title: Oxide

text: Many metal oxides arise by decomposition of other metal compounds, e.g. carbonates, hydroxides, and nitrates. In the making of calcium oxide, calcium carbonate (limestone) breaks down upon heating, releasing carbon dioxide:


title: Oxide

text: The reaction of elements with oxygen in air is a key step in corrosion relevant to the commercial use of iron especially. Almost all elements form oxides upon heating with oxygen atmosphere. For example, zinc powder will burn in air to give zinc oxide:


title: Oxide

text: The production of metals from ores often involves the production of oxides by roasting (heating) metal sulfide minerals in air. In this way, (molybdenite) is converted to molybdenum trioxide, the precursor to virtually all molybdenum compounds:


title: Oxide

text: Noble metals (such as gold and platinum) are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen.


title: Oxide

text: Important and prevalent nonmetal oxides are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. These species form upon full or partial oxidation of carbon or hydrocarbons. With a deficiency of oxygen, the monoxide is produced:


title: Oxide

text: With excess oxygen, the dioxide is the product, the pathway proceeds by the intermediacy of carbon monoxide:


title: Oxide

text: Elemental nitrogen () is difficult to convert to oxides, but the combustion of ammonia gives nitric oxide, which further reacts with oxygen:


title: Oxide

text: The chemical produced on the largest scale industrially is sulfuric acid. It is produced by the oxidation of sulfur to sulfur dioxide, which is separately oxidized to sulfur trioxide:


title: Oxide

text: Oxides have a range of structures, from individual molecules to polymeric and crystalline structures. At standard conditions, oxides may range from solids to gases. Solid oxides of metals usually have polymeric structures at ambient conditions.


title: Oxide

text: Although most metal oxides are crystalline solids, some oxides are molecules. Examples of molecular oxides are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. All simple oxides of nitrogen are molecular, e.g., NO, NO, NO and NO. Phosphorus pentoxide is a more complex molecular oxide with a deceptive name, the real formula being PO. Tetroxides are rare, with a few more common examples being ruthenium tetroxide, osmium tetroxide, and xenon tetroxide.


title: Oxide

text: Reduction of metal oxide to the metal is practiced on a large scale in the production of some metals. Many metal oxides convert to metals simply by heating, (see Thermal decomposition). For example, silver oxide decomposes at 200 °C:


title: Oxide

text: Most often, however, metals oxides are reduced by a chemical reagent. A common and cheap reducing agent is carbon in the form of coke. The most prominent example is that of iron ore smelting. Many reactions are involved, but the simplified equation is usually shown as:


title: Oxide

text: Some metal oxides dissolve in the presence of reducing agents, which can include organic compounds. Reductive dissolution of ferric oxides is integral to geochemical phenomena such as the iron cycle.


title: Oxide

text: Because the M-O bonds are typically strong, metal oxides tend to be insoluble in solvents, though they may be attacked by aqueous acids and bases.


title: Oxide

text: Dissolution of oxides often gives oxyanions. Adding aqueous base to gives various phosphates. Adding aqueous base to gives polyoxometalates. Oxycations are rarer, some examples being nitrosonium (), vanadyl (), and uranyl (). Of course many compounds are known with both oxides and other groups. In organic chemistry, these include ketones and many related carbonyl compounds. For the transition metals, many oxo complexes are known as well as oxyhalides.


title: Oxide

text: The chemical formulas of the oxides of the chemical elements in their highest oxidation state are predictable and are derived from the number of valence electrons for that element. Even the chemical formula of O, tetraoxygen, is predictable as a group 16 element. One exception is copper, for which the highest oxidation state oxide is copper(II) oxide and not copper(I) oxide. Another exception is fluoride, which does not exist as one might expect—as FO—but as OF.


title: Getty Oil

text: Getty Oil was an American oil marketing company with its origins as part of the large integrated oil company founded by J. Paul Getty.


title: Getty Oil

text: J. Paul Getty incorporated Getty Oil in 1942. He had previously worked in the oil fields of Oklahoma along with his father George Getty. When George died, he left J. Paul with $500,000 and a projection that he would destroy the family business.


title: Getty Oil

text: Starting in 1949, J. Paul Getty negotiated a 30-year old concession in the neutral zone between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Gordon Getty and his family inherited a 40% interest in the company when J. Paul Getty died in 1976.


title: Getty Oil

text: In 1984, after entering into a binding agreement to sell Getty and its 2.3-billion-barrel stockpile of proven oil reserves to Pennzoil, Gordon Getty struck a dramatic deal to sell the company to Texaco.


title: Getty Oil

text: On November 19, 1985, in the case of "Texaco, Inc. v. Pennzoil, Co.", Pennzoil won a US$10.53 billion verdict against Texaco in the largest civil verdict in U.S. history as a result of the violation of the binding agreement. Following extension litigation seeking to overturn the verdict, Texaco filed for bankruptcy, after which Pennzoil agreed to settle the case for $3 billion.


title: Getty Oil

text: While the reserves were sold, only some of the refineries changed hands, and Getty continued to exist as a downstream entity. Getty gas stations in the Northeast were sold off as a condition of the buyout. The company became known as Getty Petroleum Marketing Inc.


title: Getty Oil

text: Getty Petroleum Marketing was sold to Lukoil in 2000, and Lukoil sold it to Cambridge Securities LLC in February 2011. Getty Petroleum filed for bankruptcy protection (Chapter 11) on December 5, 2011.


title: Getty Oil

text: At one point, Getty Oil owned a majority stake of ESPN, before Getty's purchase by Texaco which then sold ESPN to ABC in 1984.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Neville O'Riley Livingston (10 April 1947 – 2 March 2021), known professionally as Bunny Wailer, was a Jamaican singer-songwriter and percussionist. He was an original member of reggae group The Wailers along with Bob Marley and Peter Tosh. A three-time Grammy Award winner, he is considered one of the longtime standard-bearers of reggae music. He was also known as Jah B, Bunny O'Riley, and Bunny Livingston.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Wailer was born Neville O'Riley Livingston on 10 April 1947 in Kingston. He spent his earliest years in the village of Nine Mile in Saint Ann Parish. It was there that he first met Bob Marley, and the two young boys befriended each other quickly. The boys both came from single-parent families; Livingston was brought up by his father, Marley by his mother. Later, Wailer's father Thaddeus "Thaddy Shut" Livingston lived with Marley's mother Cedella Booker in Trenchtown and had a daughter with her named Pearl Livingston. Peter Tosh had a son, Andrew Tosh, with Wailer's sister Shirley, making Andrew his nephew.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Wailer had originally gone to audition for Leslie Kong at Beverley's Records in 1962, around the same time his step-brother Bob Marley was cutting "Judge Not". Wailer had intended to sing his first composition, "Pass It On", which at the time was more ska-oriented. However, Wailer was late getting out of school and missed his audition. A few months later, in 1963, he formed "The Wailing Wailers" with Marley and friend Peter Tosh, and the short-term members Junior Braithwaite and Beverley Kelso. Wailer tended to sing lead vocals less often than Marley and Tosh in the early years, but when Marley left Jamaica in 1966 for Delaware in the US, and was briefly replaced by Constantine "Vision" Walker, Wailer began to record and sing lead vocals on some of his own compositions, such as "Who Feels It Knows It", "I Stand Predominant", and "Sunday Morning". Wailer's style of music was influenced by gospel music and the soul singer Curtis Mayfield. In 1967, he recorded "This Train", based on a gospel standard, for the first time, at Studio One.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Wailer was arrested on charges of possession of cannabis in June 1967 and served a 14-month prison sentence. Around this time he, Bob Marley, and Peter Tosh signed an exclusive recording agreement with Danny Sim's JAD Records and an exclusive publishing agreement with Sim's music publishing company Cayman Music.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: As the Wailers regularly changed producers in the late 1960s, Wailer continued to contribute songs to the group's repertoire. The music critic Kwame Dawes says that Wailer's song lyrics were carefully crafted and literary in style, and he remained a key part of the group's distinctive harmonies. Wailer sang lead on such songs as "Dreamland" (a cover of El Tempos' "My Dream Island", which soon became his signature song) "Riding High", "Brainwashing", and in the bridge of the Wailers' song, "Keep On Moving" (sung in the style of Curtis Mayfield of the Impressions), produced by Lee "Scratch" Perry. In 1971, the Wailers recorded Bunny Wailer's song "Pass It On", which he said he wrote in 1962; it was released as a dubplate mix on JAD's "Original Cuts" compilation. This version of the song features different lyrics and music in the verses to the later versions of "Pass It On" – Wailer would later reuse these in "Innocent Blood". By 1973, each of the three founding Wailers operated his own label, Marley with Tuff Gong, Tosh with H.I.M. Intel Diplo, and Bunny Wailer with Solomonic. He sang lead vocals on "Reincarnated Souls", the B-side of the Wailers first Island single of the new era, and on two tracks on the Wailers last trio LP, ""Burnin"'": "Pass it On" and "Hallelujah Time". By now he was recording singles in his own right, cutting "Searching For Love", "Life Line", "Trod On", "Arab Oil Weapon", and "Pass It On" (a new recording of the Wailers song) for his own label.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Bunny Wailer toured with the Wailers in England and the United States, but soon became reluctant to leave Jamaica. He and Tosh were more marginalised in the group as the Wailers attained international success, and attention was increasingly focused on Marley. Wailer subsequently left the Wailers in 1973 and adopted the name "Bunny" in pursuit of a solo career after balking when Chris Blackwell wanted the Wailers to tour freak clubs in the United States, stating that it was against his Rastafari principles. Before leaving the Wailers, Wailer had become more focused on his spiritual faith. He identified with the Rastafari movement, as did the other Wailers. He also composed much of his own material as well as re-recording a number of cuts from the Wailers' catalogue. Wailer recorded primarily in the roots style, in keeping with his often political and spiritual messages; his album "Blackheart Man" was well received. According to the journalist Peter Mason, writing in the Guardian newspaper, Blackheart Man "is widely felt to be one of reggae’s highest peaks".


title: Bunny Wailer

text: After leaving the Wailers, Wailer experimented with disco on his album "Hook Line & Sinker", while "Sings the Wailers" reworks many of The Wailers songs with the backing of Jamaican session musicians, Sly and Robbie. He also had success recording in the typically apolitical, more pop, dancehall style.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Wailer's music had dancehall and rockers influences, best exemplified by the album "Bunny Wailer Sings the Wailers" on which he reinterpreted some of the Wailers material as a solo roots singer with roots reggae-based backing by Sly and Robbie. The album, produced by Bunny Wailer, was recorded at Harry J Studio. Some of these tracks are reworked classic Wailers tracks such as "Dreamland", a cover of El Tempos' "My Dream Island" with slightly reworked lyrics that became Bunny's signature song. This was recorded in 1966 by Clement Coxsone Dodd, and in 1972 with Lee "Scratch" Perry; it was released as a 7" in 1971 with a U-Roy version on the B-side. Another classic is "Dancing Shoes", first recorded in the mid-1960s as a driving ska/soul classic with Bunny Wailer on lead vocals.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: Wailer won the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album three times; in 1991 for the album "Time Will Tell: A Tribute to Bob Marley", in 1995 for "Crucial! Roots Classics", and in 1997 for "Hall of Fame: A Tribute to Bob Marley's 50th Anniversary". He was also featured on the album "True Love" by Toots and the Maytals, which won the Grammy Award in 2004 for Best Reggae Album, and showcased many notable musicians including; Willie Nelson, Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Trey Anastasio, Gwen Stefani / No Doubt, Ben Harper, Bonnie Raitt, Manu Chao, The Roots, Ryan Adams, Keith Richards, Toots Hibbert, Paul Douglas, Jackie Jackson, Ken Boothe, and The Skatalites.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In August 2012, it was announced that Bunny Wailer would receive Jamaica's fifth highest honour, the Order of Jamaica.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In 2016, he played a month-long 'Blackheart Man' tour to celebrate the 40th anniversary of his 1976 album.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In October 2017, he was awarded the Order of Merit by the Jamaican government, the nation's fourth-highest honour.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In October 2019, a commemorative blue plaque dedicated by the Nubian Jak Community Trust honoring Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, and Bunny Wailer was placed at the former site of Basing Street Studios in London, where "Catch a Fire" and "Burnin'" were completed.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In November 2019, Wailer received a Pinnacle Award in New York from the Coalition to Preserve Reggae.


title: Bunny Wailer

text: In October 2018, Wailer suffered a minor stroke, resulting in speech problems. After suffering another stroke in July 2020, he was hospitalized at Andrews Memorial Hospital in Kingston, Jamaica, where he eventually died on 2 March 2021 at the age of 73, of complications from the stroke he suffered the previous year.


title: Finn Carter

text: Elizabeth Fearn "Finn" Carter is an American former actress. She is best known for her role in the 1990 film "Tremors", starring Kevin Bacon and Fred Ward.


title: Finn Carter

text: Carter was born in Greenville, Mississippi (U.S.). She is the daughter of Hodding Carter III, a former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State with President Jimmy Carter’s administration and his second wife Patricia Derian Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs. Her mother is the former Margaret Ainsworth Wolfe. Finn graduated high school from Walnut Hill School for the Arts in Natick, Massachusetts. One year at Skidmore College in Saratoga Springs, New York, and her remaining college years as a theatre student at Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana.


title: Finn Carter

text: Carter began her career in the theatre and was a member of the Circle Repertory Company in New York. She created the role of Effie Herrington at San Diego's Old Globe Theatre in "Up In Saratoga", written by Terrence McNally and directed by Jack O'Brien. Her second West Coast theatre appearance was at the Pasadena Playhouse in a revival of "Biloxi Blues". At the same time, she began acting on television, playing Sierra Estaban Reyes Montgomery in the CBS daytime soap opera "As the World Turns" from 1985 to 1988 and in a short reprise in 1994. After leaving daytime TV, she guest-starred in a number of television shows before making her big-screen debut in a starring role in the 1989 romantic comedy film "How I Got Into College" opposite Anthony Edwards.


title: Finn Carter

text: In 1990, Carter played Rhonda LeBeck in the comedy monster film "Tremors" opposite Kevin Bacon and Fred Ward. She received the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination for her performance in that film. She later had the recurring role in the ABC drama series "China Beach" as Nurse Linda Matlock Lanier. In 1992, she played the leading role in the action film "Sweet Justice" and in 1996 had a supporting part in Rob Reiner's drama "Ghosts of Mississippi". The following years, she guest-starred on "Law & Order", "Murder, She Wrote", "", "ER", "The Outer Limits", "NYPD Blue", "Chicago Hope", "Judging Amy", "Strong Medicine" and "". Carter was also a regular cast member in the short-lived Fox sitcom "Secret Service Guy" in 1997. She also had a number of leading roles on many made-for-television movies. Her final screen appearance was in the 2005 independent film "Halfway Decent", co-starring with Ernie Hudson.


title: Finn Carter

text: Carter was married from 1987 to 1994 to actor Steven Weber, whom she met on the set of "As the World Turns" when he played the character of Kevin Gibson (from 1985 to 1986). Her second marriage, to James Woodruff (1997–2007), also ended in divorce. She has two daughters from that marriage.


title: Finn Carter

text: On July 30, 2019, Carter was arrested in Las Vegas, Nevada, and booked on one count of possessing a stolen vehicle and 14 counts of possessing a credit card without the cardholder's consent. Both charges are felonies. Prosecutors have 90 days to file a criminal complaint. Carter was released from custody by a justice of the peace with the promise to return for an October court date.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Indian nationalism is an instance of territorial nationalism, which is inclusive of all of the people of India, despite their diverse ethnic, linguistic and religious backgrounds. Indian nationalism can trace roots to pre-colonial India, but was fully developed during the Indian independence movement which campaigned for independence from British rule. Indian nationalism quickly rose to popularity in India through these united anti-colonial coalitions and movements. Independence movement figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru spearheaded the Indian nationalist movement. After Indian Independence, Nehru and his successors continued to campaign on Indian nationalism in face of border wars with both China and Pakistan. After the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 and the Bangladesh Liberation War, Indian nationalism reached its post-independence peak. However by the 1980s, religious tensions reached a melting point and Indian nationalism sluggishly collapsed. Despite its decline and the rise of religious nationalism; Indian nationalism and its historic figures continue to strongly influence the politics of India and reflect an opposition to the sectarian strands of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism.


title: Indian nationalism

text: India has been unified under many emperors and governments in history. Ancient texts mention India under emperor Bharata and Akhand Bharat, these regions roughly form the entities of modern-day greater India. The Maurya Empire was the first to unite all of India, and South Asia (including parts of Afghanistan). In addition, much of India has also been unified under a central government by empires, such as the Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire, Mughal Empire, Vijayanagara Empire, Maratha Empire, etc.


title: Indian nationalism

text: India's concept of nationhood is based not merely on territorial extent of its sovereignty. Nationalistic sentiments and expression encompass that India's ancient history, as the birthplace of the Indus Valley civilisation, as well as four major world religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Indian nationalists see India stretching along these lines across the Indian subcontinent.


title: Indian nationalism

text: India today celebrates many kings and queens for combating foreign invasion and domination, such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Kittur Chennamma, Maharana Pratap of Rajputana, Prithviraj Chauhan and Tipu Sultan. The kings of Ancient India, such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka of the Magadha Empire, are also remembered for their military genius, notable conquests and remarkable religious tolerance.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Akbar was a Mughal emperor, was known to have a good relationship with the Roman Catholic Church as well as with his subjects – Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. He forged familial and political bonds with Hindu Rajput kings. Although previous Sultans had been more or less tolerant, Akbar took religious intermingling to new level of exploration. He developed for the first time in Islamic India an environment of complete religious freedom. Akbar undid most forms of religious discrimination, and invited the participation of wise Hindu ministers and kings, and even religious scholars to debate in his court.


title: Indian nationalism

text: The consolidation of the British East India Company's rule in the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century brought about socio-economic changes which led to the rise of an Indian middle class and steadily eroded pre-colonial socio-religious institutions and barriers. The emerging economic and financial power of Indian business-owners and merchants and the professional class brought them increasingly into conflict with the British authorities. A rising political consciousness among the native Indian social elite (including lawyers, doctors, university graduates, government officials and similar groups) spawned an Indian identity and fed a growing nationalist sentiment in India in the last decades of the nineteenth century. The creation in 1885 of the Indian National Congress in India by the political reformer A.O. Hume intensified the process by providing an important platform from which demands could be made for political liberalisation, increased autonomy, and social reform. The leaders of the Congress advocated dialogue and debate with the Raj administration to achieve their political goals. Distinct from these moderate voices (or loyalists) who did not preach or support violence was the nationalist movement, which grew particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and in Punjab. Notable but smaller movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas across the south.


title: Indian nationalism

text: The controversial 1905 partition of Bengal escalated the growing unrest, stimulating radical nationalist sentiments and becoming a driving force for Indian revolutionaries.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Mohandas Gandhi pioneered the art of "Satyagraha", typified with a strict adherence to ahimsa (non-violence), and civil disobedience. This permitted common individuals to engage the British in revolution, without employing violence or other distasteful means. Gandhi's equally strict adherence to democracy, religious and ethnic equality and brotherhood, as well as activist rejection of caste-based discrimination and untouchability united people across these demographic lines for the first time in India's history. The masses participated in India's independence struggle for the first time, and the membership of the Congress grew over tens of millions by the 1930s. In addition, Gandhi's victories in the Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha in 1918–19, gave confidence to a rising younger generation of Indian nationalists that India could gain independence from British rule. National leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Mohandas Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad and Badshah Khan brought together generations of Indians across regions and demographics, and provided a strong leadership base giving the country political direction.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Indian nationalism is as much a diverse blend of nationalistic sentiments as its people are ethnically and religiously diverse. Thus the most influential undercurrents are more than just "Indian" in nature. The most controversial and emotionally charged fibre in the fabric of Indian nationalism is religion. Religion forms a major, and in many cases, the central element of Indian life. Ethnic communities are diverse in terms of linguistics, social traditions and history across India.


title: Indian nationalism

text: An important influence upon Hindu consciousness arises from the time of Islamic empires in India. Entering the 20th century, Hindus formed over 75% of the population and thus unsurprisingly the backbone and platform of the nationalist movement. Modern Hindu thinking desired to unite Hindu society across the boundaries of caste, linguistic groups and ethnicity. In 1925, K.B. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in Nagpur, Maharashtra, which grew into the largest civil organisation in the country, and the most potent, mainstream base of Hindu nationalism.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar coined the term "Hindutva" for his ideology that described India as a "Hindu Rashtra", a Hindu nation. This ideology has become the cornerstone of the political and religious agendas of modern Hindu nationalist bodies like the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad. Hindutva political demands include revoking Article 370 of the Constitution that grants a special semi-autonomous status to the Muslim-majority state of Kashmir, adopting a uniform civil code, thus ending a special legal frameworks for different religions in the country. These particular demands are based upon ending laws that Hindu nationalists consider to be special treatment offered to different religions.


title: Indian nationalism

text: In 1906–1907, the All-India Muslim League was founded, created due to the suspicion of Muslim intellectuals and religious leaders with the Indian National Congress, which was perceived as dominated by Hindu membership and opinions. However, Mahatma Gandhi's leadership attracted a wide array of Muslims to the independence struggle and the Congress Party. The Aligarh Muslim University and the Jamia Millia Islamia stand apart – the former helped form the Muslim league, while the JMI was founded to promote Muslim education and consciousness upon nationalistic and Gandhian values and thought.


title: Indian nationalism

text: While prominent Muslims like Allama Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan embraced the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations, other major leaders like Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Maulana Azad and most of Deobandi clerics strongly backed the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian independence struggle, opposing any notion of Muslim nationalism and separatism. The Muslim school of Indian nationalism failed to attract Muslim masses and the Islamic nationalist Muslim League enjoyed extensive popular political support. The state of Pakistan was ultimately formed following the Partition of India.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Indian nationalists led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to make what was then British India, as well as the 562 princely states under British paramountcy, into a single secular, democratic state. The All India Azad Muslim Conference, which represented nationalist Muslims, gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent and united India. The British Raj, however, sidelined the 'All India' organization from the independence process and came to see Jinnah, who advocated separatism, as the sole representative of Indian Muslims. This was viewed with dismay by many Indian nationalists, who viewed Jinnah's ideology as damaging and unnecessarily divisive.


title: Indian nationalism

text: In an interview with Leonard Mosley, Nehru said that he and his fellow Congressmen were "tired" after the independence movement, so weren't ready to further drag on the matter for years with Jinnah's Muslim League, and that, anyway, they "expected that partition would be temporary, that Pakistan would come back to us." Gandhi also thought that the Partition would be undone. The All India Congress Committee, in a resolution adopted on 14 June 1947, openly stated that "geography and the mountains and the seas fashioned India as she is, and no human agency can change that shape or come in the way of its final destiny... at when present passions have subsided, India’s problems will be viewed in their proper perspective and the false doctrine of two nations will be discredited and discarded by all." V.P. Menon, who had an important role in the transfer of power in 1947, quotes another major Congress politician, Abul Kalam Azad, who said that "the division is only of the map of the country and not in the hearts of the people, and I am sure it is going to be a short-lived partition." Acharya Kripalani, President of the Congress during the days of Partition, stated that making India "a strong, happy, democratic and socialist state" would ensure that "such an India can win back the seceding children to its lap... for the freedom we have achieved cannot be complete without the unity of India." Yet another leader of the Congress, Sarojini Naidu, said that she didn't consider India's flag to be India's because "India is divided" and that "this is merely a temporary geographical separation. There is no spirit of separation in the heart of India."


title: Indian nationalism

text: Giving a more general assessment, Paul Brass says that "many speakers in the Constituent Assembly expressed the belief that the unity of India would be ultimately restored."


title: Indian nationalism

text: The political identity of the Indian National Congress, India's largest political party and one which controlled government for over 45 years, is reliant on the connection to Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Nehru–Gandhi family which has controlled the Congress since independence. The Congress Party's fortunes up till the 1970s were single-handedly propelled by its legacy as the flagship of India's Independence Movement, and the core platform of the party today evokes that past strongly, considering itself to be the guardian of India's independence, democracy and unity.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Muslims had remained loyal voters of the Congress Party for a long time, as Congress party protected Muslim community's interests like banning The Satanic Verses of Salman Rushdie. and allowing the unconstitutional practice of Triple Talaq to continue. Recently, Muslims have started abandoning Congress party in favor of other parties like Aam Adami Party (AAP) and All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Musilmeen (AIMIM). In contrast, the Bharatiya Janata Party employs a more aggressively nationalistic expression. The BJP seeks to preserve and spread the culture of the Hindus, the majority population. It ties nationalism with the defence of India's borders and interests against archrivals China and Pakistan, with the defence of the majority's right to be a majority.


title: Indian nationalism

text: Religious nationalist parties include the Shiromani Akali Dal, which is closely identified with the creation of a Sikh-majority state in Punjab and includes many Sikh religious leaders in its organisation. In Maharashtra, the Shiv Sena uses the legacy of the independent Maratha kingdom under famous figures like Shivaji to stir up support, and has adopted Hindutva as well. In Assam, the Asom Gana Parishad is a more state-focused party, arising after the frustration of the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) as a benevolent expression of Assamese nationalism. In Tamil Nadu came the first of such parties, the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Today the DK stands for a collection of parties, with the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) and the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK). Caste-based politics invite the participation of the Bahujan Samaj Party and the party of Lalu Prasad Yadav, who build upon the support of poor low-caste and dalit Hindus in the northern, and most populated states of India like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Almost every Indian state has a regional party devoted solely to the culture of the native people of that state.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Allen Cedric "A.C." Cowlings (born June 16, 1947) is a former American football player and actor. He began playing for the National Football League (NFL) in 1970, for such teams as the Buffalo Bills, Houston Oilers, Los Angeles Rams, Seattle Seahawks, and the San Francisco 49ers, until retiring after the 1979 season. Cowlings was taken fifth overall in the first round by the Buffalo Bills in the 1970 NFL Draft.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings is most famous for his role in aiding his close friend O. J. Simpson in fleeing the police on June 17, 1994, after Simpson's ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman were found murdered at Nicole's home. After leading police on a low-speed chase, Cowlings drove Simpson back to his home, where he was arrested. Cowlings was also arrested for aiding Simpson, but charges were dropped for lack of evidence.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings was born on June 16, 1947, in San Francisco, and raised in its Potrero Hill neighborhood. There he was a member of the Superiors social club, which met at the Booker T. Washington Community Center. He attended Galileo High School, where he played football with O. J. Simpson. He and Simpson became friends. After high school, both attended City College of San Francisco, where they played on the football team.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings was named an All-American defensive tackle after his senior year at the University of Southern California (USC). During his senior year, the Trojans went undefeated, and Cowlings led a powerful defensive line, nicknamed "The Wild Bunch" after the movie of the same name.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings was drafted fifth in the first round of the 1970 NFL Draft by the Buffalo Bills. He was a starter his first three years in Buffalo, but was traded to Houston Oilers after the 1972 season. He played all 14 games for the Oilers in both 1973 and 1974, but just five games in 1975 for the Rams. In 1976, he became a charter member of the Seattle Seahawks, after being signed off the waiver wire when the Rams released him at the end of the preseason. He played just one game, due to an injury he suffered while playing for the Rams in an exhibition game against the Seahawks. He returned to the Rams in 1977, played with CFL Montreal Alouettes in 1978, and finished his career in 1979 with the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings's first film role was in the 1985 film "Bubba Until It Hurts", starring Bubba Smith. He had a recurring minor role as Coach Nabors in the HBO football sitcom "1st & Ten", which also starred Simpson. Cowlings also served as a technical football advisor on the football scenes in the 1991 Tony Scott film "The Last Boy Scout".


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings was a close friend of O. J. Simpson, whom he has known since childhood. They were teammates at Galileo High School, San Francisco City College, USC, on the Buffalo Bills, and on the San Francisco 49ers. Cowlings dated Simpson's first wife, Marguerite Whitley, while they were attending Galileo High School, and when they were having issues as a couple, Simpson stepped in as a mediator, but the discussion turned into a relationship and they married in 1967; Cowlings was reportedly angry at the time, but their friendship prevailed. They remained close friends and confidants through the years, with Cowlings being the godfather of Simpson's son Jason and a groomsman at Simpson's and Nicole Brown's wedding in 1985. Cowlings was also the ring bearer at mutual friends Robert and Kris Kardashian's wedding in 1978.


title: Al Cowlings

text: After the murders of Nicole Brown and her friend Ronald Goldman on June 12, 1994, in which Simpson was a "person of interest", Brown's funeral took place in the St. Martin of Tours Catholic Church in Brentwood on June 16, Cowlings's 47th birthday; Cowlings served as a gatekeeper and pallbearer at the funeral. During the memorial service at David LeBon's house, Cowlings paid his respects to Brown while holding back tears.


title: Al Cowlings

text: The next day, despite agreeing to turn himself into the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), Simpson failed to surrender at the Parker Center station. Later that day, witnesses reported seeing Simpson riding in a white Ford Bronco, a vehicle owned and being driven by Cowlings, thus becoming the object of a low-speed chase by California Highway Patrol cruisers on the freeways. During the chase, Cowlings made a 911 call from a cell phone and claimed that Simpson was armed with a gun pointed to his own head, demanding that Cowlings drive him to Simpson's estate in Brentwood, or Simpson would kill himself. The pursuit was televised on live TV from helicopter. It interrupted coverage of the 1994 NBA Finals, and was viewed by approximately 95 million people in the United States alone. During the chase, an agitated Cowlings famously told 911 dispatchers: "My name is A.C.! You know who I am, goddamn it!" The chase ended at Simpson's Brentwood home, where Simpson surrendered to police after a nearly hourlong wait.


title: Al Cowlings

text: When the chase concluded and Cowlings and Simpson surrendered, Cowlings was arrested and charged with a felony for aiding a fugitive. He was taken to the Los Angeles men's jail and released approximately 12 hours after his arrest on $250,000 bail. District Attorney Gil Garcetti eventually determined that Cowlings would not be charged due to lack of sufficient evidence. In "", Vincent Bugliosi wrote that Detective Philip Vannatter had asked Cowlings if he believed Simpson had committed the murders; Cowlings conceded that the police had a lot of physical evidence and that it would speak for itself.


title: Al Cowlings

text: During Simpson's criminal trial, Cowlings surprised the media with a press conference held a block from the courthouse. Cowlings retained Beverly Hills public relations firm Edward Lozzi & Associates to conduct the press conference without revealing the reason or itinerary. Lozzi introduced Cowlings and Cowlings's attorney, Donald Re. Cowlings then announced he had created a 900 phone number for the public to ask him questions—about anything "except" the murder and trial. Cowlings read a one-minute prepared statement announcing the 900 number, which was simultaneously unveiled visually in the room. Reports that Cowlings realized over $1 million from this $2-dollars-plus-a-minute 900 number were never verified. Under oath in his deposition for Simpson's civil trial, Cowlings said that the 900 number endeavor just "broke even." This press conference was the only time Cowlings officially spoke to the media about anything related to the Simpson case. Former porn star and ex-girlfriend Jennifer Peace, who testified before a grand jury, claimed that Cowlings had confessed to her that a hysterical Simpson had called him on the night of the murders and that the murder weapon had been disposed of; Cowlings denied the allegations.


title: Al Cowlings

text: After Simpson's acquittal in October 1995, Fred Goldman, Ron's father, filed a civil suit against Simpson for wrongful death. Cowlings was subpoenaed and during both the deposition and trial took the Fifth Amendment when asked what he was doing between June 13, 1994, when Simpson returned from Chicago, and the freeway chase on June 17, 1994, as he could still be charged for aiding and abetting. But he testified that he had seen Simpson throw out Brown's clothes from their apartment during an argument in 1979 and that while he was driving Brown to a hospital on New Year's Eve 1989, she told him Simpson hit her, which (along with Brown's recorded 911 calls, pictures of her with bruises, and similar witness testimony about physical aggression by Simpson against Brown) contradicted Simpson's civil trial testimony that he had never been abusive during their marriage. In contrast to Simpson's indifferent and cheerful demeanor throughout the trial, Cowlings notably broke down in tears after being shown photographs of Nicole's bruised face. Simpson was found liable for both deaths in February 1997.


title: Al Cowlings

text: In 1994, Cowlings's 1993 Ford Bronco from the low-speed chase was purchased by Simpson's former sports agent Mike Gilbert and two other men, then ended up sitting in a parking garage for the next 17 years (1995-2012), where it was rarely used. As of 2017, the vehicle was on loan to the Alcatraz East Crime Museum, where it was put on display as part of an exhibit on the murder trial.


title: Al Cowlings

text: Cowlings is a member of the 2009 USC Athletic Hall of Fame class along with Junior Seau, Rodney Peete, and John Robinson. USC's Cowlings Residential College is named in his honor.


title: Al Cowlings

text: In 2012, Fox News examined the lives of key individuals in the Simpson case and found that Cowlings was reportedly working as a handbag sales representative. In 2014, an ex-teammate told "USA Today" that Cowlings worked for B. Wayne Hughes, founder of Public Storage. Six months later, "USA Today" quoted retired tennis player and friend of Cowlings Joe Kolkowitz saying that Cowlings had retired and is still living in Southern California.


title: Al Cowlings

text: In 2016, Cowlings was played by Malcolm-Jamal Warner in the critically acclaimed series "". According to TMZ, during production, Cowlings had reportedly threatened to sue FX if he was portrayed negatively.


title: Al Cowlings

text: In March 2018, O.J. Simpson (after his parole for armed robbery and kidnapping) said that he may have chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a neurodegenerative disease common in athletes who have suffered numerous head wounds or concussions. Simpson said that close friends and former teammates, including Cowlings, also struggle with the symptoms of CTE.


title: Anmer Hall

text: Anmer Hall is a Georgian country house in the village of Anmer in Norfolk, England. Built in the 19th century, it was acquired by the Sandringham Estate sometime after Queen Victoria purchased the property, and has previously been leased to business owners, civil servants, and members of the British royal family. It is currently the country residence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, given to the couple as a wedding gift by Elizabeth II.


title: Anmer Hall

text: The Georgian house was built in 1802. It has two storeys and an attic with dormer windows. The long south front comprises 13 bays, and was refaced with red bricks c. 1815. It has 13 ground-floor windows set in blank arches and a semicircular porch on two Tuscan columns, with 11 windows on the first floor. The three central bays are topped by a pediment. The north front is of rubble carrstone and includes four c. 17th-century ogee-headed sashes on the first floor. Renovations c. 1900 added a brick-dressed skin to the north front, together with a projecting entrance porch and a tower towards the eastern end, in the corner formed with a carrstone service wing also added c. 1900. The house was registered as a Grade II* listed building in 1984 but was later de-listed.


title: Anmer Hall

text: Anmer Hall has ten bedrooms. The interior style has been described to be "a mixture of contemporary designs and well-loved antiques", decorated with gilt picture frames and houseplants. The walls have been reported to be painted in cream colours, while the dining room is a "bold jewel green". The house has an outdoor swimming pool and a tennis court. In 2017, it was reported that residents the Prince and Princess of Wales had installed a chicken coop in the grounds. The couple also keep bees and produce honey on the estate.


title: Anmer Hall

text: The surrounding estate became a scheduled ancient monument in 2003, and includes earthworks marking the sites of buildings from the medieval village of Anmer. The village church, St Mary, lies close to the house, but a short distance away from the modern village. The house is northeast of King's Lynn, east of the King's residence at Sandringham and west of Houghton Hall.


title: Anmer Hall

text: Originally the seat of the Coldham family, the Anmer Hall estate was purchased in 1896 at auction for £25,000 by the famed serial fraudster Ernest Terah Hooley before his first bankruptcy. The Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) had attempted to purchase the property prior to Hooley's acquisition and, through an intermediary, Prince Edward requested to purchase the property from Hooley. Hooley agreed, allowing him to buy it at cost in 1898, after which it became part of the Sandringham Estate. The reason given was that the Prince wanted the house for the use of his daughter, Princess Maud. A further motivation for the Prince's action was to avoid the possibility of Hooley's business promoter Alexander Meyrick Broadley, whom the Prince had implicated in the Cleveland Street scandal, from becoming a constant guest on the estate.


title: Anmer Hall

text: Anmer Hall was leased to John Loader Maffey, 1st Baron Rugby who served as Governor-General of Sudan, and held diplomatic posts in the Colonial Office and Ireland. His daughter, Penelope Aitken, socialised with the Royal Family and was reportedly a favourite of George V.


title: Anmer Hall

text: John Maffey, married to Dorothy, known as Dot, lived at Anmer Hall. They had a daughter, Penelope, who walked spaniels with George V. Penelope and King George were dog friends and walked packs of dogs. It is thought that Penelope introduced her husband William to King George at a shooting party.


title: Anmer Hall

text: From 1972 to 1990, Anmer Hall was leased to the Duke and Duchess of Kent as their country house. It was subsequently rented for the next decade by Hugh van Cutsem, a close friend of King Charles III. During his residency, the house was often visited by Prince William and Prince Harry in their childhood. The house was then leased to the family of James Everett, owner of kitchen timber company "Norfolk Oak".


title: Anmer Hall

text: The lease to the Everett family was terminated early following the allocation for Anmer Hall for the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge. The country home was given as a wedding gift to the couple from Elizabeth II. A £1.5 million refurbishment programme was put in place, paid for by private royal family funds. Renovations included a new roof, new kitchen, the addition of a conservatory, complete internal redecoration; and an extensive tree-planting programme to afford the Duke and Duchess greater privacy.


title: Anmer Hall

text: The then Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and their children moved into Anmer Hall in 2015, and used it as their main residence until 2017. It continues to be their private country home, and the family have been reported to spend weekends and school holidays at Anmer. William and Catherine's annual Christmas card has featured photographs of the couple outside the home alongside their children. The family isolated at the residence during the lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic. A montage video of the family, filmed within the grounds of Anmer Hall, was released to celebrate the Duke and Duchess's tenth wedding anniversary.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Sniper Elite 4 is a 2017 third-person tactical shooter stealth video game developed and published by Rebellion Developments. The sequel to "Sniper Elite III", the game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 14 February 2017 and for Stadia on 1 November 2020. A Nintendo Switch port of the game was released on 17 November 2020. A sequel, "Sniper Elite 5", was released on 26 May 2022.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: "Sniper Elite 4" is a tactical shooter game with stealth elements, played from a third-person perspective. When the player kills an enemy using a sniper rifle from a long distance, the X-Ray kill cam system will activate, in which the game's camera follows the bullet from the sniper rifle to the target, and shows body parts, bones or internal body organs being broken or ruptured by the bullet. The system has also been expanded to include shrapnel kills, melee kills and stealth kills.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: The game's artificial intelligence is improved, with enemies being able to react to the player's action more responsively. When an enemy is killed, other enemies will begin actively looking for them. The player is equipped with a pair of binoculars, which shows the player where the enemies are and what weapons they are carrying, as well as the ability to tag opponents and objects. The game features the "officers" rank. Killing the officer as early as possible will lead his army to retreat, while killing him by the end of a mission will significantly increase the level's difficulty. The player can place traps and use corpses as booby traps. The game also features night missions, in which the player can remove light sources to hide their presence.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Maps in the game are significantly larger than "Sniper Elite III", granting players more freedom and open-ended gameplay. The maps also feature more verticality. The game's new movement system allows Fairburne to climb and grab ledges. Cooperative missions and competitive multiplayer modes are reintroduced.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: "Sniper Elite 4" is set in Italy in 1943, in the immediate aftermath of the events in "Sniper Elite III". Upon learning about rumours of a new Nazi weapon, the Royal Navy sends a freighter, the "Orchidea", to the island of San Celini to investigate. The ship is quickly sunk by the new weapon – a radio guided anti-ship missile under the development of scientist Andreas Kessler and Heinz Böhm, a high ranking Nazi general that the Allies have little information about. SOE sniper Karl Fairburne (Tom Clarke-Hill) is sent to the island after the sinking and tasked with assassinating General Tobias Schmidt along with several other officers who oversaw the attack, filming it to use as propaganda. After eliminating Schmidt, Fairburne is sent to the village of Bitanti by OSS agent Jack Weaver to find Sofia "Angel" Di Rocco, leader of the local Partisan resistance group. Distrustful of the OSS who allowed her father to be kidnapped by the Nazis, Angel enlists Fairburne to destroy a railway gun at Regelino Viaduct in order to prove himself and convince the group to join forces. After blowing up the viaduct and destroying the gun, Fairburne is sent to investigate a dockyard that the Nazis are using to ship the weapon part out of and call in a bombing raid to destroy the facility.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Upon learning the Sicilian Mafia were helping disrupt operations at the dockyard to slow down the shipment of the weapon parts, Fairburne meets with kingpin Salvatore Dinelli who agrees to provide additional assistance after eliminating Piero Capo, leader of the local Black Brigade. Distrustful of the Mafia's intentions, the Partisans are reluctant to maintain the alliance. However when an SOE informant, Major Hans Dorfmann, reveals that Kessler is at the Magazzeno Facility where the missiles are assembled, Fairburne infiltrates the base to kidnap Kessler and steal his research notes. On interrogation, Kessler tells Angel her father is still alive, prompting the Partisans to depart to assault the town of Giovi Fiorini and find Böhm's confidant Major Klaus Rothbauer. Kessler then tells Fairburne that he is dying of liver cancer due to his heavy drinking and is of no use to the Nazis or the Allies as a result, and that the information given to Angel was a lie in order to lure the Partisans into a trap. Fairburne departs to Giovi Fiorini and eliminates Rothbauer, but the ensuing battle results in the Partisans being massacred.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Gathered intelligence allows the SOE to discover Böhm is aware of Operation Avalanche and has the constructed missiles sent to his fortress at Allagra, intending to both inflict enough damage on the fleet to prevent the invasion of Italy from being a success and attempting to kill General Dwight Eisenhower. Fairburne infiltrates the base, disabling each of the missiles. As he attempts to call in a bombing raid on the facility, Dorfmann appears with a captured Angel, revealing himself to be Böhm. Böhm executes Angel and quickly departs to his plane, intending to take off and personally carry out the attack on Eisenhower's ship. Fairburne gives chase and succeeds in shooting out the plane's engines before it can take off, destroying the plane and killing Böhm just as the Allied Lancaster bombers arrive to destroy the base. In the epilogue scene, Jack offers Karl a job in the OSS and Karl says he will think about it.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: "Sniper Elite 4" was developed by Rebellion Developments. According to Tim Jones, Rebellion's Head of Creative, the game was designed to be a "sniper paradise". As a result, the team expanded the size and scale of the game's maps and levels to make "real long shots" possible. The animation system, artificial intelligence and the game's rendering technology were also reworked.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: 505 Games, the publisher of the two previous games, is not involved in the game's production and "Sniper Elite 4" will be self-published by Rebellion digitally. Rebellion instead partnered with Sold Out and U&I Entertainment, the publishers and distributors of "Zombie Army Trilogy", to produce physical copies of the game. In February 2016, a Chinese digital arts company accidentally revealed the game. Jason Kingsley, CEO of Rebellion, did not confirm the game's existence, and added that they had plans to reveal a new game very soon. "Sniper Elite 4" was announced on 7 March 2016.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: On 13 June 2016, at E3 2016, it was announced that "Sniper Elite 4" was to be released on 14 February 2017.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Nick Plessas of "EGM" writes about "textbook plot" and "forgettable cast of characters". He praises sniping in the game, as it "takes more nuance and goes deeper than the point-and-shoot mechanics of other titles out there". He notes the enemy soldiers' "tunnel vision, short attention spans, and inconsistent pathfinding", but he feels it is "in service of the overall experience".


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Dave Meikleham of "PCGamesN" also notes poor AI; he notes that he killed a few guards when they had gone to investigate the body of the previous guard, while the last guard should react differently to a pile of corpses. He enjoys kill-cam and size of the maps, as well as level design: "each map feels pleasingly fleshed out and alive with possibility", even if he finds minimap "slightly misleading". However, he complains the secondary weapons are "not much fun to fire".


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Michael Huber of "EasyAllies" both notes "paper-thin plot" and admits it has "a few interesting elements like an uneasy alliance with the Mafia". While he feels the rifles in the game "are undoubtedly the most engaging weapons to use" he also feels about pistols and sub-machine guns that "there’s an unshakable sense of emptiness to them".


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: Josh Tolentino of Destructoid enjoys the HUD-like assists the game offers and notes their usage makes the game more tactical. He also appreciates kill-cam and seems to be glad it is also present while killing with a trap or using a melee attack. However, he finds the narrative disappointing and calls the story "a missed opportunity".


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: "Eurogamer" ranked the game 40th on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017", while "GamesRadar+" ranked it 22nd on their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017.


title: Sniper Elite 4

text: In June 2016, Sold Out described the game as a "big hitter", and that they expected the game to sell approximately 200,000 physical copies on its launch day in the United Kingdom.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Robert B. Weide (born June 20, 1959) is an American screenwriter, producer, and director. He has directed a number of documentaries and was the principal director and an executive producer of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" for the show's first five years. His documentaries have focused on four comedians: W. C. Fields, Mort Sahl, Lenny Bruce, and Woody Allen. His latest documentary, "" (2021), explores the life and works of Kurt Vonnegut.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide has received an Academy Award nomination and Primetime Emmy Award win for "" (1999). He also received Emmy Awards for "W. C. Fields: Head Up" (1986), and "Curb Your Enthusiasm".


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide began working with film at an early job inspecting 16 mm educational films at the Fullerton Public Library in Orange County, California.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: In 1978, while taking film production courses at Orange Coast College in Costa Mesa, California, Weide decided to produce a documentary film on the Marx Brothers, inspired by his love of their work. Undeterred by repeated rejections of his applications to the USC School of Cinema-Television, he worked on the project on his own time and with help from Charles H. Joffe got the rights to clips necessary to make the film. "The Marx Brothers in a Nutshell" was broadcast in 1982 on PBS and became "one of the highest-rated programs in PBS history".


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide co-wrote "W. C. Fields: Straight Up" (1986) with Joseph Adamson and Ronald J. Fields. Adamson directed it, and Dudley Moore narrated. In an interview with "The Los Angeles Times", Weide said: "The film is 94 minutes long. We had access to all of his feature films, and clips from 1915 on. We have newsreel footage, outtakes, and material never seen before. We also have interviews with people who knew and/or worked with Fields, or have special knowledge of him, including Joseph L. Mankiewicz, Will Fowler, Madge Kennedy, who played in the 1923 stage production of ‘Poppy’ and co-starred in the movie, Leonard Maltin, Ronald J. Fields, propman Harry Caplan and an audio interview with the grown-up Baby Leroy."


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide's next project concerned the career of Mort Sahl. The project was part of the American Masters documentary series, which originally ran on PBS in 1989.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: In 1998, Weide directed the documentary "", which received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Documentary. Robert De Niro narrated it, and it featured interviews with Bruce's ex-wife Honey, mother Sally Marr and former TV host Steve Allen, who had Bruce on his show a few times. The film debuted on HBO.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: From 2000 to 2005, Weide served as principal director and an executive producer of Larry David's HBO comedy series "Curb Your Enthusiasm". He became involved in the series after receiving a script by David titled "Prognosis Negative". In 1998 David told Weide that HBO was interested in doing a comedy special about David's return to stand-up—"ostensibly a documentary with some behind-the-scenes footage. And he told me he wanted me to direct it." The special turned out to be the beginning of the series. Since then David and Weide have often collaborated, with Weide serving as a director and executive producer. Weide returned with the show in 2007, directing "The Anonymous Donor", and has continued to guest direct since.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide received several Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his work on the show and won an Emmy in 2003 for his work as director during its third season. His ending credit on the show became part of a popular meme.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide's first feature film as director, "How to Lose Friends & Alienate People", was released in October 2008, to generally unfavorable reviews, though it topped the United Kingdom's box office during its opening weekend.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide's next documentary, "", explored the career of filmmaker and comedian Woody Allen as part of PBS's American Masters series. The film takes a look at Allen's nearly seven-decade career as a director and comedian. It features interviews with Allen, Diane Keaton, Scarlett Johansson, Martin Scorsese, Chris Rock, Owen Wilson, Larry David, Penelope Cruz, and Leonard Maltin. It received favorable reviews, earning a 90% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 21 reviews. The website's critical consensus states: "Driving aside the most polemical aspects of the director's biography, "Woody Allen: A Documentary" draws an interesting picture of the filmmaker's opus while allowing some glimpses of his intense personal life." "The New Yorker" critic Richard Brody wrote: "It’s a close look at how Allen’s career was shaped, from his Brooklyn youth to his precocious launch as a comedy writer, his rise to local fame as a standup comedian and to national celebrity on television, his move from screenwriter to director of the 'early, funny' films to internationally lionized auteur to pariah and, gradually, back again."


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide wrote and produced the 1996 film adaptation of Kurt Vonnegut's "Mother Night". With Vonnegut's support, Weide chronicled him on film starting in 1988 and has obtained footage of him from 16 mm home movies dating back to 1925. Weide was also working on a film adaptation of "The Sirens of Titan" until the film rights were sold to another producer.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Writing under the pseudonym "Wyaduck" (a Marx Brothers reference), Weide was a frequent poster to Usenet group alt.books.kurt-vonnegut, where he reported on the progress of the "Mother Night" project. He was mentioned in Vonnegut's "Timequake".


title: Robert B. Weide

text: In 2001, Weide directed a revival of Vonnegut's play "Happy Birthday, Wanda June" starring his wife, Linda Bates, as Penelope.


title: Robert B. Weide

text: Weide married actress Linda Bates. His marriage to her and her subsequent issues with progressive supranuclear palsy are chronicled in "Kurt Vonnegut: Unstuck in Time".


title: Plum pudding model

text: The plum pudding model is one of several historical scientific models of the atom. First proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904 soon after the discovery of the electron, but before the discovery of the atomic nucleus, the model tried to explain two properties of atoms then known: that electrons are negatively charged particles and that atoms have no net electric charge. The plum pudding model has electrons surrounded by a volume of positive charge, like negatively charged "plums" embedded in a positively charged "pudding".


title: Plum pudding model

text: It had been known for many years that atoms contain negatively charged subatomic particles. Thomson called them "corpuscles" (particles), but they were more commonly called "electrons", the name G. J. Stoney had coined for the "fundamental unit quantity of electricity" in 1891. It had also been known for many years that atoms have no net electric charge. Thomson held that atoms must also contain some positive charge that cancels out the negative charge of its electrons.


title: Plum pudding model

text: Thomson published his proposed model in the March 1904 edition of the "Philosophical Magazine", the leading British science journal of the day. In Thomson's view:


title: Plum pudding model

text: ... the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively electrified corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification, ...


title: Plum pudding model

text: Thomson's model was the first to assign a specific inner structure to an atom, the only downside being that it contained many assumptions and didn't have any mathematical evidence to back it up.J.J. Thomson had followed the work of William Thomson who had written a paper proposing a vortex atom in 1867. J.J. Thomson abandoned his 1890 "nebular atom" hypothesis, based on the vortex theory of the atom, in which atoms were composed of immaterial vortices and suggested there were similarities between the arrangement of vortices and periodic regularity found among the chemical elements. Being an astute and practical scientist, Thomson based his atomic model on known experimental evidence of the day, and in fact, followed Lord Kelvin's lead again as Kelvin had proposed a positive sphere atom a year earlier. Thomson's proposal, based on Kelvin's model of a positive volume charge, reflects the nature of his scientific approach to discovery which was to propose ideas to guide future experiments.


title: Plum pudding model

text: The main objective of Thomson's model after its initial publication was to account for the electrically neutral and chemically varied state of the atom. Electron orbits were stable under classical mechanics. When an electron moves away from the center of the positively charged sphere it is subjected to a greater net positive inward force due to the presence of more positive charge inside its orbit (see Gauss's law). Electrons were free to rotate in rings that were further stabilized by interactions among the electrons, and spectroscopic measurements were meant to account for energy differences associated with different electron rings. As for the properties of matter, Thomson believed they arose from electrical effects. He further emphasized the need of a theory to help picture the physical and chemical aspects of an atom using the theory of corpuscles and positive electricity(Positive charge). Thomson attempted unsuccessfully to reshape his model to account for some of the major spectral lines experimentally known for several elements. After the scientific discovery of radioactivity, Thomson decided to address it in his model by stating:


title: Plum pudding model

text: ...we must face the problem of the constitution of the atom, and see if we can imagine a model which has in it the potentiality of explaining the remarkable properties shown by radio-active substances...


title: Plum pudding model

text: As early as 1897, theoretical physicist, Joseph Larmor had explained the splitting of the spectral lines in a magnetic field by the oscillation of electrons. According to a centennial celebration of the Bohr atom in Nature magazine, it was John William Nicholson in 1912 who first discovered that electrons radiate the spectral lines as they descend towards the nucleus and his theory was both nuclear and quantum. Thomson's model changed over the course of its initial publication, finally becoming a model with much more mobility containing electrons revolving in the dense field of positive charge(Positive Electricity as called by Thomson) rather than the static "Plum-pudding" structure.


title: Plum pudding model

text: The plum pudding model usefully guided his student, Ernest Rutherford, to devise experiments to further explore the composition of atoms. Also, Thomson's model was an improvement upon previous solar system models of Joseph Larmor and the Saturnian ring model for atomic electrons put forward in 1904 by Nagaoka (after James Clerk Maxwell's model of Saturn's rings) as these could not withstand classical mechanics as in the solar system models the electrons would spiral into the nucleus, so they were dropped in favor of Thompson's model. However, all previous atomic models were useful as predecessors of the more correct 1913 solar-system-like Bohr model of the atom which Bohr references in his paper that he borrowed substantially from the 1912 nuclear model of John William Nicholson whose quantum atomic model quantized angular momentum as "h"/2. The Bohr Model was initially planar as the Nagaoka model, but Sommerfeld introduced elliptical orbits in the years 1914-1925 until the theory was overthrown by modern quantum mechanics.


title: Plum pudding model

text: The colloquial nickname "plum pudding" was soon attributed to Thomson's model as the distribution of electrons within its positively charged region of space reminded many scientists of raisins, then called "plums", in the common English dessert, plum pudding.


title: Plum pudding model

text: In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden conducted experiments with thin sheets of gold. Their professor, Ernest Rutherford, expected to find results consistent with Thomson's atomic model. It was not until 1911 that Rutherford correctly interpreted the experiment's results which implied the presence of a very small nucleus of positive charge at the center of each gold atom. This led to the development of the Rutherford model of the atom. Immediately after Rutherford published his results, Antonius Van den Broek made the intuitive proposal that the atomic number of an atom is the total number of units of charge present in its nucleus. Henry Moseley's 1913 experiments (see Moseley's law) provided the necessary evidence to support Van den Broek's proposal. The effective nuclear charge was found to be consistent with the atomic number (Moseley found only one unit of charge difference). This work culminated in the solar-system-like (but quantum-limited) Bohr model of the atom in the same year, in which a nucleus containing an atomic number of positive charges is surrounded by an equal number of electrons in orbital shells. As Thomson's model guided Rutherford's experiments, Bohr's model guided Moseley's research.


title: Plum pudding model

text: As an important example of a scientific model, the plum pudding model has motivated and guided several related scientific problems.


title: Plum pudding model

text: The plum pudding model with a single electron was used in part by the physicist Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 to estimate the numerical value of Planck's constant and the Bohr radius of hydrogen atoms. Haas' work was the first to estimate these values to within an order of magnitude and preceded the work of Niels Bohr by three years. Of note, the Bohr model provides reasonable predictions only for atomic and ionic systems with just one effective electron.


title: Plum pudding model

text: A particularly useful mathematics problem related to the plum pudding model is the optimal distribution of equal point charges on a unit sphere, called the Thomson problem. The Thomson problem is a natural consequence of the plum pudding model in the absence of its uniform positive background charge.


title: Plum pudding model

text: The classical electrostatic treatment of electrons confined to spherical quantum dots is also similar to their treatment in the plum pudding model. In this classical problem, the quantum dot is modeled as a simple neutrally-charged dielectric sphere (in place of a uniform, positively charged sphere of the plum pudding model) in which free, or excess, electrons reside. The electrostatic "N"-electron configurations are found to be exceptionally close to solutions found in the Thomson problem with electrons residing at the same radius within the dielectric sphere. Notably, the plotted distribution of geometry-dependent energetics has been shown to bear remarkable resemblance to the distribution of anticipated electron orbitals in natural atoms as arranged on the periodic table of elements. Of great interest, solutions of the Thomson problem exhibit this corresponding energy distribution by comparing the energy of each "N"-electron solution with the energy of its neighboring ("N"-1)-electron solution with one charge at the origin. However, when treated within a dielectric sphere model, the features of the distribution are much more pronounced with respect to electron orbital arrangements in real atoms as shown in the figure. Additional information may be accessed online as a large printable poster.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish is the second most spoken language in the United States. There are over 41 million people aged five or older who speak Spanish at home, and the United States has the second largest Spanish-speaking population in the world, ahead of Spain. Spanish is also the most learned language other than English, with about six million students. Estimates range from 41 million to over 50 million native speakers, heritage language speakers, and second-language speakers. There is an Academy of the Spanish Language located in the United States as well.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In the United States there are more speakers of Spanish than speakers of French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Hawaiian, the various varieties of Chinese, the Indo-Aryan languages, and the Native American languages combined. According to the 2019 American Community Survey conducted by the US Census Bureau, Spanish is spoken at home by 41.8 million people aged five or older, more than twice as many as in 1990.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish has been spoken in what is now the United States since the 15th century, with the arrival of Spanish colonization in North America. Colonizers settled in areas that would later become Florida, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California as well as in what is now the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Spanish explorers explored areas of 42 of the future US states leaving behind a varying range of Hispanic legacy in the North America. Western regions of the Louisiana Territory were also under Spanish rule between 1763 and 1800, after the French and Indian War, which further extended Spanish influences throughout what is now the United States.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: After the incorporation of those areas into the United States in the first half of the 19th century, Spanish was later reinforced in the country by the acquisition of Puerto Rico in 1898. Waves of immigration from Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, El Salvador, and elsewhere in Latin America have strengthened the prominence of Spanish in the country. Today, Hispanics are one of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States, which has increased the use and importance of Spanish in the United States. However, there is a marked decline in the use of Spanish among Hispanics in America, declining from 78% in 2006 to 73% in 2015, with the trend accelerating as Hispanics undergo language shift to English.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The Spanish arrived in what would later become the United States in 1493, with the Spanish arrival to Puerto Rico. Ponce de León explored Florida in 1513. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, Florida. The Spanish later left but others moved in and it is the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the continental United States. Juan Ponce de León founded San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1508. Historically, the Spanish-speaking population increased because of territorial annexation of lands claimed earlier by the Spanish Empire and by wars with Mexico and by land purchases.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, land claimed by Spain encompassed a large part of the contemporary U.S. territory, including the French colony of Louisiana from 1769 to 1800. In order to further establish and defend Louisiana, Spanish Governor Bernardo de Gálvez recruited Canary Islanders to emigrate to North America. Between November 1778 and July 1779, around 1600 Isleños arrived in New Orleans, and another group of about 300 came in 1783. By 1780, the four Isleño communities were already founded. When Louisiana was sold to the United States, its Spanish, Creole and Cajun inhabitants became U.S. citizens, and continued to speak Spanish or French. In 1813, George Ticknor started a program of Spanish Studies at Harvard University.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spain also founded settlements along the Sabine River, to protect the border with French Louisiana. The towns of Nacogdoches, Texas and Los Adaes were founded as part of this settlement, and the people there spoke a dialect descended from rural Mexican Spanish, which is now almost completely extinct.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Although it's commonly thought in Nacogdoches that the Hispanic residents of the Sabine River area are ,


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: their Spanish dialect is derived from rural Mexican Spanish, and their ancestors came from Mexico and other parts of Texas.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In 1821, after Mexico's War of Independence from Spain, Texas was part of the United Mexican States as the state of Coahuila y Tejas. A large influx of Americans soon followed, originally with the approval of Mexico's president. In 1836, the now largely "American" Texans fought a war of independence from the central government of Mexico. The arrivals from the US objected to Mexico's abolition of slavery. They declared independence and established the Republic of Texas. In 1846, the Republic dissolved when Texas entered the United States of America as a state. By 1850, fewer than 16,000 or 7.5% of Texans were of Mexican descent, Spanish-speaking people (both Mexicans and non-Spanish European settlers, including German Texans) were outnumbered six to one by English-speaking settlers (both Americans and other immigrant Europeans).


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: After the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming also became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. Most of New Mexico, western Texas, southern Colorado, southwestern Kansas, and the Oklahoma panhandle were part of the territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The geographical isolation and unique political history of this territory led to New Mexican Spanish differing notably from both Spanish spoken in other parts of the United States of America and Spanish spoken in the present-day United Mexican States.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Mexico lost almost half of the northern territory gained from Spain in 1821 to the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). This included parts of contemporary Texas, and Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, California, Nevada, and Utah. Although the lost territory was sparsely populated, the thousands of Spanish-speaking Mexicans subsequently became U.S. citizens. The war-ending Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) does not explicitly address language. Although Spanish initially continued to be used in schools and government, the English-speaking American settlers who entered the Southwest established their language, culture, and law as dominant, displacing Spanish in the public sphere.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The California experience is illustrative. The first California constitutional convention in 1849 had eight Californio participants; the resulting state constitution was produced in English and Spanish, and it contained a clause requiring all published laws and regulations to be published in both languages. One of the first acts of the first California Legislature of 1850 was to authorize the appointment of a State Translator, who would be responsible for translating all state laws, decrees, documents, or orders into Spanish.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Such magnanimity did not last very long. As early as February 1850, California adopted the Anglo-American common law as the basis of the new state's legal system. In 1855, California declared that English would be the only medium of instruction in its schools. These policies were one way of ensuring the social and political dominance of Anglos.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The state's second constitutional convention in 1872 had "no" Spanish-speaking participants; the convention's English-speaking participants felt that the state's remaining minority of Spanish-speakers should simply learn English; and the convention ultimately voted 46–39 to revise the earlier clause so that all official proceedings would henceforth be published only in English.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Despite the displacement of Spanish from the public sphere, much of the border region, including most of Southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and south Texas, was home to Spanish speaking communities until at least the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In 1898, consequent to the Spanish–American War, the United States took control of Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam as American territories. In 1902, Cuba became independent from the United States, while Puerto Rico remained a U.S. territory. The American government required government services to be bilingual in Spanish and English, and attempted to introduce English-medium education to Puerto Rico, but the latter effort was unsuccessful.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Once Puerto Rico was granted autonomy in 1948, even mainlander officials who came to Puerto Rico were forced to learn Spanish. Only 20% of Puerto Rico's residents understand English, and although the island's government had a policy of official bilingualism, it was repealed in favor of a Spanish-only policy in 1991. This policy was reversed in 1993 when a pro-statehood party ousted a pro-independence party from the commonwealth government.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The relatively recent but large influx of Spanish-speakers to the United States has increased the overall total of Spanish-speakers in the country. They form majorities and large minorities in many political districts, especially in California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas (the American states bordering Mexico), and also in South Florida.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Mexicans first moved to the United States as refugees in the turmoil of the Mexican Revolution from 1910–1917, but many more emigrated later for economic reasons. The large majority of Mexicans are in the former Mexican-controlled areas in the Southwest. From 1942 to 1962, the Bracero program would provide for mass Mexican migration to the United States.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: At over 5 million, Puerto Ricans are easily the second largest Hispanic group. Of all major Hispanic groups, Puerto Ricans are the least likely to be proficient in Spanish, but millions of Puerto Rican Americans living in the U.S. mainland are fluent in Spanish. Puerto Ricans are natural-born U.S. citizens, and many Puerto Ricans have migrated to New York City, Orlando, Philadelphia, and other areas of the Eastern United States, increasing the Spanish-speaking populations and in some areas being the majority of the Hispanophone population, especially in Central Florida. In Hawaii, where Puerto Rican farm laborers and Mexican ranchers have settled since the late 19th century, seven percent of the islands' people are either Hispanic or Hispanophone or both.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The Cuban Revolution of 1959 created a community of Cuban exiles who opposed the Communist revolution, many of whom left for the United States. In 1963, the Ford Foundation established the first bilingual education program in the United States for the children of Cuban exiles in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 boosted immigration from Latin American countries, and in 1968, Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act. Most of these one million Cuban Americans settled in southern and central Florida, while other Cubans live in the Northeastern United States; most are fluent in Spanish. In the city of Miami today Spanish is the first language mostly due to Cuban immigration. Likewise, the Nicaraguan Revolution and subsequent Contra War created a migration of Nicaraguans fleeing the Sandinista government and civil war to the United States in the late 1980s. Most of these Nicaraguans migrated to Florida and California.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of both economic and political problems. The largest immigration wave occurred as a result of the Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s, in which 20 to 30 percent of El Salvador's population emigrated. About 50 percent, or up to 500,000 of those who escaped, headed to the United States, which was already home to over 10,000 Salvadorans, making Salvadoran Americans the fourth-largest Hispanic and Latino American group, after the Mexican-American majority, stateside Puerto Ricans, and Cubans.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: As civil wars engulfed several Central American countries in the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of Salvadorans fled their country and came to the United States. Between 1980 and 1990, the Salvadoran immigrant population in the United States increased nearly fivefold from 94,000 to 465,000. The number of Salvadoran immigrants in the United States continued to grow in the 1990s and 2000s as a result of family reunification and new arrivals fleeing a series of natural disasters that hit El Salvador, including earthquakes and hurricanes. By 2008, there were about 1.1 million Salvadoran immigrants in the United States.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Until the 20th century, there was no clear record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the United States. Between the 18th and early 19th centuries, there were many European immigrants who went to Venezuela, only to later migrate to the United States along with their children and grandchildren who were born and/or grew up in Venezuela speaking Spanish. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States; however, there are few specific figures indicating these statistics. Many Venezuelans settled in the United States with hopes of receiving a better education, only to remain there following graduation. They are frequently joined by relatives. However, since the early 1980s, the reasons for Venezuelan emigration have changed to include hopes of earning a higher salary and due to the economic fluctuations in Venezuela which also promoted an important migration of Venezuelan professionals to the US. In the 2000s, dissident Venezuelans migrated to South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston. Other main states with Venezuelan American populations are, according to the 1990 census, New York, California, Texas (adding to their existing Hispanic populations), New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Refugees from Spain also migrated to the U.S. due to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) and political instability under the regime of Francisco Franco that lasted until 1975. The majority of Spaniards settled in Florida, Texas, California, New Jersey, New York City, Chicago, and Puerto Rico.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The publication of data by the United States Census Bureau in 2003 revealed that Hispanics were the largest minority in the United States and caused a flurry of press speculation in Spain about the position of Spanish in the United States. That year, the Instituto Cervantes, an organization created by the Spanish government in 1991 to promote Spanish language around the globe, established a branch in New York.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In total, there were 36,995,602 people aged five or older in the United States who spoke Spanish at home (12.8% of the total U.S. population) according to the 2010 census.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Although the United States has no "de jure" official language, English is the dominant language of business, education, government, religion, media, culture, and the public sphere. Virtually all state and federal government agencies and large corporations use English as their internal working language, especially at the management level. Some states, such as Arizona, California, Florida, New Mexico, and Texas provide bilingual legislated notices and official documents in Spanish and English and in other commonly-used languages. English is the home language of most Americans, including a growing proportion of Hispanics. Between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of Hispanics who spoke Spanish at home decreased from 78 to 73 percent. As noted above, the only major exception is the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in which Spanish is the official and the most commonly-used language.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Throughout the history of the Southwest United States, the controversial issue of language as part of cultural rights and bilingual state government representation has caused sociocultural friction between Anglophones and Hispanophones. Spanish is now the most widely-taught second language in the United States.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Possibly at least partially as a result of a language barrier, children from Spanish-speaking households in the United States experience 50% higher rates of obesity than those in English-speaking households, according to the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Families may not have access to health education materials or resources in Spanish, and food labels are typically in English only.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: By 1870, English-speakers were a majority in California; in 1879, the state promulgated a new constitution with a clause under which all official proceedings were to be conducted exclusively in English, which remained in effect until 1966. In 1986, California voters added a new constitutional clause by referendum:


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish remains widely spoken throughout the state, and many government forms, documents, and services are bilingual in English and Spanish. Although all official proceedings are to be conducted in English:


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The state, like its neighbors in the Southwest, has had close linguistic and cultural ties with Mexico. The state, except for the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, was part of the New Mexico Territory until 1863, when the western half was made into Arizona Territory. The area of the former Gadsden Purchase spoke mostly Spanish until the 1940s although the Tucson area had a higher ratio of anglophones (including Mexican Americans who were fluent in English). The continuous arrival of Mexican settlers increases the number of Spanish-speakers.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Most of the residents of the Miami metropolitan area speak Spanish at home, and the influence of Spanish can even be seen in many features of the local dialect of English. Miami is considered the "capital of Latin US" for its many bilingual corporations, banks, and media outlets that cater to international business. In addition, there are several other major cities in Florida with a sizable percentage of the population able to speak Spanish, most notably Tampa (18%) and Orlando (16.6%). Ybor City, a historical neighborhood close to Downtown Tampa, was founded and is populated chiefly by Spanish and Cuban immigrants. Most Latinos in Florida are of Cuban (especially in Miami and Tampa) ancestry followed by Puerto Rican (Miami and Orlando) and Mexican (Tampa and Fort Myers/Naples) ancestry.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: New Mexico is commonly thought to have Spanish as an official language alongside English because of its wide usage and legal promotion of Spanish in the state; however, the state has no official language. New Mexico's laws are promulgated in both Spanish and English. English is the state government's paper working language, but government business is often conducted in Spanish, particularly at the local level. Spanish has been spoken in New Mexico since the 16th century.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Because of its relative isolation from other Spanish-speaking areas over most of its 400-year existence, New Mexico Spanish, particularly the Spanish of northern New Mexico and Colorado has retained many elements of 16th- and 17th-century Spanish lost in other varieties and has developed its own vocabulary. In addition, it contains many words from Nahuatl, the language that is still spoken by the Nahua people in Mexico. New Mexican Spanish also contains loanwords from the Pueblo languages of the upper Rio Grande Valley, Mexican-Spanish words ("mexicanismos"), and borrowings from English. Grammatical changes include the loss of the second-person plural verb form, changes in verb endings, particularly in the preterite, and the partial merger of the second and third conjugations.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In Texas, English is the state's "de facto" official language although it lacks "de jure" status and is used in government. However, the longstanding presence of Spanish Speaking Texans (see: Tejanos and Mexican Americans), in addition to the ebb and flow of Spanish-speaking people across the border since the Texas Revolution, has resulted in large significance of Spanish as a minority language in Texas. Texas's counties close to the Mexican border are mostly Hispanic and so Spanish is commonly spoken in the region. The Texas government, in Section 2054.116 of the Government Code, mandates providing by state agencies of information on their websites in Spanish to assist residents who have limited English proficiency.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish has been spoken in the state of Kansas since at least the early 1900s, primarily because of several waves of immigration from Mexico. That began with refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution (c. 1910–1920). There are now several towns in Kansas with significant Spanish-speaking populations: Liberal, Garden City, and Dodge City all have Latino populations over 40%. Recently, linguists working with the Kansas Speaks Project have shown how high numbers of Spanish-speaking residents have influenced the dialect of English spoken in areas like Liberal and in other parts of southwest Kansas. There are many , like KYYS in the Kansas City area as well as various Spanish-language newspapers and television stations throughout the state. Several towns in Kansas boast Spanish-English dual language immersion schools in which students are instructed in both languages for varying amounts of time. Examples include Horace Mann Elementary in Wichita, named after the famous educational reformer, and Buffalo Jones Elementary in Garden City, named after Charles "Buffalo" Jones, a frontiersman, bison preservationist, and cofounder of Garden City.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico recognizes Spanish and English as official languages, but Spanish is the dominant first language. This is largely due to the fact that the territory was under Spanish control for 400 years, and was inhabited by mainly Spanish-speaking settlers prior to being ceded to the United States in 1898.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Because much of the US was once under Spanish, and later Mexican sovereignty, many places have Spanish names dating to these times. These include the names of several states and major cities. Some of these names preserve older features of Spanish orthography, such as San Ysidro, which would be in modern Spanish. Later, many other names were created in the American period by non-Spanish speakers, often violating Spanish syntax. This includes names such as Sierra Vista.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: In 1917, the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese was founded, and the academic study of Spanish literature was helped by negative attitudes towards German due to World War I.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish is currently the most widely taught language after English in American secondary schools and higher education. More than 790,000 university students were enrolled in Spanish courses in the autumn of 2013, with Spanish the most widely taught foreign language in American colleges and universities. Some 50.6% of the over 1.5 million U.S. students enrolled in foreign-language courses took Spanish, followed by French (12.7%), American Sign Language (7%), German (5.5%), Italian (4.6%), Japanese (4.3%), Chinese (3.9%), Arabic (2.1%), and Latin (1.7%). These totals remain relatively small in relation to the total U.S. population.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Spanish language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media. While foreign language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The 1930s were boom years. The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest. American stations were close to Mexico, which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication "Sponsor" from the late 1940s to 1968. Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Latino discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: There is a great diversity of accents of Spanish in the United States. The influence of English on American Spanish is very important. In many Latino (also called Hispanic) youth subcultures, it is common to mix Spanish and English to produce Spanglish, a term for code-switching between English and Spanish, or for Spanish with heavy English influence.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: The "Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española" (North American Academy of the Spanish Language) tracks the developments of the Spanish spoken in the United States and the influences of English.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Many of these heritage speakers are semi-speakers, or transitional bilinguals, which means they spoke Spanish in early childhood but largely switched to an English-speaking environment. They typically have a strong passive command of the language, but never fully acquired it. Other, fluent heritage speakers have not undergone such a total shift from Spanish to English in their immediate family.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Transitional bilinguals often produce errors which are rarely found among native Spanish speakers but which are common among second-language learners.


title: Spanish language in the United States

text: Transitional bilinguals often face difficulties in Spanish classrooms since teaching materials designed for English monolinguals and those designed for fluent heritage speakers are both inadequate.