title: Governess

text: However, being a governess was one of the few legitimate ways by which an unmarried, middle-class woman could support herself in Victorian society. The majority of governesses were women whose fortunes had drastically declined, due to perhaps the death of their father or both of their parents, or the failure of the family business, and had no relatives willing to take them in. Not surprisingly, her position was often depicted as one to be pitied, and the only way out of it was to get married. It was difficult for a governess to find a suitable husband because most of the eligible men she encountered were her social superiors, who preferred a bride from within their own social class, particularly since such women generally had better financial resources.


title: Governess

text: Once a governess's charges grew up, she had to seek a new position, or, exceptionally, might be retained by a grown daughter as a paid companion.


title: Governess

text: An option for the more adventurous was to find an appointment abroad. There is also some allusion to the phenomenon of governesses being engaged abroad in "A galaxy of governesses" by Bea Howe.


title: Governess

text: The Russian Empire proved to be a relatively well-paid option for many. According to Harvey Pitcher in "When Miss Emmie was in Russia: English Governesses before, during and after the October Revolution", as many as thousands of English-speaking governesses went there. As English became the fashionable language of choice among the aristocracy during the later days of the regime, clearly they were displacing opportunities formerly spread more across the French-speaking world. The estimate of numbers ('thousands'), although necessarily vague, is justified by some knowledge of the main lodging house used by those not accommodated with their host families, St. Andrew's House, Moscow, and by the places of worship they preferentially frequented, for example the church associated with the House. Pitcher drew extensively on the archives of the Governesses' Benevolent Institution in London.


title: Governess

text: Several well-known works of fiction, particularly in the nineteenth century, have focused on governesses.


title: Governess

text: The term "governess" is an archaic gendered job title for a politician; now the word "governor" is used for men or women. For example, Keʻelikōlani was known as the governess of Hawaii.


title: Governess

text: Anne Hegerty, one of the Chasers on the British and Australian versions of "The Chase", is nicknamed "The Governess".


title: Virtusa

text: Virtusa Corporation is an American information technology services company founded in 1996 in Sri Lanka and has its headquarters in Southborough, Massachusetts, United States. The company provides IT consulting, business consulting, systems implementation and application outsourcing services to large enterprises and software vendors.


title: Virtusa

text: The company has several delivery centers in India and Sri Lanka with the ones in Hyderabad, Chennai and Colombo being the largest. In February 2021, Baring Private Equity Asia acquired the company for US$2 billion.


title: Virtusa

text: Vire with offices throughout US, Europe and Asia, and advanced development centers in the United States, Europe and Asia.


title: Virtusa

text: Some of its key competitors in the offshore IT services industry include Infosys, Wipro, Cognizant, Tech Mahindra, Mphasis, HCL and Tata Consultancy Services.


title: Virtusa

text: The company has a community support program that focuses on education and uses its IT competencies for meeting the needs of the community.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: Mimosa tenuiflora, syn. Mimosa hostilis, also known as jurema preta, calumbi (Brazil), tepezcohuite (México), carbonal, cabrera, jurema, black jurema, and binho de jurema, is a perennial tree or shrub native to the northeastern region of Brazil (Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia) and found as far north as southern Mexico (Oaxaca and coast of Chiapas), and the following countries: El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela. It is most often found in lower altitudes, but it can be found as high as .


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The fern-like branches have leaves that are "Mimosa" like, finely pinnate, growing to long. Each compound leaf contains 15–33 pairs of bright green leaflets long. The tree itself grows up to tall and it can reach tall in less than 5 years. The white, fragrant flowers occur in loosely cylindrical spikes long. In the Northern Hemisphere it blossoms and produces fruit from November to June or July. In the Southern Hemisphere it blooms primarily from September to January. The fruit is brittle and averages long. Each pod contains 4–6 seeds that are oval, flat, light brown and in diameter. There are about 145 seeds/. In the Southern Hemisphere, the fruit ripens from February to April.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The tree's wood is dark reddish brown with a yellow center. It is very dense, durable and strong, having a density of about .


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: "Mimosa tenuiflora" does very well after a forest fire, or other major ecological disturbance. It is a prolific pioneer plant. It drops its leaves on the ground, continuously forming a thin layer of mulch and eventually humus. Along with its ability to fix nitrogen, the tree conditions the soil, making it ready for other plant species to come along.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: A tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain. For cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract (decoction) of "Mimosa tenuiflora" is drunk. A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup. The solution is drunk until the symptoms subside.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: One preliminary clinical study found "Mimosa tenuiflora" to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: Aqueous extracts of "Mimosa" are widely used for wound healing and burns in Middle and South America. Consequently, the products of the plant (generally grouped under the term "Tepezcohuite") have become a popular and easily produced cosmetic ingredient in commercial skincare products, used and marketed by celebrities including Kylie Jenner and Salma Hayek.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The tree is an acceptable source of forage or fodder for animals, providing vital protein and other nutrients. It does well in the dry season and in drought, while providing life saving food for local livestock and animals. Cows, goats and sheep eat the pods and leaves. There seems to be evidence that "Mimosa tenuiflora" forage or fodder cause development defects to pregnant ruminants in Brazil.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The tree is an important source of forage for bees, especially during the dry season and in the beginning of the wet season.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: Like most plants in the family Fabaceae, "Mimosa tenuiflora" fertilizes the soil via nitrogen fixing bacteria. The tree is useful in fighting soil erosion and for reforestation.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: "Mimosa tenuiflora" is a very good source of fuel wood and works very well for making posts, most likely because of its high tannin content (16%), which protects it from rot. Due to its high tannin content, the bark of the tree is widely used as a natural dye and in leather production. It is used to make bridges, buildings, fences, furniture and wheels. It is an excellent source of charcoal and at least one study has been done to see why this is the case.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The healing properties of the tree make it useful in treating domestic animals. A solution of the leaves or bark can also be used for washing animals in the prevention of parasites. Because the tree keeps most of its leaves during the dry season, it is an important source of shade for animals and plants during that time.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The bark is known to be rich in tannins, saponins, alkaloids, lipids, phytosterols, glucosides, xylose, rhamnose, arabinose, lupeol, methoxychalcones, and kukulkanins. Additionally, "Mimosa hostilis" contains labdane diterpenoids.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: "Mimosa tenuiflora" is an entheogen used by the Jurema Cult ("O Culto da Jurema") in northeastern Brazil. Dried Mexican "Mimosa tenuiflora" root bark has been recently shown to have a dimethyltryptamine (DMT) content of about 1-1.7%. The stem bark has about 0.03% DMT.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The parts of the tree are traditionally used in northeastern Brazil in a psychoactive decoction also called or Yurema. Analogously, the traditional Western Amazonian sacrament Ayahuasca is brewed from indigenous "ayahuasca" vines.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: However, to date no β-carbolines such as harmala alkaloids have been detected in "Mimosa tenuiflora" decoctions, yet the Jurema is used in combination with several plants.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: This presents challenges to the pharmacological understanding of how DMT from the plant is rendered orally active as an entheogen, because the psychoactivity of ingested DMT requires the presence of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), such as a β-carboline. If an MAOI is neither present in the plant nor added to the mixture, the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) will metabolize DMT in the human gut, preventing the active molecule from entering the blood and brain.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The plant is also used in clandestine manufacture of crystalline DMT. In this form, it is psychoactive by itself when vaporized and inhaled.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The isolation of the chemical compound yuremamine from "Mimosa tenuiflora" as reported in 2005 represents a new class of phytoindoles, which may explain an apparent oral activity of DMT in Jurema.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: In nature, "Mimosa tenuiflora" "[...] fruits and seeds are disseminated by the wind in a radius of from the mother plant; rain carries them from slopes to lower plains and human activities contribute to their dissemination."


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: For cultivation, the seed pods are collected once they start to spontaneously open on the tree. The collected pods are laid out in the sun so that the pods open up and release their seeds. The seeds can then be planted in sandy soil with sun exposure.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: Scarification of the seed via mechanical means or by using sulfuric acid greatly increases the germination rate of the seeds over non-treatment. The seeds can be sown directly into holes in the ground or planted in prepared areas.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: The seeds can germinate in temperatures ranging from , but the highest germination rate occurs at around (about 96%), even after four years of storage. Germination takes about 2–4 weeks.


title: Mimosa tenuiflora

text: Trimming adult "Mimosa tenuiflorae" during the rainy season is not recommended as it can cause them to die.


title: Just intonation

text: In music, just intonation or pure intonation is the tuning of musical intervals as whole number ratios (such as 3:2 or 4:3) of frequencies. An interval tuned in this way is said to be pure, and is called a just interval. Just intervals (and chords created by combining them) consist of tones from a single harmonic series of an implied fundamental. For example, in the diagram, if the notes G3 and C4 (labelled 3 and 4) are tuned as members of the harmonic series of the lowest C, their frequencies will be 3 and 4 times the fundamental frequency. The interval ratio between C4 and G3 is therefore 4:3, a just fourth.


title: Just intonation

text: In Western musical practice, instruments are rarely tuned using only pure intervals—the desire for different keys to have identical intervals in Western music makes this impractical. Some instruments of fixed pitch, such as electric pianos, are commonly tuned using equal temperament, in which all intervals other than octaves consist of irrational-number frequency ratios. Acoustic pianos are usually tuned with the octaves slightly widened, and thus with no pure intervals at all.


title: Just intonation

text: Pythagorean tuning, or 3-limit tuning, allows ratios including the numbers 2 and 3 and their powers, such as 3:2, a perfect fifth, and 9:4, a major ninth. Although the interval from C to G is called a perfect fifth for purposes of music analysis regardless of its tuning method, for purposes of discussing tuning systems musicologists may distinguish between a "perfect fifth" created using the 3:2 ratio and a "tempered fifth" using some other system, such as meantone or equal temperament.


title: Just intonation

text: 5-limit tuning encompasses ratios additionally using the number 5 and its powers, such as 5:4, a major third, and 15:8, a major seventh. The specialized term "perfect third" is occasionally used to distinguish the 5:4 ratio from major thirds created using other tuning methods. 7-limit and higher systems use higher partials in the overtone series.


title: Just intonation

text: Commas are very small intervals that result from minute differences between pairs of just intervals. For example, the 5:4 ratio is different from the Pythagorean (3-limit) major third (81:64) by a difference of 81:80, called the syntonic comma.


title: Just intonation

text: A Cent is a measure of interval size. It is logarithmic in the musical frequency ratios. The octave is divided into 1200 steps, 100 cents for each semitone.


title: Just intonation

text: Pythagorean tuning has been attributed to both Pythagoras and Eratosthenes by later writers, but may have been analyzed by other early Greeks or other early cultures as well. The oldest known description of the Pythagorean tuning system appears in Babylonian artifacts.


title: Just intonation

text: During the second century AD, Claudius Ptolemy described a 5-limit diatonic scale in his influential text on music theory "Harmonics", which he called "intense diatonic". Given ratios of string lengths 120, , 100, 90, 80, 75, , and 60, Ptolemy quantified the tuning of what would later be called the Phrygian scale (equivalent to the major scale beginning and ending on the third note) – 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 9:8, 16:15, 9:8, and 10:9.


title: Just intonation

text: Non-Western music, particularly that built on pentatonic scales, is largely tuned using just intonation. In China, the guqin has a musical scale based on harmonic overtone positions. The dots on its soundboard indicate the harmonic positions: , , , , , , , , , , , , . Indian music has an extensive theoretical framework for tuning in just intonation.


title: Just intonation

text: The prominent notes of a given scale may be tuned so that their frequencies form (relatively) small whole number ratios.


title: Just intonation

text: The 5-limit diatonic major scale is tuned in such a way that major triads on the tonic, subdominant, and dominant are tuned in the proportion 4:5:6, and minor triads on the mediant and submediant are tuned in the proportion 10:12:15. Because of the two sizes of wholetone – 9:8 (major wholetone) and 10:9 (minor wholetone) – the supertonic must be microtonally lowered by a syntonic comma to form a pure minor triad.


title: Just intonation

text: The 5-limit diatonic major scale (Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale) on C is shown in the table below:


title: Just intonation

text: In this example the interval from D up to A would be a wolf fifth with the ratio , about 680 cents, noticeably smaller than the 702 cents of the pure ratio.


title: Just intonation

text: For a justly tuned diatonic minor scale, the mediant is tuned 6:5 and the submediant is tuned 8:5. It would include a tuning of 9:5 for the subtonic. For example on A:


title: Just intonation

text: Pythagorean tuning can produce a twelve-tone scale, but it does so by involving ratios of very large numbers, corresponding to natural harmonics very high in the harmonic series that do not occur widely in physical phenomena. This tuning uses ratios involving only powers of 3 and 2, creating a sequence of just fifths or fourths, as follows:


title: Just intonation

text: The ratios are computed with respect to C (the "base note"). Starting from C, they are obtained by moving six steps (around the circle of fifths) to the left and six to the right. Each step consists of a multiplication of the previous pitch by (descending fifth), (ascending fifth), or their inversions ( or ).


title: Just intonation

text: Between the enharmonic notes at both ends of this sequence is a pitch ratio of , or about 23 cents, known as the Pythagorean comma. To produce a twelve-tone scale, one of them is arbitrarily discarded. The twelve remaining notes are repeated by increasing or decreasing their frequencies by a power of 2 (the size of one or more octaves) to build scales with multiple octaves (such as the keyboard of a piano). A drawback of Pythagorean tuning is that one of the twelve fifths in this scale is badly tuned and hence unusable (the wolf fifth, either F–D if G is discarded, or B–G if F is discarded). This twelve-tone scale is fairly close to equal temperament, but it does not offer much advantage for tonal harmony because only the perfect intervals (fourth, fifth, and octave) are simple enough to sound pure. Major thirds, for instance, receive the rather unstable interval of 81:64, sharp of the preferred 5:4 by an 81:80 ratio. The primary reason for its use is that it is extremely easy to tune, as its building block, the perfect fifth, is the simplest and consequently the most consonant interval after the octave and unison.


title: Just intonation

text: Pythagorean tuning may be regarded as a "three-limit" tuning system, because the ratios can be expressed as a product of integer powers of only whole numbers less than or equal to 3.


title: Just intonation

text: A twelve-tone scale can also be created by compounding harmonics up to the fifth: namely, by multiplying the frequency of a given reference note (the base note) by powers of 2, 3, or 5, or a combination of them. This method is called five-limit tuning.


title: Just intonation

text: To build such a twelve-tone scale (using C as the base note), we may start by constructing a table containing fifteen pitches:


title: Just intonation

text: The factors listed in the first row and column are powers of 3 and 5, respectively (e.g., = 3). Colors indicate couples of enharmonic notes with almost identical pitch. The ratios are all expressed relative to C in the centre of this diagram (the base note for this scale). They are computed in two steps:


title: Just intonation

text: Note that the powers of 2 used in the second step may be interpreted as ascending or descending octaves. For instance, multiplying the frequency of a note by 2 means increasing it by 6 octaves. Moreover, each row of the table may be considered to be a sequence of fifths (ascending to the right), and each column a sequence of major thirds (ascending upward). For instance, in the first row of the table, there is an ascending fifth from D and A, and another one (followed by a descending octave) from A to E. This suggests an alternative but equivalent method for computing the same ratios. For instance, one can obtain A, starting from C, by moving one cell to the left and one upward in the table, which means descending by a fifth and ascending by a major third:


title: Just intonation

text: Since this is below C, one needs to move up by an octave to end up within the desired range of ratios (from 1:1 to 2:1):


title: Just intonation

text: A 12-tone scale is obtained by removing one note for each couple of enharmonic notes. This can be done in at least three ways, which have in common the removal of G, according to a convention which was valid even for C-based Pythagorean and quarter-comma meantone scales. Note that it is a diminished fifth, close to half an octave, above the tonic C, which is a disharmonic interval; also its ratio has the largest values in its numerator and denominator of all tones in the scale, which make it least harmonious: all reasons to avoid it.


title: Just intonation

text: This is only one possible strategy of five-limit tuning. It consists of discarding the first column of the table (labeled ""). The resulting 12-tone scale is shown below:


title: Just intonation

text: The table above uses only low powers of 3 and 5 to build the base ratios. However, it can be easily extended by using higher positive and negative powers of the same numbers, such as 5 = 25, 5 = , 3 = 27, or 3 = . A scale with 25, 35 or even more pitches can be obtained by combining these base ratios.


title: Just intonation

text: In Indian music, the just diatonic scale described above is used, though there are different possibilities, for instance for the sixth pitch ("Dha"), and further modifications may be made to all pitches excepting "Sa" and "Pa".


title: Just intonation

text: Some accounts of Indian intonation system cite a given 22 Shrutis. According to some musicians, one has a scale of a given 12 pitches and ten in addition (the tonic, Shadja ("Sa"), and the pure fifth, Pancham ("Pa"), are inviolate):


title: Just intonation

text: Where we have "two" ratios for a given letter name, we have a difference of 81:80 (or 22 cents), which is known as the syntonic comma. One can see the symmetry, looking at it from the tonic, then the octave.


title: Just intonation

text: Some fixed just intonation scales and systems, such as the diatonic scale above, produce wolf intervals when the approximately equivalent flat note is substituted for a sharp note not available in the scale, or vice versa. The above scale allows a minor tone to occur next to a semitone which produces the awkward ratio 32:27 for D–F, and still worse, a minor tone next to a fourth giving 40:27 for D–A. Moving D down to 10:9 alleviates these difficulties but creates new ones: D–G becomes 27:20, and D–B becomes 27:16. This fundamental problem arises in any system of tuning using a limited number of notes.


title: Just intonation

text: One can have more frets on a guitar (or keys on a piano) to handle both As, 9:8 with respect to G and 10:9 with respect to G so that A-C can be played as 6:5 while A-D can still be played as 3:2. 9:8 and 10:9 are less than of an octave apart, so mechanical and performance considerations have made this approach extremely rare. And the problem of how to tune complex chords such as C (C-E-G-A-D), in typical 5-limit just intonation, is left unresolved (for instance, A could be 4:3 below D (making it 9:8, if G is 1) or 4:3 above E (making it 10:9, if G is 1) but not both at the same time, so one of the fourths in the chord will have to be an out-of-tune wolf interval). Most complex (added-tone and extended) chords usually require intervals beyond common 5-limit ratios in order to sound harmonious (for instance, the previous chord could be tuned to 8:10:12:13:18, using the A note from the 13th harmonic), which implies even more keys or frets. However the frets may be removed entirely—this, unfortunately, makes in-tune fingering of many chords exceedingly difficult, due to the construction and mechanics of the human hand—and the tuning of most complex chords in just intonation is generally ambiguous.


title: Just intonation

text: Some composers deliberately use these wolf intervals and other dissonant intervals as a way to expand the tone color palette of a piece of music. For example, the extended piano pieces "The Well-Tuned Piano" by LaMonte Young and "The Harp Of New Albion" by Terry Riley use a combination of very consonant and dissonant intervals for musical effect. In "Revelation", Michael Harrison goes even further, and uses the tempo of beat patterns produced by some dissonant intervals as an integral part of several movements.


title: Just intonation

text: For many fixed-pitch instruments tuned in just intonation, one cannot change keys without retuning the instrument. For instance, if a piano is tuned in just intonation intervals and a minimum of wolf intervals for the key of G, then only one other key (typically E-flat) can have the same intervals, and many of the keys have a very dissonant and unpleasant sound. This makes modulation within a piece, or playing a repertoire of pieces in different keys, impractical to impossible.


title: Just intonation

text: Synthesizers have proven a valuable tool for composers wanting to experiment with just intonation. They can be easily retuned with a microtuner. Many commercial synthesizers provide the ability to use built-in just intonation scales or to create them manually. Wendy Carlos used a system on her 1986 album "Beauty in the Beast", where one electronic keyboard was used to play the notes, and another used to instantly set the root note to which all intervals were tuned, which allowed for modulation. On her 1987 lecture album "Secrets of Synthesis" there are audible examples of the difference in sound between equal temperament and just intonation.


title: Just intonation

text: The human voice is among the most pitch-flexible instruments in common use. Pitch can be varied with no restraints and adjusted in the midst of performance, without needing to retune. Although the explicit use of just intonation fell out of favour concurrently with the increasing use of instrumental accompaniment (with its attendant constraints on pitch), most a cappella ensembles naturally tend toward just intonation because of the comfort of its stability. Barbershop quartets are a good example of this.


title: Just intonation

text: The unfretted stringed instruments such as those from the violin family (the violin, the viola, and the cello), and the double bass are quite flexible in the way pitches can be adjusted. Stringed instruments that are not playing with fixed pitch instruments tend to adjust the pitch of key notes such as thirds and leading tones so that the pitches differ from equal temperament.


title: Just intonation

text: Trombones have a slide that allows arbitrary tuning during performance. French horns can be tuned by shortening or lengthening the main tuning slide on the back of the instrument, with each individual rotary or piston slide for each rotary or piston valve, and by using the right hand inside the bell to adjust the pitch by pushing the hand in deeper to sharpen the note, or pulling it out to flatten the note while playing. Some natural horns also may adjust the tuning with the hand in the bell, and valved cornets, trumpets, Flugelhorns, Saxhorns, Wagner tubas, and tubas have overall and valve-by-valve tuning slides, like valved horns.


title: Just intonation

text: Wind instruments with valves are biased towards natural tuning and must be micro-tuned if equal temperament is required.


title: Just intonation

text: Other wind instruments, although built to a certain scale, can be micro-tuned to a certain extent by using the embouchure or adjustments to fingering.


title: Just intonation

text: Composers often impose a limit on how complex the ratios may become. For example, a composer who chooses to write in 7-limit just intonation will not employ ratios that use powers of prime numbers larger than 7. Under this scheme, ratios like 11:7 and 13:6 would not be permitted, because 11 and 13 cannot be expressed as powers of those prime numbers ≤ 7 ("i.e." 2, 3, 5, and 7).


title: Just intonation

text: Originally a system of notation to describe scales was devised by Hauptmann and modified by Helmholtz (1877); the starting note is presumed Pythagorean; a “+” is placed between if the next note is a just major third up, a “−” if it is a just minor third, among others; finally, subscript numbers are placed on the second note to indicate how many syntonic commas (81:80) to lower by. For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C+E () while the just major third is C+E (). A similar system was devised by Carl Eitz and used in Barbour (1951) in which Pythagorean notes are started with and positive or negative superscript numbers are added indicating how many commas (81:80, syntonic comma) to adjust by. For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C−E while the just major third is C−E. An extension of this Pythagorean-based notation to higher primes is the "Helmholtz / Ellis / Wolf / Monzo system" of ASCII symbols and prime-factor-power vectors described in Monzo's "Tonalsoft Encyclopaedia".


title: Just intonation

text: While these systems allow precise indication of intervals and pitches in print, more recently some composers have been developing notation methods for Just Intonation using the conventional five-line staff. James Tenney, amongst others, preferred to combine JI ratios with cents deviations from the equal tempered pitches, indicated in a legend or directly in the score, allowing performers to readily use electronic tuning devices if desired.


title: Just intonation

text: Beginning in the 1960s, Ben Johnston had proposed an alternative approach, redefining the understanding of conventional symbols (the seven "white" notes, the sharps and flats) and adding further accidentals, each designed to extend the notation into higher prime limits. His notation "begins with the 16th-century Italian definitions of intervals and continues from there." Johnston notation is based on a diatonic C Major scale tuned in JI (Fig. 4), in which the interval between D (9:8 above C) and A (5:3 above C) is one syntonic comma less than a Pythagorean perfect fifth 3:2. To write a perfect fifth, Johnston introduces a pair of symbols, + and − again, to represent this comma. Thus, a series of perfect fifths beginning with F would proceed C G D A+ E+ B+. The three conventional white notes A E B are tuned as Ptolemaic major thirds (5:4) above F C G respectively. Johnston introduces new symbols for the septimal ( & ), undecimal ( & ), tridecimal ( & ), and further prime-number extensions to create an accidental based exact JI notation for what he has named "Extended Just Intonation" (Fig. 2 & Fig. 3). For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C-E+ while the just major third is C-E (Fig. 4).


title: Just intonation

text: In 2000–2004, Marc Sabat and Wolfgang von Schweinitz worked in Berlin to develop a different accidental-based method, the Extended Helmholtz-Ellis JI Pitch Notation. Following the method of notation suggested by Helmholtz in his classic "On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music", incorporating Ellis' invention of cents, and continuing Johnston's step into "Extended JI", Sabat and Schweinitz propose unique symbols (accidentals) for each prime dimension of harmonic space. In particular, the conventional flats, naturals and sharps define a Pythagorean series of perfect fifths. The Pythagorean pitches are then paired with new symbols that commatically alter them to represent various other partials of the harmonic series (Fig. 1). To facilitate quick estimation of pitches, cents indications may be added (e.g. downward deviations below and upward deviations above the respective accidental). A typically used convention is that cent deviations refer to the "tempered pitch" implied by the flat, natural, or sharp. A complete legend and fonts for the notation (see samples) are open source and available from the Plainsound Music Edition website. For example, the Pythagorean major third on C is C-E while the just major third is C-E↓ (see Fig. 4 for "combined" symbol)


title: Just intonation

text: Sagittal notation (from Latin "sagitta", "arrow") is a system of arrow-like accidentals that indicate prime-number comma alterations to tones in a Pythagorean series. It is used to notate both just intonation and equal temperaments. The size of the symbol indicates the size of the alteration.


title: Just intonation

text: The great advantage of such notation systems is that they allow the natural harmonic series to be precisely notated. At the same time, they provide some degree of practicality through their extension of staff notation, as traditionally trained performers may draw on their intuition for roughly estimating pitch height. This may be contrasted with the more abstract use of ratios for representing pitches in which the amount by which two pitches differ and the "direction" of change may not be immediately obvious to most musicians. One caveat is the requirement for performers to learn and internalize a (large) number of new graphical symbols. However, the use of unique symbols reduces harmonic ambiguity and the potential confusion arising from indicating only cent deviations.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: Reinier Jesus Carvalho (born 19 January 2002), known as Reinier or Reinier Jesus, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for La Liga club Girona, on loan from Real Madrid.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: Born in Brasília, son of former futsal player Mauro Brasília, Reinier joined the youth academy of Vasco da Gama in 2011. He moved to the Botafogo and Fluminense academies before joining Flamengo.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: Reinier made his senior team debut for Flamengo on 31 July 2019 in the second leg of Flamengo's Copa Libertadores tie against Emelec at Maracanã Stadium. Flamengo won 2–0 and advanced in the competition on penalty shootouts. He made his league debut against Bahia the following weekend on 4 August.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: On 9 November 2019, Reinier extended his contract with Flamengo until 31 October 2024 with a release clause set at €35 million.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: On 20 January 2020, Real Madrid CF announced that the club reached an agreement with Flamengo for the transfer of Reinier, who signed a contract until June 2026. He was assigned to their reserves for the rest of the season. The fee was around €30 million. On 7 March 2020, he scored his first goal for the Castilla against Coruxo.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: On 19 August 2020, Real Madrid announced that Reinier would be loaned to Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2022. On 27 February 2021, he scored his first goal for Borussia Dortmund in a 3–0 home win against Arminia Bielefeld.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: Reinier was called to the 2017 South American U-15 Championship to represent Brazil. He started against Ecuador and Venezuela, scoring in both matches.


title: Reinier Jesus

text: On 7 March 2018, Brazil U17 manager Paulo Victor Gomes called up Reinier for the Montaigu Tournament in France. He captained Brazil for the 2019 South American U-17 Championship in Peru and started all four group stage matches, scoring three goals.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Gaucher's disease or Gaucher disease () (GD) is a genetic disorder in which glucocerebroside (a sphingolipid, also known as glucosylceramide) accumulates in cells and certain organs. The disorder is characterized by bruising, fatigue, anemia, low blood platelet count and enlargement of the liver and spleen, and is caused by a hereditary deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase (also known as glucosylceramidase), which acts on glucocerebroside. When the enzyme is defective, glucocerebroside accumulates, particularly in white blood cells and especially in macrophages (mononuclear leukocytes, which is often a target for intracellular parasites). Glucocerebroside can collect in the spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain, and bone marrow.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Manifestations may include enlarged spleen and liver, liver malfunction, skeletal disorders or bone lesions that may be painful, severe neurological complications, swelling of lymph nodes and (occasionally) adjacent joints, distended abdomen, a brownish tint to the skin, anemia, low blood platelet count, and yellow fatty deposits on the white of the eye (sclera). Persons seriously affected may also be more susceptible to infection. Some forms of Gaucher's disease may be treated with enzyme replacement therapy.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The disease is caused by a recessive mutation in the "GBA" gene located on chromosome 1 and affects both males and females. About one in 100 people in the United States are carriers of the most common type of Gaucher disease. The carrier rate among Ashkenazi Jews is 8.9% while the birth incidence is one in 450.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Gaucher's disease is the most common of the lysosomal storage diseases. It is a form of sphingolipidosis (a subgroup of lysosomal storage diseases), as it involves dysfunctional metabolism of sphingolipids.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The disease is named after the French physician Philippe Gaucher, who originally described it in 1882.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The three types of Gaucher's disease are autosomal recessive. Both parents must be carriers for a child to be affected. If both parents are carriers, the chance of the disease is one in four, or 25%, with each pregnancy for an affected child. Genetic counseling and genetic testing are recommended for families who may be carriers of mutations.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Each type has been linked to particular mutations. In all, about 80 known "GBA" gene mutations are grouped into three main types:


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The Gaucher-causing mutations may have entered the Ashkenazi Jewish gene pool in the early Middle Ages (48–55 generations ago).


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The disease is caused by a defect in the housekeeping gene for lysosomal glucocerebrosidase (also known as beta-glucosidase, , ) on the first chromosome (1q22). The enzyme is a 55.6-kilodalton, 497-amino acid-long protein that catalyses the breakdown of glucocerebroside, a cell membrane constituent of red and white blood cells. In Gaucher disease, the enzyme is unable to function correctly and glucocerebroside accumulates. The macrophages that clear these cells are unable to eliminate the waste product, which accumulates in fibrils, and turn into 'Gaucher cells', which appear on light microscopy to resemble crumpled-up paper.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The exact mechanism of neurotoxicity is not understood, but it is thought to involve a reaction to glucosylsphingosine.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Different mutations in the GBA (beta-glucosidase) gene determine the remaining activity of the enzyme. In type I, there is some residual activity of the enzyme, accounting for the lack of neuropathology in this type. Although there is some correlation between genotype and phenotype, neither the amount of stored lipids, nor the residual enzyme activity correlates well with disease symptoms. This circumstance has called for alternative explanations accounting for disease symptoms including


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Heterozygotes for particular acid beta-glucosidase mutations carry about a five-fold risk of developing Parkinson's disease, making this the most common known genetic risk factor for Parkinson's.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Cancer risk may be increased, particularly myeloma. This is thought to be due to accumulation of glucosylceramide and complex glycosphingolipids.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The role of inflammatory processes in Gaucher disease is poorly elucidated. However, sphingolipids are known to participate in inflammation and apoptosis, and markers of macrophage activation are elevated in people with Gaucher disease. These markers include angiotensin-converting enzyme, cathepsin S, chitotriosidase, and CCL18 in the blood plasma; and tumor necrosis factor alpha in splenic Gaucher cells (engorged macrophages).


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Gaucher disease is suggested based on the overall clinical picture. Initial laboratory testing may include enzyme testing. As a result, lower than 15% of mean normal activity is considered to be diagnostic. Decreased enzyme levels will often be confirmed by genetic testing. Numerous different mutations occur; sequencing of the beta-glucosidase gene is sometimes necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Prenatal diagnosis is available and is useful when a known genetic risk factor is present.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: A diagnosis can also be implied by biochemical abnormalities such as high alkaline phosphatase, angiotensin-converting enzyme, and immunoglobulin levels, or by cell analysis showing "crinkled paper" cytoplasm and glycolipid-laden macrophages.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Some lysosomal enzymes are elevated, including tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, hexosaminidase, and a human chitinase, chitotriosidase. This latter enzyme has proved to be very useful for monitoring Gaucher's disease activity in response to treatment, and may reflect the severity of the disease


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Gaucher's disease (GD) has three common clinical subtypes. These subtypes have come under some criticism for not taking account of the full spectrum of observable symptoms (the phenotypes). Also, compound heterozygous variations occur which considerably increase the complexity of predicting disease course.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: GD type I (non-neuropathic) is the most common and least severe form of the disease. Symptoms may begin early in life or in adulthood and mainly affect the liver, spleen, and bone. Enlarged liver and grossly enlarged spleen (together hepatosplenomegaly) are common; the spleen can rupture and cause additional complications. Skeletal weakness and bone disease may be extensive. Spleen enlargement and bone marrow replacement cause anemia, thrombocytopenia, and leukopenia. The brain and nervous system are not affected pathologically, but lung and, rarely, kidney impairment may occur. Patients in this group usually bruise easily (due to low levels of platelets) and experience fatigue due to low numbers of red blood cells. Depending on disease onset and severity, type I patients may live well into adulthood. The range and severity of symptoms can vary dramatically between patients.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: GD type II (acute infantile neuropathic) typically begins within 6 months of birth and has an incidence rate around one 1 in 100,000 live births. Symptoms include an enlarged liver and spleen, extensive and progressive brain damage, eye movement disorders, spasticity, seizures, limb rigidity, and a poor ability to suck and swallow. Affected children usually die by age two.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: GD type III (chronic neuropathic) can begin at any time in childhood or even in adulthood, and occurs in about one in 100,000 live births. It is characterized by slowly progressive, but milder neurologic symptoms compared to the acute or type II version. Major symptoms include an enlarged spleen and/or liver, seizures, poor coordination, skeletal irregularities, eye movement disorders, blood disorders including anemia, and respiratory problems. Patients often live into their early teen years and adulthood.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: For those with type-I and most type-III, enzyme replacement treatment with intravenous recombinant glucocerebrosidase can decrease liver and spleen size, reduce skeletal abnormalities, and reverse other manifestations. This treatment costs about US$200,000 annually for a single person and should be continued for life. The rarity of the disease means dose-finding studies have been difficult to conduct, so controversy remains over the optimal dose and dosing frequency. Due to the low incidence, this has become an orphan drug in many countries, meaning a government recognizes and accommodates the financial constraints that limit research into drugs that address a small population.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The first drug for Gaucher's was alglucerase (Ceredase), which was a version of glucocerebrosidase that was harvested from human placental tissue and then modified with enzymes. It was approved by the FDA in 1991 and has been withdrawn from the market due to the approval of similar drugs made with recombinant DNA technology instead of being harvested from tissue; drugs made recombinantly are preferable, since there is no concern about diseases being transmitted from the tissue used in harvesting, there are fewer risks of variations in enzyme structure from batch to batch, and they are less expensive to manufacture.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Miglustat is a small molecule, orally available drug that was first approved for Gaucher's Disease in Europe in 2002. It works by preventing the formation of glucocerebroside, the substance that builds up and causes harm in Gaucher's. This approach is called substrate reduction therapy.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Eliglustat (Cerdelga) (approved in 2014) is also a small molecule. The compound is believed to work by inhibition of glucosylceramide synthase.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The National Gaucher Foundation (United States) states the incidence of Gaucher's disease is about one in 20,000 live births. Around one in 100 people in the general US population is a carrier for type I Gaucher's disease, giving a prevalence of one in 40,000. Among Ashkenazi Jews, the rate of carriers is considerably higher, at roughly one in 15.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: Type III Gaucher's disease is especially common in the population of the northern Swedish region of Norrbotten, where the incidence of the disease is one in 50,000.


title: Gaucher's disease

text: The disease was first recognized by the French doctor Philippe Gaucher, who originally described it in 1882 and lent his name to the condition. In 1902, its mode of inheritance was discovered by Nathan Brill. The neuronal damage associated with the disease was discovered in the 1920s, and the biochemical basis for the disease was elucidated in the 1960s by Roscoe Brady. The first effective treatment for the disease, the drug alglucerase (Ceredase), was approved by the FDA in April 1991. An improved drug, imiglucerase (Cerezyme), was approved by the FDA in May 1994 and has replaced the use of Ceredase.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The "La Fayette" class (also known as FL-3000 for ""Frégate Légère de 3,000 tonnes"", or FLF for "Frégate Légère Furtive") is a class of general purpose frigates built by DCNS in the 1980s/90s and still operated by the French Navy today. Derivatives of the type are in service in the navies of Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Taiwan.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The ships were originally known as "stealth frigates" due to their unique stealth design at the time. Their reduced radar cross section is achieved by a clean superstructure compared to conventional designs, angled sides and radar absorbent material, a composite material of wood and glass fibre as hard as steel, light, and resistant to fire. Most modern combat ships built since the introduction of the "La Fayette" class have followed the same principles of stealth.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: All information gathered by the onboard sensors is managed by the Information Processing System, the electronic brain of the operation centre of the ship. It is completed by an electronic command aid system.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The ships are designed to accommodate a helicopter in the Panther or NH90 range (though they are also capable of operating the Super Frelon and similar heavy helicopters). These helicopters can carry anti-ship missiles AM39 or AS15, and they can be launched during sea state five or six due to the Samahé helicopter handling system. France ordered five ships of the "La Fayette" class in 1988, the last of which entered service in 2001. In the French Navy, they will be incrementally superseded in "first-rank" functions by five "frégates de taille intermédiaire" ("FTI", "intermediate size frigates") from 2024.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: In the late 1980s, the French Navy ("Marine Nationale") started the studies for frigates adapted to low-intensity conflicts in the post–Cold War era. The ships were to serve in the large French exclusive economic zone (EEZ), be adapted to humanitarian operations or low-intensity operations in support of land troops, and replace the aging s, which tended to prove too focused on naval operations and were ill-suited for joint operations.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: Conventional warships used in low-intensity or humanitarian relief operations proved costly, with their heavy equipment and large crew. Hence came the requirement for lightly armed frigates with economical engines and small crew. In Italy, the same requirements led to the development of the and type corvettes, built according to both civilian and military standards. These ships were limited to because the limited size and depth of the Mediterranean Sea and the proximity of the homeland. The French Navy, on the other hand, had to be present in overseas territories, bases and EEZ. To be enduring enough, the ships had to reach , the size of a frigate. The larger displacement allows combining strong firepower (like the "Minerva" class) and a capacity for a medium helicopter (like the "Cassiopea" class), along with a good autonomy and seaworthiness.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The first type of ships built on these principles were the s, built on civilian standards, with a limited armament, and carrying a medium helicopter. These ships are high endurance units designed to be operated in overseas territories in the Caribbean Sea, Polynesia, and New Caledonia and the EEZ, where the likelihood of a naval threat is low. The speed is limited to because of the low-power engines which emphasised autonomy and reliability. To fight pirates in fast rigid-hulled inflatable boats, the "Floréal"s rely on their onboard helicopter and marine detachment.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The niche for more hostile environments is covered by the "La Fayette" type, designed to operate in complex zones like the Indian Ocean or Djibouti. These ships were to be able to secure the EEZ, but also to operate in naval groups or intelligence gathering missions. The intended role for the ships was in fact very varied, because the experience of the C.70 class, with an intended 20 ships cut down to only nine (the seven s and two s) had taught that project downsizing and reorganisation could lead to badly balanced naval capabilities. The new ships were to benefit from breakthroughs in stealth (""furtivité"") achieved by the DCN in the 1980s.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: It took several years to refine the concept, and the first ship was eventually launched in 1992, two years after the final design was completed. Weapon system testing took place in 1994, and particularly extensive trials were undertaken to prove the structure of the ship under a wide range of conditions. "La Fayette" was eventually commissioned in March 1996.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: At the time of their commissioning, the units of the "La Fayette" class were the state of the art in stealth for warships. The shape of the hull and the superstructures is devised for the optimal reduction of the radar signature, which has been reduced by 60 percent: a 3,000-tonne "La Fayette" unit has the typical radar signature of a 1,200-tonne ship. Stealth is achieved with inclined flanks, as few vertical lines as possible, and very clean lines and superstructures: stairs and mooring equipment are internal, and prominent structures are covered by clear surfaces. The superstructures are built using radar-absorbent synthetic materials.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: Their radar cross-section is equivalent to that of a large fishing boat, which can make camouflage among civilian ships possible; or that of a much less capable corvette, which could lead an enemy to underestimate the capabilities of the ship. In case of a direct attack, the small radar signature helps evade enemy missiles and fire control systems. The "La Fayette"s are also equipped with jammers that can generate false radar images, as well as decoy launchers.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: Thanks to the adoption of low-power diesel motors and a special heat dissipation system, the "La Fayette" ships have a low thermal signature. The usual funnel is replaced with a small sets of pipes, aft of the mast, which cool the exit gas before it is released. The ships usually operate in warm areas, which further decreases the thermal contrast with the environment.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The acoustic signature is minimized by mounting the engines on elastomeric supports, which minimize vibration transfers to the hull, and by rubber coatings on the propellers. The "La Fayette"s are equipped with the Prairie Masker active acoustic camouflage system, which generates small bubbles from underneath the hull to confuse sonars.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The superstructure is made of light alloy and glass-reinforced plastic, which allow a reduction in top weight. This provides adequate but sub-optimal resistance to fire. Vital zones are armoured in Kevlar, and important systems are redundant. The crew is protected against biological, chemical and nuclear environments.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The ships were built with a modular inner structure from eleven prefabricated modules which were completed at the factory, delivered to the shipyard and assembled there. This technique results in a construction time of less than two years.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The hull has a pronounced angle at the stem, with a short forecastle that integrates directly into the superstructure. The ship's sides have a negative inclination of ten degrees. The single anchor is located exactly on the stem, into which it is completely recessed. The deck where the seamanship equipment and capstans are installed is internal in order to hide it from radar.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The superstructure is built in one piece and directly integrates into the hull, with only a change in inclination. A platform is located between the main gun and the bridge. The superstructure runs continuously down to the helicopter hangar, on top of which short-range anti-aircraft Crotale missiles are installed.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The ships feature two masts. The main mast has a pyramidal structure which integrates funnels and supports the antenna of the Syracuse military communications satellite system, while the second supports the main radar.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: Three of the French Navy frigates ("La Fayette", "Courbet" and "Aconit") were selected to receive mid-life upgrades extending their useful service lives into the early 2030s. The three frigates are receiving KingKlip Mk2 hull-mounted sonar to incorporate an anti-submarine capability, modernized point air defence systems (consisting of two renovated SADRAL launchers, removed from the retired "Georges Leygues" class, and operating Mistral Mk3 SAMs/SSMs) as well as other improvements including the ability to carry the latest version of the Exocet anti-ship missile and "CANTO" anti-torpedo countermeasures (initially fitted first to "La Fayette" when she received her upgrade in 2021–22). The upgrades increase the displacement of the ships by some and will permit the three ships to operate through the 2020s and be retired between 2031 and 2034. The first vessel, "Courbet", began her conversion refit in October 2020. She returned to sea in June 2021. In October 2021, "La Fayette" began her planned refit and in November 2022 was declared operational again upon its completion.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: , the other two vessels of the class ("Surcouf" and "Guépratte") were scheduled to undergo more modest structural and technical upgrades (with the elderly Crotale SAM to be removed), and be withdrawn from service in 2027 and 2031 respectively. With somewhat reduced general purpose capability, it is anticipated that the two ships will be re-assigned to offshore patrol duties for the remainder of their service life.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: From 2024 the "La Fayette"-class units will be incrementally complemented, and eventually replaced, in first rank functions in the French Navy by the FDI-class frigates.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The three "Al Riyadh"-class ships are an expanded anti-air version of the French "La Fayette" class, displacing about and extended to in length.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The ships' combat systems are produced by Armaris (a DCN/Thales joint venture) and are armed with the Aster 15 missile. The Aster missiles use the DCN SYLVER launcher. As with the "La Fayette" class the primary offensive weapon is the anti-surface Exocet missile. The ships' main gun is the Oto Melara 76 mm/62 Super Rapid gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. There are also four aft torpedo tubes. The ship is armed with the DCNS F17 heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The Republic of Singapore Navy's six s are of comparable size to the "La Fayette" class but differs from that class and the Saudi "Al Riyadh" class in the armament carried: in place of the Exocet is the Boeing Harpoon. The main gun is a stealth cupola equipped with an Oto Melara 76 mm gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. The "Formidable" class also uses the SYLVER launcher/Aster missile combination.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The first ship, RSS "Formidable", was built by DCN, while the remaining ships were constructed by Singapore Technologies Marine.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: As the ROC (Taiwan)'s defensive stance is aimed towards the Taiwan Strait, the ROC Navy is constantly seeking to upgrade its anti-submarine warfare capabilities. The US$1.75 billion agreement with France in the early 1990s was an example of this procurement strategy: the six ships are configured for both ASW and surface attack. The Exocet was replaced by Taiwan-developed Hsiung Feng II anti-ship missile and the AAW weapon is the Sea Chaparral. The main gun is an Oto Melara 76 mm/62 mk 75 gun, similar to its Singaporean counterparts, the "Formidable"-class frigates. Some problems in the integration of Taiwanese and French systems had been reported. The frigate carries a single Sikorsky S-70C(M)-1/2 ASW helicopter.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The Sea Chaparral SAM system is considered inadequate for defense against aircraft and anti-ship missiles, so the ROC (Taiwan) Navy plans to upgrade its air-defense capabilities with the indigenous Sky Sword II in 2020. The AMRAAM-class missiles will be quad-packed in a vertical launch system for future ROCN surface combatants, but a less-risky alternative arrangement of above-deck, fixed oblique launchers is seen as more likely for upgrading these French-built frigates.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: In 2021 it was reported that the Republic of China would upgrade the "Kang Ding" class. It was reported that the MIM-72 Chaparral surface-to-air missile defence system will be replaced by the indigenous Sky Sword II. It was also reported that the upgrade of the battle system will also be involved.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The class's Mk 75 main guns have been upgraded and have an improved firing rate of 100 rounds a minute.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: The Taiwan frigate deal was a huge political scandal, both in Taiwan and France. Eight people involved in the contract died in unusual and possibly suspicious circumstances. Arms dealer Andrew Wang fled Taiwan to the UK after the body of presumptive whistleblower Captain Yin Ching-feng was found floating in the sea. In 2001 Swiss authorities froze accounts held by Andrew Wang, his wife, and his son Bruno Wang in connection to the Taiwan frigate scandal.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: In 2003, the Taiwanese Navy sued Thomson-CSF (Thales) to recover alleged $590 million in kickbacks, paid to French and Taiwanese officials to grease the 1991 "La Fayette" deal. The kickback money was deposited in Swiss banks, and under the corruption investigation, Swiss authorities froze approx. $730 million in over 60 accounts. In June 2007 the Swiss authority returned $34 million from frozen accounts to Taiwan, with additional funds pending.


title: La Fayette-class frigate

text: Andrew Wang died in the UK in 2015 and collection efforts continued against his family. In February 2021, the Federal Department of Justice and Police said that Switzerland will restitute nearly US$266 million to Taiwan.


title: Henry McMaster

text: Henry Dargan McMaster (born May 27, 1947) is an American politician and attorney serving as the 117th governor of South Carolina since January 24, 2017. He is a member of the Republican Party.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster worked for U.S. senator Strom Thurmond, in private practice, and as a federal prosecutor. Appointed United States attorney for the District of South Carolina by President Ronald Reagan in 1981, he gained attention for investigating South Carolina marijuana smugglers in Operation Jackpot. McMaster was the Republican nominee for U.S. Senate in South Carolina in 1986, losing to incumbent Democrat Fritz Hollings. He was then defeated for lieutenant governor of South Carolina by Democrat Nick Theodore in 1990.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster chaired the South Carolina Republican Party from 1993 to 2002. He was elected attorney general of South Carolina in 2002 and reelected in 2006. In 2010, McMaster ran for governor but lost to Nikki Haley in the Republican primary. In 2011, Haley appointed him to the South Carolina Ports Authority. McMaster was then elected lieutenant governor of South Carolina under Haley's governorship in 2014. McMaster succeeded to the office of governor in 2017, when Haley resigned to become the United States ambassador to the United Nations. He won a full four-year term in the 2018 gubernatorial election after narrowly winning a runoff for the Republican nomination and defeating Democratic nominee James E. Smith Jr. in the general election. He won reelection against Democratic nominee Joe Cunningham in 2022.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster was born on May 27, 1947, in Columbia, South Carolina. He is the eldest son of John Gregg and Ida Dargan (Pet) McMaster. He received a bachelor's degree in history from the University of South Carolina in 1969. In 1973, he graduated from the University of South Carolina School of Law, where he served on the editorial board of the "South Carolina Law Review". Later that year, he was admitted to the Richland County Bar Association of the South Carolina Bar. He served in the United States Army Reserves, receiving an honorable discharge in 1975.


title: Henry McMaster

text: Upon graduation from law school, McMaster worked as a legislative assistant to U.S. senator Strom Thurmond in Washington, D.C., until 1974, when he joined the firm of Tompkins and McMaster. He was admitted to practice before the federal Court of Claims in 1974, before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit in 1975, and upon Thurmond's motion, before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1978. McMaster practiced law for almost 29 years, both as a federal prosecutor and in private practice, representing clients in the state and federal courts, trial and appellate.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On April 13, 1993, Thurmond's 22-year-old daughter Nancy was killed by a drunk driver while jaywalking in Columbia, South Carolina. The driver, Corinne Koenig, immediately phoned McMaster, her attorney, and he was present at the scene as Nancy Thurmond was transported to the hospital. After learning the victim's identity, McMaster realized he had a conflict of interest and withdrew from the case.


title: Henry McMaster

text: Upon Thurmond's recommendation, President Ronald Reagan nominated McMaster as United States Attorney for the District of South Carolina in 1981—Reagan's first nomination for U.S. attorney. The Senate confirmed McMaster on May 21, 1981. He headed the South Carolina Law Enforcement Coordinating Committee from 1981 to 1985.


title: Henry McMaster

text: During his tenure, McMaster created the federal drug task force Operation Jackpot to investigate South Carolina marijuana smugglers. Operation Jackpot ultimately arrested more than 100 people for crimes related to marijuana and hashish trafficking. McMaster held numerous press conferences during the operation and gained publicity through interviews and comments. His actions were criticized as political, with journalist Lee Bandy writing, "no one can recall any other U.S. attorney being so public-relations conscious" and noting that McMaster had held more press conferences and news releases than all his predecessors combined. McMaster completed his term as U.S. attorney on December 31, 1985.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 1986, after considering races for South Carolina lieutenant governor and attorney general, McMaster won the spirited Republican primary for the United States Senate against Henry Jordan, 27,696 votes (53.4%) to 24,164 (46.6%). McMaster lost the general election in a landslide to four-term Democratic incumbent Ernest Hollings, 463,354 votes (63.1%) to 261,394 (35.6%). He only managed to carry Lexington County.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 1990, McMaster ran for lieutenant governor. He defeated Sherry Shealy Martschink in the Republican primary, 49,463 votes (51.46%) to 46,660 (48.54%), but again lost to the Democratic incumbent. He received 309,038 votes (41.19%) to Nick Theodore's 440,844 (58.75%).


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 1991, Governor Carroll A. Campbell Jr. appointed McMaster to the state's Commission on Higher Education, and the South Carolina Senate confirmed him. He also served on the board of directors of the nonprofit South Carolina Policy Council from 1991 to 2003, serving as board chairman from 1992 to 1993. McMaster left the Ports Authority in 2015.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On May 8, 1993, McMaster was elected chairman of the South Carolina Republican Party. He was reelected by the State Republican Convention in 1996, 1998 and 2000. In this capacity, he also served as a member of the Republican National Committee from 1993 to 2002. Under McMaster's chairmanship, the Republican Party captured the governorship, several statewide offices and (with party switches) the State House of Representatives in 1994, and finally captured control of the powerful State Senate in 2000. Under McMaster, the South Carolina GOP also ran highly contentious and successful presidential primaries in 1996 (won by Bob Dole) and 2000 (won by George W. Bush). On March 28, 2002, McMaster announced his resignation as party chairman so that he could run for attorney general.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster placed first in the Republican primary for attorney general, with 126,164 votes (42.41%), ahead of State Senator and former judge Larry Richter and attorney Jon E. Ozmint. He defeated Richter in the runoff, 162,014 votes (55.8%) to 128,271 (44.2%). In the general election, McMaster defeated Democratic attorney and former director of the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services Stephen K. Benjamin, 601,931 votes (55.5%) to 482,560 (44.5%). He was reelected in 2006, unopposed in both the Republican primary and the general election.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 2010 McMaster ran for governor, but finished third in the Republican primary with 71,187 votes (16.94%), ahead of Lieutenant Governor André Bauer's 52,324 (12.45%) but behind U.S. representative Gresham Barrett's 91,461 (21.76%) and state representative Nikki Haley's 205,360 (48.86%). He immediately endorsed Haley, who had been the front-runner throughout the race and defeated Barrett in the runoff by a landslide.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 2011, Haley appointed McMaster to the South Carolina Ports Authority, succeeding Harry Butler Jr. and was replaced by Kurt D. Grindstaff.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On January 6, 2015, the Ethics Commission of South Carolina accused McMaster of accepting about $70,000 in donations to his 2010 campaign for governor, exceeding South Carolina's limit for donations by $51,850. The commission released documents stating that McMaster accepted these extra funds to help settle campaign debt. In September 2015, the commission refused to dismiss the complaint and McMaster's attorney indicated McMaster was likely to settle. In March 2016, the commission ordered McMaster "to repay $72,700 in excess campaign contributions from his 2010 run for governor and pay a $5,100 fine."


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster filed to run for lieutenant governor of South Carolina on March 27, 2014. He received 44% of the vote in a four-way Republican Party primary, forcing a runoff between him and Mike Campbell, son of former governor Carroll A. Campbell Jr. McMaster defeated Campbell with 63.6% of the vote and faced Democratic state representative Bakari Sellers in the general election. During the campaign, Sellers challenged McMaster to renounce his 30-year membership in Columbia's Forest Lake Country Club, a private country club alleged to exclude black members; in response, McMaster's campaign manager said that the club "[had] no policies of racial discrimination" and that McMaster "would not be a member if it did." On November 4, 2014, McMaster was elected lieutenant governor with 58.8% of the vote. Upon his inauguration, he succeeded Democrat Yancey McGill.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster was elected on a separate ticket from Governor Haley, the last time a lieutenant governor was elected in this manner; as of 2018, candidates for governor and lieutenant governor run on the same ticket. During the 2016 presidential campaign, McMaster was an early and avid supporter of Donald Trump. He claimed to be the first elected politician in the United States to support Trump. After Trump won the Republican nomination, McMaster delivered the nominating speech at the Republican National Convention.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On November 23, 2016, President-elect Donald Trump announced his intention to nominate Haley as Ambassador to the United Nations. On January 24, 2017, the Senate confirmed Haley. Later that day, she resigned as governor and McMaster assumed the governorship. Inaugurated at the age of 69 years and 8 months, McMaster is the oldest person ever to assume the office of governor in South Carolina. McMaster served the remainder of Haley's term, which expired in January 2019. Per the South Carolina constitution, McMaster is eligible to serve as governor until January 2027 if he is reelected in 2022. Before ascending to the office of governor, McMaster declared in September 2016 that he would run in the 2018 election. McMaster won the 2018 election to serve his first four-year term.


title: Henry McMaster

text: After McMaster's first year as governor, "The State" evaluated his performance. It praised him for adding 17,000 jobs in the state, his accessibility to state legislators, and his handling of Hurricane Irma in 2017, but criticized his "lack of leadership", citing as an example his veto of a gas-tax increase that would have paid for road repairs and replacements for aging school buses, which members of both parties slammed, including McMaster's gubernatorial primary rival Catherine Templeton. "The State" summed up McMaster's first year as "mixed".


title: Henry McMaster

text: On June 12, 2018, McMaster placed first in the Republican gubernatorial primary, with 155,072 votes. But since that was 42.3% of the vote, less than a majority, he faced John Warren in a runoff. On June 26, McMaster won the runoff with over 53% of the vote. McMaster chose businesswoman Pamela Evette as his running mate, not incumbent lieutenant governor Kevin L. Bryant, who ran against McMaster for the gubernatorial nomination. Trump endorsed McMaster. McMaster defeated Democratic nominee James Smith in the general election with 54% of the vote.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster secured the Republican nomination in the June 14 primary. He defeated the Democratic nominee, Joe Cunningham, in the general election.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 2017, McMaster, the University of South Carolina, BlueCross BlueShield, Columbia Mayor Steve Benjamin, and a number of prominent state legislators were connected to Richard Quinn and Associates, a firm he employed for political consulting. Richard Quinn and Associates was named as part of a larger corruption probe Special Prosecutor David Pascoe conducted within the South Carolina General Assembly, which first ensnared then-Speaker Bobby Harrell, who resigned and pleaded guilty to public corruption charges in 2014. McMaster has not been implicated in Pascoe's corruption probe, but four state legislators have been indicted as part of it as of May 2017.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster's connections to Richard Quinn and Associates caused him challenges in the South Carolina legislature when replacing two members of the South Carolina Ports Authority (SCPA) Board of Directors whose terms had expired. At the time of McMaster's replacement nominations, the SCPA paid Quinn a consulting fee of $8,100 per month. State lawmakers delayed the vote on McMaster's two nominees for two weeks, citing the ongoing corruption probe that had pulled in three Republican legislators. Both nominees were confirmed after the SCPA voted to cease employing Quinn. McMaster likewise ceased to use Quinn in advance of his 2018 gubernatorial campaign.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster was in office when it was announced that SCANA and Santee Cooper were abandoning the expansion of the Virgil C. Summer Nuclear Generating Station in 2017. The event has been nicknamed the Nukegate scandal. Following the retirement of Santee Cooper's chairman, McMaster appointed Charlie Condon as a replacement. McMaster favors the sale of the utility, which he has called a "rogue agency" due to its independence and financial problems.


title: Henry McMaster

text: Like most governors during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States in 2020, McMaster declared a state of emergency. On April 20, 2020, McMaster drew criticism for reopening beaches and retail stores five days after South Carolina experienced its highest number of new positive COVID-19 tests, but he did include additional social distancing requirements in his executive order. McMaster said the economy was stalled because of the pandemic and that he anticipated having the economy "humming" by June 2020. By early June, McMaster reopened the majority of the state, though schools remained closed and businesses were required to follow social distancing procedures. Many schools and universities across the country canceled graduation ceremonies, but McMaster urged South Carolina schools to hold ceremonies in a manner that abided by social distancing requirements. He delivered the commencement address at West Florence High School's graduation ceremony and sang "Mull of Kintyre" while playing his guitar.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On June 10, state epidemiologist Linda Bell said that COVID-19 was worse in June than it was when the state was closed in March and April. On average, the number of cases in early June was five to six times higher than in March and April. McMaster said, "it is up to the people to determine what kind of precautions need to be followed," indicating that he would not place any more restrictions on businesses and public facilities. Bell accused McMaster of intentionally misleading the public about her stance on reopening the economy; she claimed that his staff was "somewhat manipulative" and made it appear that she and other scientists backed his plan to reopen the economy when she did not.


title: Henry McMaster

text: By late June and early July, confirmed cases in South Carolina had risen by as much as 2,000% compared to March and April. Despite pleas from lawmakers and other state officials, McMaster declined to enact a statewide requirement to wear masks, saying that such an order would be unenforceable. Consequently, dozens of municipalities enacted their own mask requirement ordinances, including Columbia, Forest Acres, Greenville, Charleston, Lexington, and most large cities and towns. Bell criticized McMaster's decision and said a statewide mask requirement would be more effective. McMaster responded that a statewide requirement would give a “false sense of security to South Carolinians." Attorney General Alan Wilson noted that ordinances and laws requiring masks are not illegal. On July 10, as the state's COVID-19 cases exceeded 50,000 and nearly 900 deaths, McMaster issued an executive order prohibiting businesses from selling alcohol after 11 p.m. in an effort to prevent the spread of the virus among younger people.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On July 15, McMaster said in an address that South Carolina schools should give parents the option to send students to in-person classes in September 2020. He instructed Superintendent of Education Molly Spearman to reject any school's reopening plan if it did not allow in-person learning. Groups such as the Palmetto State Teachers Association, the S.C. Education Association, and SC for Ed criticized McMaster's order, saying that it "would needlessly jeopardize the health and safety of our state’s 800,000 students and more than 50,000 teachers." Several school districts, including Greenville County School District, the state's largest, denounced the order. Spearman, a Republican elected independently of McMaster, also disapproved of his order.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On July 29, McMaster signed an executive order requiring face masks for employees and patrons in all South Carolina restaurants and bars and prohibiting any restaurant from operating at more than 50% capacity, seating tables less than six feet apart, or allowing people to congregate at a bar. By October, McMaster lifted most restrictions and unveiled SC CARES Act grants, a $65 million program aimed at helping small businesses and minority-owned businesses affected by COVID-19.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On December 22, the governor's office announced that McMaster and wife had both tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 2021, McMaster said he would block the federal government from sending people door-to-door to promote vaccinations. In September 2021, he criticized federal vaccine requirements, saying, "Biden and the radical Democrats [have] thumbed their noses at the Constitution." McMaster pledged to fight Biden "to the gates of hell" over the vaccine requirement.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In response to the murder of George Floyd, protests flared across the United States. In South Carolina, protests occurred in Columbia, Greenville, and Charleston. While protests in Greenville were largely peaceful, there were some instances of violence in Columbia and Charleston. In Columbia, police cars were torched, shots were fired at police, and businesses were vandalized. In Charleston, protesters stopped traffic on Interstate-26 and the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge and vandalized and looted businesses. Like President Trump, McMaster said that state and local governments were being too lenient on rioters and looters and was critical of Charleston's initial response. He said to Trump, "We've got to take people out, give them justice, make it more than just the cost of doing business to come into one town, get arrested, pay bond." McMaster mobilized the South Carolina National Guard to be dispatched, if necessary, to halts riots and looting. At Trump's request, he also sent members of the National Guard to Washington, D.C. to aid in larger-scale protests.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster is a longtime advocate of private education. In 2020, as part of the Governor's Emergency Education Relief (GEER) and the CARES Act, federal funds were distributed to support education in states amid the COVID-19 pandemic. McMaster announced that he sought to use $32 billion, or two thirds, of South Carolina's $48 billion allotment on private school vouchers, and that 5,000 grants to private schools would be made with the federal relief money. His decision received harsh criticism from educators and politicians around the state. The Palmetto State Teachers Association stated that the money could have been better used for South Carolina's nearly 1,000,000 students in public education instead of 5,000 students in private schools. SC for Ed, a teachers' advocacy group, called the decision "disappointing."


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster's supporters argued that parents should have a choice about where to send their children. On July 22, 2020, McMaster's decision was halted by court order after educators sued him for failing to uphold a principle of the South Carolina Constitution: "No money shall be paid from public funds nor shall the credit of the State or any of its political subdivisions be used for the direct benefit of any religious or other private educational institution." McMaster's attorneys argued that the decision to use emergency funds for private schools should be decided by the voters or the South Carolina General Assembly, not a court order. On October 7, in the case "Adams v. Henry McMaster", the South Carolina Supreme Court unanimously struck down McMaster's decision, citing a violation of the state constitution. On October 23, McMaster filed a petition to the court to review the ruling.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On October 8, 2020, a federal indictment against six men associated with the Wolverine Watchmen, a Michigan-based militia group, was unsealed. The indictment charges the men with plotting to kidnap Michigan governor Gretchen Whitmer and violently overthrow Michigan's government. A search warrant unsealed on October 28 revealed that the suspects had also discussed targeting McMaster during the early stages of their planning. One of the suspects was arrested in Columbia at the time the plot was uncovered, but there was no indication that he had plans of going after McMaster.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster opposes abortion. On February 18, 2021, he signed a bill into law that would ban most abortions. The next day, a federal judge suspended the law until June 2022. After the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, McMaster said he "looks forward to the day we don’t have abortions," and that he would sign any anti-abortion bill that came across his desk.


title: Henry McMaster

text: On February 6, 2017, McMaster's first major action as governor was to request $5.18 billion from President Trump for South Carolina's infrastructure. Trump made no public statement about McMaster's request. Later in February, McMaster announced, "[the] state government is going to have to go on a diet as far as spending." On May 9, 2017, McMaster vetoed a bill that would have raised the state's gas tax by 12 cents—the largest tax increase in state history—but the South Carolina General Assembly overrode his veto the following day. McMaster said the state had "plenty of money in the system to do all the work on the roads if we would just apply it to the roads that need the work...It's not necessary to put yet another tax on the people of South Carolina."


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster has said he would sign legislation, if passed by the General Assembly, that "would allow anyone who is legally allowed to buy a gun to do so without a state permit and carry it openly or concealed." When students did a walkout to protest gun violence and call for stricter gun control a month after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, McMaster called the walkout "shameful" and said it was a "tricky move" orchestrated by "left-wing groups" that were using the students as "tools" to further their agenda. Student activist David Hogg, who survived the Parkland shooting, criticized McMaster, saying in a tweet that "future voters will not reelect you and outlive you too."


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 2018, McMaster offered to send troops from the South Carolina National Guard to assist Texas in combating illegal immigration and drug trafficking. This came after Trump called for the deployment of thousands of soldiers along the Mexico–United States border, in which border states such as Arizona and New Mexico also participated.


title: Henry McMaster

text: In 1993, as chair of the South Carolina Republican Party, McMaster criticized a bill cosponsored by Senator Fritz Hollings, a Democrat, that would prohibit workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation. McMaster said, "I want to know why he sponsored the gay-rights bill that allows homosexuals to be recruited to teach in schools, among other things." In 2006, as Attorney General, McMaster successfully led the fight to ban same-sex marriage in South Carolina. He also said that South Carolina should "secede" over Don't Ask, Don't Tell. In an October 2022 gubernatorial debate, McMaster said he would enforce a same-sex marriage ban in South Carolina if the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Obergefell v. Hodges.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster has been married to Peggy McMaster (née Anderson) since 1978. They have two adult children and reside in Columbia, South Carolina. He owns an English Bulldog named Mac. McMaster and his family attend First Presbyterian Church in Columbia.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster and his wife own several houses and rental apartments in the Columbia area. One home they own is the McCord House, which was constructed in 1849 and used as a Union headquarters during the Civil War. McMaster typically leases or rents these homes to University of South Carolina students; they are his largest source of income. According to the Post and Courier, tenants have complained that the properties are unsafe and unsanitary. Images of roaches, outdated utilities, mold, bedbugs, mice, and bats validated the claim. Tenants have also complained about mold and having to wait months for pest control. When asked about the issues, McMaster denied the homes were unfit for renting. A spokeswoman for his campaign said, "Of course they are livable. No one would rent them if they were not." In 2016, McMaster's tax return showed that he received $7.7 million in rent on such houses and apartments between 2006 and 2015; he paid a little over $500,000 for upkeep, maintenance, and cleaning. McMaster has also reportedly paid over $16,000 in fines for ordinance violations. He has suggested that the fines were accrued because tenants trashed the properties.


title: Henry McMaster

text: McMaster ran unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate in 1986, for lieutenant governor in 1990, and for governor in 2010. He was elected attorney general in 2002 and 2006, lieutenant governor in 2014, and governor in 2018.


title: Currency strap

text: A currency strap, currency band or bill strap is a simple paper device designed to hold a specific denomination and number of banknotes. It can also refer to the bundle itself.


title: Currency strap

text: In the United States, the American Bankers Association (ABA) has a standard for both value and color. Note that all bills greater than $2 only come in straps of 100 count. The colors allow for quick accounting, even when the bills are stacked, such as in a vault. Special striping bands are used for straps containing star notes.


title: Currency strap

text: Bundling money together with a simple elastic or paper device is as old as paper currency itself. However, measured and standardized straps are a relatively new idea. For example, until the mid-1970s, The US Federal Reserve counted bills by hand. That is, they employed 55 currency counters whose job it was to count as well as, by touch and feel, authenticate bills. However, as the amount of currency in circulation increased, they found that they needed a more efficient way to count currency. To help the Currency Counting staff keep up, the Bank began strap-sorting the $1 to $20 notes. Straps were visually inspected and weighed against a counterweight equal to the paper mass of 100 genuine U.S. notes. Currency straps have even helped catch the culprits in bank robberies, like the Dunbar Armored Robbery in 1997, after one of the culprits decided to pay a real estate broker with a still-strapped bundle of notes.


title: Susan Silver

text: Susan Jean Silver (born July 17, 1958) is an American music manager, best known for managing Seattle rock bands such as Soundgarden, Alice in Chains and Screaming Trees. Silver also owns the company Susan Silver Management, and co-owns the club The Crocodile in Seattle. Silver was named "the most powerful figure in local rock management" by "The Seattle Times" in 1991.


title: Susan Silver

text: Silver was born in Seattle, Washington on July 17, 1958, to Samuel and Emmogene (Jean) Silver. She is the oldest of three children.


title: Susan Silver

text: Silver majored in Chinese at the University of Washington and had been to all the major concerts in Seattle since she was 15. She started by booking for the club The Metropolis and Jonathan Poneman's club parties, co-founder of label's Sub Pop.


title: Susan Silver

text: Silver started working as a music manager in 1983. Her first clients were the bands The U-Men and First Thought. In 1985, Silver met Soundgarden, whose lead vocalist was her then-boyfriend Chris Cornell, and in the following year she started managing the band. Back then, Silver was also managing Screaming Trees. "I became a manager because I wanted to help musicians achieve their dreams".


title: Susan Silver

text: At the same time that she was managing Rock bands, Silver was also the manager of a John Fluevog shoe store in Seattle. The store would become famous years later for selling the Dr. Martens boots worn by several members of Grunge bands from Seattle. One of Silver's co-workers at the store at the time was Kevin Martin, lead vocalist of Candlebox.


title: Susan Silver

text: In 1988, Silver met music manager Kelly Curtis. Curtis and his friend Ken Deans owned a company, and Deans was the manager of the band Alice in Chains. Deans gave Silver a cassette tape of Alice in Chains and she liked it. Silver then went to an Alice in Chains concert and thought they were fun and very energetic. When Curtis became interested in working with the band Mother Love Bone, Deans decided that he didn't want to work with Alice in Chains anymore, so he offered the managing job to Silver and Curtis, who started co-managing the band. Curtis and Silver passed on the Alice in Chains demo tape "The Treehouse Tapes" to Columbia Records' A&R representative Nick Terzo, who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner. Based on that demo, Terzo signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989. Some time later, Curtis started managing the band Pearl Jam, and Silver became the sole manager of Alice in Chains.


title: Susan Silver

text: In May 1990, record label Sub Pop sent Nirvana a new proposed contract, but vocalist Kurt Cobain was reluctant to sign it, complaining about the label's lack of promotion for their debut album, "Bleach". Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic consulted Silver for advice, and she looked at the contract and told them they needed a lawyer. They met Silver in Los Angeles and she introduced them to agent Don Muller and music business attorney Alan Mintz, who specialized in finding deals for new bands. Mintz started sending out Nirvana's demo tape to major labels looking for deals. MCA Records expressed interest, but the band ended up choosing DGC (part of Geffen Records) following advice from Sonic Youth, and the label released their hit album "Nevermind" in 1991. Kurt Cobain and Krist Novoselic offered her to manage them but she refused because she was too busy with her bands. "There aren't many things I regret about my life, but of course not managing Nirvana was a mistake". When Nirvana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2014, Novoselic thanked Silver during his speech for "introducing them to the music industry properly".


title: Susan Silver

text: In 1995, Silver supported Krist Novoselic's political-action committee, "Joint Artists and Music Promotions" (JAMPAC), to defend the rights of artists and their fans.


title: Susan Silver

text: In 1996, Silver was featured on the Doug Pray documentary "Hype!", talking about the Seattle music scene.


title: Susan Silver

text: Among Silver's clients in the 90s were the bands Hater, Inflatable Soule, Crackerbox, Sweet Water, Sponge, singer Kristen Barry, and producer Terry Date.


title: Susan Silver

text: In 1998, Silver retired from the music business to concentrate on her family. In 2005, Silver and Deborah Semer formed a new company in Seattle, Atmosphere Artist Management. Their first client was the music and dance group Children of the Revolution.


title: Susan Silver

text: Alice in Chains was inactive from 1996 until 2005. After lead vocalist Layne Staley died of a drug overdose in 2002, the band only performed in public again in February 2005 for a benefit concert with guest vocalists in Seattle. After that experience, the band called Silver and said they wanted to tour as Alice in Chains again. The band released their first album with new vocalist William DuVall in September 2009, "Black Gives Way to Blue". The album debuted at No. 5 on the "Billboard 200" chart, and was certified gold by the RIAA in 2010 for shipments in excess of 500,000 copies in the United States.


title: Susan Silver

text: Since 2009, Silver co-manages Alice in Chains along with David Benveniste and his company Velvet Hammer Management.


title: Susan Silver

text: Since 2009, Silver co-owns the club The Crocodile in Seattle along with Alice in Chains' drummer Sean Kinney, Capitol Hill Block Party co-founder Marcus Charles, Peggy Curtis, and Portugal. The Man guitarist Eric Howk.


title: Susan Silver

text: In 2013, "Rolling Stone" named The Crocodile as one of the best clubs in America, ranked at No. 7. The Guardian included the club in its list of the "Top 10 live music venues in Seattle".


title: Susan Silver

text: On November 21, 2019, Silver interviewed writer and political activist Gloria Steinem at the Paramount Theater in Seattle when Steinem was promoting her new book, "The Truth Will Set You Free, But First It Will Piss You Off!".


title: Susan Silver

text: In 1985, Silver started dating Chris Cornell, the lead vocalist of Soundgarden, a band that Silver started managing a year later, and they got married in 1990. Cornell wrote the song "Moonchild" from his debut solo album "Euphoria Morning" for Silver. The couple's first and only child, a daughter named Lillian Jean, was born in June 2000. The couple divorced in 2004. Silver says: "Movement and dance... for the last 25 years, helps me physically feel better but lifts me emotionally in a profound way. I got lucky enough to get introduced to TM (Transcendental Meditation) when I was in high school so that was really important... Therapy has been really valuable for me and getting out in nature... those are the pillars for me. Having a spiritual practice… really important for me. It has been for decades and decades."


title: Susan Silver

text: When asked about his heroes during a press conference in 2002, Alice in Chains' vocalist and guitarist Jerry Cantrell named Silver as one of his heroes. Cantrell also thanked Silver for being one of the people who helped him get into rehab during his speech at the MusiCares MAP Fund Benefit on May 31, 2012, where he was awarded the Stevie Ray Vaughan Award.


title: Reynard the Fox

text: Reynard the Fox is a literary cycle of medieval allegorical Dutch, English, French and German fables. The first extant versions of the cycle date from the second half of the 12th century. The genre was popular throughout the Late Middle Ages, as well as in chapbook form throughout the Early Modern period.


title: Reynard the Fox

text: The stories are largely concerned with the main character Reynard, an anthropomorphic red fox, trickster figure. His adventures usually involve his deceiving other anthropomorphic animals for his own advantage or trying to avoid their retaliatory efforts. His main enemy and victim across the cycle is his uncle, the wolf, Isengrim (or Ysengrim).


title: Reynard the Fox

text: While the character of Reynard appears in later works, the core stories were written during the Middle Ages by multiple authors and are often seen as parodies of medieval literature such as courtly love stories and chansons de geste, as well as a satire of political and religious institutions. The trickster fox, Reynard, lives in a society of other talking animals (lion, bear, wolf, donkey, et cetera), making the stories a beast epic.


title: Reynard the Fox

text: The original copies were written in Old French, but have since been translated into many different languages. However, the tales of Reynard come from all across Europe and each retelling has details that are specific to that area. The tales, no matter where they take place, are designed to represent the society around them and include the structures of society around them such as a noble court. While the authors take many liberties with the story telling, not all of the satire is meant to be rude or malicious in intent.


title: Reynard the Fox

text: The main characters are anthropomorphic animals. The given names of the animals are of Old High German origin; most of them were in common use as personal names in medieval Lorraine. The characters of Reynard the Fox were based on the medieval hierarchy, and are treated as human throughout the tales. Though, since multiple authors wrote the text, characters' personalities often change. Throughout the stories, these characters often switch between human and animal form and often without notice. The characters who switch between human and animal form are often those of elite status; however the characters who don't change tend to be peasants. Often, the readers will find themselves being able to empathize with Reynard. They find that the situations he is in are not often that different from their own lives, and this carries across the decades. The most common usage of animals as characters in tales has made it so the stories that touch on morally gray areas are easier to understand and accept.