title: Hypotenuse

text: In geometry, a hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle. The length of the hypotenuse can be found using the Pythagorean theorem, which states that the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. For example, if one of the other sides has a length of 3 (when squared, 9) and the other has a length of 4 (when squared, 16), then their squares add up to 25. The length of the hypotenuse is the square root of 25, that is, 5.


title: Hypotenuse

text: The word "hypotenuse" is derived from Greek (sc. or ), meaning "[side] subtending the right angle" (Apollodorus), "hupoteinousa" being the feminine present active participle of the verb "hupo-teinō" "to stretch below, to subtend", from "teinō" "to stretch, extend". The nominalised participle, , was used for the hypotenuse of a triangle in the 4th century BCE (attested in Plato, "Timaeus" 54d). The Greek term was loaned into Late Latin, as "hypotēnūsa". The spelling in "-e", as "hypotenuse", is French in origin (Estienne de La Roche 1520).


title: Hypotenuse

text: The length of the hypotenuse can be calculated using the square root function implied by the Pythagorean theorem. Using the common notation that the length of the two legs of the triangle (the sides perpendicular to each other) are "a" and "b" and that of the hypotenuse is "c", we have


title: Hypotenuse

text: The Pythagorean theorem, and hence this length, can also be derived from the law of cosines by observing that the angle opposite the hypotenuse is 90° and noting that its cosine is 0:


title: Hypotenuse

text: Many computer languages support the ISO C standard function hypot("x","y"), which returns the value above. The function is designed not to fail where the straightforward calculation might overflow or underflow and can be slightly more accurate and sometimes significantly slower.


title: Hypotenuse

text: Some scientific calculators provide a function to convert from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates. This gives both the length of the hypotenuse and the angle the hypotenuse makes with the base line ("c" above) at the same time when given "x" and "y". The angle returned is normally given by atan2("y","x").


title: Hypotenuse

text: By means of trigonometric ratios, one can obtain the value of two acute angles, formula_3and formula_4, of the right triangle.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: Jism () is a 2003 Indian erotic thriller film edited and directed by Amit Saxena, written by Mahesh Bhatt, produced by Pooja Bhatt and Sujit Kumar Singh under the banner Fish Eye Network [P] Ltd and Shreya Creations, which starred Bipasha Basu and John Abraham, the latter making his début in Bollywood films. The music for the film was scored by M. M. Keeravani.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: Kabir (John Abraham), an unhappy, rather poor, alcoholic lawyer lives a playboy lifestyle in Pondicherry. Kabir's best friends, Siddharth (Vinay Pathak), a policeman and Vishal (Ranvir Shorey), his colleague, try to keep him away from trouble. He meets Sonia Khanna (Bipasha Basu Singh Grover), the beautiful wife of a travelling millionaire, Rohit Khanna (Gulshan Grover).


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: They have a stormy affair and Kabir finds himself falling madly in love with Sonia. He suggests that she get a divorce, but she says that her husband is capable of killing them both. Sonia finally convinces Kabir to murder her husband and make it look like an accident. She also suggests that they should alter Rohit's will so that she inherits all his property. Kabir tries to reason with her, but she goes ahead and alters the will naming him as executor. Rohit's sister, Priyanka, tries to warn him that Sonia is only interested in money and has already killed Rohit's first wife. Siddharth, who is in charge of the case, suspects Kabir and is caught between friendship and duty. Kabir tries to get Sonia to leave the city with him. It is only when she sends someone to kill him that he realises that all she wants is the money.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: Kabir confronts Sonia and she denies that she ever loved him. When he threatens to turn himself in and confess his crime to the police, she shoots him. He's wounded in the abdomen but manages to stand up. Sonia rushes to him as he stands and tells him that she has always loved him. They share a passionate kiss, and then the gun goes off in Sonia's hands. It is revealed that Kabir had shot Sonia in the stomach as he lays her down on the sofa.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: He then flees and calls Siddharth and tells him and Vishal to meet him at the beach. They meet Kabir who apologizes to them and says that he just wants to see the sunrise one last time. As they watch the sunrise, Kabir has a vision of Sonia walking towards him. Kabir smiles to himself and then dies of his injury.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: The soundtrack of "Jism" soundtrack was released on 18 December 2002. The music was composed by M. M. Keeravani under the pseudonym M. M. Kreem, with lyrics by Neelesh Misra and Sayeed Quadri. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, around 1.5 million units of this soundtrack were sold.


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, writing "On the whole, JISM exhibits Bipasha Basu's talent and anatomy to its fullest. Coupled with a hot title and eroticism in plenty, the curiosity-value for the film increases manifold. But the subject and its treatment being city-centric, the film will appeal more to the big city audience. The reasonable price at which it is sold at should prove to be advantageous." Deepa Gumaste of Rediff.com wrote "Director Saxena makes a bold debut with Jism and definitely deserves credit for daring to be different. Jism is a first of its kind theme for Bollywood and, therefore, worth a look." India Today stated "Pooja Bhatt's film is not original, but it's good fun."


title: Jism (2003 film)

text: A sequel titled "Jism 2", starring Sunny Leone, Randeep Hooda and Arunoday Singh, directed by Pooja Bhatt was released worldwide on 3 August 2012.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: Harmonia axyridis is a large lady beetle or ladybug species that is most commonly known as the harlequin, multicoloured Asian, or Asian lady beetle. This is one of the most variable species in the world, with an exceptionally wide range of colour forms. It is native to eastern Asia, but has been artificially introduced to North America and Europe to control aphids and scale insects. It is now common, well known, and spreading in those regions, and has also established in Africa and widely across South America. This species is conspicuous in North America, where it may locally be known as the Halloween beetle, as it often invades homes during October to overwinter.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: When the species first arrived in the UK, it was labelled in jest as the "many-named ladybird" due to the great quantity of vernacular names. Among those already listed other names include multivariate, southern, Japanese, and pumpkin ladybird.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: "Harmonia axyridis" is a typical coccinellid beetle in shape and structure, being domed and having a "smooth" transition between its elytra (wing coverings), pronotum, and head. It ranges from 5.5–8.5mm in size. The common color form, f. "succinea", is orange or red in colouration with 0–22 black spots of variable size. The other usual forms, f. "conspicua" and f. "spectabilis", are uniformly black with, respectively, two or four red markings. The pronotum is white with variable black patterning, ranging from a few black spots in an M formation to almost entirely black. The underside is dark with a wide reddish-brown border.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: However, numerous other forms have also been recorded. Extreme forms may be entirely black, or feature complex patterns of black, orange and red.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: The large size of this species is usually the first clue to its identification. Despite variation, this species does not generally overlap in pronotal or elytral pattern with any other species, except in unmarked orange or red forms. In Europe it is similar to the much smaller "Adalia decempunctata", while in America it is similar to the much narrower "Mulsantina picta" and spotless forms of "Adalia bipunctata". When identification is difficult, the underside pattern usually enables a reliable conclusion. Identification is most simple for the common forms, while less common varieties may take longer to identify. They always have reddish-brown legs and are obviously brown on the underside of the abdomen, even in the melanic colour forms.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: "Harmonia axyridis" is native to eastern Asia from central Siberia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan in the west, through Russia south to the Himalayas and east to the Pacific coast and Japan, including Korea, Mongolia, China, and Taiwan. As a voracious predator, it was identified as a biocontrol agent for aphids and scale insects. Consequently, it has been introduced into greenhouses, crop fields, and gardens in many countries, including the United States and parts of Europe. The species is now established in North America (United States, Canada, Mexico), Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama), South America (Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Chile), Europe (Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Poland), Israel, and South Africa.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: This species spread across continents because of human-mediated processes. They became established in North America as the result of introductions into the United States in an attempt to control the spread of aphids. In the last three decades, this insect has spread throughout the US and Canada, and has been a prominent factor in controlling aphid populations. The first introductions into the US took place as far back as 1916. The species repeatedly failed to establish in the wild after successfully controlling aphid populations, but an established population of beetles was observed in the wild near New Orleans, Louisiana, in about 1988. In the following years, it quickly spread to other states, being occasionally observed in the Midwest within five to seven years and becoming common in the region by about 2000. The species was also established in the Northwest by 1991, and the Northeast by 1994, aided by additional introductions from the native range, rather than just reaching there from the Southeast. Reportedly, it has heavily fed on soybean aphids (which recently appeared in the US after coming from China), supposedly saving farmers vast sums of money in 2001.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: Worldwide routes of propagation of "H. axyridis" were described with genetic markers in 2010. The populations in eastern and western North America originated from two independent introductions from the native range. The South American and African populations both originated independently from eastern North America. The European population also originated from eastern North America, but with substantial genetic admixture with individuals of the European biocontrol strain (estimated at about 40%).


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: This species is widely considered to be one of the world’s most invasive insects, partly due to their tendency to overwinter indoors and the unpleasant odor and stain left by their bodily fluids when frightened or crushed, as well as their tendency to bite humans. In Europe it is currently increasing to the detriment of indigenous species, its voracious appetite enabling it to outcompete and even consume other ladybirds. The harlequin ladybird is also highly resistant to diseases that affect other ladybird species, and carries a microsporidian parasite to which it is immune, but that can infect and kill other species. Native ladybird species have experienced often dramatic declines in abundance in areas invaded by "H. axyridis". In 2015, it was declared the fastest invading species in the UK, spreading throughout the country after the first sighting was confirmed in 2004.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: In addition to its household pest status, the harlequin has been reported to be a minor agricultural pest that is inadvertently harvested with crops in Iowa, Ohio, New York State, and Ontario. This can cause visible and sensory contamination. Contamination of grapes by this beetle has been found to alter the taste of wine.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: "Harmonia axyridis" becomes dormant in cooler months, though it will move around whenever the temperature reaches about . Because the beetles will use crevices and other cool, dry, confined spaces to overwinter, significant numbers may congregate inside walls if given a large enough opening.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: Large aggregations are often seen in autumn. The beetles have pheromones to signal to each other. However, many aggregation cues are visual, picking out sites at both long (light-coloured structures that are distinct from their surroundings) and short (pre-existing aggregations to join) distances. Non-volatile long-chain hydrocarbons laid down by previous aggregations also play a significant role in site selection. Both visual and hydrocarbon cues are more important than volatile pheromones.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: They often congregate in sunlit areas because of the heat available, so even on fairly cold winter days, some of the hibernating beetles will "wake up" because of solar heating. Large populations can be problematic because they can form swarms and linger in an area for a long time. The beetles can form groups that stay in upper corners of windows. This beetle has been also found to be attracted to dark screening material for its warmth. It has good eyesight; it will return from a location to which it is removed, and is known to give a small bite if provoked.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: "Harmonia axyridis", like other ladybeetles or ladybirds, uses isopropyl methoxy pyrazine as a defensive chemical to deter predation, and also carries this chemical in its hemolymph at much higher concentrations than many other ladybeetle species, along with species-/genus-specific defensive compounds such as harmonine. These insects will "reflex bleed" when agitated, releasing hemolymph from their legs. The liquid has a foul odour (similar to that of dead leaves), a bitter taste, and can stain porous materials. Some people have allergic reactions, including allergic rhinoconjunctivitis when exposed to these beetles. Occasionally, the beetles will bite humans, presumably in an attempt to acquire salt, although many people feel a pricking sensation as a beetle walks across the skin. Bites normally do no more harm than cause irritation, although a small number of people are allergic to bites. Their natural predators include birds, spined soldier bugs, ants (such as "Solenopsis invicta") and other coccinellids, including fellow "Harmonia axyridis".


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: These beetles can be difficult to identify because of their variations in color, spot size, and spot count of the elytra. The easiest way to identify "H. axyridis" f. succinea is to look at the pronotum and see whether the black markings look like a letter "W" or "M". This species has more white markings on the pronotum than have most native North American species, though this feature is not useful when attempting to separate it from species in other parts of the world.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: Numerous methods of control have been investigated in areas where this beetle has been introduced and causes a threat to native species and biodiversity and to the grape industry. Methods of control include insecticides, trapping, removal of aggregates of beetles, and mechanically preventing entry to buildings. Methods under development involve the investigation of natural parasites and pathogens, including the use of parasitic sexually transmitted mites and fungal diseases.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: The best methods for dealing with "H. axyridis" in private homes involve sealing openings they may enter. Sweeping and vacuuming are considered effective methods for removing them from homes, though this should be done carefully so as not to trigger reflex bleeding. A nylon stocking placed inside the vacuum cleaner's hose, secured with a rubber band, allows the beetles to be "bagged" rather than collected inside the machine. A trap designed for indoor use was developed which attracts the beetles with a light and seals them in a removable bag, though as the beetles are not strongly attracted to light, this does not work particularly well.


title: Harmonia axyridis

text: "Harmonia axyridis "secretes a number of defensive compounds, one of which, (9Z,17R)-9-Octadecene-1,17-diamine () has been isolated from its hemolymph. This molecule has been reported to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity that includes human pathogens. Antibacterial activity is most pronounced against fast-growing mycobacteria and "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", and the growth of both chloroquine-resistant "Plasmodium falciparum" strains is also inhibited.


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: Dheeraj Dhoopar (born 20 December 1984) is an Indian actor and model who appears in Hindi television. He is best known for his portrayal of Prem Bharadwaj in "Sasural Simar Ka" and Karan Luthra in "Kundali Bhagya" for which he received several awards including Gold Awards and Indian Television Academy Awards for Best Actor Male (Popular).


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: Dhoopar was born to Sushil Dhoopar on 20 December 1984. He married actress Vinny Arora on 16 November 2016 in Delhi. They first met on the sets of "Maat Pitaah Ke Charnon Mein Swarg." In April 2022, they announced that they were expecting their first child. On 10 August 2022, the couple had their first child, a boy, Zayn.


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: Dhoopar started his career as a model and featured in over hundred commercials for brands like Maruti Suzuki, Parker, Dabur Honey, Samsung Galaxy, Videocon Mobile. Before venturing in acting, Dhoopar did an advanced course in fashion designing as well as worked as an airline cabin crew member.


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: Dhoopar made his television debut with "Maat Pitaah Ke Charnon Mein Swarg" as Ansh. He also played Bhavesh Patel in Star Plus's "Behenein", Sushant in "Mrs. Tendulkar" and Shikhar in "Zindagi Kahe – Smile Please". He also made a cameo appearance in Sony TV's "Kuch Toh Log Kahenge".


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: From 2013 to 2017, he portrayed Prem Bhardwaj in Colors TV's "Sasural Simar Ka" opposite Dipika Kakar. He also hosted the grand finale of "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa". From 2017 to 2022, he has played the lead role of Karan Luthra in Zee TV's "Kundali Bhagya" opposite Shraddha Arya.


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: In 2020, Dhoopar portrayed a cameo role of Cheel Akesh and Shakura respectively, opposite Hina Khan in "Naagin 5".


title: Dheeraj Dhoopar

text: In June 2022, Dhoopar quitted "Kundali" to take a paternity break for his pregnant wife Vinny Arora. In the same month he signed Colors TV's upcoming series "Sherdil Shergill" opposite Surbhi Chandna as Rajkumar Yadav. The following month Dhoopar announced that he is participating in "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa 10" but walked out of the show in Week 4 owing to health and personal issues.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG; "") was the first modern establishment of a republic of Georgia, which existed from May 1918 to February 1921. Recognized by all major European powers of the time, DRG was created in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and allowed territories formerly under Saint Petersburg's rule to assert independence. In contrast to Bolshevik Russia, DRG was governed by a moderate, multi-party political system led by the Georgian Social Democratic Party (Menshevik).


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Initially, DRG was a protectorate of the German Empire. However, after the German defeat in World War I, the country was partially occupied by British troops, who were sent there to counter a proposed Bolshevik invasion. The British had to leave in 1920 because of the Treaty of Moscow, in which Russia recognized Georgia's independence in exchange for DRG not hosting forces hostile to Russia's interests. Now that Western European powers were no longer present in Georgia, in February 1921 the Bolshevik Red Army proceeded to invade the country, leading to DRG's defeat and collapse by March of that year, with Georgia becoming a Soviet republic. The Georgian Government, led by Prime Minister Noe Jordania, moved to France where it continued to work in exile. The government-in-exile was recognized by France, Britain, Belgium, and Poland as the only legitimate government of Georgia until the 1930s, when growing Soviet power and political processes in Europe made it impractical to do so indefinitely.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Although short-lived, DRG continues to be an inspiration for modern day Georgia due to its legacy of democracy and pluralism. DRG was one of the first countries in Europe to grant women the right to vote as enshrined in the Georgian constitution, which was “unusual in most European constitutions at the time”. Several women of varying backgrounds were elected to the Georgian parliament, as were representatives of nine ethnicities, including Germans, Russians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, and Jews. DRG also saw the founding of Georgia's first fully fledged university, thereby realizing a longstanding goal cherished by generations of Georgian intellectuals whose efforts were, up to that point, consistently frustrated by the Imperial Russian authorities.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: After the February Revolution of 1917 and collapse of the tsarist administration in the Caucasus, most powers were held by the Special Transcaucasian Committee ("Ozakom", short for "Osobyi Zakavkazskii Komitet") of the Russian Provisional Government. All of the soviets in Georgia were firmly controlled by the Georgian Social Democratic Party, who followed the lead of the Petrograd Soviet and supported the Provisional Government. The Bolshevist October Revolution changed the situation drastically. The Caucasian Soviets refused to recognize Vladimir Lenin's regime. Threats from the increasingly Bolshevistic deserting soldiers of the former Caucasus army, ethnic clashes and anarchy in the region forced Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani politicians to create a unified regional authority known as the Transcaucasian Commissariat (November 14, 1917) and later a legislature, the Sejm (January 23, 1918). On April 22, 1918, the Sejm – Nikolay Chkheidze was the president – declared the Transcaucasus an independent democratic federation with an executive Transcaucasian government chaired by Evgeni Gegechkori and later by Akaki Chkhenkeli.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Many Georgians, influenced by the ideas of Ilia Chavchavadze and other intellectuals from the late 19th century, insisted on national independence. A cultural national awakening was further strengthened by the restoration of the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church (March 12, 1917) and the establishment of a national university in Tbilisi (1918). In contrast, the Georgian Mensheviks regarded independence from Russia as a temporary step against the Bolshevik revolution and considered calls for Georgia's independence chauvinistic and separatist. The union of Transcaucasus was short-lived though. Undermined by increasing internal tensions and by pressure from the German and Ottoman empires, the federation collapsed on May 26, 1918, when Georgia declared independence. Two days later both Armenia and Azerbaijan declared their independence as well.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Georgia was immediately recognized by Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The young state had to place itself under German protection and to cede its largely Muslim-inhabited regions (including the cities of Batumi, Ardahan, Artvin, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki) to the Ottoman government (Treaty of Batum, June 4). However, German support enabled the Georgians to repel the Bolshevik threat from Abkhazia. German forces were almost certainly under the command of Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein. Following the German defeat in the First World War, British occupation forces arrived in the country, with the permission of the Georgian government. Relations between the British and the local population were more strained than they had been with the Germans. British-held Batumi remained out of Georgia's control until 1920. In December 1918, a British force was deployed in Tbilisi too.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Georgia's relations with its neighbors were uneasy. Territorial disputes with Armenia, Denikin's White Russian government and Azerbaijan led to armed conflicts in the first two cases. A British military mission attempted to mediate these conflicts in order to consolidate all anti-Bolshevik forces in the region. To prevent White Russian army forces from crossing into the newly established states, the British commander in the region drew a line across the Caucasus that Denikin would not be permitted to cross, giving both Georgia and Azerbaijan temporary relief. The threat of invasion by Denikin's forces, notwithstanding the British position, brought Georgia and Azerbaijan together in a mutual defense alliance on June 16, 1919.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: On February 14, 1919, Georgia held parliamentary elections won by the Social Democratic Party of Georgia with 81.5% of the vote. On March 21, Noe Zhordania formed the third government, which had to deal with armed peasants' revolts incited by local Bolshevik activists and largely supported from Russia. These became more troublesome when carried out by ethnic minorities such as Abkhazians and Ossetians.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: However, the land reform was finally well handled by the Georgian Social Democratic Party government and the country established a multi-party system in sharp contrast with the "dictatorship of the proletariat" established by the Bolsheviks in Russia. In 1919, reforms in the judicial system and local self-governance were carried out. Abkhazia was granted autonomy. Nevertheless, ethnic issues continued to trouble the country, especially on the part of the Ossetians, as witnessed in May 1920.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The year 1920 was marked by increased threats from the Russian SFSR. With the defeat of the White movement and the Red Armies' advance to the Caucasus frontiers, the republic's situation became extremely tense. In January, the Soviet leadership offered Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan an alliance against the White armies in South Russia and the Caucasus. The Government of the DRG refused to enter any military alliance, referring to its policy of neutrality and noninterference, but suggested negotiations towards a political settlement of the relations between two countries in the hope that this might lead to recognition of Georgia's independence by Moscow. Severe criticism of the Georgian refusal by Russian leaders was followed by several attempts by local communists to organize mass anti-government protests, which ended unsuccessfully.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: In April 1920, the 11th Red Army established a Soviet regime in Azerbaijan, and the Georgian Bolshevik Sergo Orjonikidze requested permission from Moscow to advance into Georgia. Though official consent was not granted by Lenin and "Sovnarkom", local Bolsheviks attempted to seize the Military School of Tbilisi as a preliminary to a coup d'état on May 3, 1920, but were successfully repelled by General Kvinitadze. The Georgian government began mobilization and appointed Giorgi Kvinitadze commander-in-chief. In the meantime, in response to Georgia's alleged provision of assistance to the Azeri nationalist rebellion in Ganja, Soviet forces attempted to penetrate Georgian territory, but were repelled by Kvinitadze in brief border clashes at the Red Bridge. Within a few days, peace talks resumed in Moscow. Under the terms of the controversial Moscow Peace Treaty of May 7, Georgian independence was recognized in return for the legalization of Bolshevik organizations and a commitment not to allow foreign troops on Georgian soil.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: A vote at the League of Nations on granting membership to Georgia was held on December 16, 1920, with the resolution defeated: 10 voted for it, 13 against, and 19 abstained. Georgia gained "de jure" recognition from the Allies on January 27, 1921. This, however, did not prevent the country from being annexed by the Red Army to the Soviet Russia.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: After Azerbaijan and Armenia had been Sovietized by the Red Army, Georgia found itself surrounded by hostile Soviet republics. Moreover, as the British had already evacuated the Caucasus, the country was left without any foreign support.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: According to Soviet sources, relations with Georgia deteriorated over alleged violations of the peace treaty, re-arrests of Georgian Bolsheviks, obstruction of convoys passing through Georgia to Armenia, and a strong suspicion that Georgia was aiding armed rebels in the North Caucasus. For its part, Georgia accused Moscow of fomenting anti-government riots in various regions of the country, and of provoking border incidents in the Zaqatala region, disputed with the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. The Lori “neutral zone” was another challenge, as Soviet Armenia categorically demanded that Georgia withdraw the troops that had been stationed in the region since the fall of the Armenian Republic.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: "The Act of Independence of Georgia", declared on May 26, 1918, in brief, outlined the main principles of the nation's future democracy. According to this act, “the Democratic Republic of Georgia equally guarantees to every citizen within her limits political rights irrespective of nationality, creed, social rank or sex". The first government, formed the same day, was led by Noe Ramishvili. In October 1918, the National Council of Georgia has renamed the Parliament and announced new elections to be held on February 14, 1919.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: During its two-year history (1919–1921), the newly elected Constituent Assembly of Georgia, with Nikolay Chkheidze as president, adopted 126 laws; these included laws on citizenship, local elections, defence, the official language, agriculture, the legal system, political and administrative arrangements for ethnic minorities (including an act about the People's Council of Abkhazia), a national system of public education, and some other laws and regulations on fiscal and monetary policy, railways, and trade and domestic production. On February 21, 1921, facing the onset of Soviet aggression, the Constituent Assembly , the first modern fundamental law in the nation's history, placing emphasis on human rights.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The country was governed as a type of decentralized unitary parliamentary republic with an executive, with the constitution stating that "the state belongs to all the people. Parliament exercises the sovereignty of the nation within the framework of this constitution." The three decentralized regions included the Abkhaz Autonomy, the Autonomy of Muslim Georgia, and the Zaqatala Region, which were granted autonomy in local affairs. The Chairman of the Government was the chief executive post, approved by the parliament for one-year terms of office (the post could not be held for more than two consecutive terms). The chairman appointed ministers and was responsible for governing the country and representing Georgia in foreign relations. However, the person in the position did not have some privileges common to dual-heads of state and heads of government, such as the ability to dissolve parliament or veto legislation. The 1919 government of Georgia adopted a law on jury trials. The right to trial by jury for serious criminal, political and print cases was incorporated into the 1921 Constitution. The highest court was the Senate, indirectly elected by the parliament. Any changes to the constitution must have first been approved by 2/3 of the legislature, and then a majority of the voting public in a referendum.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Under the terms of the Moscow Peace Treaty of May 7, Georgian independence was recognized by Soviet Russia in return for the legalization of Bolshevik organizations and a commitment not to allow foreign troops on Georgian soil.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The independence of the Democratic Republic of Georgia was "de jure" recognized by Romania, Argentina, Germany, Turkey, Belgium, United Kingdom, France, Japan, Italy, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Siam and Estonia, among other countries.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile continued to be recognized by many European states as the only legal government of Georgia for some time after 1921. The Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile lasted until 1954 continuing to oppose Soviet rule in Georgia.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Georgia's 1918–1921 borders were formed through the border conflicts with its neighbors and ensuing treaties and conventions.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: In the north, Georgia was bordered by various Russian Civil War polities until Bolshevik power was established in the North Caucasus in the spring of 1920. The international border between Soviet Russia and Georgia was regulated by the 1920 Moscow Treaty. During the Sochi conflict with the Russian White movement, Georgia briefly controlled the Sochi district in 1918.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: In the southwest, the DRG's border with the Ottoman Empire changed with the course of World War I and was modified after the Ottoman defeat in the hostilities. Georgia regained control over Artvin, Ardahan, part of Batum province, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkalaki. Batum was finally incorporated into the republic after the British evacuated the area in 1920. The Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 granted Georgia control over eastern Lazistan including Rize and Hopa. However, the Georgian government, unwilling to become embroiled in a new war with Turkish Revolutionaries, took no steps to take control of these areas.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The border disputes with the First Republic of Armenia over a part of Borchalo district led to a brief war between the two countries in December 1918. With the British intervention the Lori "neutral zone" was created, only to be reoccupied by Georgia after the fall of the Armenian Republic at the end of 1920.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: In the southeast, Georgia was bordered by Azerbaijan, which claimed control of Zaqatala district, and parts of . The dispute, however, never led to hostilities and relations between the two countries were generally peaceful until the Sovietization of Azerbaijan.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The 1919 projects and the 1921 constitution of Georgia granted Abkhazia, Ajaria and Zaqatala a degree of autonomy. Article 107 of the constitution gave autonomy to Abkhazia and Zaqatala. However, due to the Red Army invasion, the exact nature of this autonomy was never determined. It did however serve as the first time in the modern era that Abkhazia was defined as a geographic entity.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The territory of the Democratic Republic of Georgia included some territories that today belong to other countries. It was circa 107,600 km, compared to 69,700 km in modern Georgia. The Soviet occupation of the DRG led to significant territorial rearrangements by which Georgia lost almost a third of its territory. Artvin, Ardahan and part of Batumi provinces were ceded to Turkey, Armenia gained control of Lori, and Azerbaijan obtained Zaqatala district. A portion of the Georgian marches along the Greater Caucasus Mountains was taken by Russia.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Forming principally on the territories of the Tiflis and Kutais governorates, as well as the Batum Oblast and Sukhumi Okrug, the Georgian Democratic Republic following the Treaty of Batum consisted of 1,607,000 Georgians, 535,000 Armenians, 200,000 Muslims, and 510,000 others, totalling 2,852,000 inhabitants.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: By 1921, following the fall of the Armenian and Azerbaijani republics and Georgia's reacquisition of the Lori and Zakatal districts, the population reached 2,677,000 according to a Soviet source, with an urban population of 475,000 (17.7%). This is supported by the results of the 1926 Soviet census in Georgia some 5 years later which indicated a population of 2,667,000, indicative of the loss of the aforementioned Lori and Zakatal districts to neighbouring Armenia and Azerbaijan respectively.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The People's Guard was the privileged military force in the country. Founded on September 5, 1917, as the Worker's Guard, it was later renamed the Red Guard, and finally the People's Guard. It was a highly politicized military structure placed directly under the control of parliament rather than the Ministry of War. Throughout its existence (1917–1921), the Guard was under the command of the Menshevik activist Valiko Jugheli.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The DRG also formed its own regular army. The only part of it was armed in peacetime, the majority being on furlough and following their callings. If the republic had been in danger, they would have been called up by the General Staff, supplied with arms, and allotted to their places. General Giorgi Kvinitadze was commander-in-chief, two times.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: From March 1919 to October 1920, the Georgian army was reorganized. It consisted of 3 infantry brigades (later coalesced into one division), 1 cavalry brigade, 2 fortress regiments, 3 artillery brigades, a sapper battalion, a telegraph platoon, a motor squadron with an armored car detachment, a cavalry regiment, and a military school. A People's Guard consisted of 4 regular battalions. It could further mobilize 18 battalions, i.e., one division. Thus, in 1920, the Georgian army and People's Guard together comprised 16 infantry battalions (1 army division and an NG regiment), 1 sapper battalion, 5 field artillery divisions, 2 cavalry legions, 2 motor squadrons with 2 armored car detachments, an air detachment and 4 armored trains. Beyond staff and fortress regiments, the army totaled 27,000. Mobilization could increase this number to 87,000. The Georgian navy possessed 1 destroyer, 4 fighter aircraft, 4 torpedo boats, 4 mineboats, and 10 steamboats.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Although the republic had access to almost 200,000 veterans of World War I with skilled generals and officers, the government failed to build up an effective defense system, a factor that greatly contributed to its collapse.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: When the DRG was proclaimed, the Georgian economy was not in a strong position. While economic issues were a European-wide issue in 1918 (owing to the First World War), as a new state Georgia faced considerably more difficulties. There were two main issues immediately facing Georgia: economic dependence on Russia, and the need to industralise a largely agrarian society. Further causing issues was a lack of direction from the Georgian government, which also tried to implement a socialist-based policy into economic matters, despite lacking the financial backing to keep the economy stable.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: As part of the Russian Empire Georgia had been partially industrialised, with natural resource extraction becoming a major feature of exports from the region. However, as historian Stephen F. Jones has noted, imperial Russian policies served the metropolitan needs and imperial integration and there was no regional "strategy of economic development beyond state production of raw materials, the development of transport, military supplies and specialized crops such as tea, tobacco, and cotton." This was also seen on an ethnic scale: the overwhelming amount of traders and business-owners in Georgia were ethnic Armenian, while the administration was composed largely of ethnic Russians. Ethnic Georgians mainly remained in agriculture or took up unskilled labour positions in the cities. This division of labour between ethnic groups proved difficult to reconcile once the DRG was established, and in the aftermath of the Georgian–Armenian War in December 1918 anti-Armenian sentiment throughout Georgia made the Armenian-dominated business class reluctant to help implement needed changes to improve the economy.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: Agriculture had been the dominant feature of the Georgian economy, and would remain as such throughout the existence of the DRG. Approximately 79% of the population worked on the land, though the methods used were outdated and far from efficient. This caused food shortages in the cities, and despite 81% of all arable land being used for grains, imports were also required, as was a ban on exporting food products like grain, fruits and vegetables.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The manganese industry at Chiatura was of great importance to European metallurgy, providing about 70% of the world supply of manganese in the early 20th century. Traditionally, Georgia served also as an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of Batumi and Poti. However the First World War had a devastating effect on this industry as well. The Black Sea had been blockaded throughout the war, severely limiting the amount of exports. This led to a drastic reduction in economic activity in Georgia: the workforce at Chiatura dropped from 3,500 in 1913 to 250 in 1919, with the numbers only starting to rise in 1920. Emerging markets in Brazil and India also meant that the Chiatura mines were less important on a global scale, further weakening their output.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The lack of international recognition and the government's only partially successful policy in the field hindered the economic development of the DRG and the country suffered an economic crisis. Some signs of improvement were observed towards 1920–1921.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The most important event in the country's cultural life during this turbulent period was indeed the foundation of a national university in Tbilisi (now known as the Tbilisi State University) (1918), a long-time dream of Georgians thwarted by the Imperial Russian authorities for several decades. Other educational centers included gymnasiums in Tbilisi, Batumi, Kutaisi, Ozurgeti, Poti and Gori, Tbilisi Military School, Gori Pedagogical Seminary, the Pedagogical Seminary for Women, etc. Georgia also had a number of schools for ethnic minorities.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The National Museum of Georgia, theaters in Tbilisi and Kutaisi, the Tbilisi National Opera House, and the National Academy of Art were in the vanguard of cultural life.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The newspapers "Sakartvelos Respublika" ("Republic of Georgia"), "Sakartvelo" ("Georgia"), "Ertoba" ("Unity"), "Samshoblo" ("Motherland"), "Sakhalkho Sakme" ("Public Affair"), "The Georgian Messenger" and "The Georgian Mail" (both published in English) led the national press.


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: The 1918–1921 independence of Georgia, though short-lived, was of particular importance for the development of national feeling among Georgians, a major factor that made the country one of the most active independent forces within the Soviet Union. Leaders of the national movement of the late 1980s frequently referred to the DRG as a victory in the struggle against the Russian Empire and drew parallels with the contemporary political situation, portraying a somewhat idealized image of the Georgian "First Republic".


title: Democratic Republic of Georgia

text: On April 9, 1991, the independence of Georgia was restored when the Act of the Restoration of State Independence of Georgia was adopted by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia. The national symbols used by the DRG were re-established as those of the newly independent nation and remained in use until 2004. May 26, the day of the establishment of the DRG, is still celebrated as a national holiday — the Independence Day of Georgia.


title: Yung Bleu

text: Jeremy Biddle (born April 5, 1994), known professionally as Yung Bleu and Bleu Vandross, is an American rapper and singer. He is best known for his 2020 single "You're Mines Still", which peaked at number 18 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 after it was remixed by Drake.


title: Yung Bleu

text: Biddle was born and raised in Mobile, Alabama. He started making music in 2013, releasing a string of mixtapes that had his name circulate throughout the Southern scene, and eventually signed a deal with Columbia Records through Boosie Badazz's label Bad Azz Music Syndicate.


title: Yung Bleu

text: In 2017, he came back on the scene with the singles "Miss It" and "Ice on My Baby" from the mixtape "Investments 4", which featured a guest appearance from YoungBoy Never Broke Again. In 2018, he released a remix for "Miss It" featuring Kid Ink and for "Ice on My Baby" featuring Kevin Gates.


title: Yung Bleu

text: In 2020, he released the mixtape "Inv 5" and the EP "Bleu Vandross", which were his last releases under Columbia Records and Bad Azz Music. Later that year, he signed a deal with Empire Distribution and a management deal with Meek Mill's label Dream Chasers Records. The same year, he released the EP "Love Scars: The 5 Stages of Emotions", which included the single "You're Mines Still". A remix for "You're Mines Still" featuring Canadian rapper and singer Drake was released through OVO Sound on October 16, 2020, after the two artists were connected by basketball player DeMarcus Cousins. The remix peaked at number 18 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, which helped "Love Scars: The 5 Stages of Emotions" to enter the "Billboard" 200 chart.


title: Yung Bleu

text: In 2021, Biddle released the singles "Thieves in Atlanta" featuring Coi Leray, "Baddest" featuring Chris Brown and 2 Chainz, and "Way More Close (Stuck in a Box)" featuring Big Sean. All of the three songs appeared on Biddle's debut album "Moon Boy", released on July 23 of the same year. The album features guest appearances from Drake, Gunna, Big Sean, Kehlani, Chris Brown, 2 Chainz, A Boogie wit da Hoodie, Moneybagg Yo, H.E.R., and Kodak Black.


title: Yung Bleu

text: On September 16, 2022, he released "Love in the Way" with Nicki Minaj, the lead single from his second studio album "Tantra", which was released on November 11, 2022. The album also includes guest appearances by Fivio Foreign, Lucky Daye, Ty Dolla $ign, Ne-Yo, Zayn, Kelly Rowland and Lil Wayne.


title: Jack Butland

text: Jack Butland (born 10 March 1993) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for club Crystal Palace.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland began his career with Birmingham City, and made his debut in the Football League in September 2011 while on loan to League Two club Cheltenham Town. Butland established himself as first choice keeper at St Andrew's in 2012–13 and was transferred to Premier League club Stoke City in January 2013 for a fee of £3.3 million. He was loaned back to Birmingham and went on to play in every league match in 2012–13. Butland then spent time out on loan at Barnsley before making his Premier League debut in January 2014. He had loan spells with Leeds United and Derby County in 2014 before he became Stoke's number one in 2015–16. Butland spent seven seasons at Stoke, winning their player of the year award twice. He joined Crystal Palace in October 2020.


title: Jack Butland

text: At international level, he represented England at all age-group levels, playing for the under-17 team that won the 2010 European championships and for the under-20s at the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He was part of the England squad at UEFA Euro 2012, and later that year was the first-choice goalkeeper for the Great Britain team at the Summer Olympics. He became the youngest goalkeeper to play for the senior England team when he made his debut in August 2012.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland was born in Southmead, Bristol, and raised in nearby Clevedon where he attended Yeo Moor Primary School and Clevedon Community School. After playing for Clevedon United and the Bristol-based Jamie Shore Academy, he joined Birmingham City as a schoolboy in 2007 and began a two-year scholarship in the club's youth academy when he left school in 2009. During his time at school Butland was a keen rugby player. While still aged 16, Butland made his reserve-team debut, and he signed his first professional contract, of two-and-a-half years, as soon as he turned 17 in March 2010. Named Birmingham City's Young Player of the Year at the end of the 2009–10 season, his progress was interrupted in October 2010 by a broken hand requiring surgery. By the following April he had recovered well enough to be given a first-team squad number before the Premier League match against Wolverhampton Wanderers as cover, in case Ben Foster's injury or Colin Doyle's illness prevented either from taking part in the match.


title: Jack Butland

text: Soon after Butland made his England under-21 debut in September 2011, he joined League Two club Cheltenham Town on loan for a month to gain experience of first-team football. He went straight into the starting eleven to make his Football League debut at home to Macclesfield Town on 10 September 2011, displacing Scott Brown who had until then made 107 consecutive starts for the club. Butland had little to do as Cheltenham won the match 2–0. While still out on loan, Butland signed a new contract with Birmingham to expire in June 2015. The initial month was later extended by a further two months, to begin after his return from under-21 duty in mid-October. Butland was short-listed for November's League Two Player of the Month award, and finished his loan spell with seven clean sheets from his twelve appearances. Cheltenham teammate Steve Elliot suggested that Butland had "everything he needs to play at the very top level", and where some players lack the attitude required to succeed, "Jack's head is screwed on, he knows what he wants and what he has to do to get there."


title: Jack Butland

text: In February 2012, Butland rejoined Cheltenham on a youth loan until the end of the season. He went straight into the starting eleven, and kept a clean sheet against AFC Wimbledon to help maintain Cheltenham in the automatic promotion positions. After Birmingham's first-choice goalkeeper, Boaz Myhill, injured a thumb, Butland was recalled by his parent club with three matches remaining in the regular season. Over his two spells with Cheltenham, he conceded 26 goals from 24 League Two appearances, and was regularly scouted by bigger clubs; the "Daily Telegraph" reported that "no fewer than 52 scouts" had watched him at one match.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland was on the bench for the last few matches of Birmingham's 2011–12 season as the club reached the play-off semi-finals. During the close season, Birmingham were reported to have turned down a bid of £6 million for the player from Southampton, newly promoted to the Premier League. Manager Lee Clark made it clear that it would take a "crazy" offer for him to be sold. Butland himself stated that he wanted regular first-team football for the coming season, and after Ben Foster's departure for West Bromwich Albion during the close season, he was given squad number 1 for 2012–13. He finally played his first competitive match for Birmingham – three days after his full England debut – on the opening day of the 2012–13 Football League season, in a 1–1 draw at home to Charlton Athletic.


title: Jack Butland

text: After a potential sale of the club fell through in December, the chairman confirmed that player sales would be needed in the transfer window to relieve Birmingham's financial difficulties. Butland told the club that he was not prepared to leave for a club where he would not be playing regular first-team football, and was reported to have rejected the chance to speak to European champions Chelsea about a possible transfer. Lee Clark felt that Butland's determination to play football ahead of "profile and financial rewards" reflected the player's "unbelievable maturity", and suggested that Birmingham had lost potentially "the best goalkeeper in Europe". Butland was ever-present in league matches for the 2012–13 season, and was voted Birmingham's Young Player of the Year.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with Premier League club Stoke City on 31 January 2013. As part of the deal, he returned to Birmingham City on loan for the remainder of the season. According to Stoke, the fee was an initial £3.3 million, rising to £3.5 million. On his return to Stoke for the 2013–14 season, he found himself third choice behind Asmir Begović and Thomas Sørensen, and on 26 September, he joined Championship club Barnsley on a three-month emergency loan. With Barnsley's only other fit goalkeeper an inexperienced 19-year-old, Butland went straight into the starting eleven for their next match, a 2–1 defeat at Leicester City in which he brought down Jamie Vardy to concede a penalty and was perhaps fortunate to receive only a yellow card. Butland made 13 appearances for Barnsley before being recalled by Stoke on 26 December 2013 after Asmir Begović suffered an injury. On 1 January 2014, Butland made his Premier League debut for the Potters, replacing injured keeper Thomas Sørensen at half time against Everton; the match ended as a 1–1 draw. Butland made his first league start on 12 January 2014 against Liverpool which ended in a 5–3 defeat.


title: Jack Butland

text: On 20 February 2014, Butland joined Championship club Leeds United for the remainder of the 2013–14 season. Stoke manager Mark Hughes believed the move was important for Butland to gain more first-team experience stating that "this opportunity to go to Leeds, where they have a big fanbase and big expectations will be another good step for him." With injury to Leeds' first-choice keeper Paddy Kenny, Butland went straight into the first team, made his debut in a 0–0 draw with Middlesbrough, and was named man of the match. Butland had a tough time with Leeds: he conceded 28 goals in 16 appearances as the team finished in 15th position.


title: Jack Butland

text: On 20 October 2014 Butland joined Derby County on a one-month loan. He played six times for the Rams before returning to Stoke. Butland became back-up to Asmir Begović in the 2014–15 campaign, playing in League Cup and FA Cup matches, and in March 2015 his contract was extended until the summer of 2019. Butland played in three matches in May 2015, keeping clean sheets against Tottenham Hotspur and Burnley.


title: Jack Butland

text: Following the sale of Begović, Butland was handed the number one shirt by Mark Hughes ahead of the 2015–16 season. Butland impressed in a 1–1 draw with Norwich City on 22 August 2015. On 27 October, in the fourth round of the League Cup, he saved from Eden Hazard as Stoke defeated Chelsea in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw. Four days later, Butland was widely praised for another man of the match display as Stoke drew 0–0 with Newcastle United. In March 2016 Butland's contract with the Potters was extended until the summer of 2021. He was ever-present until 26 March, when he suffered a fractured ankle whilst playing for England against Germany, ruling him out for the remainder of the season. Butland made 35 appearances for Stoke in 2015–16 and his performances earned him the club's player of the year award.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland returned from injury in time for the 2016–17 pre-season. However, he missed the opening matches of the season and underwent further surgery on his ankle in September 2016 and again in December 2016, when Hughes revealed the player might miss the rest of the season. He was eventually given the green light to return to training by a specialist in March 2017. He made his return from injury on 22 April against Swansea City. Butland played in the final five matches of the 2016–17 season, keeping two clean sheets as Stoke finished in 13th position. Butland played 36 times in 2017–18 as Stoke were relegated to the Championship. Following relegation, Butland criticised the club's transfer policy, branding it "farcical".


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland remained with Stoke in the Championship in the 2018–19 season. He played 45 times, missing a league match only once, after the birth of his son, and kept 18 clean sheets, the third best in the Championship behind Dean Henderson and Darren Randolph. He was named as player of the season by supporters. Butland began the 2019–20 season in poor form, making several mistakes most notably against Preston North End on 21 August 2019. He was replaced by Adam Federici for the next two league matches, re-taking his place at the start of September. He made another mistake against Nottingham Forest on 27 September 2019 and didn't play again under Nathan Jones. He was reinstated by new manager Michael O'Neill and he worked with a new goalkeeping coach, David Rouse which helped him regain some of his form. The season was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and during the lockdown Butland participated in a campaign making phone calls to vulnerable supporters. The season returned in the summer and Butland sustained a neck injury against Leeds on 9 July, with Adam Davies taking his place for the remainder of the season as Stoke finished in 15th.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland signed for Premier League club Crystal Palace on 16 October 2020 on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee, reported by "BBC Sport" as £1 million.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland made his international debut on 3 October 2008, keeping a clean sheet as the England under-16 team beat their Northern Ireland counterparts 6–0 in a Victory Shield match. He moved up to the under-17s in 2009, and the following year took over as first-choice goalkeeper during the final stages of the European under-17 championships, playing in the final as England defeated Spain under-17s to win the title for the first time. His performances earned him selection as one of two goalkeepers in the 22-man team of the tournament. Butland was part of the under-19 squad that reached the elite qualification round of the 2011 UEFA under-19 championships, but needing to beat Spain under-19s in their last group match, were eliminated at that stage on goal difference after the match ended 1–1.


title: Jack Butland

text: Included in the squad for the finals of the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup, Butland kept clean sheets in all three group matches as England under-20s qualified for the last 16. He conceded only once against the Nigerians in the last 16, but that was enough to defeat an England side that failed to score in any of their four matches.


title: Jack Butland

text: He made his debut for the England under-21 team on 1 September 2011 in the starting eleven for the 2013 European qualifier against Azerbaijan under-21. Although England won by an apparently comfortable six-goal margin, Butland had to be alert to ensure his clean sheet. He kept his place for the next two qualification matches, wins against Iceland and Norway under-21. With Butland as first-choice goalkeeper for the European finals in Israel, England lost all three of their group matches, against Italy under-21, Norway and Israel, so were eliminated at the first opportunity. He said afterwards that the players were embarrassed at failing to do themselves justice.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland was named in Stuart Pearce's 18-man Great Britain squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He was only included after receiving special dispensation from the FA, who had decided that no players in England's Euro 2012 squad would be eligible for selection. He came on as a half-time substitute in a pre-Games friendly against Brazil on 20 July, and according to the "Telegraph", "Only three superb late saves from Jack Butland prevented the scoreline being more emphatic" as Great Britain lost 2–0.


title: Jack Butland

text: Butland started all of Britain's group matches in the tournament and conceded two goals, one in a 1–1 draw with Senegal and the other in a 3–1 victory over the United Arab Emirates. Against Senegal, he cleared the ball straight to the unmarked Sadio Mané, but redeemed himself by rushing out to distract the attacker, who shot wide. In the third group match, against Uruguay, Butland made two good saves from Luis Suárez to keep a clean sheet as Britain won 1–0 and finished top of their group. An attempted punch of Ji Dong-won's shot went through his hands to give South Korea the lead in the quarter-final. The match ended 1–1, and South Korea won the penalty shootout 5–4.


title: Jack Butland

text: During the Games, the British Olympic Association was obliged to remind its athletes of the regulations regarding promotion of companies other than Games sponsors, after Butland and others used Twitter to praise headphones given to British competitors as part of an ambush marketing campaign.


title: Jack Butland

text: Originally named as one of five standby players for England's UEFA Euro 2012 squad, Butland was called into the squad on 25 May after John Ruddy broke a finger in training. He made no appearances, but kept his place when Roy Hodgson named an experimental squad for the first friendly of the 2012–13 season, against Italy in Bern on 15 August. After Joe Hart withdrew from the squad with a back injury, Butland was named in the starting eleven, becoming the youngest ever England international goalkeeper at 19 years 158 days; the previous youngest, Billy Moon, was 64 days older when he first played for England in 1888. Butland conceded once, to a Daniele De Rossi header from a corner, and was replaced at half time by Ruddy. England won the match 2–1.


title: Jack Butland

text: On 12 October 2015, he was handed his second cap and his first competitive international appearance, away to Lithuania at the end of UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying, with England already assured of their place in the tournament. He kept a clean sheet in the 3–0 win in Vilnius, which meant that England's qualification campaign consisted entirely of victories. During the following match, on 26 March, he suffered a fractured ankle after conceding in a friendly away to Germany, ruling him out of the Euros.


title: Jack Butland

text: In January 2014, Butland had his car, an Audi RS5, stolen from his house in Walsall. In December 2015, Butland donated £5,000 to the Great Britain women's deaf football team, to go towards funding for their trip to the 2015 Deaf World Cup.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Nuragic civilization, also known as the Nuragic culture, was a civilization or culture on Sardinia (Italy), the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, which lasted from the 18th century BC (Middle Bronze Age) (or from the 23rd century BC ) up to the Roman colonization in 238 BC. Others date the culture as lasting at least until the 2nd century AD and in some areas, namely the Barbagia, to the 6th century AD or possibly even to the 11th century AD.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The adjective "Nuragic" is neither an autonym nor an ethnonym. It derives from the island's most characteristic monument, the nuraghe, a tower-fortress type of construction the ancient Sardinians built in large numbers starting from about 1800 BC. Today more than 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: No written records of this civilization have been discovered, apart from a few possible short epigraphic documents belonging to the last stages of the Nuragic civilization. The only written information there comes from classical literature of the Greeks and Romans, and may be considered more mythical than historical.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In the Stone Age the island was first inhabited by people who had arrived there in the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages from Europe and the Mediterranean area. The most ancient settlements have been discovered both in central and northern Sardinia (Anglona). Several later cultures developed on the island, such as the Ozieri culture (3200−2700 BC). The economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, and trading with the mainland. With the diffusion of metallurgy, silver and copper objects and weapons also appeared on the island.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In 2014, early Chalcolithic period Sardinia was identified as one of the earliest silver extraction centres in the world. This took place during the 4th millennium BC.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Remains from this period include hundreds of menhirs (called "perdas fittas") and dolmens, more than 2,400 hypogeum tombs called "domus de Janas", the statue menhirs, representing warriors or female figures, and the stepped pyramid of Monte d'Accoddi, near Sassari, which show some similarities with the monumental complex of Los Millares (Andalusia) and the later talaiots in the Balearic Islands. According to some scholars, the similarity between this structure and those found in Mesopotamia are due to cultural influxes coming from the Eastern Mediterranean.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The altar of Monte d'Accoddi fell out of use starting from c. 2000 BC, when the Beaker culture, which at the time was widespread in almost all western Europe, appeared on the island. The beakers arrived in Sardinia from two different regions: firstly from Spain and southern France, and secondly from Central Europe, through the Italian Peninsula.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Bonnanaro culture was the last evolution of the Beaker culture in Sardinia (c. 1800–1600 BC), and displayed several similarities with the contemporary Polada culture of northern Italy. These two cultures shared common features in the material culture such as undecorated pottery with axe-shaped handles. These influences may have spread to Sardinia via Corsica, where they absorbed new architectural techniques (such as cyclopean masonry) that were already widespread on the island.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: New peoples coming from the mainland arrived on the island at that time, bringing with them new religious philosophies, new technologies and new ways of life, making the previous ones obsolete or reinterpreting them.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The widespread diffusion of bronze brought numerous improvements. With the new alloy of copper and tin (or arsenic), a harder and more resistant metal was obtained, suitable for manufacturing tools used in agriculture, hunting and warfare.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: At a later phase of this period (Bonnanaro A2) probably dates the construction of the so-called proto-nuraghe, a platformlike structure that marks the first phase of the Nuragic Age. These buildings are very different from the classical nuraghe having an irregular planimetry and a very stocky appearance. They are more numerous in the central-western part of Sardinia, later they spread in the whole Island.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Dating to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the nuraghe, which evolved from the previous proto-nuraghe, are megalithic towers with a truncated cone shape; every Nuragic tower had at least an inner tholos chamber and the biggest towers could have up to three superimposed tholos chambers. They are widespread in the whole of Sardinia, about one nuraghe every three square kilometers.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Early Greek historians and geographers speculated about the mysterious nuraghe and their builders. They described the presence of fabulous edifices, called "daidaleia", from the name of Daedalus, who, after building his labyrinth in Crete, would have moved to Sicily and then to Sardinia.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Modern theories about their use have included social, military, religious, or astronomical roles, as furnaces, or as tombs. Although the question has long been contentious among scholars, the modern consensus is that they were built as defensible homesites, and that included barns and silos.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, archaeological studies have proved the increasing size of the settlements built around some of these structures, which were often located at the summit of hills. Perhaps for protection reasons, new towers were added to the original ones, connected by walls provided with slits forming a "complex nuraghe".


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Among the most famous of the numerous existing nuraghe, are the Su Nuraxi at Barumini, Santu Antine at Torralba, Nuraghe Losa at Abbasanta, Nuraghe Palmavera at Alghero, Nuraghe Genna Maria at Villanovaforru, Nuraghe Seruci at Gonnesa and Arrubiu at Orroli. The biggest nuraghe, such as Nuraghe Arrubiu, could reach a height of about 25–30 meters and could be made up of 5 main towers, protected by multiple layers of walls, for a total of dozens of additional towers. It has been suggested that some of the current Sardinian villages trace their origin directly from Nuragic ones, including perhaps those containing the root "Nur-/Nor-" in their name (like Nurachi, Nuraminis, Nurri, Nurallao, Noragugume).


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Soon Sardinia, a land rich in mines, notably copper and lead, saw the construction of numerous furnaces for the production of alloys which were traded across the Mediterranean basin. Nuragic people became skilled metal workers; they were among the main metal producers in Europe and produced a wide variety of bronze objects. New weapons such as swords, daggers and axes preceded drills, pins, rings, bracelets, statuettes and the votive boats that show a close relationship with the sea. Tin may have drawn Bronze Age traders from the Aegean where copper is available but tin for bronze-making is scarce. The first verifiable smelting slag has come to light, its appearance in a hoard of ancient tin confirms local smelting as well as casting. The usually cited tin sources and trade in ancient times are those in the Iberian Peninsula or from Cornwall. Markets included civilizations living in regions with poor metal resources, such as the Mycenaean civilization, Cyprus and Crete, as well as the Iberian peninsula, a fact that can explain the cultural similarities between them and the Nuraghe civilization and the presence in Nuragic sites of late Bronze Age Mycenaean, west and central Cretan and Cypriote ceramics, as well as locally made replicas, concentrated in half a dozen findspots that seem to have functioned as "gateway-communities.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The late Bronze Age (14th–13th–12th centuries BC) saw a vast migration of the so-called Sea Peoples, described in ancient Egyptian sources. They destroyed Mycenaean and Hittite sites and also attacked Egypt. According to Giovanni Ugas, the Sherden, one of the most important tribes of the sea peoples, are to be identified with the Nuragic Sardinians. This identification has been also supported by Antonio Taramelli, Vere Gordon Childe, Sebastiano Tusa, Vassos Karageorghis and Carlos Roberto Zorea, from the Complutense University of Madrid. Another hypothesis is that they came to the island around the 13th or 12th century after the failed invasion of Egypt. However, these theories remain controversial.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Simonides of Ceos and Plutarch spoke of raids by Sardinians against the island of Crete, in the same period in which the Sea People invaded Egypt. This would at least confirm that Nuragic Sardinians frequented the eastern Mediterranean Sea.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Further proofs come from 13th-century Nuragic ceramics found at Tiryns, Kommos, Kokkinokremnos, Hala Sultan Tekke, and in Sicily, at Lipari, and the Agrigento area, along the sea route linking western to eastern Mediterranean.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The archaeologist Adam Zertal has proposed that the Harosheth Haggoyim of Israel, home of the biblical figure Sisera, is identifiable with the site of "El-Ahwat" and that it was a Nuragic site suggesting that he came from the people of the Sherden of Sardinia. Influences of the Nuragic architecture at El-Ahwat have been noticed also by Bar Shay, from Haifa University.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Archaeologists traditionally define the nuragic phase ranging from 900 BC to 500 BC (Iron Age) as the "era of the aristocracies". Fine ceramics were produced along with more and more elaborate tools and the quality of weapons increased.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: With the flourishing of trade, metallurgical products and other manufactured goods were exported to every corner of the Mediterranean, from the Near East to Spain and the Atlantic. The huts in the villages increased in number and there was generally a large increase in population. The construction of the nuraghes stopped (many were abandoned or partially dismantled starting from 1150 BC) and individual tombs replaced collective burials (Giant's Tombs).


title: Nuragic civilization

text: But the real breakthrough of that period, according to archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, was the political organization which revolved around the parliament of the village, composed by the heads and the most influential people, who gathered to discuss the most important issues.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Around 900 BC the Phoenicians began visiting Sardinia with increasing frequency. The most common ports of call were Caralis, Nora, Bithia, Sulci, Tharros, Bosa and Olbia.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Roman historian Justin describes a Carthaginian expedition led by Malchus in 540 BC against a still strongly Nuragic Sardinia. The expedition failed and this caused a political revolution in Carthage, from which Mago emerged. He launched another expedition against the island, in 509 BC, after the Sardinians attacked the Phoenicians' coastal cities. According to Piero Bartoloni, it was Carthage that attacked the Phoenician cities in the coasts, rather than the natives who lived in those cities with the Phoenicians, for the Phoenician cities destroyed, such as Sulcis or Monte Sirai, he postulated as being inhabited mostly by native Sardinians. The Carthaginians, after a number of military campaigns in which Mago died and was replaced by his brother Hamilcar, overcame the Sardinians and conquered coastal Sardinia, the Iglesiente with its mines and the southern plains. The Nuragic culture may have survived in the mountainous interior of the island.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In 238 BC the Carthaginians, as a result of their defeat by the Romans in the first Punic War, surrendered Sardinia to Rome. Sardinia together with Corsica became a Roman province ("Corsica et Sardinia"), however the Greek geographer Strabo confirms the survival, in the interior of the island, of Nuragic culture even in Imperial times.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Religion had a strong role in Nuragic society, which has led scholars to the hypothesis that the Nuragic civilization was a theocracy.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Some Nuraghe bronzes clearly portray the figures of chief-kings, recognizable by their wearing a cloak and carrying a staff with bosses. Also depicted are other classes, including miners, artisans, musicians, wrestlers (the latter similar to those of the Minoan civilizations) and many fighting men, which has led scholars to think of a warlike society, with precise military divisions (archers, infantrymen). Different uniforms could belong to different cantons or clans, or to different military units. The priestly role may have been fulfilled by women. Some small bronzes also give clues about Nuragic personal care and fashion. Women generally had long hair; men sported two long braids on each side of the face, while their head hair was cut very short or else covered by a leather cap.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Nuragic civilization was probably based on clans, each led by a chief, who resided in the complex nuraghe, with common people living in the nearby villages of stone roundhouses with straw roofs, similar to the modern "pinnettas" of the Barbagia shepherds.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In the late final Bronze Age and in the Early Iron Age phases, the houses were built with a more complex plan, with multiple rooms often positioned around a courtyard; in the Nuragic settlement of Sant'Imbenia, located by the coast, some structures were not used for living purposes, but for the storing of precious metals, food and other goods and they were built around a huge square, interpreted by archaeologists as a marketplace.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The construction of rectangular houses and structures built with dried bricks is attested in some sites across the island since the late Bronze Age.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Water management was essential for the Nuragic people, most complex Nuraghi were provided with at least a well; Nuraghe Arrubiu, for example, presented a complex hydraulic implant for the drainage of water


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Another testimony to the Nuragic prowess in the creation of hydraulic implants is the aqueduct of Gremanu, the only known Nuragic aqueduct yet.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: During the final phase of the Bronze Age and the early Iron Age Sardinia saw the development of proto urban settlements, with open spaces such as paved squares and streets, and structures devoted to specific functions such as metal workshops, the individual houses were provided with storing facilities and were served by infrastructures.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Throughout the second millennium and into the first part of the 1st millennium BC, Sardinia was inhabited by the single extensive and uniform cultural group represented by the Nuragic people.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Centuries later, Roman sources describe the island as inhabited by numerous tribes which had gradually merged culturally. They however maintained their political identities and the tribes often fought each other for control of the most valuable land. The most important Nuragic populations mentioned include the "Balares", the "Corsi" and the "Ilienses", the latter defying the Romanization process and living in what had been called "Civitatas Barbarie" (now Barbagia).


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The representations of animals, such as the bull, belong most likely to pre-Nuragic civilizations, however they kept their importance among the Nuraghe people, and were frequently depicted on ships, bronze vases, used in religious rites. Small bronze sculptures depicting half-man, half-bull figures have been found, as well as characters with four arms and eyes and two-headed deer: they probably had a mythological and religious significance. Another holy animal which was frequently depicted is the dove. Also having a religious role were perhaps the small chiseled discs, with geometrical patterns, known as "pintadera", although their function has not been identified yet.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: A key element of the Nuragic religion was that of fertility, connected to the male power of the Bull-Sun and the female one of Water-Moon. According to the scholars' studies, there existed a Mediterranean-type Mother Goddess and a God-Father ("Babai"). An important role was that of mythological heroes such as Norax, Sardus, Iolaos and Aristeus, military leaders also considered to be divinities.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The excavations have indicated that the Nuragic people, in determinate periods of the year, gathered in common holy places, usually characterized by sitting steps and the presence of a holy pit. In some holy areas, such as "Gremanu" at Fonni, "Serra Orrios" at Dorgali and "S'Arcu 'e Is Forros" at Villagrande Strisaili, there were rectangular temples, with central holy room housing perhaps a holy fire. The deities worshipped are unknown, but were perhaps connected to water, or to astronomical entities (Sun, Moon, solstices).


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Some structures could have a "federal" Sardinian role, such as the sanctuary of Santa Vittoria near Serri (one of the biggest Nuragic sanctuaries, spanning over 20 hectares), including both religious and civil buildings: here, according to Italian historian Giovanni Lilliu, the main clans of the central island held their assemblies to sign alliances, decide wars, or to stipulate commercial agreements. Spaces for trades were also present. At least twenty of such multirole structures are known, including those of Santa Cristina at Paulilatino and of Siligo; some have been re-used as Christian temples (such as the "cumbessias" of San Salvatore in Sinis at Cabras). Some ritual pools and bathtubs were built in the sanctuaries such as the pool of Nuraghe Nurdole, which worked through a system of raceways.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The holy wells were structures dedicated to the cult of waters. Though initially assigned to the 8th–6th centurie BC, due to their advanced building techniques, they most likely date to the earlier Bronze Age, when Sardinia had strong relationships with the Mycenaean kingdoms of Greece and Crete, around the 14–13th century BC.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The architecture of the Nuragic holy wells follows the same pattern as that of the nuraghe, the main part consisting of a circular room with a tholos vault with a hole at the summit. A monumental staircase connected the entrance to this subterranean (hypogeum) room, whose main role is to collect the water of the sacred spring. The exterior walls feature stone benches where offerings and religious objects were placed by the faithful. Some sites also had sacrificial altars. Some scholars think that these could be dedicated to Sardus, one of the main Nuragic divinities.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: A sacred pit similar to those of Sardinia has been found in western Bulgaria, near the village of Garlo.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Starting from the late Bronze Age, a peculiar type of circular structure with a central basin and benches located all around the circumference of the room start to appear in Nuragic settlements, the best example of this type of structure is the ritual fountain of "Sa Sedda e Sos Carros", near Oliena, where thanks to a hydraulic implant of lead pipes water was poured down from the ram shaped protomes inside the basin. Some archaeologists interpreted these buildings, with ritual and religious function, as thermal structures.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Located in various parts of the Island and dedicated to the cult of the healthy waters, these unique buildings are an architectural manifestation that reflects the cultural vitality of the nuragic peoples and their interaction with the coeval mediterranean civilizations. In fact, many scholars see in these buildings foreign Aegean influences.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: They have a rectilinear form with the side walls that extend outwardly. Some, like that of "Malchittu" at Arzachena, are apsidal while others such as the temple of "Sa Carcaredda" at Villagrande Strisaili culminate with a circular room. They are surrounded by sacred precincts called temenos.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Sometimes multiple temples are found in the same location, such as in the case of the huge sanctuary of S'Arcu e sos forros, where many megaron temples with a complex plant were excavated.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The so-called "giant's graves" were collective funerary structures whose precise function is still unknown, and which perhaps evolved from elongated dolmens. They date to the whole Nuragic era up to the Iron Age, when they were substituted by pit graves, and are more frequent in the central sector of the island. Their plan was in the shape of the head of a bull.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Large stone sculptures known as betili (a kind of slender menhir, sometimes featuring crude depiction of male sexual organs, or of female breasts) were erected near the entrance. Sometimes the tombs were built with an "opus isodomum" technique, where finely shaped stones were used, such as in the giant tombs of Madau or at Iloi.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The so-called "bronzetti" ("brunzittos" or "brunzittus" in Sardinian language) are small bronze statuettes obtained with the lost-wax casting technique; they can measure up to and represent scenes of everyday life, characters from different social classes, animal figures, divinities, ships etc.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Most of them had been discovered in various sites of Sardinia; however, a sizeable minority had also been found in Etruscan sites, particularly tombs, of central Italy (Vulci, Vetulonia, Populonia, Magione) and Campania (Pontecagnano) and further south in the greek colony of Crotone.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Giants of Mont'e Prama are a group of 32 (or 40) statues with a height of up to , found in 1974 near Cabras, in the province of Oristano. They depict warriors, archers, wrestlers, models of nuraghe and boxers with shield and armed glove.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Depending on the different hypotheses, the dating of the "Kolossoi" – the name that archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu gave to the statues – varies between the 11th and the 8th century BC. If this is further confirmed by archaeologists, like the C-14 analysis already did, they would be the most ancient anthropomorphic sculptures of the Mediterranean area, after the Egyptian statues, preceding the kouroi of ancient Greece.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: They feature disc-shaped eyes and eastern-like garments. The statues probably depicted mythological heroes, guarding a sepulchre; according to another theory, they could be a sort of Pantheon of the typical Nuragic divinities.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Their finding proved that the Nuragic civilization had maintained its peculiarities, and introduced new ones across the centuries, well into the Phoenician colonization of part of Sardinia.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: In the ceramics, the skill and taste of the Sardinian artisans are manifested mainly in decorating the surfaces of vessels, certainly used for ritual purposes in the course of complex ceremonies, perhaps in some cases even to be crushed at the end of the rite, as the jugs found in the bottom of the sacred wells.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Ceramics also display geometric patterns on lamps, pear-shaped vessels (exclusive of Sardinia) and the askos. Imported (e.g. Mycenaeans) and local forms were found in several sites all over the island. Also found in the Italian peninsula, Sicily, in Spain and in Crete everything points to Sardinia being very well integrated in the ancient trade of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The language (or languages) spoken in Sardinia during the Bronze Age is (are) unknown since there are no written records from the period, although recent research suggests that around the 8th century BC, in the Iron Age, the Nuragic populations may have adopted an alphabet of the "red" (western) type, similar to that used in Euboea.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: According to Eduardo Blasco Ferrer, the Paleo-Sardinian language was akin to Proto-Basque and ancient Iberian with faint Indo-European traces, but others believe it was related to Etruscan. Giovanni Ugas theorize that there were actually various linguistic areas (two or more) in Nuragic Sardinia, possibly Pre-Indo-Europeans and Indo-Europeans.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Several scholars, including Johannes Hubschmid, Max Leopold Wagner and Emidio De Felice, distinguished different pre-Roman linguistic substrates in Sardinia. The oldest, pan-Mediterranean, widespread in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy, Sardinia and North Africa, a second Hispano-Caucasian substrate, which would explain the similarities between Basque and Paleo-Sardinian, and, finally, a Ligurian substrate.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The Nuragic economy, at least at the origins, was mostly based on agriculture (new studies suggest that they were the first to practice viticulture in the western Mediterranean) and animal husbandry, as well as on fishing. Alcoholic beverages like wine and beer were also produced, the cultivation of melons, probably imported from the Eastern Mediterranean, proves the practice of horticulture. As in modern Sardinia, 60% of the soil was suitable only for breeding cattle and sheep. Probably, as in other human communities that have the cattle as traditional economic base, the property of this established social hierarchies. The existence of roads for wagons dating back to the 14th century BC gives the impression of a well organized society. The signs found in the metal ingots testify the existence of a number system used for accounting among the Nuragic people.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Navigation had an important role: historian Pierluigi Montalbano mentions the finding of nuragic anchors along the coast, some weighing . This has suggested that the Nuragic people used efficient ships, which could perhaps reach lengths up to . These allowed them to travel the whole Mediterranean, establishing commercial links with the Mycenaean civilization (attested by the common tholos tomb shape, and the adoration of bulls), Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Lebanon. Items such as Cyprus-type copper ingots have been found in Sardinia, while bronze and early Iron Age Nuragic ceramics have been found in the Aegean region, Cyprus, in Spain (Huelva, Tarragona, Málaga, Teruel and Cádiz) up to the Gibraltar strait, and in Etruscan centers of the Italian peninsula such as Vetulonia, Vulci and Populonia (known in the 9th to 6th centuries from Nuragic statues found in their tombs).


title: Nuragic civilization

text: Sardinia was rich in metals such as lead and copper. Archaeological findings have proven the good quality of Nuragic metallurgy, including numerous bronze weapons. The so-called "golden age" of the Nuragic civilization (late 2nd millennium BC, early 1st millennium BCE) coincided perhaps with the apex of the mining of metals in the island.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The widespread use of bronze, an alloy which used tin, a metal which however was not present in Sardinia except perhaps in a single deposit, further proves the capability of the Nuragic people to trade in the resources they needed. A 2013 study of 71 ancient Swedish bronze objects dated to Nordic Bronze Age, revealed that most of the copper utilized at that time in Scandinavia came from Sardinia and the Iberian peninsula. Iron working is attested on the island since the 13th century BC.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: A genetic study published in "Nature Communications" in February 2020 examined the remains of 17 individuals identified with Nuragic civilization. The samples of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup I2a1b1 (2 samples), R1b1b2a, G2a2b2b1a1, R1b1b (4 samples), J2b2a1 (3 samples) and G2a2b2b1a1a, while the samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to various types of haplogroup T, V, H, J, K and U. The study found strong evidence of genetic continuity between Nuragic civilization and earlier Neolithic inhabitants of Sardinia, who were genetically similar to Neolithic peoples of Iberia and southern France. They were determined to be of about 80% Early European Farmer (EEF) ancestry and 20% Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG) ancestry. They were predicted to be largely descended from peoples of the Neolithic Cardial Ware culture, which spread throughout the western Mediterranean in Southern Europe c. 5500 BC. The Nuragic people were differentiated from many other Bronze Age peoples of Europe by the near absence of steppe-related ancestry.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: A 2021 study by Villalba-Mouco et al. has identified a possible gene flow originating from the Italian peninsula starting from the Chalcolithic. In prehistoric Sardinia, the component associated with Iranian farmers (or Caucasus-related ancestry), present in Mainland Italy since the Neolithic (together with the EEF and WHG components), gradually increases from 0% in the Early Chalcolithic to about 5.8% in the Bronze Age. The absence of the component linked to the Magdalenians would instead exclude contributions from the Chalcolithic of the south of the Iberian peninsula.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: According to a 2022 study by Manjusha Chintalapati et al., ""In Sardinia, a majority of the Bronze Age samples do not have Steppe pastoralist-related ancestry. In a few individuals, we found evidence for steppe ancestry"" which would arrive in ~2600 BC.


title: Nuragic civilization

text: The following results were obtained concerning eye pigmentation, as well as of Hair follicles and skin, from the study on ancient DNA of 44 individuals who had lived during the Nuragic period, coming from central and north-western Sardinia: the eye color is blue in 16% of the examined samples and dark in the remaining 84%. Hair color is 9% blond or dark blond and 91% dark brown or black. The skin color is intermediate for 50%, intermediate or dark for 16% and dark or very dark for the remaining 34%.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: C dynamic memory allocation refers to performing manual memory management for dynamic memory allocation in the C programming language via a group of functions in the C standard library, namely , , , and .


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: The C++ programming language includes these functions; however, the operators and provide similar functionality and are recommended by that language's authors. Still, there are several situations in which using codice_1/codice_2 is not applicable, such as garbage collection code or performance-sensitive code, and a combination of codice_3 and placement codice_1 may be required instead of the higher-level codice_1 operator.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: Many different implementations of the actual memory allocation mechanism, used by , are available. Their performance varies in both execution time and required memory.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: The C programming language manages memory statically, automatically, or dynamically. Static-duration variables are allocated in main memory, usually along with the executable code of the program, and persist for the lifetime of the program; automatic-duration variables are allocated on the stack and come and go as functions are called and return. For static-duration and automatic-duration variables, the size of the allocation must be compile-time constant (except for the case of variable-length automatic arrays). If the required size is not known until run-time (for example, if data of arbitrary size is being read from the user or from a disk file), then using fixed-size data objects is inadequate.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: The lifetime of allocated memory can also cause concern. Neither static- nor automatic-duration memory is adequate for all situations. Automatic-allocated data cannot persist across multiple function calls, while static data persists for the life of the program whether it is needed or not. In many situations the programmer requires greater flexibility in managing the lifetime of allocated memory.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: These limitations are avoided by using dynamic memory allocation, in which memory is more explicitly (but more flexibly) managed, typically by allocating it from the an area of memory structured for this purpose. In C, the library function codice_3 is used to allocate a block of memory on the heap. The program accesses this block of memory via a pointer that codice_3 returns. When the memory is no longer needed, the pointer is passed to codice_8 which deallocates the memory so that it can be used for other purposes.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: The original description of C indicated that codice_9 and codice_10 were in the standard library, but not codice_3. Code for a simple model implementation of a storage manager for Unix was given with codice_12 and codice_8 as the user interface functions, and using the codice_14 system call to request memory from the operating system. The 6th Edition Unix documentation gives codice_12 and codice_8 as the low-level memory allocation functions. The codice_3 and codice_8 routines in their modern form are completely described in the 7th Edition Unix manual.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: Some platforms provide library or intrinsic function calls which allow run-time dynamic allocation from the C stack rather than the heap (e.g. codice_19). This memory is automatically freed when the calling function ends.


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: However, the size of the array is fixed at compile time. If one wishes to allocate a similar array dynamically without using a variable-length_array, which is not guaranteed to be supported in all C11 implementations, the following code can be used:


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: This computes the number of bytes that ten integers occupy in memory, then requests that many bytes from codice_3 and assigns the result to a pointer named codice_29 (due to C syntax, pointers and arrays can be used interchangeably in some situations).


title: C dynamic memory allocation

text: Because codice_3 might not be able to service the request, it might return a null pointer and it is good programming practice to check for this: