abi-ad-sar-shalom.


title: Immanuel

text: By contrast, the name based on its use in has come to be read as a prophecy of the Christ in Christian theology following , where "Immanuel" () is translated as (KJV: "God with us"). In Suomi language, "the man that was born of the Mother, and God".


title: Immanuel

text: The setting is the Syro-Ephraimite War, 735-734 BCE, which saw the Kingdom of Judah pitted against two northern neighbors, the kingdoms of Israel (called Ephraim in the prophecy) and Syria (also known as Aram or Aram-Damascus or Syria-Damascus). tells how the kings of Ephraim and Syria attack Jerusalem when Ahaz refuses to join them in their anti-Assyrian alliance. Ahaz wishes to ask Assyria for help, but Isaiah, at God's command, takes his son Shear-jashub (a symbolic name meaning "a remnant shall return") and assures Ahaz that the two enemy kings will not succeed (). Isaiah tells Ahaz of the apparent sign by which he will know that this is a true prophecy: a young woman will give birth to a child whom she will name Immanuel (another symbolic name, meaning "God with us"), and the lands of the "two kings you dread" will be laid waste before the child is old enough to "reject the wrong and choose the right" ().


title: Immanuel

text: A fourth, even longer, prophetic "name", is found in with "Pele-joez-el-gibbor-abi-ad-sar-shalom". This is generally translated fully in English Bible versions such as "his name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father, The Prince of Peace" (KJV).


title: Immanuel

text: , is on the surface set in the time of king Ahaz, and a prophecy concerning the two kings whom Ahaz dreads, namely Pekah and Rezin. The defeat and death of both these kings at the hands of the Assyrians is dated around 732 BCE, placing the birth of the Immanuel child late in the reign of Ahaz.


title: Immanuel

text: Scholars generally date the written version of these events from the reign of Ahaz's son Hezekiah some thirty years later, the purpose being to persuade Hezekiah not to join with other kings who intended to rebel against their joint overlord, Assyria. Isaiah points to the dreadful consequences that followed for Judah's northern neighbours, the kingdom of Israel and Aram-Damascus (Syria) when they rebelled in the days of Ahaz and brought the Assyrians down on themselves. In the event, Hezekiah ignored Isaiah and joined the rebels, and the prophet's warning came true: the Assyrians ravaged Judah and Hezekiah barely escaped with his throne. A century later, in the time of Josiah, the prophecy was revised to present Ahaz as the faithless king who rejected God's promise of protection for Jerusalem and the house of David, with the result that God brought Assyria to devastate the land until a new and faithful king (presumably Josiah) would arise.


title: Immanuel

text: Isaiah 7–8 mentions three children with symbolic names: Shear-jashub, meaning "a remnant shall return"; Immanuel, "God is with us"; and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, "the spoil speeds, the prey hastens". informs the reader that Isaiah and his children are signs ("Here am I, and the children the Lord has given me. We are signs and symbols in Israel from the Lord Almighty, who dwells on Mount Zion"). The meaning of these name-signs is not clear: Shear-jashub has been variously interpreted to mean that only a remnant of Ephraim and Syria will survive the Assyrian invasion, or that a remnant of Judah will repent and turn to God, while in it seems to mean that a remnant of Israel will return to the Davidic monarchy. Maher-shalal-hash-baz is more clearly related to the expected destruction of Ephraim and Syria. As for Immanuel, "God is with us", Isaiah might mean simply that any young pregnant woman in 734 BCE would be able to name her child "God is with us" by the time he is born; but if a specific child is meant, then it might be a son of Ahaz, possibly his successor Hezekiah (which is the traditional Jewish understanding); or, since the other symbolic children are Isaiah's, Immanuel might be the prophet's own son. However this may be, the significance of the sign changes, from Isaiah 7, where Immanuel symbolises the hope of imminent defeat for Syria and Ephraim, to Isaiah 8:8, where Immanuel is addressed as the people whose land is about to be overrun by the Assyrians.


title: Immanuel

text: The Gospel of Matthew cites the prophecy of the sign of Immanuel from Isaiah, using a Greek translation rather than the original Hebrew. Matthew begins with a genealogy of Jesus from Abraham through David to Joseph, with Jesus as "the son of David", () a member of the "house of David" () to whom the sign of Immanuel was given. indicates that Jesus is not Joseph's natural son, and Matthew never refers to Joseph as Jesus's father. Verses turn to Mary, the future mother of Jesus, betrothed (engaged) to Joseph, but "found with child of the Holy Ghost" before she and Joseph "came together". () Joseph was about to break the engagement, but an angel appeared to him in a dream and told him of the child's divine origin, and declares how this was the fulfillment of Scripture:


title: Immanuel

text: The gospel of Matthew was written by an author who believed that Jesus was the promised Messiah, "God with us". At first, titles such as "Messiah" and "son of God" had described Jesus's future nature at the "deutera parousia", the Second Coming; but very soon he came to be recognised as having become the Son of God at the resurrection; then, in Mark, he becomes known as Son of God at his baptism; and finally Matthew and Luke add infancy narratives in which Jesus is the Son of God from the very beginning, long before being conceived of a virgin mother without a human father.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: "Everybody's Talkin' (Echoes)" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Fred Neil in 1966 and released two years later. A version of the song performed by American singer-songwriter Harry Nilsson became a hit in 1969, reaching No. 6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and winning a Grammy Award after it was featured in the film "Midnight Cowboy". The song, which describes the singer's desire to retreat from the harshness of the city to a more peaceful place and an easier life, is among the most famous works of both artists, and has been covered by many other notable performers.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: The song was first released on Neil's second album, the eponymous "Fred Neil", released in late 1966. It was composed towards the end of the session, after Neil had become anxious to wrap the album so he could return to his home in Miami, Florida. Manager Herb Cohen promised that if Neil wrote and recorded a final track, he could go. "Everybody's Talkin, recorded in one take, was the result.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Toby Creswell writing in "1001 Songs" notes that the song had parallels to Neil's later life—like the hero of "Midnight Cowboy", he looked "for fame to match his talents, discover[ed] that success in his profession isn't all its cracked up to be" and wanted to retreat. Five years later, Neil permanently fulfilled the promise of the speaker in the song, rejecting fame to live the rest of his life in relative obscurity "where the sun keeps shining / thru' the pouring rain" in his home in Coconut Grove, Miami.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Harry Nilsson was searching for a successful song when Rick Jarrard played the track for him, and he decided to record it on November 13, 1967. It was eventually released on his 1968 album "Aerial Ballet". When released as a single in July 1968, it managed to reach only No. 13 on the "Billboard" Bubbling Under the Hot 100 chart. After the song was featured as the theme song in the film "Midnight Cowboy" in 1969, the song was re-released as a single and became a hit, peaking at No. 6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and No. 2 on the "Billboard" Easy Listening chart.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: When Derek Taylor recommended Nilsson for the "Midnight Cowboy" soundtrack to director John Schlesinger, Schlesinger selected "Everybody's Talkin, preferring the cover to the song Nilsson proposed, "I Guess the Lord Must Be in New York City".


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: The song was used as the theme song for the movie and became closely identified with it; Nilsson's cover is also known as "Everybody's Talkin' (Theme from "Midnight Cowboy")". William J. Mann, in his biography of Schlesinger, noted that "one cannot imagine "Midnight Cowboy" now without 'Everybody's Talkin'".


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Described in "The Rock Snob*s Dictionary" as an "anti-urban plaint", "Everybody's Talkin depicts the introverted speaker's inability to connect with others. Not hearing or truly seeing them, the speaker declares an intention to leave for the ocean and the summer breeze. AllMusic's Denise Sullivan describes Neil's version as "positively spooky and Spartan" by comparison to Nilsson's better-known cover, whose arrangement she felt captured the "freedom, shrouded in regret and loss, implied in the lyric".


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: The line "Going where the weather suits my clothes" is paraphrased from "Going Down the Road Feeling Bad", a traditional American folk song.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Nilsson's single for the song sold over a million copies and charted on both "Billboard"s Adult Contemporary and Pop Singles charts, reaching numbers 2 and 6 respectively in 1969. Nilsson's single also won a Grammy that year. The song became a global success and was followed by international appearances by Nilsson to perform it.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Nilsson denied that the song made him successful. Creswell, writing in "1001 Songs", claims that the hit "made Nilsson a superstar," exposing him to a much broader fan base and altering his reputation from solely that of a songwriter to a singer. After Nilsson's death, "Billboard" noted that Nilsson remained popularly remembered for his covers of "Everybody's Talkin and "Without You". Neil, too, is largely remembered for this song. But although Neil's second album was re-released in 1969 under the title "Everybody's Talkin"<nowiki>'</nowiki> to capitalize on the success of the song, Neil himself shunned the limelight, retiring from the industry after his final album in 1971 to live quietly in the Florida Keys with the millions of dollars he is estimated to have earned on royalties from the song. In keeping with the song's position in the works of both artists, it has been used to title several "greatest hits" compilation albums—a 1997 release by BMG, a 2001 release by Armoury and a 2006 release by RCA for Nilsson and a 2005 release for Neil by Raven Records entitled "Echoes of My Mind: The Best of 1963–1971".


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: The song is highly regarded in the industry, having become a standard. Songwriter Jerry Leiber described it as "a very strange and beautiful song", among the "truly beautiful melodically and lyrically" songs by Fred Neil, who was described by "Rolling Stone" as "[r]eclusive, mysterious and extravagantly gifted". A 2006 article in "The New York Times" characterizes the song as "a landmark of the classic-rock era." The song's popularity has proven persistent; through 2005, according to figures from Broadcast Music Incorporated reported in "The New York Times", the song had aired on radio and television 6.7 million times. In 2004, the song was listed by the American Film Institute as No. 20 in its "top 100 movie songs" for the first 100 years of film.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: In 2007, this song was used by the UK government for TV promos about the UK's digital television transition until 2012, when it completed in Northern Ireland in October that year.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Harry Dean Stanton described "Everybody's Talkin'" as "a heroin song" which he claimed was "inspired by Luke Askew, an actor."


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Nilsson's version later appeared in the 1994 film "Forrest Gump" and is on the film's soundtrack album. It was also used in Todd Phillips’ 2013 film "The Hangover Part III" along with its soundtrack. It was featured in a scene from the 2006 film "Borat" in which the titular character explores New York City.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Nilsson’s version also appeared in the English television show "Black Books", the action comedy film "Crank", the "Only Fools and Horses" episode “The Jolly Boys' Outing,” and the animated TV series "Futurama". It was also featured throughout the "Seinfeld" episode “The Mom & Pop Store,” in an extended ode to "Midnight Cowboy". It was also used in "The Cleveland Show" episode, "Dancing With the Stools."


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: The track was also used by Digital UK, as part of a nationwide advertising campaign to promote the UK's Digital television transition from Analogue to Digital, which was completed between October 17th 2007 and October 24th 2012.


title: Everybody's Talkin'

text: Since Nilsson's version of the song achieved chart success, the song has been covered by many other artists—almost 100 as of 2006. The more notable versions include ones by Spanky and Our Gang, Stevie Wonder, Willie Nelson, Neil Diamond, Liza Minnelli, Tony Bennett, Luna, Bill Withers, Madeleine Peyroux, Louis Armstrong, Leonard Nimoy, Julio Iglesias, Lena Horne, Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes, the Beautiful South, Glen Campbell, Crosby, Stills & Nash, Bongwater, and Crowded House. Nilsson's version was sampled in 2002 by Paul Oakenfold on "Starry Eyed Surprise" and in 2004 by the Go! Team on "Everyone's a V.I.P. to Someone".


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Joe Thomas Barrett IV (born January 23, 1995) is an American football coach and former quarterback who is currently an offensive assistant for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Ohio State Buckeyes, and was signed as an undrafted free agent by the New Orleans Saints in 2018. He was also a member of the Seattle Seahawks, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Edmonton Elks.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett attended S. H. Rider High School in Wichita Falls, Texas, where he was a three-sport athlete in football, basketball, and track. He played as a dual-threat quarterback for the Raiders football team. As a junior, he rushed for over 1,500 yards and passed for over 1,600 yards, totaling 23 touchdowns. In his senior season, he rushed for 569 yards with seven touchdowns and passed for 784 yards and five touchdowns before tearing his ACL in October, which ended his high school career prematurely. In spring 2011, Barrett joined the school's track & field team, recording a personal-best time of 11.10 seconds in the 100-meter dash at the Iowa Park Relays, winning the event, while also running the second leg in the 4 x 400-meter relay, helping them earn a second-place finish with a time of 3:46.05 minutes.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett was ranked by the "Rivals.com" recruiting network as a four-star recruit and the seventh best dual-threat quarterback in his class. He committed to Ohio State University in April 2012.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett redshirted as a freshman at Ohio State in 2013. Barrett was expected to be the backup quarterback to senior Braxton Miller in 2014. However, he became the starter after Miller was forced to miss the season due to injury. On November 29, during the Ohio State-Michigan matchup, Barrett went down with what was later determined to be a broken ankle early in the fourth quarter. The injury happened on a run play, with Ohio State leading 28–21, after Barrett had thrown for 176 yards and a touchdown while also rushing for 89 yards and two touchdowns. Ohio State went on to win the game with Cardale Jones at quarterback. Barrett was cited in the weeks before the injury as a potential Heisman Trophy contender but ended up finishing fifth in the voting. His injury prevented him from returning during the 2014 season, but he had a successful surgery and was expected to be available in a limited capacity for spring practice. Ohio State went on to win their next game against Wisconsin, the 2015 Sugar Bowl against Alabama, and the 2015 CFP National Championship, behind the play of third-string quarterback Cardale Jones.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: As a redshirt sophomore in 2015, Barrett passed for 992 yards, 11 touchdowns, and four interceptions. As a redshirt junior in 2016, he passed for 2,555 yards, 24 touchdowns, and seven interceptions. Barrett returned to Ohio State for his final season of eligibility in 2017. As a redshirt senior in 2017, he passed for 3,053 yards, 35 touchdowns, and nine interceptions.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett was named Conference Freshman of the Week seven times and received the Big Ten's Thompson–Randle El Freshman of the Year award. He received the Big Ten's Griese–Brees Quarterback of the Year award in 2014, 2016 and 2017. Barrett was named First-team All-Big Ten in 2014, 2016 and 2017 by both conference coaches and media. Barrett earned Big Ten Offensive Player of the Week honors nine times.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett is the only quarterback on either side of the Michigan-Ohio State rivalry to go 4–0 as a starter.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett was the first three-time captain in the history of the Buckeyes football team, preceding Tuf Borland as the second.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett accumulated more than 25 Ohio State records including most total yards in a season (3,851) and the second most touchdowns in a season (47) as well as most career passing yards (9,434) and completions (769). Additionally, he has several Big Ten Conference records including most career passing touchdowns (104) and total touchdowns (147). He also passed Drew Brees for most career offensive yards, with 12,697.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett went undrafted in the 2018 NFL Draft, and was offered to participate in the Indianapolis Colts and the New Orleans Saints rookie minicamps. Originally, Barrett planned on attending the Colts' camp but later decided he would attend the Saints' camp instead. On May 3, 2018, Barrett signed a three-year deal with the Saints as an undrafted free agent. He was waived by the Saints on September 1, 2018, and was signed to the practice squad the next day. He spent time on and off the Saints practice squad, a total of 23 transactions, before signing a reserve/future contract on January 21, 2019.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: On September 17, 2019, Barrett was signed to the New Orleans Saints practice squad following an injury to starter Drew Brees. He was released on October 22.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: On December 24, 2019, Barrett was signed to the Pittsburgh Steelers practice squad. On December 30, he was signed by the Steelers to a reserve/future contract. He was waived on August 2, 2020.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: Barrett was selected by the Alphas of The Spring League during its player selection draft on October 30, 2020.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: On January 28, 2022, it was announced that Barrett had signed with the Edmonton Elks. Barrett suffered an injury in late March 2022, and after further medical evaluation it was determined he would miss the entire 2022 season. On May 6, 2022 the Elks announced they had moved Barrett to the retired list.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: On December 10, 2014, police were called to Barrett's apartment after he allegedly choked his pregnant girlfriend and threw her across the room. According to reports, Barrett did so after she refused to leave following an argument. He also took her phone during the altercation. No charges were filed in the incident, and Barrett was not suspended for any length of time.


title: J. T. Barrett

text: On October 31, 2015, Barrett was arrested and charged with avoiding a DUI checkpoint and operating a vehicle under the influence. He was fined $400 and had his license suspended. Ohio State suspended Barrett for one game.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Harut and Marut () are two angels mentioned in Quran 2:102, who are said to have been located in Babylon. According to some narratives, those two angels were in the time of Idris. The Quran indicates that they were a trial for the people and through them the people were tested with sorcery. The story itself parallels a Jewish legend about the fallen angels Shemḥazaī, ʿUzza, and ʿAzaʾel. The names Hārūt and Mārūt appear to be etymologically related to those of Haurvatat and Ameretat, two Zoroastrian archangels. Haurvatat-Ameretat (Pahlavi "hrwdʼd" "ʼmwrdʼd") appears in Sogdian language texts as "hrwwt mrwwt". A relationship to Armenian "hawrot" "mawrot" has been suggested but is not confirmed. Muslim sources disagree, whether Harut and Marut can be considered fallen angels or not.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Tabari offers different narrations linking back to the sahaba. Although differing in detail, the story can be summarized as follows:


title: Harut and Marut

text: The angels were astonished at the acts of disobedience committed by the human beings on earth, claiming they would do better than them. Therefore, God challenged the angels to choose two representatives among them, who would descend to earth and be endowed with bodily desires. During their stay on earth, they fell in love with a woman named Zohra (often identified with Venus). She told them she would become intimate with them if they joined her in idolatry and tell her how to ascend to heaven. The angels refused and remained pious. Later they met her again and the woman this time stated she would become intimate with them if they drank alcohol. The angels thought that alcohol could not cause great harm and therefore, they accepted the condition. After they were drunk, they became intimate with her and after noticing a witness, they killed them. On the next day, Harut and Marut regretted their deeds but could not ascend to heaven anymore due to their sins, as their link to the angels was broken. Thereupon, God asked them, either their punishment shall be in this world or in the hereafter. They chose to be punished on earth and therefore were sent to Babel as a test, teaching humans magic but not without warning them that they were just a temptation.


title: Harut and Marut

text: The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir gives an alternative version of Harut and Marut. Although regarding their story as sound in chain of narrations, but since it goes back to Ibn Abbas and not to Muhammad himself, he asserts Muslims should not follow this narrative. Instead he goes into depth about what exactly the angels had taught to the people in his book, "Stories of the Qur'an":


title: Harut and Marut

text: Narrated Al-`Ufi in his interpretation on the authority of Ibn `Abbas (May Allah be pleased with him) pertaining to Allah's Statement {They followed what the Shayatin (devils) gave out (falsely of the magic) in the lifetime of Sulaiman (Solomon). Sulaiman did not disbelieve, but the Shayatin (devils) disbelieved, teaching men magic and such things that came down at Babylon to the two angels, Harut and Marut but neither of these two (angels) taught anyone (such things) till they had said, "We are only for trial, so disbelieve not (by learning this magic from us)." ...} When Sulaiman lost his kingdom, great numbers from among mankind and the jinn renegaded and followed their lusts. But, when Allah restored to Sulaiman his kingdom and the renegade came to follow the Straight Path once again, Sulaiman seized their holy scriptures which he buried underneath his throne. Shortly after, Sulaiman (Peace be upon him) died. In no time, the men and the Jinn uncovered the buried scriptures and said: This was a book revealed by Allah to Sulaiman who hid it from us. They took it as their religion and Allah the Almighty revealed His Saying: {And when there came to them a Messenger from Allah confirming what was with them, a party of those who were given the Scripture threw away the Book of Allah behind their backs as if they did not know!}. (Al-Baqarah, 101) and they followed what the devils gave out, i.e. all that blocks the remembrance of Allah.


title: Harut and Marut

text: The story of Harut and Marut posed a major problem for the doctrine of infallible angels. Although angels are not necessarily impeccable in Islam, many scholars teach that angels are mere messengers of God without free-will, thus unable to error.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Some Islamic exegetes deny that Harut and Marut were angels at all and prefer to regard them as ordinary men rather than angels, who learned magic from devils. In Hasan al-Basri's view, it was impossible that angels would teach sins like magic. This view also supported by his fellow Tabi'un scholars, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri, and Qatada ibn al-Nu'man, who also rejected the notion that angels like Harut and Marut could transgress and commit sins. This view is also shared by modern Salafi-scholars who reject the notion that Harut and Marut have been punished by God.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Others accept Harut and Marut as angels, but reject their associated story. Hasan ibn Ali ibn Muhammad, the 11th Imam of the Twelver Shi'ah, after being asked about the truth of the story, refuted the belief that angels may emerge as transgressors, because, he reasoned, they lack freedom to act upon their will and just rely on the Will of God. Pertaining to the Quran's statement: "To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and the earth, and those who are near Him do not disdain to worship Him, nor do they become weary. They glorify [Him] night and day, and they do not flag," he argued that if Harut and Marut had committed oppression and injustice, how could they have been God's representative or messenger on earth?


title: Harut and Marut

text: Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), accepted that Harut and Marut might be fallen angels and argues that general angelic impeccability is the reason for their transgression. Especially due to the obedience of angels, they begin to oppose the children of Adam, leading to their fall in the first place, thus combining the Quranic statement about angels complaining over the creation of Adam, with the verse concerning Harut and Marut.Al-Taftazani (1322 AD –1390 AD) states in his "'Aqaid al-Nasafi" that angels might inadvertently fall into error, but can not become unbelievers. He affirms that Harut and Marut are indeed angels, who taught magic, but they never approved it, therefore have not sinned. He rejects Iblis' angelic nature however. Harut and Marut are not described as "fallen" but "rebuked". Al-Damiri (1341–1405) argues, that the story of Harut and Marut were unreliable and supports his view by statements from Hasan Al Basri and Ibn Abbas, however accepts that Iblis had been an angel once. He uses this argument to refute the claim that the Jurhum were descendants of a fallen angel. In Rumis major work Masnavi, the reader is recommended to remember the story of Harut and Marut, and how their self-righteousness led to their demise. On the other hand, Al-Kalbi (737 AD – 819 AD) reconciled the Quranic narrative with earlier non-Islamic sources, mentioning three angels descending to earth, and giving them the names from the Third Book of Enoch. He explained that one of them returned to heaven, because he repents his sin and the other two changed on earth their names to Harut and Marut.


title: Harut and Marut

text: According to Muslim scholar Ansar Al-'Adl, many interpretations of the verse originated from alleged Judeo-Christian sources that came to be recorded in some works of Quranic exegesis, called Tafsir. Numerous stories have been transmitted about these verses, yet all center around the same basic story. Although not explained by the Quran itself, Muslim exegetes, such as Al-Kalbi and Al-Tha`labi, usually linked the reason of their abode to a narration related to the Watchers known from 3 Enoch. Just as in 3 Enoch, angels complained about humans iniquity, whereupon God offered a test, that the angels might choose three among them to descend to earth, endowed with bodily desires, and prove that they would do better than humans under the same conditions. Accordingly, they choose Aza, Azzaya and Azazel. However, Azazel repented his decision and God allowed him to turn back to heaven. The other two angels failed the test and their names were changed to Harut and Marut. They ended up on earth, introducing men to illicit magic.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Abdullah Yusuf Ali, translator of the Qur'an into English, asserts that the source of this story may be the Jewish Midrash:


title: Harut and Marut

text: Among the Jewish traditions in the Midrash was a story of two angels who asked Allah's permission to come down to earth but succumbed to temptation, and were hung up by their feet at Babylon for punishment. Such stories about sinning angels who were cast down to punishment were believed in by the early Christians, also (see II Peter 2:4, and Epistle of Jude, verse 6). Contrary, most recent research in the field of Islamic Studies has established that the earliest possible date for the Midrash dealing with the Harut & Marut narrative, dates from the 11th century and thus postdates the advent of Islam by more than 400 years:


title: Harut and Marut

text: Careful comparison of the developed narratives of the "Tale of Harut and Marut" and the Midrash amid the larger literary corpora within which they are embedded suggests that the Muslim Harut wa-Marut complex both chronologically and literarily precedes the articulated versions of the Jewish Midrash. What is likely the oldest Hebrew form of the story dates from approximately the eleventh century, several hundred years after the bulk of the Muslim evidence.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Similarly, Patricia Crone argues, that the Midrash actually adapted the story from Muslims, but the names were changed to Azazel and Samyaza, terms for fallen angels in other earlier Jewish scriptures, however, regarded as unauthentic by Rabbinic Judaism.


title: Harut and Marut

text: Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi believes that angels are regarded as "mujarradat" who are "intrinsically intelligible" and free from the limitations of material existence. A "mujarrad" being, as described by Shirazi, is not necessarily something "that exists as an abstraction in the mind". It can be a concrete reality as in the case of God, the angels or the intellect.


title: Il Canto degli Italiani

text: "'" (; "The Song of the Italians") is a canto written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro in 1847, and is the current national anthem of Italy. It is best known among Italians as the "'" (, "Mameli's Hymn"), after the author of the lyrics, or "" (, "Brothers of Italy"), from its opening line. The piece, in a time signature of 4/4 and the key of B-flat major, consists of six strophes, and a refrain sung at the end of each strophe. The sixth group of verses, which is almost never performed, recalls the text of the first strophe.


title: Il Canto degli Italiani

text: The song was very popular during the unification of Italy and in the following decades, although after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861) the "Marcia Reale" (Royal March), the official hymn of the House of Savoy composed in 1831 by order of King Charles Albert of Sardinia, was chosen as the anthem of the Kingdom of Italy. "Fratelli d'Italia", of clear republican and Jacobin connotation, was difficult to reconcile with the outcome of the unification of Italy, a monarchy.


title: Il Canto degli Italiani

text: After the Second World War, Italy became a republic, and "Il Canto degli Italiani" was chosen, on 12 October 1946, as a provisional national anthem, a role that it later preserved while remaining the de facto anthem of the Italian Republic. Over the decades there were several unsuccessful attempts to make it the official national anthem, until it finally gained de jure status on 4 December 2017.