title: Early skyscrapers

text: Early attempts by Ernest Flagg to limit the height of New York's skyscrapers in 1896 failed; further unsuccessful attempts followed between 1906 and 1908, and legislation was turned down again in 1909, partially because of pressure from the real estate industry. After 1913, however, the property market in New York entered a recession, and vacancy levels in buildings began to rise. The campaign for change was helped by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915 at the estimated cost of $29 million ($10.9 billion in 2010 terms), which rapidly became infamous as its vast height and bulk blocked views cast neighbours into permanent shade. The real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation, and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The details of the legislation were largely the work of architect George Ford. Ford had sympathies with the City Beautiful movement, disliked the unimaginative form of many New York skyscrapers, and had concerns over urban public health, but he also found tall buildings exciting and believed that horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture. As a consequence of Ford's influence, New York's laws were relatively complex and divided up the city into different zones; in each zone, a particular zoning envelope applied, controlling the height to which buildings could be built. Typically a building could only rise up from the sidewalk vertically by around , after which the building had to be set back at a set angle to allow sunlight to reach the street below. On a quarter of the site, however, the owner could build as high as they wished, without any further restrictions.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: A real estate boom occurred in the U.S. after the end of the First World War, with a particular surge in the construction of new skyscrapers between 1925 and 1931. In New York, a quarter of the financial district was rebuilt between 1928 and 1931, with of new office space added between 1925 and 1929 alone. In Chicago, limited wartime construction created supply shortages, and rent levels rose in response by around 100 percent between 1919 and 1924. This level of potential profits encouraged an explosion of new building projects in the city. The boom inflated prices in the real estate market, leading to speculative financing and building projects, including the introduction of 100 percent mortgages for new builds. An early edition of the "Fortune" magazine commented wryly that "all a man needs to own a skyscraper is the money and the land. And he may be able to get along without the money."


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s. In part this was the result of improvements in technology: steel-frame structures had become increasingly efficient, while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend. Commercial factors were at work too, as growing commercial demand pushed up rents, enabling taller projects, while the higher offices attracted more sunlight, permitting the charging of premium rents. The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners, in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants. Furthermore, the higher the cost of the underlying real estate, the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment, and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories. 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common, although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high, returning an annual profit of 10.25 percent.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the U.S. and internationally. New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development, but most major cities in the U.S. had built skyscrapers by 1929, frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment. Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914, followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930. In Detroit, the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928. Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929; the latter, built by the Van Sweringen brothers, was, for a short period, the second tallest building in the world. Seattle had built Smith Tower in 1914, and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928. Also in 1928, the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Skyscrapers were also built in other developed countries, although reaching nowhere near the level of construction seen in the U.S. This was partially the result of a lack of funding but also because of local architectural preferences. Some European cities including London and Paris had laws to ban tall buildings, but elsewhere skyscrapers began to appear, including Toronto's Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Antwerp's Boerentoren, Madrid's Telefónica Building and Buenos Aires' Kavanagh, Comega and Safico buildings. Many other European skyscrapers were proposed in a frenzy of excited planning, although few materialised. Soviet Russia began the construction of the Palace of the Soviets in the late 1930s, in the Socialist Classicism style, which would have become the tallest building in the world, but war intervened and the skyscraper was never completed. In the post-war years, this style resulted in the monumental Seven Sisters of Moscow building.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The technology used in constructing skyscrapers continued to develop. Time was increasingly a factor in the projects, and architects and their specialist teams developed faster ways to design and construct the buildings to minimise the interest payments during construction and hasten the arrival of rental income. By 1930, skyscrapers were being erected in just 12 months by teams of workers totalling 5,000 men, with four floors being assembled in a typical week. Building skyscraper towers involved some adaption of engineering techniques, as effectively two different buildings were being designed – the base and the tower – which needed to be efficiently linked using elevators and other service facilities. Most new offices settled around a standard size, wide by deep, depending on the height of the ceiling, with multiple small windows considered better than a few larger ones. The output of electric lighting continued to improve, although this began to give off excessive heat within the offices. Air conditioning was first installed in a few skyscrapers during the 1930s.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: During the 1920s and 1930s many skyscrapers were designed in an Art Deco style. This architectural approach typically combined what Carol Willis terms an "aesthetic of simple, sculptural mass" with the use of rich colour and ornamentation on the surfaces of the buildings. The aim was to call attention to the increasingly complex three-dimensional shape of the skyscraper, in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued, as historian Larry Ford suggests, as being merely "short buildings made taller with additional stories". Windows were de-emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass, the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric, dressing the building underneath. Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions, being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building, the whole forming a striking silhouette.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: In New York, the 1916 act to allow light and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design; this "set-back" style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower. This encouraged a diversity of buildings, while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style. The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street, for example, were constructed in the set-back style without towers, partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and – when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities – economically unviable. Many other skyscrapers built on larger or more expensive plots opted for the tallest towers possible, including the $24 million ($3.8 billion in 2010 terms) Bank of Manhattan Building at 40 Wall Street and the City Bank-Farmers Trust Company Building at 20 Exchange Place. New York continued its lead in tall skyscrapers throughout the period; in 1920 it had ten times the number of tall buildings than its nearest rival Chicago.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Some New York skyscrapers complemented traditional, cubicle offices linked by corridors, with larger, more open-plan spaces called "general offices". These maximised the number of workers that could be fitted into a given space and provided for greater flexibility. Expensive corporate suites were also created during the 1930s, especially on Wall Street, typically on the highest levels of the buildings. These were used by the corporate executives and were usually lavishly outfitted in a range of traditional and exotic styles. The lobbies of these skyscrapers remained grand affairs, although some banks now eschewed renting out space to shops and restaurants in favour of a more exclusive atmosphere. The largest skyscrapers held up to 16,000 workers, although between 5,000 and 10,000 was more common, and the buildings held a wide range of services to support them, including beauty salons, private luncheon clubs, chiropodists and gymnasiums. A skyscraper such as the Cities Service Building at 70 Pine Street directly employed over 200 staff to manage and protect the property. The technology within the offices also grew still more sophisticated, with dictating, automatic typing and tabulating machines being used by teams of ever more specialised office workers.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Chicago altered its laws in the 1920s to allow towers to be built as part of its skyscrapers. In 1920, the maximum building height in Chicago was increased to , and unoccupied structures on a building, such as ornamental towers, were allowed to extend up to high. Additional changes came in 1923, with taller occupied towers being permitted for the first time, but subject to controls on overall volumes. The main building of a skyscraper could be up to tall, and a tower could be built on up to 25 percent of the lot, but the tower could not have a volume of more than a sixth of the main block. In practice, this meant that a tower could not be built more than around 20 stories tall in a typical Chicago skyscraper development.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Initially, Chicago still preferred "palazzo"-styled buildings with large light courts in the centre, because they remained the most profitable designs. The Wrigley Building, built under the 1920 law, demonstrated the effect of two ornamental towers on top of a skyscraper. Under the revised law, the Straus Building and the Pittsfield Building took the "palazzo" design and added somewhat stunted towers on top in the early 1920s, producing profitable buildings.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: One of the period's most famous buildings, the Tribune Tower, emerged from a competition held by the Tribune Company in 1922 to celebrate its 75th anniversary. The newspaper was one of the largest in the world and used the competition, in which members of the public were invited to influence the design of the skyscraper, to build a loyal following amongst its readership and generate free publicity. The final design was determined by a competition panel largely made up of the company's appointees, who chose John Howells and Raymond Hood's tower design. The resulting tower was a conservative, Gothic design and controversy about the decision broke out almost immediately: Louis Sullivan and many others criticized Howells and Hood's design as being derivative of the Woolworth Tower. Regardless of its critics, the Tribune received as many as 20,000 visitors to its observation gallery when it opened in 1925. The unbuilt second-place entry in the competition, a more simplified stepped-back design by Eliel Saarinen, also proved highly influential.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The popularity of the older style then began to wane in favor of a greater emphasis on towers. One common way of building these within Chicago's laws was to build a square main block with a central service core, and then simply place a tower on the top; the more massive the main block, the taller the tower could be. The Trustees System Service Building and the Foreman State National Bank Building form good examples of this approach. Alternatively, the front of the main block could be recessed, as at the Chicago Civic Opera Building or the LaSalle-Wacker Building, sacrificing volume but producing the visual effect of two high wings flanking a very tall tower. The distinctive New York "setback" style was not adopted in Chicago, the only example of this style being the Palmolive Building on North Michigan Avenue.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The boom in skyscraper construction began to falter following the Wall Street Crash of 1929, with fast economic growth giving way to the slump years of the Great Depression: construction of all sorts slowed considerably. The real estate market that lay behind new skyscraper builds collapsed, and the value of many properties dropped dramatically: the American Insurance Union tower cost $8 million ($1.2 billion in 2010 terms) to build in 1927, but was valued at only $3.5 million ($900 million) by 1933; 40 Wall Street defaulted on its debts in 1935 and was put on sale for just $1.2 million ($240 m). The major bond house of S.W. Straus, behind many successful developments, defaulted on the $214 million ($47 billion) in bonds held by 60,000 investors; the Van Swerigan developer brothers went bankrupt. Vacancy rates began to increase as the recession bit, increasing from only one percent in central New York in early 1920 to 17 percent in 1931 and 25 percent by 1934.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: In the face of the recession, some skyscrapers projects were canceled or scaled back. Plans by the Metropolitan Life company to build a 100-story skyscraper alongside their existing tower had been put forward in 1929, but were shelved in the face of the recession and public criticism of such expenditure in the economic climate. Instead the first phase of the project, known as the North Building ended up only 32 stories high in 1932 and the building, even at this height, was only fully completed in 1950. In many other cases, projects which had already been commissioned continued through to completion. This resulted in of new office space being added to New York between 1931–34 even after the start of the recession, adding to the problem of underoccupancy. Some of these buildings, however, became iconic structures, pushing the limits of skyscraper height sharply upwards.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930, just after the Depression began to affect the industry. Architect William Van Alen competed with the designers of 40 Wall Street to produce the tallest building in the world and famously erected the Chrysler spire in a last-minute, secret move in order to acquire the title for his own 69-story, tall building. The exterior was built of white and grey brick, but metal was used extensively to ornament it further, including gargoyles, nickel-chrome eagles' heads, and a winged helmet of Mercury. The entrance used black granite to contrast with the nickel-chrome windows, and the foyer gave way to red marble and a mural ceiling. The design of each part of the building was individualist and distinct, with even each elevator different in design. A Chrysler showroom was placed on the first floor of the building and an observation deck and the exclusive "Cloud Club" on the upper levels.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The Empire State Building originated from a 1928 project to redevelop the original Waldorf–Astoria into a 50-story mixed-use development; the purchase of the site for $14 million ($2.1 billion) set a record in New York for the year. John Raskob and Pierre du Pont entered into the project as financial backers, and concluded that the project would be more profitable if the site was used to build an extremely tall 80-story skyscraper instead. Although revised financial estimates suggested that the height should be cut back, the cachet of having the world's tallest building was considerable, and instead an additional five stories were added to ensure the building, at , would be slightly taller than the Chrysler Building. An observation deck was built to attract tourists, which proved to be a valuable source of revenue. The limestone, granite, and aluminium skyscraper was specially designed to be easily erected, with standardized paneling and structural fittings, and was completed in only 18 months, opening in 1931. Due to the recession, however, it was only 25 percent occupied throughout the 1930s and ran at a loss; critics dubbed it the "Empty State Building".


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Rockefeller Center had originally been intended by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. to be a new location for the Metropolitan Opera House, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought an end to the scheme. Rockefeller decided to develop a large office center instead, taking advantage of the low construction costs during the recession. At the center of the development was the RCA Building, heavily influenced by architect Raymond Hood. The long, slab-like RCA had two distinct axes – from one side, it appeared to be a narrow tower, from the other it rose like a sheer wall. Not only was the structure highly distinctive, but it was also economically very effective. The design maximized the available light to the offices and eliminated any darker internal rooms, as the core of the building was entirely taken up with elevators and other engineering services. It took until 1940 before all of the building had been filled by tenants.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: In Chicago, the final pre-war skyscraper was built in 1934. The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter-war economy, and the Home Insurance Building – the first skyscraper, built in 1884 – was demolished to make way for the "wing and tower"-style development.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Public interest in skyscrapers increased during the 1920s, particularly after the Tribune competition. The competition drawings were circulated on display, with 25,000 people coming to see them in Chicago in just one month. In the aftermath, images of skyscrapers flourished across American culture, commencing what historian Merrill Schleier dubbed a "skyscraper mania". The "Titan City" exhibition in 1925 celebrated existing skyscraper and featured futuristic murals by Harvey Corbett and Hugh Ferriss, depicting the skyscraper at the heart of the "City of the Future". Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand's 1921 short film "Manhatta" explored the form, ending with a sunset shot from the top of a skyscraper. Authors such as Janet Flanner, John Dos Passos and Mary Borden wrote novels with skyscrapers as important motifs or settings. John Carpenter produced a ballet on the theme. Paul Frankl designed a range of popular "skyscraper furniture".


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Much of this commentary was positive, reflecting an optimism about technology and the direction of urban life in general. Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering, the perfect buildings for mankind to live in, as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick's lithographs. Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals, symbols of the modern age. Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime, rational beauty, Ferris describing them as "buildings like crystals, walls of translucent glass, sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill". At Chicago's Century of Progress exposition in 1933, skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for the United States' current and future problems. The French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as being "overwhelming, amazing, exciting, violently alive", but went on to complain that there were still too few skyscrapers, and those that had been built were not yet tall enough. Lewis Hine, employed to record the building of the Empire State Building, portrayed the skyscraper construction teams as courageous heroes, creating a genre of photography that continued up until 1941.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Their critics expressed concerns about the effect of modern technology and urban living on the human condition, arguing that skyscrapers generated pollution and noise, and imposed a regimented and dehumanising lifestyle on the people that worked in them. Social commentator Lewis Mumford reflected the concerns of many in his critiques entitled "Is the Skyscraper Tolerable?" and "The Intolerable City". Political theorist Stefan Hirsch condemned the buildings as "bandages covering the sky, stifling our breath". Inventor Thomas Edison expressed fears that an uncontrolled expansion of skyscrapers would result in overcrowding and disaster. Artist Howard Cook's engravings critiqued the oppressive character of the new skyscrapers as they loomed over the traditional city. Berenice Abbott's photographic studies of New York in the 1930s explored the complex theme of urban change and the effect of skyscrapers on the older ways of life in the city, echoing Steigler's work in the first decade of the century.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Hollywood used skyscrapers extensively in popular films. "The Skyscrapers of New York" in 1906 became the first of many, and in the 1920s Harold Lloyd produced his five "skyscraper films", most prominently "Safety Last!", in which the hero dangles from a clock on the side of a Los Angeles building. In these early silent movies, skyscrapers were closely associated with masculine identity; Lloyd's climbing of skyscrapers closely associated with his characters' transformation from young men into mature adults, and the winning of the heroine. The 1933 film "King Kong" included another iconic use of the early skyscraper in its final scenes, as the giant ape scaled the Empire State Building shortly before his death; the scene can be interpreted as contrasting natural instinct with the insensitive rationality of the modern building and wider New York.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Skyscraper development paused during the years of the Second World War. Once development began again in the 1950s and 1960s, the skyscraper entered a different phase of development, usually called the international or modern period. Some experimental designs in this style had been built in the U.S. using European architectural concepts in the early 1930s, most notably the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society and McGraw-Hill Buildings. Post-war, their modernist themes were used in a new generation of skyscrapers. These stood alone on individual plots in the fashion of the Rockefeller Centre's RCA building, rather than as part of a row of buildings, forming huge slabs and towers featuring huge glass façades, breaking with earlier skyscraper traditions. Inside, new technologies such as fluorescent lighting and widespread air-conditioning meant that many older architectural features such as light courts and operable windows were unnecessary.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: The trend had substantial implications for many early skyscrapers. Some were redesigned to fit new tastes. Much of the ornate detail was removed from the Metropolitan Life Tower in the 1960s, for example, to fit contemporary, plainer fashions. Many older skyscrapers could not be adapted, however, as they lacked the physical depth to build larger modern offices or the space for new service facilities. Some were demolished to make way for new, larger structures. Amongst these was the Singer Tower, demolished in 1968 and replaced by the international style United States Steel Building. In the 21st century, buildings such as 90 West Street have been renovated as upmarket housing, partially because of their extensive windows and access to sunlight.


title: Early skyscrapers

text: Critical discussion of early skyscrapers began from the 1880s onwards in the architectural community and continued across a growing cultural and academic community in the inter-war period. In 1930, the terms the Chicago "school" and "movement" began to be used for the first time, popularised by the 1940s academics Sigfried Giedion and Carl Condit as a label for the early Chicago architects. They regarded skyscrapers as the early forerunners of modernism and as marking a clear break with earlier architectural forms in the U.S. This interpretation of Chicago's skyscrapers was later challenged by Robert Bruegmann and Daniel Bluestone, who argued that it underplayed the links of the movement to pre-existing Chicago culture. During the 1980s and 1990s, analysis of the early skyscrapers increasingly shifted away from the architects and architecture of the individual buildings to considerations of skyscrapers' roles in the wider urban context. Histories stressing the social, economic, and cultural dimension of skyscrapers began to be produced, with New York's skyscrapers receiving greater attention than before. The Skyscraper Museum – the first to address the theme – was founded in New York in 1997 by historian Carol Willis to preserve the history of the skyscraper.


title: Electronics industry

text: The electronics industry is the economic sector that produces electronic devices. It emerged in the 20th century and is today one of the largest global industries. Contemporary society uses a vast array of electronic devices built-in automated or semi-automated factories operated by the industry. Products are primarily assembled from metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors and integrated circuits, the latter principally by photolithography and often on printed circuit boards.


title: Electronics industry

text: The industry's size, the use of toxic materials, and the difficulty of recycling have led to a series of problems with electronic waste. International regulation and environmental legislation have been developed to address the issues.


title: Electronics industry

text: The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector, which has annual sales of over as of 2018. The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over in 2017.


title: Electronics industry

text: The electric power industry began in the 19th century, which led to the development of inventions such as gramaphones, radio transmitters, receivers and television. The vacuum tube was used for early electronic devices, before later being largely supplanted by semiconductor components as the fundamental technology of the industry.


title: Electronics industry

text: The first working transistor, a point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Laboratories in 1947, which led to significant research in the field of solid-state semiconductors during the 1950s. This led to the emergence of the home entertainment consumer electronics industry starting in the 1950s, largely due to the efforts of Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (now Sony) in successfully commercializing transistor technology for a mass market, with affordable transistor radios and then transistorized television sets.


title: Electronics industry

text: The industry employs large numbers of electronics engineers and electronics technicians to design, develop, test, manufacture, install, and repair electrical and electronic equipment such as communication equipment, medical monitoring devices, navigational equipment, and computers. Common parts manufactured are connectors, system components, cell systems, and computer accessories, and these are made of alloy steel, copper, brass, stainless steel, plastic, steel tubing, and other materials.


title: Electronics industry

text: Consumer electronics are products intended for everyday use, most often in entertainment, communications and office productivity. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, the broadcast receiver. Later products include personal computers, telephones, MP3 players, cell phones, smart phones, audio equipment, televisions, calculators, GPS automotive electronics, digital cameras and players and recorders using video media such as DVDs, VCRs or camcorders. Increasingly these products have become based on digital technologies, and have largely merged with the computer industry in what is increasingly referred to as the consumerization of information technology.


title: Electronics industry

text: The CEA (Consumer Electronics Association) projected the value of annual consumer electronics sales in the United States to be over in 2008. Global annual consumer electronic sales are expected to reach by 2020.


title: Electronics industry

text: Electrical waste contains hazardous, valuable, and scarce materials, and up to 60 elements can be found in complex electronics.


title: Electronics industry

text: The United States and China are the world leaders in producing electronic waste, each tossing away about 3 million tons each year. China also remains a major e-waste dumping ground for developed countries. The UNEP estimate that the amount of e-waste being produced - including mobile phones and computers - could rise by as much as 500 percent over the next decade in some developing countries, such as India.


title: Electronics industry

text: Increasing environmental awareness has led to changes in electronics design to reduce or eliminate toxic materials and reduce energy consumption. The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) were released by the European Commission in 2002.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: "Oh Shenandoah" (also called "Shenandoah", "Across the Wide Missouri", "Rolling River", "Oh, My Rolling River", ""'World of Misery"") is a traditional folk song, sung in the Americas, of uncertain origin, dating to the early 19th century.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: The song "Shenandoah" appears to have originated with American and Canadian voyageurs or fur traders traveling down the Missouri River in canoes and has developed several different sets of lyrics. Some lyrics refer to the Oneida chief Shenandoah and a canoe-going trader who wants to marry his daughter. By the mid 1800s versions of the song had become a sea shanty heard or sung by sailors in various parts of the world. The song is number 324 in the Roud Folk Song Index.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: Other variations (due to the influence of its oral dispersion among different regions) include the Caribbean (St. Vincent) version, "World of Misery", referring not to an "Indian princess" but to "the white mullata".


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: Until the 19th century only adventurers who sought their fortunes as trappers and traders of beaver fur ventured as far west as the Missouri River. Most of these Canadian and US "voyageurs" in the fur trade era were loners who became friendly with, and sometimes married, Native Americans. Some lyrics of this song heard by and before 1860 tell the story of a trader who fell in love with the daughter of the Oneida Iroquois chief Shenandoah (1710–1816) who lived in the central New York state town of Oneida Castle. He was a co-founder of the Oneida Academy which became Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, and is buried on the campus grounds.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: The canoe-going fur-trading "voyageurs" were great singers and songs were an important part of their culture. In the early 19th century flatboatmen who plied the Missouri River were known for their shanties, including "Oh Shenandoah". Sailors heading down the Mississippi River picked up the song and made it a capstan shanty that they sang while hauling in the anchor. This boatmen's song found its way down the Mississippi River to American clipper ships—and thus around the world.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: The song had become popular as a sea shanty with seafaring sailors by the mid 1800s. A version of the song called "Shanadore" was printed in Capt. Robert Chamblet Adams' article "Sailors' Songs" in the April 1876 issue of "The New Dominion Monthly". He also included it in his 1879 book "On Board the "Rocket"". "Shanadore" was later printed as part of William L. Alden's article "Sailor Songs" in the July 1882 issue of "Harper's New Monthly Magazine", and in the 1892 book "Songs that Never Die". Alfred Mason Williams' 1895 "Studies in Folk-song and Popular Poetry" called it a "good specimen of a bowline chant".


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: Percy Grainger recorded Charles Rosher of London England singing "Shenandoah" in 1906 and the recording is available online via the British Library Sound Archive. A recording sung by former shantyman Stanely Slade of Bristol, England, in 1943 is also publicly available.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: In a 1930 letter to the UK newspaper "The Times" a former sailor who had worked aboard clipper ships that carried wool between Australia and Great Britain in the 1880s said that he believed the song had originated as an African American spiritual which developed into a work song.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: Since "Shenandoah" was a riverman's and then sailor's song and went through numerous changes and versions over the years and centuries, there are no set lyrics. Modern variations may include lyrics such as the following:


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: J.E. Laidlaw of San Francisco reported hearing a version sung by a black Barbadian sailor aboard the Glasgow ship "Harland" in 1894:


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: The song is popular in local organizations such as: Shenandoah University, Southern Virginia University, Washington and Lee University, Virginia Tech and the Virginia Military Institute.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: "Shenandoah" was proposed as the "interim state song" for Virginia in 2006 with updated lyrics. The proposal was contentious because the standard folksong refers to the Missouri River and in most versions of the song the name "Shenandoah" refers to an Indian chief, not the Shenandoah Valley or Shenandoah River, both of which lie almost entirely in Virginia.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: "Our Great Virginia" which uses the melody of "Shenandoah" was designated by the Virginia Legislature as the official traditional state song of Virginia in 2015.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: In the movies it is featured in the soundtrack of the 1965 movie "Shenandoah," starring Jimmy Stewart. It is also heard repeatedly in 1947's "Mourning Becomes Electra", and as part of a medley in the 1962 film "How the West Was Won". The choir arrangement of the song has also been used in the films "The Good Shepard" and "Nixon".


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: Various arrangements by Percy Grainger have been recorded by John Shirley-Quirk and other classically trained singers. "A song of the waters: variations on the folksong Shenandoah" is a classical composition by James Cohn. At least one version was arranged by Leslie Woodgate.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: A version of the song was used as the theme for the TV Western series "A Man Called Shenandoah" that aired from 1965 to 1966. This particular version was performed by Robert Horton, the star of the series, who also wrote the adapted lyrics that were used.


title: Oh Shenandoah

text: This song was also performed by the main character and his friends in the Netflix TV series "House of Cards", season 1, chapter 8.


title: Paper tiger

text: "Paper tiger" is a literal English translation of the Chinese phrase zhǐlǎohǔ (). The term refers to something or someone that claims or appears to be powerful or threatening, but is actually ineffectual and unable to withstand challenge.


title: Paper tiger

text: The expression became well known internationally as a slogan used by Mao Zedong, Former Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and paramount leader of China, against his political opponents, particularly the United States. It has since been used in various capacities and variations to describe many other opponents and entities, such as North Korea, Russia, and even China itself.


title: Paper tiger

text: "Zhilaohu" is an ancient phrase. Robert Morrison, the British missionary and lexicographer, translated the phrase as "a paper tiger" in "Vocabulary of the Canton Dialect" in 1828. John Francis Davis translated the Chinese phrase as "paper tiger" in a book on Chinese history published in 1836. In a meeting with Henry Kissinger in 1973, Mao Zedong claimed in a humorous aside to have coined the English phrase, which provoked laughter all around.


title: Paper tiger

text: Mao Zedong first introduced his idea of paper tigers to Americans in an August 1946 interview with American journalist Anna Louise Strong:


title: Paper tiger

text: In a 1956 interview with Strong, Mao used the phrase "paper tiger" to describe American imperialism again:


title: Paper tiger

text: In this view, "paper tigers" are superficially powerful but are prone to overextension that leads to sudden collapse. When Mao criticized Soviet appeasement of the United States during the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reportedly said, "the paper tiger has nuclear teeth".


title: Paper tiger

text: In "The Resistance to Theory" (1982), Paul de Man used the phrase to reflect upon the threat of literary theory to traditional literary scholarship in American academia. He said, "If a cat is called a tiger it can easily be dismissed as a paper tiger; the question remains however why one was so scared of the cat in the first place".


title: Paper tiger

text: Osama bin Laden described U.S. soldiers as "paper tigers". This statement may reflect the influence of Maoism on the formation of the Taliban.


title: Paper tiger

text: The phrase was used in a 2006 speech by then-Senator Joe Biden to describe North Korea after a series of missile launches from the country that same year, defying the warnings of the international community while still incapable of directly harming the United States.


title: Paper tiger

text: China itself has been called a paper tiger. In 2021, Tufts University professor Michael Beckley argued in his book "Unrivaled: Why America Will Remain the World’s Sole Superpower" that China would not be able to overtake the United States, and that believing China is stronger than it really is is detrimental to American perceptions and policy. According to Beckley, this is because "China’s economic, financial, technological, and military strength is hugely exaggerated by crude and inaccurate statistics": for example, Beckley states that high-scoring Chinese education statistics are actually cherry picked, that the People's Liberation Army is not as strong as the United States Armed Forces due to their differing focuses, and that China's large GDP does not equate to their actual strength or power.


title: Paper tiger

text: Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Armed Forces was described by some commentators as a paper tiger. Steve Day, a retired Canadian Armed Forces Joint Task Force 2 commander, described Russian command and control as "utterly inept" and suggested that the Russian military "may not be as invincible as we've believed for a number of decades". "Warrior Maven" and "19FortyFive" noted that newly-developed Russian technologies such as the Sukhoi Su-57 and hypersonic missiles were not deployed during the conflict; the former argued that despite Vladimir Putin making "a public spectacle of what he claims are his country’s now operational hypersonic weapons, and state-owned Russian media reports consistently tout new military technologies, tests and progress", these new technologies are only deployed in small numbers, so it is likely that Russia's "integrated ground combat abilities, long thought to be exemplary, have been massively overestimated". "The New Yorker" noted that during the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, the Russian military suffered from "disunity of command; logistical weaknesses; poorly trained, poorly motivated, poorly led troops; very poor quality of officer corps; very poor quality of campaign design and ability to plan", as well as "very poor integration within and among the armed services, including the synchronization of air and ground operations".


title: Homomorphism

text: In algebra, a homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures of the same type (such as two groups, two rings, or two vector spaces). The word "homomorphism" comes from the Ancient Greek language: () meaning "same" and () meaning "form" or "shape". However, the word was apparently introduced to mathematics due to a (mis)translation of German meaning "similar" to meaning "same". The term "homomorphism" appeared as early as 1892, when it was attributed to the German mathematician Felix Klein (1849–1925).


title: Homomorphism

text: Homomorphisms of vector spaces are also called linear maps, and their study is the subject of linear algebra.


title: Homomorphism

text: The concept of homomorphism has been generalized, under the name of morphism, to many other structures that either do not have an underlying set, or are not algebraic. This generalization is the starting point of category theory.


title: Homomorphism

text: A homomorphism may also be an isomorphism, an endomorphism, an automorphism, etc. (see below). Each of those can be defined in a way that may be generalized to any class of morphisms.


title: Homomorphism

text: A homomorphism is a map between two algebraic structures of the same type (that is of the same name), that preserves the operations of the structures. This means a map formula_1 between two sets formula_2, formula_3 equipped with the same structure such that, if formula_4 is an operation of the structure (supposed here, for simplification, to be a binary operation), then


title: Homomorphism

text: for every pair formula_6, formula_7 of elements of formula_2. One says often that formula_9 preserves the operation or is compatible with the operation.


title: Homomorphism

text: Formally, a map formula_10 preserves an operation formula_11 of arity "k", defined on both formula_2 and formula_3 if


title: Homomorphism

text: The operations that must be preserved by a homomorphism include 0-ary operations, that is the constants. In particular, when an identity element is required by the type of structure, the identity element of the first structure must be mapped to the corresponding identity element of the second structure.


title: Homomorphism

text: An algebraic structure may have more than one operation, and a homomorphism is required to preserve each operation. Thus a map that preserves only some of the operations is not a homomorphism of the structure, but only a homomorphism of the substructure obtained by considering only the preserved operations. For example, a map between monoids that preserves the monoid operation and not the identity element, is not a monoid homomorphism, but only a semigroup homomorphism.


title: Homomorphism

text: The notation for the operations does not need to be the same in the source and the target of a homomorphism. For example, the real numbers form a group for addition, and the positive real numbers form a group for multiplication. The exponential function


title: Homomorphism

text: and is thus a homomorphism between these two groups. It is even an isomorphism (see below), as its inverse function, the natural logarithm, satisfies


title: Homomorphism

text: The real numbers are a ring, having both addition and multiplication. The set of all 2×2 matrices is also a ring, under matrix addition and matrix multiplication. If we define a function between these rings as follows:


title: Homomorphism

text: For another example, the nonzero complex numbers form a group under the operation of multiplication, as do the nonzero real numbers. (Zero must be excluded from both groups since it does not have a multiplicative inverse, which is required for elements of a group.) Define a function formula_9 from the nonzero complex numbers to the nonzero real numbers by


title: Homomorphism

text: That is, formula_9 is the absolute value (or modulus) of the complex number formula_26. Then formula_9 is a homomorphism of groups, since it preserves multiplication:


title: Homomorphism

text: Note that cannot be extended to a homomorphism of rings (from the complex numbers to the real numbers), since it does not preserve addition:


title: Homomorphism

text: As another example, the diagram shows a monoid homomorphism formula_9 from the monoid formula_31 to the monoid formula_32. Due to the different names of corresponding operations, the structure preservation properties satisfied by formula_9 amount to formula_34 and formula_35.


title: Homomorphism

text: A composition algebra formula_2 over a field formula_37 has a quadratic form, called a "norm", formula_38, which is a group homomorphism from the multiplicative group of formula_2 to the multiplicative group of formula_37.


title: Homomorphism

text: An isomorphism between algebraic structures of the same type is commonly defined as a bijective homomorphism.


title: Homomorphism

text: In the more general context of category theory, an isomorphism is defined as a morphism that has an inverse that is also a morphism. In the specific case of algebraic structures, the two definitions are equivalent, although they may differ for non-algebraic structures, which have an underlying set.


title: Homomorphism

text: If formula_2 and formula_3 have underlying sets, and formula_1 has an inverse formula_47, then formula_9 is bijective. In fact, formula_9 is injective, as formula_50 implies formula_51, and formula_9 is surjective, as, for any formula_6 in formula_3, one has formula_55, and formula_6 is the image of an element of formula_2.


title: Homomorphism

text: Conversely, if formula_1 is a bijective homomorphism between algebraic structures, let formula_59 be the map such that formula_60 is the unique element formula_6 of formula_2 such that formula_63. One has formula_64 and it remains only to show that is a homomorphism. If formula_65 is a binary operation of the structure, for every pair formula_6, formula_7 of elements of formula_3, one has


title: Homomorphism

text: and formula_47 is thus compatible with formula_71 As the proof is similar for any arity, this shows that formula_47 is a homomorphism.


title: Homomorphism

text: This proof does not work for non-algebraic structures. For examples, for topological spaces, a morphism is a continuous map, and the inverse of a bijective continuous map is not necessarily continuous. An isomorphism of topological spaces, called homeomorphism or bicontinuous map, is thus a bijective continuous map, whose inverse is also continuous.


title: Homomorphism

text: An endomorphism is a homomorphism whose domain equals the codomain, or, more generally, a morphism whose source is equal to its target.


title: Homomorphism

text: The endomorphisms of an algebraic structure, or of an object of a category form a monoid under composition.


title: Homomorphism

text: The endomorphisms of a vector space or of a module form a ring. In the case of a vector space or a free module of finite dimension, the choice of a basis induces a ring isomorphism between the ring of endomorphisms and the ring of square matrices of the same dimension.


title: Homomorphism

text: The automorphisms of an algebraic structure or of an object of a category form a group under composition, which is called the automorphism group of the structure.


title: Homomorphism

text: Many groups that have received a name are automorphism groups of some algebraic structure. For example, the general linear group formula_73 is the automorphism group of a vector space of dimension formula_74 over a field formula_75.


title: Homomorphism

text: The automorphism groups of fields were introduced by Évariste Galois for studying the roots of polynomials, and are the basis of Galois theory.


title: Homomorphism

text: In the more general context of category theory, a monomorphism is defined as a morphism that is left cancelable. This means that a (homo)morphism formula_76 is a monomorphism if, for any pair formula_47, formula_78 of morphisms from any other object formula_79 to formula_2, then formula_81 implies formula_82.


title: Homomorphism

text: These two definitions of "monomorphism" are equivalent for all common algebraic structures. More precisely, they are equivalent for fields, for which every homomorphism is a monomorphism, and for varieties of universal algebra, that is algebraic structures for which operations and axioms (identities) are defined without any restriction (the fields do not form a variety, as the multiplicative inverse is defined either as a unary operation or as a property of the multiplication, which are, in both cases, defined only for nonzero elements).


title: Homomorphism

text: In particular, the two definitions of a monomorphism are equivalent for sets, magmas, semigroups, monoids, groups, rings, fields, vector spaces and modules.


title: Homomorphism

text: A split monomorphism is a homomorphism that has a left inverse and thus it is itself a right inverse of that other homomorphism. That is, a homomorphism formula_83 is a split monomorphism if there exists a homomorphism formula_84 such that formula_85 A split monomorphism is always a monomorphism, for both meanings of "monomorphism". For sets and vector spaces, every monomorphism is a split monomorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.


title: Homomorphism

text: "An injective homomorphism is left cancelable": If formula_86 one has formula_87 for every formula_6 in formula_79, the common source of formula_47 and formula_78. If formula_9 is injective, then formula_93, and thus formula_82. This proof works not only for algebraic structures, but also for any category whose objects are sets and arrows are maps between these sets. For example, an injective continuous map is a monomorphism in the category of topological spaces.


title: Homomorphism

text: For proving that, conversely, a left cancelable homomorphism is injective, it is useful to consider a "free object on formula_6". Given a variety of algebraic structures a free object on formula_6 is a pair consisting of an algebraic structure formula_97 of this variety and an element formula_6 of formula_97 satisfying the following universal property: for every structure formula_100 of the variety, and every element formula_101 of formula_100, there is a unique homomorphism formula_103 such that formula_104. For example, for sets, the free object on formula_6 is simply formula_106; for semigroups, the free object on formula_6 is formula_108 which, as, a semigroup, is isomorphic to the additive semigroup of the positive integers; for monoids, the free object on formula_6 is formula_110 which, as, a monoid, is isomorphic to the additive monoid of the nonnegative integers; for groups, the free object on formula_6 is the infinite cyclic group formula_112 which, as, a group, is isomorphic to the additive group of the integers; for rings, the free object on formula_6 is the polynomial ring formula_114 for vector spaces or modules, the free object on formula_6 is the vector space or free module that has formula_6 as a basis.


title: Homomorphism

text: "If a free object over formula_6 exists, then every left cancelable homomorphism is injective": let formula_83 be a left cancelable homomorphism, and formula_119 and formula_120 be two elements of formula_2 such formula_122. By definition of the free object formula_37, there exist homomorphisms formula_47 and formula_78 from formula_37 to formula_2 such that formula_128 and formula_129. As formula_130, one has formula_131 by the uniqueness in the definition of a universal property. As formula_9 is left cancelable, one has formula_82, and thus formula_134. Therefore, formula_9 is injective.


title: Homomorphism

text: "Existence of a free object on formula_6 for a variety" (see also ): For building a free object over formula_6, consider the set formula_138 of the well-formed formulas built up from formula_6 and the operations of the structure. Two such formulas are said equivalent if one may pass from one to the other by applying the axioms (identities of the structure). This defines an equivalence relation, if the identities are not subject to conditions, that is if one works with a variety. Then the operations of the variety are well defined on the set of equivalence classes of formula_138 for this relation. It is straightforward to show that the resulting object is a free object on formula_6.


title: Homomorphism

text: In algebra, epimorphisms are often defined as surjective homomorphisms. On the other hand, in category theory, epimorphisms are defined as right cancelable morphisms. This means that a (homo)morphism formula_1 is an epimorphism if, for any pair formula_47, formula_78 of morphisms from formula_3 to any other object formula_79, the equality formula_147 implies formula_82.


title: Homomorphism

text: A surjective homomorphism is always right cancelable, but the converse is not always true for algebraic structures. However, the two definitions of "epimorphism" are equivalent for sets, vector spaces, abelian groups, modules (see below for a proof), and groups. The importance of these structures in all mathematics, and specially in linear algebra and homological algebra, may explain the coexistence of two non-equivalent definitions.


title: Homomorphism

text: Algebraic structures for which there exist non-surjective epimorphisms include semigroups and rings. The most basic example is the inclusion of integers into rational numbers, which is a homomorphism of rings and of multiplicative semigroups. For both structures it is a monomorphism and a non-surjective epimorphism, but not an isomorphism.


title: Homomorphism

text: A wide generalization of this example is the localization of a ring by a multiplicative set. Every localization is a ring epimorphism, which is not, in general, surjective. As localizations are fundamental in commutative algebra and algebraic geometry, this may explain why in these areas, the definition of epimorphisms as right cancelable homomorphisms is generally preferred.


title: Homomorphism

text: A split epimorphism is a homomorphism that has a right inverse and thus it is itself a left inverse of that other homomorphism. That is, a homomorphism formula_83 is a split epimorphism if there exists a homomorphism formula_84 such that formula_151 A split epimorphism is always an epimorphism, for both meanings of "epimorphism". For sets and vector spaces, every epimorphism is a split epimorphism, but this property does not hold for most common algebraic structures.


title: Homomorphism

text: the last implication is an equivalence for sets, vector spaces, modules and abelian groups; the first implication is an equivalence for sets and vector spaces.


title: Homomorphism

text: Let formula_83 be a homomorphism. We want to prove that if it is not surjective, it is not right cancelable.


title: Homomorphism

text: In the case of sets, let formula_120 be an element of formula_3 that not belongs to formula_156, and define formula_157 such that formula_47 is the identity function, and that formula_159 for every formula_160 except that formula_161 is any other element of formula_3. Clearly formula_9 is not right cancelable, as formula_164 and formula_165


title: Homomorphism

text: In the case of vector spaces, abelian groups and modules, the proof relies on the existence of cokernels and on the fact that the zero maps are homomorphisms: let formula_79 be the cokernel of formula_9, and formula_168 be the canonical map, such that formula_169. Let formula_170 be the zero map. If formula_9 is not surjective, formula_172, and thus formula_164 (one is a zero map, while the other is not). Thus formula_9 is not cancelable, as formula_147 (both are the zero map from formula_2 to formula_79).


title: Homomorphism

text: Any homomorphism formula_178 defines an equivalence relation formula_179 on formula_180 by formula_181 if and only if formula_122. The relation formula_179 is called the kernel of formula_9. It is a congruence relation on formula_180. The quotient set formula_186 can then be given a structure of the same type as formula_180, in a natural way, by defining the operations of the quotient set by formula_188, for each operation formula_189 of formula_180. In that case the image of formula_180 in formula_192 under the homomorphism formula_9 is necessarily isomorphic to formula_194; this fact is one of the isomorphism theorems.


title: Homomorphism

text: When the algebraic structure is a group for some operation, the equivalence class formula_195 of the identity element of this operation suffices to characterize the equivalence relation. In this case, the quotient by the equivalence relation is denoted by formula_196 (usually read as "formula_180 mod formula_195"). Also in this case, it is formula_195, rather than formula_179, that is called the kernel of formula_9. The kernels of homomorphisms of a given type of algebraic structure are naturally equipped with some structure. This structure type of the kernels is the same as the considered structure, in the case of abelian groups, vector spaces and modules, but is different and has received a specific name in other cases, such as normal subgroup for kernels of group homomorphisms and ideals for kernels of ring homomorphisms (in the case of non-commutative rings, the kernels are the two-sided ideals).


title: Homomorphism

text: In model theory, the notion of an algebraic structure is generalized to structures involving both operations and relations. Let "L" be a signature consisting of function and relation symbols, and "A", "B" be two "L"-structures. Then a homomorphism from "A" to "B" is a mapping "h" from the domain of "A" to the domain of "B" such that


title: Homomorphism

text: Homomorphisms are also used in the study of formal languages and are often briefly referred to as "morphisms". Given alphabets formula_202 and formula_203, a function formula_204 such that formula_205 for all formula_206 is called a "homomorphism" on formula_207. If formula_78 is a homomorphism on formula_207 and formula_210 denotes the empty string, then formula_78 is called an formula_210"-free homomorphism" when formula_213 for all formula_214 in formula_207.


title: Homomorphism

text: A homomorphism formula_204 on formula_207 that satisfies formula_218 for all formula_219 is called a formula_75"-uniform" homomorphism. If formula_221 for all formula_219 (that is, formula_78 is 1-uniform), then formula_78 is also called a "coding" or a "projection".


title: Homomorphism

text: The set formula_225 of words formed from the alphabet formula_226 may be thought of as the free monoid generated by formula_226. Here the monoid operation is concatenation and the identity element is the empty word. From this perspective, a language homomorphism is precisely a monoid homomorphism.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: The NXT Tag Team Championship is a men's professional wrestling tag team championship created and promoted by the American promotion WWE. It is defended on the NXT brand division, the promotion's developmental territory. Introduced on January 23, 2013, the inaugural championship team was British Ambition (Adrian Neville and Oliver Grey). The current champions are The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods), who are in their first reign.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: The title was established as the men's tag team championship for NXT, which at the time was a developmental territory for WWE. Over the years, NXT grew to become WWE's third major brand, which became official in September 2019 when the "NXT" television program was moved to the USA Network. Two years later, however, NXT reverted to its original function as WWE's developmental brand. In September 2022, the NXT UK Tag Team Championship was unified into the NXT Tag Team Championship.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: In June 2012, WWE established NXT as their developmental territory, replacing Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW). The following year on the January 23 episode of "NXT", special guest and WWE Hall of Famer Shawn Michaels announced that there would be an eight-team single-elimination tournament to crown the first NXT Tag Team Champions. On the January 31 taping of "NXT" (aired February 13), British Ambition (Adrian Neville and Oliver Grey) defeated The Wyatt Family (Luke Harper and Erick Rowan) in the tournament final to become the inaugural champions. In the first title defense, however, Neville and Bo Dallas defended the title against The Wyatt Family due to Grey being injured, where they lost; Dallas was not recognized as champion. On the June 20 taping of "NXT" (aired July 17), Neville and Corey Graves defeated The Wyatt Family for the title, making Neville the first two-time champion. On June 8, 2016, The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder) became the first team to hold the championship on more than one occasion when they defeated American Alpha (Chad Gable and Jason Jordan) at .


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: Although NXT had been established as WWE's developmental territory, over the years it grew to establish itself as WWE's third major brand. This would become official in September 2019 when NXT was moved to the USA Network, thus making the NXT Tag Team Championship the third major tag team title for men in WWE, along with the WWE Raw Tag Team Championship and WWE SmackDown Tag Team Championship. However, WWE revamped NXT in September 2021 and returned the brand to its original function as a developmental territory.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: In August 2022, WWE announced that the NXT UK brand would go on hiatus and would relaunch as NXT Europe in 2023. As such, NXT UK's championship's were unified into their respective NXT championship counterparts. On September 4, 2022, at Worlds Collide, Pretty Deadly (Elton Prince and Kit Wilson) defeated Gallus (Mark Coffey and Wolfgang), reigning NXT Tag Team Champions The Creed Brothers (Brutus Creed and Julius Creed), and NXT UK Tag Team Champions Brooks Jensen and Josh Briggs in a fatal four-way tag team elimination match to unify the NXT UK Tag Team Championship into the NXT Tag Team Championship. Jensen and Briggs were recognized as the final NXT UK Tag Team Champions, while Pretty Deadly went forward as the unified NXT Tag Team Champions.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: The original NXT Tag Team Championship belts featured a simple design. The center plate was an irregular polygon. Prominently down the center of the plate was a vertical NXT logo in gold; to the left center side of the logo read "Tag" while the right center side read "Team". The two side plates contained the WWE logo. The plates were on a black leather strap. A unique feature of this original design was that the two belts were slightly different. On one belt, the left side of the center plate was black with "Tag" written in gold while the right side of the center plate was gold with "Team" written in black; the other belt was the opposite. The side plates also reflected this coloring; the side plate on the black side was dominated by a black background behind the WWE logo while the side plate on the gold side had a dominant gold background behind the WWE logo. When first introduced, the side plates had the WWE scratch logo but in August 2014, all of WWE's pre-existing championships at the time received a minor update, changing the scratch logo to WWE's current logo that was originally used for the WWE Network.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: On April 1, 2017, at WrestleMania Axxess, NXT General Manager William Regal announced that all of the NXT title belts would be redesigned. The new title belts were unveiled at that same night and given to the winners of their respective matches. Both the center plate and side plates of the new NXT Tag Team Championship belts are the same shape as the previous design and are again on black leather straps. The differences are the design on the plates themselves. The center plate maintains the vertical NXT logo prominently in the center, but now in silver with the WWE logo affixed at the very center of the "X". At the top of the plate right above the vertical NXT logo is a banner that reads "Tag Team", while at the bottom of the plate below the logo is a banner that reads "Champions". Black, silver, and gold ornamentation fills in the rest of the plate. Unlike the previous design, both belts are exactly the same. Coming in line with the majority of WWE's other championship belts, the updated design features side plates with a removable center section that can be customized with the champion's logo; the default side plates feature the WWE logo. As a result, the championship was the first WWE tag team championship to feature customizable side plates.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been 28 reigns between 23 teams composed of 47 individual champions, and two vacancies. The Undisputed Era as a stable have the most reigns at three, while individually, stable member Kyle O'Reilly has the most reigns, also at three. The inaugural champions were the British Ambition (Adrian Neville and Oliver Grey). The team with the longest reign is The Ascension (Conor O'Brian/Konnor and Rick Victor/Viktor), who held the title for 364 days, while the shortest reign belongs to Moustache Mountain (Tyler Bate and Trent Seven), who held the title for 2 days. However, due to tape delays, which are the dates that WWE officially recognizes, they recognize that The Ascension's reign was 343 days and that Moustache Mountain's reign was 22 days, which are still the longest and shortest reigns regardless. Tyler Bate holds the record as the youngest champion when he won it at 21, while the oldest is Bobby Fish when he won it at 42.


title: NXT Tag Team Championship

text: The current champions are The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods), who are in their first reign, both as a team and individually. They defeated Pretty Deadly (Elton Prince and Kit Wilson) on December 10, 2022 in Orlando, Florida at NXT Deadline to win the titles.


title: Assisi

text: Assisi (, , ; from ) is a town and "comune" of Italy in the Province of Perugia in the Umbria region, on the western flank of Monte Subasio.


title: Assisi

text: It is generally regarded as the birthplace of the Latin poet Propertius, born around 50–45 BC. It is the birthplace of St. Francis, who founded the Franciscan religious order in the town in 1208, and St. Clare ("Chiara d'Offreducci"), who with St. Francis founded the Poor Sisters, which later became the Order of Poor Clares after her death. The 19th-century Saint Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows was also born in Assisi.


title: Assisi

text: Around 1000 BC a wave of immigrants settled in the upper Tiber valley as far as the Adriatic Sea, and also in the neighbourhood of Assisi. These were the Umbrians, living in small fortified settlements on high ground. From 450 BC these settlements were gradually taken over by the Etruscans. The Romans took control of central Italy after the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC. They built the flourishing "municipium" Asisium on a series of terraces on Monte Subasio. Roman remains can still be found in Assisi: city walls, the forum (now Piazza del Comune), a theatre, an amphitheatre and the Temple of Minerva (now transformed into the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva). In 1997, the remains of a Roman villa were also discovered containing several well-preserved rooms with frescoes and mosaics in a condition rarely found outside sites such as Pompei.


title: Assisi

text: In 238 AD Assisi was converted to Christianity by bishop Rufino, who was martyred at Costano. According to tradition, his remains rest in the Cathedral Church of San Rufino in Assisi.


title: Assisi

text: The Ostrogoths of king Totila destroyed most of the town in 545. Assisi then came under the rule of the Lombards as part of the Lombard and then Frankish Duchy of Spoleto.


title: Assisi

text: The thriving commune became an independent Ghibelline commune in the 11th century. Constantly struggling with the Guelph Perugia, it was during one of those battles, the battle at Collestrada, that Francesco di Bernardone (Saint Francis of Assisi) was taken prisoner, setting in motion the events that eventually led him to live as a beggar, renounce the world and establish the Order of Friars Minor.


title: Assisi

text: The city, which had remained within the confines of the Roman walls, began to expand outside these walls in the 13th century. In this period the city was under papal jurisdiction. The Rocca Maggiore, the imperial fortress on top of the hill above the city, which had been plundered by the people in 1189, was rebuilt in 1367 on orders of the papal legate, cardinal Gil de Albornoz.


title: Assisi

text: In the beginning, Assisi fell under the rule of Perugia and later under several despots, such as the soldier of fortune Biordo Michelotti, Gian Galeazzo Visconti and his successor Francesco I Sforza, dukes of Milan, Jacopo Piccinino and Federico II da Montefeltro, lord of Urbino. The city went into a deep decline through the plague of the Black Death in 1348.


title: Assisi

text: In 1569 construction was started of the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli. During the Renaissance and in later centuries, the city continued to develop peacefully, as the 17th-century palazzi of the Bernabei and Giacobetti attest.


title: Assisi

text: Now the site of many a pilgrimage, Assisi is linked in legend with its native son, St. Francis. The gentle saint founded the Franciscan order and shares honours with St. Catherine of Siena as the patron saint of Italy. He is remembered by many, even non-Christians, as a lover of nature (his preaching to an audience of birds is one of the legends of his life).


title: Assisi

text: During World War II Nazi Germany occupied Assisi in September 1943. To save Jews in Italy the Catholic Church started the Assisi Network and hid Jews in the city. As the Allies moved up Italy, Germany declared Assisi an open city and pulled out, turning the city over to Italian partisans. The 12th Royal Lancers (Prince of Wales) entered the city on 17 June 1944. Colonel Valentin Müller, a German medical officer and a Catholic, was able to make Assisi a German hospital city for German troops in Italy in the summer of 1944, helping save Assisi from destruction, unlike Cassino.


title: Assisi

text: Assisi was hit by two devastating earthquakes, that shook Umbria in September 1997. But the recovery and restoration have been remarkable, although much remains to be done. Massive damage was caused to many historical sites, but the major attraction, the Basilica di San Francesco, reopened less than 2 years later.


title: Assisi

text: The town is dominated by two medieval castles. The larger, called "Rocca Maggiore", is a massive reconstruction by Cardinal Albornoz (1366) and expanded by popes Pius II (polygonal tower, 1458) and Paul III (the cylindrical bastion near the entrance, 1535-1538). The smaller of the two was built in Roman era: it has been only partially preserved, a small portion and three towers being open to the public.


title: Assisi

text: Assisi has had a rich tradition of art through the centuries and is now home to a number of well-known artistic works.


title: Assisi

text: Artists Pietro Lorenzetti and Simone Martini worked shoulder to shoulder at Assisi. The Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi includes a number of artistic works. Simone Martini's 1317 fresco there reflects the influence of Giotto in realism and the use of brilliant colours. Lorenzetti's fresco at the lower church of the Basilica includes a series of panels depicting the Crucifixion of Jesus, Deposition from the Cross, and Entombment of Christ. The figures Lorenzetti painted display emotions, yet the figures in these scenes are governed by geometric emotional interactions, unlike many prior depictions which appeared to be independent iconic aggregations. Lorenzetti's 1330 Madonna dei Tramonti also reflects the ongoing influence of Giotto on his Marian art, midway through his career.


title: Assisi

text: The Calendimaggio Festival takes place on the first four days of May ending on a Saturday. It is a re-enactment of medieval and Renaissance life in the form of a challenge between the upper faction and the lower faction of the town. It includes processions, theatrical presentations, choirs, crossbow, flag-waving and dancing contests.


title: Assisi

text: Assisi Embroidery is a form of counted-thread embroidery which has been practised in Assisi since the 13th century.


title: Assisi

text: Today the town has many groups coming to enjoy the simple peace of St. Francis. One such group has restored an 11th-century room and added altars to the world's religions. Other organizations, such as Assisi Performing Arts, complement Assisi's tranquillity with music and other cultural events.


title: Assisi

text: Assisi railway station, opened in 1866, forms part of the Foligno–Terontola railway, which also links Florence with Rome. The station is located at Piazza Dante Alighieri, in the frazione of Santa Maria degli Angeli, about southwest of the city centre.


title: Assisi

text: The two major basilicas sited in Assisi (the only ones not in Rome) gave their name to the two major cities in California: "San Francisco" and "St. Mary of the Angels at the Porziuncula".


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The Nenets Autonomous Okrug (; Nenets: Ненёцие автономной ӈокрук, "Nenjocije awtonomnoj ŋokruk") is a federal subject of Russia and an autonomous okrug of Arkhangelsk Oblast. Its administrative center is the town of Naryan-Mar. It has an area of and a population of 42,090 as of the 2010 Census, making it the least populous federal subject.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: A plan to merge the autonomous okrug with Arkhangelsk Oblast was presented by the governors of both federal subjects on 13 May 2020, with a referendum planned for September, but was met with opposition by locals,


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The arctic ecology of this area has a number of unique features derived from the extreme temperatures and unique geologic province. Polar bears are found in this locale; in fact, the sub-population found here is a genetically distinct taxon associated with the Barents Sea region. The autonomous okrug has a size of approximately 177,000 km, more than four times the size of Switzerland or around the same size as the U.S. state of Missouri. The district is around 320 km from north to south and around 950 km from east to west, stretching from Mys Bolvansky Nos in the north to the source of the Oma River in the south and Cape Kanin Nos in the west to the banks of the Kara River in the east.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The okrug has a number of peninsulas - from west to east these are: Kanin peninsula, Svyatoy Nos peninsula, Russkiy Zavorot peninsula and the Yugorsky Peninsula. There are a number of islands off the Nenets coast - from west to east the most important are Kolguyev Island, Sengeyskiy Island, Dolgiy Island, the Gulyayevskiye Koshki Islands, Lovetskiy Island, Pesyakov Island, Dolgy Island, Bolshoy Zelenets Island, Vaygach Island, Oleniy Island and Mestnyy Island. Of these, Kolguyev and Vaygach are by far the largest, being the 119th and 156th largest islands in the world.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The okrug is administratively divided into one district (Zapolyarny District) and one town of okrug significance (Naryan-Mar). The district is further divided into "selsoviets". Municipally, the town of Naryan-Mar is incorporated as Naryan-Mar Urban Okrug, while the district (including the settlement of Kharuta, which geographically is an exclave surrounded by the territory of the Komi Republic) is incorporated as Zapolyarny Municipal District.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The first recorded mention of the Nenets people is found in the 11th-century Primary Chronicle, a chronicle of Kievan Rus' from about 850 to 1110, originally compiled in Kiev about 1113 by Nestor the Chronicler. At the time, Kievan Rus was under the influence of Novgorod, as was the whole of the North Eastern territories of Kievan Rus'. By the end of the fifteenth century, Novgorod's influence was waning and the area fell under the control of Muscovy and in 1499, they established, Pustozyorsk (, literally meaning "deserted lakes"), and it became a military, commercial, cultural and administrative hub for the area.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: By the 18th century, the area was part of Mezensky Uyezd. In 1891, Pechorsky Uyezd was established and in 1896, so was Neskaya Volost. Prior to the formation of the autonomous okrug, this area belonged in part to Mezensky Uyezd in Arkhangelsk Oblast and partly to Izhmo-Pechorsky Uyezd in Komi (Zyriansky) Oblast.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The area now known as Nenets Autonomous Okrug was officially created on July 15, 1929, and at that time included Kanino-Timansky District, Peshsky and Omsky Selsoviets, Mezenskaya Volost and Mezensky Uyezd, Telvisochno-Samoyedsky District, Pechorsky Uyezd, and Izhmo-Pechorsky Uyezd of Komi-Zyryan Autonomous Oblast. At this time, two administrative districts, Canino-Timansky and Bolshezemelsky were founded. In December 1929, further additions were made to the District's area, namely Pustozyorskaya Volost, Pechora District and a number of offshore islands. In 1934, a number of islands, including Vaygach Island were subsumed into the district. Naryan-Mar was elevated to town status in 1935. In July 1940, a third administrative district was formed, Amderminsky, with its administrative headquarters in Amderma. However, on November 23, 1959, all administrative districts were abolished and a number of areas, including the administrative area for Vorkuta, were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Komi Republic and the region took the shape that it still holds today.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: Zapolyarny Municipal District, one of the youngest districts in Russia, was formed in 2006. Zapolyarny translates as "beyond the polar [circle]", and the district was given this name because the vast majority of the district's area lies north of the arctic circle.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The economy of Zapolyarny district is dominated by oil and gas, constituting around 99% of all industrial activity within the whole Okrug. The dominance of oil and gas exploration within the Okrug has seen associated revenues increase dramatically, with €190 million generated in 2007 compared to only €6.7 million ten years prior, with fuel industry's share of the districts GRP increasing from 65% in 2001 to 80% in 2005. This increase in revenue has resulted from a marked increase in investment in the area by the parent companies of the concerns operating in the District, such as Rosneft, Lukoil, Total, Surgutneftegas and TNK-BP, whose input equates to approximately 90% of the total annual investment in the district. This investment has included the construction of an oil terminal in the Barents Sea at a cost of approximately €700 million by an independent company especially created to oversee the construction and administration of the terminal, a pipeline to connect the terminal to the ZPS Southern Khylchuyu oilfields at a cost of around €250 million, the completion of the Kharyaga-Indiga pipeline and a gas plant near Khumzha. This allows the transportation of oil and gas throughout the region and into the general Russian pipeline network. There are currently more than 80 separate oil and gas sites of exploration, and it is estimated that there is around 5 billion tons of oil and around 500 billion cubic meters of gas in the district.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: In the first quarter of 2009, industrial production grew by 34.7% compared with the same period last year However, investments in industrial and housing construction decreased by 60.6% and 90.9% respectively, in the first three months of 2009, oil production totaled 4,419 million tons, an increase of over 35% on the same period in the previous year


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: As a result of the significant and speedy increase in investment in the area, the district is faced with a widespread infrastructure problem meaning that progress at many of the oil and gas exploration sites is hampered by accessibility issues, compounded by the severe arctic climate of the district. The Duma of Nenets Autonomous Okrug has stated their intention to address this issue as a priority, including the construction of the third phase of the Naryan-Mar-Usinsk road, construction of a Naryan-Mar-Telviska-Velikovisochnoye pipeline and a renovation of the wastewater treatment system in Iskateley.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: Further plans by Russian railways include the construction of two railways linking settlements in Zapolyarny Municipal District, one, a line running 210 km from Vorkuta, in the Komi Republic, to Ust-Kara in the far east of the district, and another running from Sosnogorsk, also in the Komi Republic, to Indiga in the west of the district. Officials have also proposed that the line to Ust-Kara be extended to Amderma to provide adequate transportation routes to allow the economic extraction of several mineral deposits, with an estimated worth of between €100–135 billion.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: Without this investment in infrastructure, the main means of transportation is air, with regular flights to Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Arkangelsk and Usa. In the summer, the main river in the district, the Pechora is used to transport freight.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: Reindeer husbandry is considered central to the Nenets' way of life, despite only 14% of Nenets people being involved in herding directly at the end of the twentieth century. There are three types of reindeer in the district: collective, personal and private. The majority of reindeer are owned by collective farms, with Nenets people employed to look after them. Those employed in such a capacity are then permitted to own additional personal reindeer, which do not require registration, nor a permit for grazing. The private reindeer are held by the association of reindeer herders, Erv, but these are very much the minority, with reports in 1997 indicating that over 70% of reindeer were held collectively, over 20% personally and only just over 2% privately.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: The reindeer are kept, not only to provide for the families of the herders, but also to produce meat and antlers for sale. This meat is mainly sold within the district, since the price of reindeer meat has traditionally been lower than pork or beef, but there are other markets in the Komi Republic and Arkhangelsk Oblast. These outlets are used mainly by groups such as Erv, which have come into existence since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Those groups that effectively represent a continuity of the old collective farm economy, such as Vyucheiskiy and Kharp, generally continue to provide their reindeer to a slaughterhouse as they have always done, which results in lower profits than are generated through Erv's business plan, causing instability and debt amongst the collective farms though it is recognised that these collective farms do provide employment to those who would otherwise be without jobs.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: There has been little significant change in the organisation of the reindeer herding enterprises between Soviet times and today, with little change in the number of businesses and those that continue to exist still practising the same business model, making changes only to the branding of the business.


title: Nenets Autonomous Okrug

text: Ethnographic maps shows the Nenets living throughout the Okrug, with the east-central section of the okrug, along the Komi Republic border, showing mixed Nenets-Komi population.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Super Bowl IV was an American football game played on January 11, 1970 at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans, Louisiana. It was the fourth and final AFL–NFL World Championship Game in professional football prior to the AFL–NFL merger taking effect the following season. The American Football League (AFL) champion Kansas City Chiefs defeated the National Football League (NFL) champion Minnesota Vikings by the score of 23–7. This victory by the AFL squared the Super Bowl series with the NFL at two games apiece as the two leagues merged into one after the game.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Despite the AFL's New York Jets winning the previous season's Super Bowl, many sports writers and fans thought it was a fluke and continued to believe that the NFL was still superior to the AFL, and thus fully expected the Vikings to defeat the Chiefs; the Vikings entered the Super Bowl as 13 1⁄2 points favorites. Minnesota posted a 12–2 record in , then defeated the Los Angeles Rams 23–20 for the Western Conference title, and the Cleveland Browns 27–7 in the NFL Championship Game. The Chiefs, who previously appeared in the first Super Bowl, finished the regular season at 11–3; they continued with two road wins in the AFL playoffs, dethroning the New York Jets 13–6, and then taking down division rival Oakland Raiders 17–7 in the final AFL title game.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Under wet conditions, the Chiefs defense dominated Super Bowl IV by limiting the Minnesota offense to only 67 rushing yards, forcing three interceptions, and recovering two fumbles. Kansas City's Len Dawson became the fourth consecutive winning quarterback to be named Super Bowl MVP. He completed 12 of 17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with one interception. Dawson also recorded three rushing attempts for 11 yards.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Super Bowl IV is also notable for NFL Films miking up the Chiefs' Hank Stram during the game, the first time that a head coach had worn a microphone during a Super Bowl.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: All seats for the game were priced at fifteen dollars; the previous year's prices were twelve, eight, and six dollars.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: The game was awarded to New Orleans on March 19, 1969, at the owners meetings held in Palm Springs, California.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: The Minnesota Vikings, led by head coach Bud Grant, entered the game with an NFL best 12–2 regular season record, leading the older league in total points scored (379) and fewest points allowed (133). They had scored 50 or greater points in three different games. They lost their first and last games of the season, but in between had 12 straight victories, the longest single-season winning streak in 35 years. Their defense, considered the most intimidating in the NFL, was anchored by a defensive line nicknamed the "Purple People Eaters", consisting of defensive tackles Gary Larsen and Alan Page, and defensive ends Carl Eller and Jim Marshall. The secondary was led by Bobby Bryant (8 interceptions, 97 return yards), Earsell Mackbee (6 interceptions, 100 return yards), and Paul Krause (5 interceptions, 82 return yards, 1 touchdown).


title: Super Bowl IV

text: On offense, quarterback Joe Kapp was known for his superb leadership and his running ability, both throwing on the run and running for extra yards. And when Kapp did take off and run, instead of sliding when he was about to be tackled like most quarterbacks, he lowered his shoulder and went right at the tackler. This style of play earned him the nickname "Indestructible". In the NFL Championship Game against the Cleveland Browns, he collided with linebacker Jim Houston while running for a first down, and Houston had to be helped off the field after the play ended. Also, Kapp was known for being an extremely unselfish leader: when he was voted the Vikings Most Valuable Player, he turned the award down and said that every player on the team was equally valuable: "There is no one most valuable Viking. There are 40 most valuable Vikings."


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Running back Dave Osborn was the team's top rusher with 643 yards and seven touchdowns. He also caught 22 passes for 236 yards and another touchdown. In the passing game, Pro Bowl wide receiver Gene Washington averaged 21.1 yards per catch by recording 821 yards and nine touchdowns from 39 receptions. Wide receiver John Henderson caught 34 passes for 553 yards and 5 touchdowns. The Vikings' offensive line was anchored by Pro Bowlers Grady Alderman and Mick Tingelhoff.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: By winning the 1969 NFL Championship, the Vikings became the last possessors of the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Meanwhile, it seemed that the Chiefs, led by head coach Hank Stram, and especially quarterback Len Dawson, were jinxed throughout the year. In the second game of the regular season, Dawson suffered a knee injury that kept him from playing the next six games. Then in the following week, second string quarterback Jacky Lee went down for the season with a broken ankle in a loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. However, third string quarterback Mike Livingston engineered five wins of the next six starts, with Dawson coming off the bench in the second half of the sixth to clinch the win. The Chiefs (11–3) managed to finish in second place behind the Oakland Raiders (12–1–1) in the AFL's Western Division, after suffering a tough 10–6 loss to Oakland in the final game of the regular season. After that game, many sports writers and fans heavily criticized the team and Dawson for the poor play calling (Dawson called between 80 and 90 percent of the plays during the season).


title: Super Bowl IV

text: After a 34–16 road win over the New York Jets on November 16, the Chiefs clinched a playoff spot at 9–1 with four games remaining. Wanting to set itself up more like the NFL right before the merger, the AFL expanded its 1969 playoffs to four teams, with the second place teams from each division traveling to play the first place teams from the other division (Western champion vs. Eastern runner-up, and vice versa). As a result of the new playoff format, many critics thought the Chiefs entered the playoffs through a "back-door" as the runner-up in the Western division. However, Dawson silenced the critics and led Kansas City to a strong finish with two road wins in the playoffs, defeating the defending champion Jets 13–6, and the Raiders (who had beaten them 41–6 in the previous year's postseason and twice in the 1969 season) 17–7 in the AFL Championship Game. This essentially made the Chiefs the first wild card team to play in the Super Bowl. (Dawson says he thinks both the Jets and the Raiders could have beaten the Vikings.)


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Still, many people felt that Dawson's level of play in the AFL was not comparable to the NFL. Dawson himself had spent five seasons in the NFL as a backup before going to the AFL and becoming one of its top quarterbacks. "The AFL saved my career," said Dawson. In his 8 AFL seasons, he had thrown more touchdown passes (182) than any other professional football quarterback during that time. But because many still viewed the AFL as being inferior to the NFL, his records were not considered significant. Dawson's first chance to prove himself against an NFL team ended in failure, with his Chiefs losing 35–10 to the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl I, reinforcing the notion that his success was only due to playing in the "inferior league".


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Offensively, the Chiefs employed innovative formations and strategies designed by Stram to disrupt the timing and positioning of the defense. Besides Dawson, the Chiefs main offensive weapon was running back Mike Garrett (1965 Heisman Trophy winner), who rushed for 732 yards and 6 touchdowns. He also recorded 43 receptions for 432 yards and another 2 touchdowns. Running back Robert Holmes had 612 rushing yards, 266 receiving yards, and 5 touchdowns. Running back Warren McVea rushed for 500 yards and 7 touchdowns, while adding another 318 yards returning kickoffs. In the passing game, wide receiver Otis Taylor caught 41 passes for 696 yards and 7 touchdowns. The offensive line was anchored by AFL All-Stars Ed Budde and Jim Tyrer. According to Len Dawson, placekicker Jan Stenerud and punter Jerrel Wilson were the best kickers in football. The offensive line was led by tackle Jim Tyrer, who was selected to his 6th AFL pro bowl.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: The Chiefs defense led the AFL in fewest points allowed (177). Like the Vikings, the Chiefs also had an outstanding defensive line, which was led by defensive tackles Buck Buchanan and Curley Culp, and defensive ends Jerry Mays and Aaron Brown. The Chiefs also had AFL All-Star linebacker Willie Lanier, who recorded 4 interceptions and 1 fumble recovery during the season. The Kansas City secondary was led by defensive backs Emmitt Thomas (9 interceptions for 146 return yards and a touchdown), Jim Kearney (5 interceptions for 154 return yards and a touchdown) and Johnny Robinson (8 interceptions for 158 return yards).


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Kansas City's defense had shown their talent in the AFL title game when they defeated the Raiders. Raiders quarterback Daryle Lamonica had completed 13 of 17 passes for 276 yards and a record setting 6 touchdowns in a 56–7 divisional rout of the Houston Oilers in their previous game, and had shredded the Chiefs with 347 yards and 5 touchdowns in their 41–6 win in the previous season's playoffs. But in the 1969 AFL Championship Game, the Chiefs defense held him to just 15 of 39 completions and intercepted him 3 times in the fourth quarter.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: This was the last Super Bowl appearance for the Chiefs, and their last championship, until Super Bowl LIV 50 years later.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Kansas City advanced to the Super Bowl with wins over the two previous AFL champions. First they defeated the New York Jets in a defensive struggle 13–6, with Dawson's 61-yard completion to Taylor setting up the game winning score on his 19-yard touchdown pass to Gloster Richardson. Kansas City held New York to just 234 yards and forced 4 turnovers.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: The Chiefs then faced the Raiders, who took a 7–0 lead over them in the first quarter, but this would be their only score of the game. Meanwhile, Dawson's 41-yard completion to Frank Pitts in the second quarter set up a 1-yard touchdown run by Wendell Hayes. Then in the third quarter, Emmitt Thomas' clutch interception in the end zone and Dawson's long completion to Taylor sparked a 95-yard drive that ended with a touchdown run by Robert Holmes. Kansas City went into the fourth quarter with a 14–7 lead, and held on for the win by forcing four turnovers (3 interceptions and a turnover on downs) in the final period.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Meanwhile, the ninth-year Vikings recorded their first postseason win in franchise history by defeating the Los Angeles Rams 23–20. Though the Rams held the lead for most of the time in regulation, Kapp led a touchdown drive to give the team a 21–20 fourth quarter lead. Eller made a key play to preserve the lead, sacking Rams quarterback (and 1969 NFL MVP) Roman Gabriel in the end zone for a safety and Alan Page intercepted a pass with thirty seconds remaining.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Then Minnesota quickly demolished the Cleveland Browns in the NFL championship game, jumping to a 24–0 halftime lead and going on to win 27–7. The Vikings offense gained 381 yards without turning the ball over, with Kapp passing for 169 yards and a touchdown, while Osborn rushed for 108 yards and Washington gained 125 yards on just 3 receptions.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Many sports writers and fans fully expected that the Vikings would easily defeat the Chiefs. Although the AFL's New York Jets won Super Bowl III at the end of the previous season, many were convinced that it was a fluke. They continued to believe that all of the NFL teams were far and away superior to all of the AFL teams. And regardless of the differences among the leagues, the Vikings simply appeared to be a superior team. Minnesota had the NFL's best record and outscored their opponents by 246 points, while Kansas City had not even won their own division.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Super Bowl IV provided another chance to show that Dawson belonged at the same level with all of the great NFL quarterbacks. But five days before the Super Bowl, news leaked that his name had been linked to a Detroit federal gambling investigation. Although Dawson was eventually cleared of any charges, the controversy added to the pressure he was already under while preparing for the game, causing him to lose sleep and concentration. "It was, beyond a doubt, the toughest week of my life," said Dawson.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Bud Grant became the first Super Bowl coach not to wear a tie. His counterpart, Hank Stram, wore a three-piece suit, with a red vest and a blazer with the Chiefs' helmet logo emblazoned on the breast pocket.


title: Super Bowl IV

text: Super Bowl IV was broadcast in the United States by CBS with play-by-play announcer Jack Buck (his only Super Bowl on TV) and color commentator Pat Summerall, with Frank Gifford and Jack Whitaker reporting from the winning and losing locker rooms, respectively. While the game was sold out at Tulane Stadium, the NFL's unconditional blackout rules in place then prohibited the live telecast from being shown in the New Orleans area.