title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Organized anti-monarchism in what is now the United States developed out of a gradual revolution that began in 1765, as colonists resisted a stamp tax through boycott and condemnation of tax officials. While they were subject to the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain (as the monarchy was a limited monarchy since 1660), the North American citizens increasingly clashed with the Parliament that did not provide seats for parliamentary representatives from North America. With the Declaration of Independence in 1776, anti-monarchical propaganda resulted in violent protests that systematically removed symbols of monarchy. For instance, an equestrian statue of George III in New York City was toppled. Parliamentary loyalists were particularly affected by partisan attacks, with tens of thousands leaving for British Canada. Property that remained was confiscated by each of thirteen newly created States through newly passed laws. Artifacts from the colonial period depicting the British monarchy are seldom found in the United States. However, not all sentiment equated to anti-monarchism. A normality of a monarchy at the head of a polity remained, that some Americans saw a presidency in monarchical terms, a Caesar of the republic, was an early debate in the new republic.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: One of the most significant abolitions of monarchy in history – along with the Dutch Republic of 1581–1795 – involved the French monarchy in 1792 in the French Revolution. The French monarchy was later restored several times with differing levels of authority. Napoleon, initially a hero of the Republican revolution, crowned himself emperor in 1804, only to be replaced by the Bourbon Restoration in 1815, which in turn was replaced by the more liberal July Monarchy in 1830. The 1848 Revolution was a clearer anti-monarchic uprising that replaced the succession of royal leaders with the short-lived Second French Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte established the Second French Empire (1852–1870), retaining republican aspects while placing himself in the center of the state until the losses in the Franco-Prussian War led to his fall, resulting in the French Third Republic and the definitive end of the monarchy in France. Monarchism, which had held a majority in the National Assembly after the 1871 election, slowly fizzled out over the course of the rest of the century.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Madagascar, known as the Merina Kingdom, came to an end in 1897 when France made it a colony and overthrew Queen Ranavalona III.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1629, the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and in turn he himself was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation of Mavura Mhande Felipe on the throne. In 1917, Mambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The First Mexican Empire existed from the September 1821 Declaration of Independence until the emperor's abdication in March 1823. The Provisional Government took power and the First Mexican Republic was proclaimed in 1824. Due to French intervention under Napoleon III, the Second Mexican Empire lasted from 1864 to 1867, when it collapsed and its Emperor, Maximilian I of Mexico, was executed.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In Brazil, the monarchy was formally established in 1815 through the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (of which the Kingdom of Brazil was a constituent state), it evolved into the Empire of Brazil in 1822, and was abolished in 1889, when Emperor Pedro II was overthrown by a republican military coup (the status of the republic was confirmed by a plebiscite in 1993 that resulted in 86% of the votes to the republican government).


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Burma was abolished in 1885 when the last king, Thibaw Min, lost his throne and the country was annexed by Britain.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1858 the Mughal Empire came to an end after losing a war against Britain, and its Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, lost his throne.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Between 1859 and 1861, four monarchies in Southern Europe ceased to exist (Parma, Modena, Tuscany and the Two Sicilies) when they all became part of the new Kingdom of Italy.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In Spain monarchy was abolished from 1873 to 1874 by the First Spanish Republic, but then restored until 1931.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1893 foreign business leaders overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii. They established a republic, which was annexed by the United States in 1898.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Tahiti came to an end in 1880 when France made it a colony and overthrew King Pōmare V.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: After ceding sovereignty of the Manu'a islands of modern-day American Samoa to the United States in 1904, the last King of Manu'a, Tui Manu'a Elisara, died on 2 July 1909. All attempts to revive the position since his death have been met with opposition by the United States Government.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of China ceased to exist in 1912 when the Xinhai Revolution led by Sun Yat-sen succeeded in overthrowing the young Xuantong Emperor; this marked the end of the Qing dynasty and the start of the Republic of China. In 1915, Yuan Shikai briefly proclaimed the Empire of China with himself as the emperor; the regime failed to gain legitimacy and collapsed three months later. In 1917, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun sought to revive the Qing dynasty and briefly reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne; this attempt is known as the "Manchu Restoration" in historiography. The monarchy in parts of China was restored through the Japanese-sponsored client state known as Manchukuo with the former Qing emperor as its leader until the final abolition in 1945.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The area of Tibet was ruled by the Ganden Phodrang government which continued through the annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China until the Tibetan rebellion in 1959 where the monarchy in Tibet was dissolved although it continued in exile as the Central Tibetan Administration in India.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: During the Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty of China in the Mongolian Revolution of 1911. The Bogd Khanate of Mongolia was subsequently proclaimed, although the Republic of China laid claims to Outer Mongolia and was widely recognized by the international community as having sovereignty over it. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established, bringing an end to the monarchy in Mongolia.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: World War I led to perhaps the greatest number of abolition of monarchies in history. The conditions inside the Russian Empire and the poor performance in the war gave rise to a revolution which toppled the entire institution of the monarchy, followed by a second revolution against that government in October of the same year that executed Tsar (Imperator (Императоръ)) Nicholas II and implemented a Marxist-Leninist government. The Russian civil war saw various monarchist, Republican, anarchist, nationalist and socialist factions fight each other with bourgeois independence movements winning in the Baltic States, Poland and Finland and the Bolsheviks winning everywhere else.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The defeated German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires saw the abolition of their monarchies in the close aftermath of the war, ending the reigns of Wilhelm II, Charles I and Mehmed VI respectively. The monarchs of the constituent states within the German Empire, most importantly Ludwig III of Bavaria, Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and Wilhelm II of Württemberg, soon abdicated. During the war, monarchies were planned for Poland (Kingdom of Poland), the Grand Duchy of Finland (to have a Finnish King), and Lithuania (Mindaugas II of Lithuania), with a protectorate-like suzerainty exercised by the German Empire. Both intended kings renounced their thrones after Germany's defeat in November 1918. King Nicholas I of Montenegro lost his throne when the country became a part of Yugoslavia in 1918.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: World War II saw another increased number of abolition of monarchies. In 1922, Benito Mussolini's March on Rome led to King Victor Emmanuel III appointing Mussolini Prime Minister. In 1939 Italy invaded Albania and removed the reigning self-proclaimed King Zog and instated their own King Victor Emmanuel III as its new monarch. Italy, along with the eastern European monarchies of Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania were forced to join with Germany by their dictators in World War II against the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Western allies and the Soviet Union. When Yugoslavia fell in 1941 the Independent State of Croatia was established under a nominal monarchy, but it was in fact a one party state under Ante Pavelić and a puppet state of Nazi Germany. With the fall of Mussolini in July 1943, the monarchy in Croatia was abolished. As the Axis powers were defeated in the war, communist partisans in occupied Yugoslavia and occupied Albania seized power and ended the monarchies. Communists in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania removed their monarchies with strong backing by the Soviet Union, which had many troops and supporters placed there during the course of the war. Through this, Peter II of Yugoslavia, Simeon II of Bulgaria and Michael I of Romania all lost their thrones. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy had remained King after the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy but transferred most of his powers to his son after the Armistice of Cassibile. After Victor Emmanuel abdicated to save the monarchy, a narrow referendum in 1946 ended the short reign of his son King Umberto II and the Italian monarchy ceased to exist.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In a 1999 referendum, the voters of Australia rejected a proposal to replace the constitutional monarchy with a republic with a president appointed by Parliament. The proposal was rejected in all states, with only the Australian Capital Territory voting in favor. Though polling consistently showed a majority in favour of a republic, the result of the referendum was attributed to a split among republicans between those who supported the presented model and those who supported a directly elected president.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In the modern history of Greece, the monarchy was toppled in 1924, as a result of the National Schism and the Asia Minor Disaster. The resulting Second Hellenic Republic led a troubled existence, until a coup restored the monarchy in 1935. The subsequent dictatorial 4th of August Regime was established with the support of King George II of Greece, further delegitimizing the monarchy.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: During the Axis occupation of Greece, George II nominally led the Greek government in exile, but the post-war fate of the monarchy was a major dividing issue for Greeks, especially with the rise of the pro-communist National Liberation Front (EAM) as the country's largest resistance movement. As a compromise, the issue was to be determined by a referendum after the war. In the end, the threat of a post-war communist takeover led the Venizelist republicans to ally with the monarchists; with the defeat of EAM in the "Dekemvriana", the subsequent White Terror, and the outbreak of the Greek Civil War in 1946 resulted in a monarchist victory in the 1946 referendum and the return of George II to the country.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The last king, Constantine II, interfered in politics during the Apostasia of 1965. The resulting political crisis led to a military coup in April 1967. Constantine II reluctantly accepted the "fait accompli" and lent it legitimacy, but when he tried to stage a counter-coup later that year, he was defeated and forced into exile. Greece formally remained a monarchy until a republic was proclaimed in 1973 by the military dictatorship. The final abolition of the monarchy was confirmed overwhelmingly after constitutional legality was restored, by free referendum in 1974.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In Spain, the monarchy was again abolished in 1931 by the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939). In 1947, Francisco Franco declared Spain a Monarchy but kept himself as regent for life with the constitutional setup essentially unchanged. Per the right the 1947 law granted him to decide "who" would be the future Spanish monarch, he appointed Juan Carlos of Bourbon his successor in 1969. The "Prince of Spain" became king at Franco's death in 1975, and during the Spanish transition to democracy, the Spanish constitution of 1978 put the monarchy on a new constitutional basis. The existence of monarchy in Spain is an entrenched clause with much stricter rules for constitutional amendment than other constitutional provisions.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Portugal was also overthrown in 1910 (5 October), two years after the assassination of King Carlos I, ending the reign of Manuel II, who died in exile in England (1932), without issue.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1973, the monarchy of King Mohammed Zahir Shah of Afghanistan was abolished after a socialist-supported coup d'état led by Mohammad Daoud Khan, from the same Musahiban royal family, who declared himself the first President of Afghanistan.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown in 1974 as a result of the Ethiopian Revolution, ending almost 3000 years of monarchical rule in Ethiopia.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1945, during the August Revolution, Bảo Đại abdicated under the pressure of the Việt Minh led by Ho Chi Minh. This marked the end of the Nguyễn dynasty and the Vietnamese monarchy. From 1949 to 1955, Bảo Đại served as the "Quốc Trưởng" (lit. "Chief of State") of the State of Vietnam and did not receive the title of "Hoàng Đế" (lit. "Emperor").


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchies of Indochina after World War II: a short-lived attempt to leave a monarchical form of government in post-colonial South Vietnam came to naught in a fraudulent 1955 referendum, a military coup overthrew the kingless monarchy in Cambodia in 1970 and a Communist takeover ended the monarchy in Laos in 1975. Cambodia's monarchy later saw an unexpected rebirth under an internationally mediated peace settlement with a former king Norodom Sihanouk being restored as a figurehead in 1993.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Iran was abolished by the Islamic revolution of 1979 overthrowing Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi though his son Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran continued to function the monarchy in exile.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: King Palden Thondup Namgyal of Sikkim lost his throne in 1975 when the country became a state of India following a referendum.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Egypt was abolished in 1953, after the revolution of 1952, which caused King Farouk I to abdicate in favor of his infant son Fuad II.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Tunisia ended in 1957 when Muhammad VIII al-Amin lost his throne by decision of the Tunisian Parliament controlled by Habib Bourguiba


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The monarchy of Yemen was abolished in 1962 when King Muhammad al-Badr was overthrown in a coup, although he continued to resist his opponents until 1970.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Many monarchies were abolished in the middle of the 20th century or later as part of the process of decolonization. The monarchies of India, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Guyana, and Malawi were abolished shortly after they became independent of the United Kingdom, while remaining within the Commonwealth. The monarchy of Ireland was not abolished following the Irish war of independence in the 1920s. The Irish Free State was nominally a monarchy but transitioned towards more and more republican forms of government throughout its existence. The Irish Constitution that came into force in 1937 left the question of Republic or monarchy vague, but established a President of Ireland, an office usually absent in monarchies. The monarchy was officially abolished by the Republic of Ireland Act of 1948, which came into force in 1949. Some Commonwealth realms waited a little longer before abolishing their monarchies: Pakistan became a republic in 1956 and South Africa in 1961. Gambia abolished its monarchy in 1970 after a referendum in favour, while Sierra Leone became a republic in 1971, as did Sri Lanka in 1972, Malta in 1974, Trinidad and Tobago in 1976, and Fiji became a republic in 1987, thanks to two military coups by Sitiveni Rabuka. The latest country to become a republic within the Commonwealth was Barbados in 2021. With the exceptions of Ireland and India, in each case the deposed monarch was Elizabeth II.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1910 the last emperor of Korea, Sunjong, lost his throne when the country was annexed by Japan. However, the Korean royal family was mediatized as a puppet family within the Japanese imperial family. Many of the Korean royals were forcibly re-educated in Japan and forced to marry Japanese royalty and aristocrats to meld the ruling families of the two empires. With the abolition of the Japanese aristocracy and cadet branches of the imperial family, the Korean royals officially lost their remaining status.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The independence of India from the United Kingdom in 1947 posed a unique problem. From 1858, when the British government replaced Company rule with direct Crown rule, it had been governed as a quasi-federation, with much of the country under the direct rule of the British monarch, who was styled as the Emperor of India. The remainder of the country, however, was under a form of indirect rule under him through its division into over 500 subnational monarchies, known as princely states; each was ruled by a prince who acknowledged the suzerainty of the Indian Emperor. The princely states ranged from powerful and largely independent principalities such as Hyderabad or Mysore, with a high level of autonomy, to tiny fiefdoms a few dozen acres (in the low tens of hectares) in size.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In 1947, it was agreed that India would be partitioned into the independent British dominions of India and Pakistan, with the princely states acceding to one nation or the other. The accession process proceeded smoothly, with the notable exception of four of the most influential principalities. The Muslim ruler of the Hindu-majority state of Junagadh acceded to Pakistan, but his decision was overruled by the Indian government, while Hyderabad chose to be independent, but was forcibly annexed to India in 1948. The Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, among the largest and most powerful of the principalities, but with a Muslim-majority population, initially held off on a decision. In the autumn of 1947, an invading force from Pakistan frightened the ruler into acceding to India. The ruler of Kalat, in Baluchistan, declared his independence in 1947, after which the state was forcibly merged with Pakistan, resulting in an insurgency persisting to this day. With the promulgation of the Indian constitution in 1950, India abolished its monarchy under the British crown and became a Republic within the Commonwealth of Nations, followed by Pakistan in 1956; as a result of both developments, the majority of the princes formally lost their sovereign rights. A few remaining principalities in Pakistan retained their autonomy until 1969 when they finally acceded to Pakistan. The Indian government formally derecognized its princely families in 1971, followed by Pakistan in 1972.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The Kingdom of Nepal was transformed into a Republic by the 1st Nepalese Constituent Assembly in 2008.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: Barbados abolished the Monarchy of Barbados and became a republic on November 30, 2021 via constitutional amendment by the Parliament.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: In a referendum in Brazil in 1993, voters rejected an attempt to restore the country's monarchy. Unsuccessful efforts to restore the monarchies of some of the Balkan states in the former Eastern Bloc continue. Former King Michael of Romania and Prince Alexander of Serbia had been allowed to return, gained some popularity, played largely apolitical public roles, but never came close to being restored to their ancestral thrones. However, in Bulgaria, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who was deposed from the Bulgarian throne in 1946, was elected and recently served as the Prime Minister of his country from 2001 to 2005. The only formerly socialist country to have held a referendum on the monarchy was Albania where the claimant to his father's throne, the self-styled Leka I, lost by a 2/3 majority, though it was later revealed upon Leka's death in 2011 by the Albanian government that the referendum had been rigged in favour of the republic.


title: Abolition of monarchy

text: The 20th century also saw the formation of a number of new monarchies that still exist to this day such as Bhutan (1907), Jordan (1921), Saudi Arabia (1932), and Malaysia (1957).


title: Loonie

text: The loonie (), formally the Canadian one-dollar coin, is a gold-coloured Canadian coin that was introduced in 1987 and is produced by the Royal Canadian Mint at its facility in Winnipeg. The most prevalent versions of the coin show a common loon, a bird found throughout Canada, on the reverse and Queen Elizabeth II, the nation's head of state at the time of the coin's issue, on the obverse. Various commemorative and specimen-set editions of the coin with special designs replacing the loon on the reverse have been minted over the years.


title: Loonie

text: The coin's outline is an 11-sided Reuleaux polygon. Its diameter of 26.5 mm and its 11-sidedness matched that of the already-circulating Susan B. Anthony dollar in the United States, and its thickness of 1.95 mm was a close match to the latter's 2.0 mm. Its gold colour differed from the silver-coloured Anthony dollar; however, the succeeding Sacagawea and Presidential dollars matched the loonie's overall hue. Other coins using a non-circular curve of constant width include the 7-sided British twenty pence and fifty pence coins (the latter of which has similar size and value to the loonie, but is silver in colour). A roll of loonies contains 25 total, worth $25.


title: Loonie

text: After its introduction, the coin became a metonym for the Canadian dollar: media often discuss the rate at which the "loonie" is trading against other currencies. The nickname "loonie" became so widely recognized that in 2006, the Royal Canadian Mint secured the rights to it. When the Canadian two-dollar coin was introduced in 1996, it was in turn nicknamed the "toonie" (a portmanteau of "two" and "loonie").


title: Loonie

text: Canada first minted a silver dollar coin in 1935 to celebrate the 25th anniversary of George V's reign as king. The voyageur dollar, so named because it featured an Indigenous person and a French voyageur paddling a canoe on the reverse, was minted in silver until 1967, after which it was composed primarily of nickel. The coins did not see wide circulation, mainly due to their size and weight; the nickel version weighed and was in diameter, and was itself smaller than the silver version.


title: Loonie

text: By 1982, the Royal Canadian Mint had begun work on a new composition for the dollar coin that it hoped would lead to increased circulation. At the same time, vending machine operators and transit systems were lobbying the Government of Canada to replace the dollar banknotes with more widely circulating coins. A Commons committee recommended in 1985 that the dollar bill be eliminated despite a lack of evidence that Canadians would support the move. The government argued that it would save between $175 million and $250 million over 20 years by switching from bills that had a lifespan of less than a year to coins that would last two decades.


title: Loonie

text: The government announced on March 25, 1986, that the new dollar coin would be launched the following year as a replacement for the dollar bill, which would be phased out. It was expected to cost $31.8 million to produce the first 300 million coins, but through seigniorage (the difference between the cost of production and the coin's value), expected to make up to $40 million a year on the coins. From the proceeds, a total of $60 million over five years was dedicated toward funding the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary.


title: Loonie

text: The failure of the Susan B. Anthony dollar coin in the United States had been considered and it was believed Americans refused to support the coin due to its similarity to their quarter coin and its lack of aesthetic appeal. In announcing the new Canadian dollar coin, the government stated it would be the same overall size as the Susan B. Anthony coin – slightly larger than a quarter – to allow for compatibility with American manufactured vending machines, but would be eleven-sided and gold-coloured.


title: Loonie

text: It was planned that the coin would continue using the "voyageur" theme of its predecessor, but the master dies that had been struck in Ottawa were lost in transit en route to the Mint's facility at Winnipeg. A Commons committee struck to investigate the loss discovered that the Mint had no documented procedures for transport of master dies and that it had shipped them via a local courier in a bid to save $43.50. It was also found to be the third time that the Mint had lost master dies within five years. An internal review by the Royal Canadian Mint argued that while a policy existed to ship the obverse and reverse dies separately, the new coin dies were packaged separately but were part of the same shipment. The Mint also disagreed with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police's contention that the dies were simply lost in transit, believing instead that they were stolen. The dies were never recovered.


title: Loonie

text: Fearing the possibility of counterfeiting, the government approved a new design for the reverse, replacing the "voyageur" with a Robert-Ralph Carmichael design of a common loon floating in water. The coin was immediately nicknamed the "loonie" across English Canada, and became known as a ""huard"", French for "loon", in Quebec. The loonie entered circulation on June 30, 1987, as 40 million coins were introduced into major cities across the country. Over 800 million loonies had been struck by the coin's 20th anniversary.


title: Loonie

text: After a 21-month period in which the loonie and $1 note were produced concurrently with each other, the Bank of Canada ceased production of the dollar banknote. The final dollar bills were printed on June 30, 1989. Initial support for the coin was mixed, but withdrawing the banknote forced acceptance of the coin.


title: Loonie

text: The loonie has subsequently gained iconic status within Canada, and is now regarded as a national symbol. The term "loonie" has since become synonymous with the Canadian dollar itself. The town of Echo Bay, Ontario, home of Robert-Ralph Carmichael, erected a large loonie monument in his honour in 1992 along the highway, similar to Sudbury's 'Big Nickel'.


title: Loonie

text: Officials for the 2002 Salt Lake Winter Olympics invited the National Hockey League's ice making consultant, Dan Craig, to oversee the city's E Center arena, where the ice hockey tournament was being held. Craig invited a couple of members from the ice crew in his hometown of Edmonton to assist. One of them, Trent Evans, secretly placed a loonie at centre ice. He originally placed a dime, but added the loonie after the smaller coin quickly vanished as the ice surface was built up. He placed the coins after realizing there was no target at centre ice for referees to aim for when dropping the puck for a faceoff. A thin yellow dot was painted on the ice surface over the coins, though the loonie was faintly visible to those who knew to look for it.


title: Loonie

text: Keeping the coin a secret, Evans told only a few people of its placement and swore them to secrecy. Among those told were the players of the men's and women's teams. Both Canadian teams went on to win gold medals. Several members of the women's team kissed the spot where the coin was buried following their victory. After the men won their final, the coin was dug up and given to Wayne Gretzky, the team's executive-director, who revealed the existence of the "lucky loonie" at a post-game press conference.


title: Loonie

text: The lucky loonie quickly became a piece of Canadian lore. The original lucky loonie was donated to the Hockey Hall of Fame, and Canadians have subsequently hidden loonies at several international competitions, including the 2008 Olympic Games and the 2010 IIHF World Championships. Loonies were buried in the foundations of facilities built for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.


title: Loonie

text: Capitalizing on the tradition, the Royal Canadian Mint has released a commemorative edition "lucky loonie" for each Olympic Games since 2004.


title: Loonie

text: The weight of the coin was originally specified as 108 grains, equivalent to 6.998 grams. The coin's diameter is 26.5mm.


title: Loonie

text: When introduced, loonie coins were made of aureate, a bronze–electroplated nickel combination. Beginning in 2007, some loonie blanks also began to be produced with a cyanide-free brass plating process. In the second quarter of 2012, the composition switched to multi-ply brass-plated steel. As a result, the weight dropped from 7.00 to 6.27 grams. This resulted in the 2012 loonie not being accepted in some vending machines. The Toronto Parking Authority estimated that at about $345 per machine, it would cost about $1 million to upgrade almost 3,000 machines to accept the new coins. The Mint stated that multi-ply plated steel technology, already used in Canada's smaller coinage, produces an electromagnetic signature that is harder to counterfeit than that of regular alloy coins; also, using steel provides cost savings and avoids fluctuations in price or supply of nickel.


title: Loonie

text: On April 10, 2012, the Royal Canadian Mint announced design changes to the loonie and toonie, which include new security features.


title: Loonie

text: Alongside the regular minting of the loonie with the standard image of the common loon on the coin's reverse, the Royal Canadian Mint has also released commemorative editions of the one-dollar coin for a variety of occasions. These coins have a circulation-grade finish and have been made available to the public in five-coin packs and in 25-coin rolls in addition to being released directly into circulation.


title: Loonie

text: The Terry Fox Loonie was unveiled in 2005 and designed by Senior Engraver Stanley Witten. The coin depicts the Canadian athlete, humanitarian, and cancer research activist Terry Fox.


title: Loonie

text: Following his design of the 2005 Terry Fox loonie, Witten told the Ottawa Citizen that "while sculpting the design, I wanted to capture Terry fighting the elements, running against the wind, towering over wind-bent trees on a lonely stretch of Canadian wilderness."


title: Loonie

text: In 1997, 2002, and each year since 2004, the Royal Canadian Mint has issued a one-dollar coin that depicts a different and unique image of a bird on the coin's reverse. These special loonies have limited mintages and are available only in the six-coin specimen sets.


title: Close back rounded vowel

text: The close back rounded vowel, or high back rounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1.


title: Close back rounded vowel

text: In most languages, this rounded vowel is pronounced with protruded lips ('endolabial'). However, in a few cases the lips are compressed ('exolabial').


title: Close back rounded vowel

text: The close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as (the convention used in this article). As there is no dedicated IPA diacritic for protrusion, the symbol for the close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, , can be used as an symbol . Another possible transcription is or (a close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong.


title: Close back rounded vowel

text: Some languages, such as Japanese and Swedish, have a close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called "compressed" or "exolabial". Only Shanghainese is known to contrast it with the more typical "protruded" (endolabial) close back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.


title: Close back rounded vowel

text: There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with the letter as (simultaneous and labial compression) or ( modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic may also be used with a rounded vowel letter as an "ad hoc" symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded.


title: Passive voice

text: A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the "theme" or "patient" of the main verb – that is, the person or thing that undergoes the action or has its state changed. This contrasts with active voice, in which the subject has the agent role. For example, in the passive sentence "The tree was pulled down", the subject ("the tree") denotes the patient rather than the agent of the action. In contrast, the sentences "Someone pulled down the tree" and "The tree is down" are active sentences.


title: Passive voice

text: Typically, in passive clauses, what is usually expressed by the object (or sometimes another argument) of the verb is now expressed by the subject, while what is usually expressed by the subject is either omitted or is indicated by some adjunct of the clause. Thus, turning an active sense of a verb into a passive sense is a valence-decreasing process ("detransitivizing process"), because it syntactically turns a transitive sense into an intransitive sense. This is not always the case; for example in Japanese a passive-voice construction does not necessarily decrease valence.


title: Passive voice

text: Many languages have both an active and a passive voice; this allows for greater flexibility in sentence construction, as either the semantic agent or patient may take the syntactic role of subject. The use of passive voice allows speakers to organize stretches of discourse by placing figures other than the agent in subject position. This may be done to foreground the patient, recipient, or other thematic role; it may also be useful when the semantic patient is the topic of on-going discussion. The passive voice may also be used to avoid specifying the agent of an action.


title: Passive voice

text: In some languages, passive voice is indicated by verb conjugation, specific forms of the verb. Examples of languages that indicate voice through conjugation include Greek, Latin, and North Germanic languages such as Swedish.


title: Passive voice

text: Norwegian (Nynorsk) and Icelandic have a similar system, but the usage of the passive is more restricted. The passive forms in Nynorsk are restricted to only be accompanied by an auxiliary verb, which is not the case in Swedish and Danish.


title: Passive voice

text: In Latin, the agent of a passive sentence (if indicated) is expressed using a noun in the ablative case, in this case (the ablative of ). Different languages use different methods for expressing the agent in passive clauses. In Swedish, the agent can be expressed by means of a prepositional phrase with the preposition (equivalent here to the English "by").


title: Passive voice

text: The Austronesian language Kimaragang Dusun also indicates passive voice by verb conjugation using the infix, .


title: Passive voice

text: Other languages, including English, express the passive voice periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb.


title: Passive voice

text: English, like some other languages, uses a periphrastic passive. Rather than conjugating directly for voice, English uses the past participle form of the verb plus an auxiliary verb, either "be" or "get" (called linking verbs in traditional grammar), to indicate passive voice.


title: Passive voice

text: If the agent is mentioned, it usually appears in a prepositional phrase introduced by the preposition "by".


title: Passive voice

text: The subject of the passive voice usually corresponds to the direct object of the corresponding active-voice formulation (as in the above examples), but English also allows passive constructions in which the subject corresponds to an indirect object or preposition complement:


title: Passive voice

text: In sentences of the second type, a stranded preposition is left. This is called the "prepositional passive" or "pseudo-passive" (although the latter term can also be used with other meanings).


title: Passive voice

text: The active voice is the dominant voice used in English. Many commentators, notably George Orwell in his essay "Politics and the English Language" and Strunk & White in "The Elements of Style", have urged minimizing use of the passive voice, but this is almost always based on these commentators' misunderstanding of what the passive voice is. Contrary to common critiques, the passive voice has important uses, with virtually all writers using the passive voice (including Orwell and Strunk & White).


title: Passive voice

text: There is general agreement that the passive voice is useful for emphasis, or when the receiver of the action is more important than the actor.


title: Passive voice

text: "Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage" refers to three statistical studies of passive versus active sentences in various periodicals, stating: "the highest incidence of passive constructions was 13 percent. Orwell runs to a little over 20 percent in "Politics and the English Language". Clearly he found the construction useful in spite of his advice to avoid it as much as possible".


title: Passive voice

text: In the field of linguistics, the term "passive" is applied to a wide range of grammatical structures. Linguists therefore find it difficult to define the term in a way that makes sense across all human languages. The canonical passive in European languages has the following properties:


title: Passive voice

text: The problem arises with non-European languages. Many constructions in these languages share at least one property with the canonical European passive, but not all. While it seems justified to call these constructions "passive" when comparing them to European languages' passive constructions, as a whole the passives of the world's languages do not share a single common feature.


title: Passive voice

text: In some languages, including several Southeast Asian languages, the passive voice is sometimes used to indicate that an action or event was unpleasant or undesirable. This so-called "adversative passive" works like the ordinary passive voice in terms of syntactic structure—that is, a theme or instrument acts as subject. In addition, the construction indicates adversative affect, suggesting that someone was negatively affected.


title: Passive voice

text: In Japanese, for example, the adversative passive (also called indirect passive) indicates adversative affect. The indirect or adversative passive has the same form as the direct passive. Unlike the direct passive, the indirect passive may be used with intransitive verbs.


title: Passive voice

text: Yup'ik, from the Eskimo–Aleut family, has two different suffixes that can indicate passive, "-cir-" and "-ma-". The morpheme "-cir-" has an adversative meaning. If an agent is included in a passive sentence with the "-cir" passive, the noun is usually in the allative (oblique) case.


title: Passive voice

text: In some languages, for example English, there is often a similarity between clauses expressing an action or event in the passive voice and clauses expressing a state. For example, the string of words "The dog is fed" can have the following two different meanings:


title: Passive voice

text: The additions in parentheses "force" the same string of words to clearly show only one of their two possible grammatical functions and the related meaning. In the first sentence, the combination of the auxiliary verb "is" and the past participle "fed" is a regular example of the construction of the passive voice in English. In the second sentence, "is" can however be interpreted as an ordinary copula and the past participle as an adjective.


title: Passive voice

text: Sentences of the second type are called "false passives" by some linguists, who feel that such sentences are simply confused with the passive voice due to their outward similarity. Other linguists consider the second type to be a different kind of passive – a "stative passive" (rarely called "statal", "static", or "resultative passive"), in contrast to the "dynamic" or "eventive" passive illustrated by the first sentence. Some languages express or can express these different meanings using different constructions.


title: Passive voice

text: The difference between dynamic and stative passives is more evident in languages such as German that use different words or constructions for the two. In German, the auxiliary verb marks static passive (German: , rarely , in referring to German also called or ), while marks the dynamic passive ( or , rarely , in referring to German also called or or simply or ).


title: Passive voice

text: The English string of words "the lawn is mown" has two possible meanings corresponding to the example "the dog is fed" above. It can be used in the following two different senses:


title: Passive voice

text: A number of German verbs such as ("cover"), ("fill"), and ("separate"), when used as stative verbs, usually only form static passives.


title: Passive voice

text: In English, the passive voice expressed with the auxiliary verb "get" rather than "be" ("get-passive") expresses a dynamic rather than a static meaning. But when the auxiliary verb "be" is used, the main verb can have either a dynamic or static meaning as shown below (including copies of some examples from above):


title: Passive voice

text: Verbs that typically express static meaning can show dynamic meaning when used in the passive formed with "get", for example "be known" (static) vs. "get known" (dynamic):


title: CK Hutchison Holdings

text: CK Hutchison Holdings Limited is a Hong Kong-based and Cayman Islands-registered multinational conglomerate corporation. The company was formed in March 2015 through the merger of Cheung Kong Holdings and its main associate company Hutchison Whampoa. It has four core businesses ‐ ports and related services, retail, infrastructure and telecommunications - which operate in over 50 countries, as well as several other investments around the world.


title: CK Hutchison Holdings

text: The Group’s telecommunications division is a leading global operator and innovator of converged telecommunication and digital services around the world.


title: CK Hutchison Holdings

text: The company has investments in energy infrastructure, transportation infrastructure, water infrastructure, waste management, waste-to-energy and household infrastructure. Its investments and operations span across Hong Kong, Mainland China, the United Kingdom, Continental Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States.


title: CK Hutchison Holdings

text: As the world’s leading port investor, developer and operator, the Group’s ports division holds interests in 52 ports comprising 291 operational berths in 26 countries, including container terminals operating in six of the 10 busiest container ports in the world. In 2021, the division handled a total throughput of 88.0 million twenty-foot equivalent units (“TEU”). It also engages in river trade, cruise terminal operations and ports related logistic services.


title: CK Hutchison Holdings

text: The Group’s retail division is the world’s largest international health and beauty retailer, with over 16,300 stores in 28 markets worldwide. Its retail portfolio comprises health and beauty products, supermarkets, as well as consumer electronics and electrical appliances. It also manufactures and distributes bottled water and beverage products in Hong Kong and Mainland China.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: Ink Master: Shop Wars is the ninth season of the tattoo reality competition "Ink Master" that premiered on June 6, 2017, on Spike with 16 episodes. The show is hosted and judged by Jane's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro, with accomplished tattoo artists Chris Núñez and Oliver Peck serving as series regular judges. The winning shop received $200,000, a feature in "Inked" magazine, the title of Ink Master, and the title of Master Shop.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: The premise of this season was having teams of two sorted by their tattoo shops going head-to-head in a tag team elimination-style competition. This season features nine rookie shops battling nine veteran shops each week while tackling a skill that exposes each veterans' shortcoming from the last time they competed.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: This season saw the return of thirteen veterans; season one contestant Tommy Helm, who originally finished the competition as the runner-up, season two contestant Lalo Yunda, who originally finished the competition in 10th place, season three contestants Yovan "E.S." Barraza and Richard "Made Rich" Parker, who originally finished the competition in 9th and 10th place respectively, season four contestants Aaron "Bubba" Irwin and Josh "King Ruck" Glover, who originally finished the competition in 11th/12th and 9th/10th place respectively, season five contestant Aaron "Aaron Is" Michalowski, who originally finished the competition in 6th place, season five and season seven contestant James "Cleen Rock One" Steinke, who originally finished both competitions as the runner-up, season six contestants Katie McGowan and Matt O'Baugh, who originally finished the competition in 8th and 3rd place respectively, season seven contestants Christian Buckingham and Picasso Dular, who originally finished the competition in 3rd and 13th place respectively, and season eight contestant Anwon "Boneface" Johnson, who originally finished the competition in 7th place.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: The winners of the ninth season of "Ink Master" were Old Town Ink (Aaron "Bubba" Irwin and DJ Tambe), with Black Cobra Tattoos (Katie McGowan and Matt O'Baugh) being the runners-up.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: The judging panel is a table of three or more primary judges. The judges make their final decision by voting to see who had best tattoo of the day, who's going home and who wins the competition.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: The shops critique each other's work to see who had the worst tattoo of the day that will send one of them to the bottom.


title: Ink Master (season 9)

text: The competition featured a total of 36 contestants who competed in teams of two (18 teams total). Each team acted as one throughout the competition, winning together, and losing together.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: The PKP Pecheneg (Pulemyot Kalashnikova Pekhotny "Pecheneg", ) is a Russian 7.62×54mmR general-purpose machine gun. It is a further development and modification of the PK machine gun (PKM). It is said to be more accurate than all its predecessors due to a heavier, removable, partially forced-air-cooled barrel with radial cooling ribs and a handle which eliminates the haze effect from hot gases and keeps the barrel cooler, making the weapon more reliable. Furthermore, the weapon is capable of having a telescopic sight or other sights mounted on it, which increases its accuracy and effective range.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: The GRAU index of the PKP Pecheneg is "6P41" or "6P41N" ("PKP Pecheneg-N") when fitted with a mounting rail for a night vision sight. It is currently in use by Russian Army Spetsnaz and other troops in significant numbers. Even though it was developed mainly for infantry use, it also has been fitted to several light vehicles.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: The PKP Pecheneg is named after the Pecheneg people, a warlike tribe of Turkic origin who lived in what later became the steppes of southern Russia and Ukraine.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: According to the manufacturer, the PKP Pecheneg can fire 600 rounds in rapid fire scenarios without damaging the barrel. When conducting a long firefight, it can fire up to 10,000 rounds of ammunition per hour (effective rate of fire ≈ 166 rounds per minute) without degrading the combat characteristics and reducing the life of the barrel. In general, the PKP Pecheneg retained up to 80% parts commonality with the PKM


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: A steel jacket encloses the barrel from the front of the trunnion to the muzzle. Middle part of the barrel, from the front of the trunnion, to the gas block has transverse grooves to increase the surface area for better cooling. There are oval holes on the jacket in the ribbed section of the barrel for access of air.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: From the gas block to the muzzle there are 4 longitudinal grooves cut in the barrel. They are covered by the jacket. The grooves connect 4 holes in the gas block and 4 holes on the front end of the muzzle device. Low pressure created at the front of the jacket during firing draws cool air through the grooves, cooling the front part of the barrel, similarly to the Lewis machine gun.


title: PKP Pecheneg machine gun

text: Constant forced cooling of the front part of the barrel reduces dispersion when firing, and also increases the durability of the barrel. The service life of the barrel is estimated at 25,000 to 30,000 rounds.


title: Executioner

text: An executioner, also known as a hangman or headsman, is an official who executes a sentence of capital punishment on a legally condemned person.


title: Executioner

text: The executioner was usually presented with a warrant authorising or ordering him to "execute" the sentence. The warrant protects the executioner from the charge of murder. Common terms for executioners derived from forms of capital punishment—though they often also performed other physical punishments—include hangman (hanging) and headsman (beheading). In the military, the role of executioner was performed by a soldier, such as the "provost". A common stereotype of an executioner is a hooded medieval or absolutist executioner. Symbolic or real, executioners were rarely hooded, and not robed in all black; hoods were only used if an executioner's identity and anonymity were to be preserved from the public. As Hilary Mantel noted in her 2018 Reith Lectures, "Why would an executioner wear a mask? Everybody knew who he was".


title: Executioner

text: While this task can be occasional in nature, it can be carried out in the line of more general duty by an officer of the court, the police, prison staff, or even the military. A special case is the tradition of the Roman "fustuarium", continued in forms of running the gauntlet, where the culprit receives their punishment from the hands of the comrades gravely harmed by their crime, e.g. for failing in vital sentinel duty or stealing from a ship's limited food supply.


title: Executioner

text: Many executioners were professional specialists who traveled a circuit or region performing their duty, because executions were rarely very numerous. Within this region, a resident executioner would also administer non-lethal physical punishments, or apply torture. In medieval Europe, to the end of the early modern period, executioners were often knackers, since pay from the rare executions was not enough to live off.


title: Executioner

text: In medieval Europe executioners also taxed lepers and prostitutes, and controlled gaming houses. They were also in charge of the latrines and cesspools, and disposing of animal carcasses.


title: Executioner

text: The term is extended to administrators of severe physical punishment that is not prescribed to kill, but which may result in death.


title: Executioner

text: Executions in France (using the guillotine since the French Revolution) persisted until 1977, and the French Republic had an official executioner; the last one, Marcel Chevalier, served until the formal abolition of capital punishment in 1981.


title: Executioner

text: In Western Europe and its colonies, executioners were often shunned by their neighbours, with their work as knackers also disreputable. In Alexandre Dumas' "The Three Musketeers" and in the film "La veuve de Saint-Pierre" ("The Widow of Saint-Peter"), minor character executioners are ostracized by the villagers.


title: Executioner

text: The profession of executioner sometimes ran through a family, especially in France, where the Sanson family provided six executioners between 1688 and 1847 and the Deibler dynasty provided five between 1879 and its 1981 abolition. The latter's members included Louis Deibler, his son Anatole, Anatole's nephew Jules-Henri Desfourneaux, his other nephew André Obrecht, and André's nephew Marcel Chevalier.


title: Executioner

text: In Britain, the most notable dynasty was the Pierrepoints, who provided three executioners between 1902 and 1956 – Henry, his brother Thomas, and Henry's son Albert. Unlike in France and many other European countries, far from being shunned, British executioners such as William Marwood, James Berry, Albert Pierrepoint, and Harry Allen were widely known and respected by the public.


title: Executioner

text: In Japan, executioners have been held in contempt as part of the burakumin class (today executions in Japan are not carried out by professional executioners, but by prison guards). In "Memories of Silk and Straw", by Junichi Saga, one of the families surveyed in the Japanese village of Tsuchiura is that of an executioner family ("The Last Executioner", p. 54). This family does suffer social isolation, even though the family is somewhat well-off financially.


title: Executioner

text: In the Ottoman Empire, only Romani could be executioners. Executioners were seen as "damned" people and even their graveyards were separate from public graveyards. There were no inscriptions on executioner tombstones, and usually uncarved and unpolished simple rough stones were used. One of the oldest and largest "executioner graveyards" is in the Eyüp district in Istanbul. After the republican revolution in Turkey, executions continued to be performed by Romani executioners. This situation continued until the abolition of capital punishment in Turkey.


title: Executioner

text: The town of Roscommon has the distinction of having had Ireland's most notorious hangwoman, Lady Betty, who was given the post in exchange for her life being spared when the hangman due to execute her death sentence took ill on the day that she and 25 others were due to be hanged. Lady Betty offered to carry out the task in exchange for her death sentence being commuted to a life sentence, and she acted as the county's hangwoman from then on.


title: Executioner

text: An unidentified woman hanged two men for murder on 13 November 1782 at Kilmainham, near Dublin. The men were also quartered. The sheriff received abuse for making a hangman of a woman.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) uses a network congestion-avoidance algorithm that includes various aspects of an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) scheme, along with other schemes including slow start and congestion window (CWND), to achieve congestion avoidance. The TCP congestion-avoidance algorithm is the primary basis for congestion control in the Internet. Per the end-to-end principle, congestion control is largely a function of internet hosts, not the network itself. There are several variations and versions of the algorithm implemented in protocol stacks of operating systems of computers that connect to the Internet.


title: TCP congestion control

text: To avoid congestive collapse, TCP uses multi-faceted congestion-control strategy. For each connection, TCP maintains a CWND, limiting the total number of unacknowledged packets that may be in transit end-to-end. This is somewhat analogous to TCP's sliding window used for flow control.


title: TCP congestion control

text: The additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) algorithm is a closed-loop control algorithm. AIMD combines linear growth of the congestion window with an exponential reduction when a congestion takes place. Multiple flows using AIMD congestion control will eventually converge to use equal amounts of a contended link.


title: TCP congestion control

text: In TCP, the congestion window (CWND) is one of the factors that determines the number of bytes that can be sent out at any time. The congestion window is maintained by the sender and is a means of stopping "a link" between the sender and the receiver from becoming overloaded with too much traffic. This should not be confused with the sliding window maintained by the sender which exists to prevent "the receiver" from becoming overloaded. The congestion window is calculated by estimating how much congestion there is on the link.


title: TCP congestion control

text: When a connection is set up, the congestion window, a value maintained independently at each host, is set to a small multiple of the maximum segment size (MSS) allowed on that connection. Further variance in the congestion window is dictated by an additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD) approach. This means that if all segments are received and the acknowledgments reach the sender on time, some constant is added to the window size. It will follow different algorithms.


title: TCP congestion control

text: A system administrator may adjust the maximum window size limit, or adjust the constant added during additive increase, as part of TCP tuning.


title: TCP congestion control

text: The flow of data over a TCP connection is also controlled by the use of the "receive window" advertised by the receiver. A sender can send data less than its own congestion window and the "receive window".


title: TCP congestion control

text: Slow start, defined by . is part of the congestion control strategy used by TCP in conjunction with other algorithms to avoid sending more data than the network is capable of forwarding, that is, to avoid causing network congestion.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Slow start begins initially with a congestion window size (CWND) of 1, 2, 4 or 10 MSS. The value for the congestion window size can be increased by 1 MSS with each acknowledgement (ACK) received, effectively doubling the window size each RTT. Or less


title: TCP congestion control

text: The transmission rate will be increased by the slow-start algorithm until either a packet loss is detected, or the receiver's advertised window (rwnd) is the limiting factor.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Or "slow start threshold (ssthresh) is reached,which is used to determine whether the slow start or congestion avoidance algorithm is used, which is a value set to limit slow start"


title: TCP congestion control

text: If the CWND reaches "ssthresh", TCP changes to congestion avoidance algorithm. It should be increased by up to 1 MSS for each RTT.


title: TCP congestion control

text: A common formula is that "each new ACK" increases the CWND by MSS * "" It increases almost linearly and provides an acceptable approximation.


title: TCP congestion control

text: If a loss event occurs, TCP assumes that it is due to network congestion and takes steps to reduce the offered load on the network. These measurements depend on the exact TCP congestion avoidance algorithm used.


title: TCP congestion control

text: When a TCP sender detects segment loss using the retransmission timer and the given segment has not yet been resent by way of the retransmission timer, the value of ssthresh must be set to no more than


title: TCP congestion control

text: Slow start assumes that unacknowledged segments are due to network congestion. While this is an acceptable assumption for many networks, segments may be lost for other reasons, such as poor data link layer transmission quality. Thus, slow start can perform poorly in situations with poor reception, such as wireless networks.


title: TCP congestion control

text: The slow start protocol also performs badly for short-lived connections. Older web browsers would create many consecutive short-lived connections to the web server, and would open and close the connection for each file requested. This kept most connections in the slow start mode, which resulted in poor response time. To avoid this problem, modern browsers either open multiple connections simultaneously or reuse one connection for all files requested from a particular web server. Connections, however, cannot be reused for the multiple third-party servers used by web sites to implement web advertising, sharing features of social networking services, and counter scripts of web analytics.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Fast retransmit is an enhancement to TCP that reduces the time a sender waits before retransmitting a lost segment. A TCP sender normally uses a simple timer to recognize lost segments. If an acknowledgement is not received for a particular segment within a specified time (a function of the estimated round-trip delay time), the sender will assume the segment was lost in the network, and will retransmit the segment.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Duplicate acknowledgement is the basis for the fast retransmit mechanism. After receiving a packet an acknowledgement is sent for the last in-order byte of data received. For an in-order packet, this is effectively the last packet's sequence number plus the current packet's payload length. If the next packet in the sequence is lost but a third packet in the sequence is received, then the receiver can only acknowledge the last in-order byte of data, which is the same value as was acknowledged for the first packet. The second packet is lost and the third packet is not in order, so the last in-order byte of data remains the same as before. Thus a "Duplicate acknowledgement" occurs. The sender continues to send packets, and a fourth and fifth packet are received by the receiver. Again, the second packet is missing from the sequence, so the last in-order byte has not changed. Duplicate acknowledgements are sent for both of these packets.


title: TCP congestion control

text: When a sender receives three duplicate acknowledgements, it can be reasonably confident that the segment carrying the data that followed the last in-order byte specified in the acknowledgment was lost. A sender with fast retransmit will then retransmit this packet immediately without waiting for its timeout. On receipt of the retransmitted segment, the receiver can acknowledge the last in-order byte of data received. In the above example, this would acknowledge to the end of the payload of the fifth packet. There is no need to acknowledge intermediate packets, since TCP uses cumulative acknowledgements by default.


title: TCP congestion control

text: The naming convention for congestion control algorithms (CCAs) may have originated in a 1996 paper by Kevin Fall and Sally Floyd.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP Tahoe and Reno algorithms were retrospectively named after the versions or flavours of the 4.3BSD operating system in which each first appeared (which were themselves named after Lake Tahoe and the nearby city of Reno, Nevada). The Tahoe algorithm first appeared in 4.3BSD-Tahoe (which was made to support the CCI Power 6/32 "Tahoe" minicomputer), and was later made available to non-AT&T licensees as part of the 4.3BSD Networking Release 1; this ensured its wide distribution and implementation. Improvements were made in 4.3BSD-Reno and subsequently released to the public as Networking Release 2 and later 4.4BSD-Lite.


title: TCP congestion control

text: While both consider retransmission timeout (RTO) and duplicate ACKs as packet loss events, the behavior of Tahoe and Reno differ primarily in how they react to duplicate ACKs:


title: TCP congestion control

text: In both Tahoe and Reno, if an ACK times out (RTO timeout), slow start is used, and both algorithms reduce congestion window to 1 MSS.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP New Reno, defined by (which obsolesces previous definitions in and ), improves retransmission during the fast-recovery phase of TCP Reno.


title: TCP congestion control

text: During fast recovery, to keep the transmit window full, for every duplicate ACK that is returned, a new unsent packet from the end of the congestion window is sent.


title: TCP congestion control

text: The difference from Reno is that New Reno does not halve ssthresh immediately which may reduce window too much if multiple packet losses occur. It doesn't exit fast-recovery and reset ssthresh until acknowledges all of the data.


title: TCP congestion control

text: It uses a variable called "recover" to record how much data needs to be recovered. After a retransmit timeout, it records the highest sequence number transmitted in the recover variable and exits the fast recovery procedure. If this sequence number is acknowledged, TCP returns to the congestion avoidance state.


title: TCP congestion control

text: A problem occurs with New Reno when there are no packet losses but instead, packets are reordered by more than 3 packet sequence numbers. In this case, New Reno mistakenly enters fast recovery. When the reordered packet is delivered, duplicate and needless retransmissions are immediately sent.


title: TCP congestion control

text: New Reno performs as well as SACK at low packet error rates, and substantially outperforms Reno at high error rates.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Until the mid-1990s, all of TCP's set timeouts and measured round-trip delays were based upon only the last transmitted packet in the transmit buffer. University of Arizona researchers Larry Peterson and Lawrence Brakmo introduced TCP Vegas in which timeouts were set and round-trip delays were measured for every packet in the transmit buffer. In addition, TCP Vegas uses additive increases in the congestion window. In a comparison study of various TCP s, TCP Vegas appeared to be the smoothest followed by TCP CUBIC.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP Vegas was not widely deployed outside Peterson's laboratory but was selected as the default congestion control method for DD-WRT firmware v24 SP2.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP Hybla aims to eliminate penalties to TCP connections that incorporate a high-latency terrestrial or satellite radio links. Hybla improvements are based on analytical evaluation of the congestion window dynamics.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Binary Increase Congestion control (BIC) is a TCP implementation with an optimized CCA for high speed networks with high latency, known as long fat networks (LFNs). BIC is used by default in Linux kernels 2.6.8 through 2.6.18.


title: TCP congestion control

text: CUBIC is a less aggressive and more systematic derivative of BIC, in which the window is a cubic function of time since the last congestion event, with the inflection point set to the window prior to the event. CUBIC is used by default in Linux kernels since version 2.6.19.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Agile-SD is a Linux-based CCA which is designed for the real Linux kernel. It is a receiver-side algorithm that employs a loss-based approach using a novel mechanism, called "agility factor" (AF). to increase the bandwidth utilization over high-speed and short-distance networks (low-BDP networks) such as local area networks or fiber-optic network, especially when the applied buffer size is small. It has been evaluated by comparing its performance to Compound TCP (the default CCA in MS Windows) and CUBIC (the default of Linux) using NS-2 simulator. It improves the total performance up to 55% in term of average throughput.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Westwood+ is a sender-only modification of TCP Reno that optimizes the performance of TCP congestion control over both wired and wireless networks. TCP Westwood+ is based on end-to-end bandwidth estimation to set the congestion window and slow-start threshold after a congestion episode, that is, after three duplicate acknowledgments or a timeout. The bandwidth is estimated by averaging the rate of returning acknowledgment packets. In contrast with TCP Reno, which blindly halves the congestion window after three duplicate ACKs, TCP Westwood+ adaptively sets a slow-start threshold and a congestion window which takes into account an estimate of bandwidth available at the time congestion is experienced. Compared to Reno and New Reno, Westwood+ significantly increases throughput over wireless links and improves fairness in wired networks.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Compound TCP is a Microsoft implementation of TCP which maintains two different congestion windows simultaneously, with the goal of achieving good performance on LFNs while not impairing fairness. It has been widely deployed in Windows versions since Microsoft Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 and has been ported to older Microsoft Windows versions as well as Linux.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP Proportional Rate Reduction (PRR) is an algorithm designed to improve the accuracy of data sent during recovery. The algorithm ensures that the window size after recovery is as close as possible to the slow start threshold. In tests performed by Google, PRR resulted in a 3–10% reduction in average latency and recovery timeouts were reduced by 5%. PRR is available in Linux kernels since version 3.2.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Bottleneck Bandwidth and Round-trip propagation time (BBR) is a CCA developed at Google in 2016. While most CCAs are loss-based, in that they rely on packet loss to detect congestion and lower rates of transmission, BBR, like TCP Vegas, is model-based. The algorithm uses the maximum bandwidth and round-trip time at which the network delivered the most recent flight of outbound data packets to build a model of the network. Each cumulative or selective acknowledgment of packet delivery produces a rate sample which records the amount of data delivered over the time interval between the transmission of a data packet and the acknowledgment of that packet. As network interface controllers evolve from megabit per second to gigabit per second performance, the latency associated with bufferbloat instead of packet loss becomes a more reliable marker of the maximum throughput, making model-based CCAs which provide higher throughput and lower latency, such as BBR, a more reliable alternative to more popular loss-based algorithms like TCP CUBIC.


title: TCP congestion control

text: BBR version 1 (BBRv1) is efficient and fast, but its fairness to non-BBR streams is disputed. When implemented at YouTube, BBRv1 yielded an average of 4% higher network throughput and up to 14% in some countries. While Google's presentation shows BBRv1 co-existing well with CUBIC, researchers like Geoff Huston and Hock, Bless and Zitterbart finds it unfair to other streams and not scalable. Hock et al. also found "some severe inherent issues such as increased queuing delays, unfairness, and massive packet loss" in the BBR implementation of Linux 4.9.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Soheil Abbasloo et al. (authors of C2TCP) show that BBRv1 doesn't perform well in dynamic environments such as cellular networks. They have also shown that BBR has an unfairness issue. For instance, when a CUBIC flow (which is the default TCP implementation in Linux, Android, and MacOS) coexists with a BBR flow in the network, the BBR flow can dominate the CUBIC flow and get the whole link bandwidth from it (see figure 16 in ).


title: TCP congestion control

text: Version 2 attempts to deal with the issue of unfairness when operating alongside loss-based congestion management such as CUBIC. In BBRv2 the model used by BBRv1 is augmented to include information about packet loss and information from Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN). Whilst BBRv2 may at times have lower throughput than BBRv1 it is generally considered to have better goodput.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Cellular Controlled Delay TCP (C2TCP) was motivated by the lack of a flexible end-to-end TCP approach that can satisfy various QoS requirements for different applications without requiring any changes in the network devices. C2TCP aims to satisfy ultra-low latency and high-bandwidth requirements of applications such as virtual reality, video conferencing, online gaming, vehicular communication systems, etc. in a highly dynamic environment such as current LTE and future 5G cellular networks. C2TCP works as an add-on on top of loss-based TCP (e.g. Reno, NewReno, CUBIC, BIC, ...), it is only required to be installed on the server-side and makes the average delay of packets bounded to the desired delays set by the applications.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Researchers at NYU showed that C2TCP outperforms the delay and delay-variation performance of various state-of-the-art TCP schemes. For instance, they showed that compared to BBR, CUBIC, and Westwood on average, C2TCP decreases the average delay of packets by about 250%, 900%, and 700% respectively on various cellular network environments.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Elastic-TCP was proposed in February 2019 to increase the bandwidth utilization over high-BDP networks in support of cloud computing. It is a Linux-based CCA that is designed for the Linux kernel. It is a receiver-side algorithm that employs a loss-delay-based approach using a novel mechanism called a window-correlated weighting function (WWF). It has a high level of elasticity to deal with different network characteristics without the need for human tuning. It has been evaluated by comparing its performance to Compound TCP (the default CCA in MS Windows), CUBIC (the default for Linux) and TCP-BBR (the default of Linux 4.9 used by Google) using the NS-2 simulator and testbed. Elastic-TCP significantly improves the total performance in terms of average throughput, loss ratio, and delay.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Soheil Abbasloo et al. proposed NATCP (Network-Assisted TCP) a TCP design targeting multi-access edge computing (MEC). The key idea of NATCP is that if the characteristics of the network were known beforehand, TCP would have been designed differently. Therefore, NATCP employs the available features and properties in the current MEC-based cellular architectures to push the performance of TCP close to the optimal performance. NATCP uses an out-of-band feedback from the network to the servers located nearby. The feedback from the network, which includes the capacity of the cellular access link and the minimum RTT of the network, guides the servers to adjust their sending rates. As preliminary results show, NATCP outperforms the state-of-the-art TCP schemes.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP New Reno was the most commonly implemented algorithm, SACK support is very common and is an extension to Reno/New Reno. Most others are competing proposals that still need evaluation. Starting with 2.6.8 the Linux kernel switched the default implementation from New Reno to BIC. The default implementation was again changed to CUBIC in the 2.6.19 version. FreeBSD uses New Reno as the default algorithm. However, it supports a number of other choices.


title: TCP congestion control

text: When the per-flow product of bandwidth and latency increases, regardless of the queuing scheme, TCP becomes inefficient and prone to instability. This becomes increasingly important as the Internet evolves to incorporate very high-bandwidth optical links.


title: TCP congestion control

text: TCP Interactive (iTCP) allows applications to subscribe to TCP events and respond accordingly enabling various functional extensions to TCP from outside TCP layer. Most TCP congestion schemes work internally. iTCP additionally enables advanced applications to directly participate in congestion control such as to control the source generation rate.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Zeta-TCP detects congestion from both latency and loss rate measures. To maximize the goodput Zeta-TCP and applies different congestion window backoff strategies based on the likelihood of congestion. It also has other improvements to accurately detect packet losses, avoiding retransmission timeout retransmission; and accelerate and control the inbound (download) traffic.


title: TCP congestion control

text: CCAs may be classified in relation to network awareness, meaning the extent to which these algorithms are aware of the state of the network. This consist of three primary categories: black box, grey box, and green box.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Black box algorithms offer blind methods of congestion control. They operate only on the binary feedback received upon congestion and do not assume any knowledge concerning the state of the networks which they manage.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Grey box algorithms use in order to obtain measurements and estimations of bandwidth, flow contention, and other knowledge of network conditions.


title: TCP congestion control

text: Green box algorithms offer bimodal methods of congestion control which measures the fair-share of total bandwidth which should be allocated for each flow, at any point, during the system's execution.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: The NBA Slam Dunk Contest (officially known as the AT&T Slam Dunk) is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) competition held during the NBA All-Star Weekend. "Sports Illustrated" wrote "the dunk contest was the best halftime invention since the bathroom."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: The contest was conceived of and started by the American Basketball Association (ABA) for its 1976 ABA All-Star Game in Denver. The winner was Julius Erving of the New York Nets. As a result of the ABA–NBA merger later that year, the contest moved to the NBA for the 1976-1977 season.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: There was not another slam dunk contest at the professional level until 1984. The contest has adopted several formats over the years, including, until 2014, the use of fan voting, via text-messaging, to determine the winner of the final round. The current champion of the Slam Dunk Contest is Obi Toppin of the New York Knicks.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: The first-ever Slam Dunk Contest was held on January 27, 1976 at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver during halftime of the 1976 ABA All-Star Game. In financial trouble and fighting with the NBA for viewers, the ABA started the slam dunk contest as a gimmick to attract viewers nationwide. In "Remember the ABA," Jim Bukata recalled, "We were sitting around the office one day, discussing things that would draw more people, and it just came to us…It was Julius [Erving] really giving us the idea that we're the league of the dunkers. So we said, 'Well if that's the case, let's have a contest.' It really was as simple as that. …Three guys talking about what we could do to sell a few more tickets." Bukata was the director of marketing and public relations for the ABA. The other two in the room were the league's finance director Jim Keeler and Carl Scheer, general manager of the Denver Nuggets who were hosting the All-Star game.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: There was a format each competitor had to follow in which they must attempt five dunks in a row under two minutes, with the clock stopping after each shot to allow the player to plan their next attempt. One required dunk was from a standing position under the basket, and another from a distance of ten feet away from the basket in the foul lane. The next three required dunks were freestyle positions, one coming in from the left side of the basket, one coming in from the right side of the basket, and finally from either corner down the baseline to the basket. At the contest, it was announced that the competitors were judged on artistic ability, body flow, fan response, and imagination, earning up to ten points in each category. There were $1,200 in prizes provided by the Denver Nuggets and KHOW radio station.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: There were five competitors: Artis "A-Train" Gilmore of the Kentucky Colonels went first followed by George "Iceman" Gervin of the San Antonio Spurs, Larry "Special K" Kenon of the San Antonio Spurs, David "Skywalker" Thompson of the Denver Nuggets, and finally Julius "Dr. J" Erving of New York Nets.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Rookie and shortest competitor in the contest, Thompson recalls, "Since my hands weren't very big, I couldn't really palm the ball so I would cup it. I'd cup it with my left hand between my hand and forearm and put it above the rim and come over the top with my right hand and punch it into the basket. Very few guys could do it, I was told that Wilt Chamberlain could do something like it but I never seen it. You not only had to be able to jump high but you had to have the hang time, you had to be able to levitate up there and punch it through the basket.” Thompson performed a 360 degree or twist-around dunk to finish his routine—the first time this trick had ever been seen. However, Thompson missed a dunk during his routine which counted as a zero; Gervin missed two dunks.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: All competitors had to perform a dunk from ten feet, but Julius Erving started marking his steps from the free throw line which is fifteen feet away. Erving then completed a dunk from the free throw line, winning the contest. He said, "I just wanted to make a nice, soaring play that would get the fans out of their seats. I really started going at half court and got a good running start and made sure that I made the shot authoritatively."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Irving said that his favorite dunk of the night was by Thompson who "came out of the corner, spun 360 degrees in the air and slammed it, 50 by anyone's standards.” One basketball historian wrote, "The 1976 Slam Dunk Contest represents a key focal point in basketball history. David Thompson and the rest of the ABA players were true pioneers and innovators; they transcended the game of basketball into what it is today."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: In 1976, Arthur Erhat filed a patent for "a rim that had give but immediately returned to its original position," making dunking safe for the first time by significantly reducing the shattering of backboards. After a ten year ban, the NBA brought back the dunk to regular play for the 1976-1977 season. That year, NBA held its first Slam Dunk Contest as a one-off, season-long event similar to NBA Horse event held the following season. During halftime at each game, there was a one-on-one slam dunk competition.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: There were 22 competitors at multiple venues throughout the event—one for each team at the league—including future Hall of Famers Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Alex English, Julius Erving, George Gervin, Elvin Hayes, Moses Malone, and David Thompson. Former ABA player Darnell "Dr. Dunk" Hillman was named the winner that season, beating out the Golden State Warriors' Larry McNeill in the championship round on June 5, 1977 in Portland during the halftime of the final playoff game. Although he received the winner's $15,000 check, Hillman did not receive a trophy until 2017.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: The NBA reintroduced the Slam Dunk Contest on a permanent basis as a free-standing event during All-Star Weekend in 1984 at its birthplace in Denver. Phoenix's Larry Nance defeated the original Dunk contest winner Julius Erving in the final round. Dominique Wilkins won the contest the following year, but in 1986 his Atlanta Hawks teammate Spud Webb made history when he defeated Wilkins in the final, preventing him from retaining his title. Standing a mere 5 feet 6 inches tall, Webb became the shortest player ever to win the contest, a distinction that he still holds. Chicago's Michael Jordan won back-to-back dunk contest victories in 1987 and in 1988. His victory over Wilkins in 1988 in Chicago finished with a perfect 50 dunk from the free-throw line for his third dunk to win the contest. However, the announcers did note that Wilkins was given abnormally low score for his breathtaking third dunk, a 45, allowing Jordan to win it by 2 with his perfect 50. To this day, the allegations of ""home cooking"" still float around surrounding the event (it was held on Jordan's home court; one of the judges was former Chicago Bears star Gale Sayers; and another judge, former NBA star Tom Hawkins, is a Chicago native) and until the competition in 2020, was considered arguably the most controversial of the slam dunk competitions. Extensive debate continues whether Wilkins 3rd dunk should have scored higher than a 45 and whether Jordan's second dunk, which scored a 47, was a superior creative effort to Wilkins third dunk. The following year in Houston, New York's Kenny "Sky" Walker, a last-minute replacement whose father died just days beforehand, upset Portland's Clyde Drexler, the hometown favorite and Houston native who was seen as the favorite, being that other previous champs Larry Nance, Michael Jordan and Dominique Wilkins were not competing. 1986 champ Spud Webb finished 3rd, while Shelton Jones finished 4th. Though Nance, Jordan and Wilkins still played in the All-Star Game, Nance and Jordan chose not to compete due to minor injuries, and Wilkins did not compete in the competition due to a hand injury.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: In 1990, Dominique Wilkins of the Atlanta Hawks edged out Kenny Smith of the Sacramento Kings to win his second Slam Dunk Contest. He first won it in 1985 over Michael Jordan. Smith scored high points for originality with his signature dunk—he started by turning his back to the basket, bouncing the ball backward between his legs and off the backboard, then turning and grabbing it in the air and reverse dunking it. As the 1990s progressed, stars such as Jordan, Wilkins and Drexler sometimes declined to participate and were replaced by less-known players. Harold Miner was a standout in 1993, winning the contest with a reverse power dunk, reaching between his legs and down to his feet in mid-air before sending the ball down. In 1994 and 1997 respectively, Isaiah Rider and Kobe Bryant won the contest. Rider would win with a spectacular, between-the-legs dunk, reminiscent of the Orlando Woolridge effort in the 1984 contest. However, he wasn't able to repeat in 1995, missing the same dunk on several tries, opening the way for Miner to grab his second slam dunk title in three years. In 1998, the Slam Dunk Contest was replaced with the WNBA-NBA 2Ball Contest. In 1999, there was no All-Star Game due to the NBA lockout.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: After a one-All Star Weekend layoff (as aforementioned, the NBA did not have an All Star Weekend due to the lockout the previous season), the NBA decided to bring the Slam Dunk Contest back for the 2000 All-Star Weekend in Oakland, California. It would prove to be one of the most electrifying dunk contests in the league's history, featuring a great showdown between eventual winner Vince Carter of the Toronto Raptors, his cousin and then-teammate Tracy McGrady, and the Houston Rockets' Steve Francis. Carter won after performing a number of very impressive dunks, including two 360 windmills, a honey dip, and a between-the-legs dunk off a bounced alley-oop from McGrady. The next four contests did not feature superstars like Carter and Bryant, and despite innovative efforts by the likes of Desmond Mason and Jason Richardson, the lack of A-list superstars willing to participate hurt the appeal of the contest.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: In 2005, the Slam Dunk Contest returned to its birthplace in Denver. With the spectacular dunks of prior contests, there was buzz that the dunk competition could regain the popularity it had in the 1980s. The Phoenix Suns' Amar'e Stoudemire alley-ooping 360 off a soccer-style header from teammate Steve Nash; J. R. Smith putting it around his back and dunking, and the new champion, Josh Smith alley-ooping over Kenyon Martin all wowed the crowd with their maneuvers. With the change in the rules requiring an additional teammate starting in the second round, they proved there were indeed many ways to dunk a basketball that had not been done before. Amar'e Stoudemire received rave reviews, as did Smith when he did a tribute dunk to Dominique Wilkins while donning Wilkins' jersey.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Again in 2006, the Dunk Contest in Houston revitalized the interests of audiences as 5'9" Nate Robinson of the New York Knicks took the title with a great dunk-off. One of his most exciting dunks was a high-flying dunk over former Slam Dunk Contest winner, 5'7" Spud Webb. The 2006 Slam Dunk Contest was also the first Dunk Contest in history to have a "Dunk Off", the equivalent to a Dunk Contest overtime, between Knicks point guard Nate Robinson and shooting guard Andre Iguodala of the Philadelphia 76ers. Many fans argue that Iguodala should have won the contest, as it took Robinson fourteen attempts before finally completing his dunk. Iguodala pulled off a dunk where he started out of bounds from the right side of the baseline while teammate Allen Iverson bounced the ball off the back of the right side of the backboard. Iguodala caught the ball in mid-air behind the backboard, spun around to the other side while ducking his head (to avoid colliding with the backboard) and dunked it with his right hand.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: On February 17, 2007, the contest was held in Las Vegas. Judges for the event were all past winners: Michael Jordan, Dominique Wilkins, Kobe Bryant, Julius Erving, and Vince Carter. The title was taken by the Boston Celtics' Gerald Green, who, among other dunks, jumped over reigning champ Nate Robinson while covering his face – a homage to 1991 winner, Dee Brown, whose jersey Green had worn. He also scored a perfect fifty with his last slam, a windmill over a table. Other noteworthy dunks include a dunk by Orlando Magic center Dwight Howard, who, while making his dunk, stuck a sticker with his smiling face on the backboard a reported 12'6" from the ground, two and a half feet beyond the regulation NBA rim.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: On February 16, 2008, the contest was held in New Orleans. Judges for the event included Darryl Dawkins, Dominique Wilkins, Karl Malone, Julius Erving, and Magic Johnson. The title was taken by Orlando Magic center Dwight Howard. Howard's most noteworthy dunk came during the first round, his second dunk overall, when he took off his jersey to reveal a Superman shirt and cape. With teammate Jameer Nelson's assistance he would make a leaping dunk from just in front of the free-throw line after a running start, throwing the ball through the rim from a few feet away. Other noteworthy dunks included the first round slam by Jamario Moon while the previous year's winner, Gerald Green, relied heavily on theatrics by blowing out a cupcake with a birthday candle on the rim before dunking (a jam he termed "The Birthday Cake"). For the first time ever, fan voting determined the outcome of the final round of the contest; Howard beat Green for the trophy by claiming 78% of the fans' votes.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Nate Robinson won the 2009 contest on February 14 in Phoenix, Arizona. The 5'9" guard dressed all in green as "Krypto-Nate" (a portmanteau of 'Nate' and Kryptonite) and jumped over 6'11" Dwight Howard characterized as Superman. He defeated Howard in the finals by a fan vote of 52–48 percent. J. R. Smith and Rudy Fernández also competed.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Nate Robinson won the 2010 contest on February 13 in Dallas, becoming the first 3-time Slam Dunk champion. Robinson took on Shannon Brown of the Los Angeles Lakers, Gerald Wallace of the Charlotte Bobcats, and DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors. DeRozan earned his spot in the competition by defeating Los Angeles Clippers guard Eric Gordon in the inaugural Sprite Slam Dunk-In held the night before the actual dunk contest. Robinson and DeRozan advanced to the final round, where Robinson's double-pump reverse dunk helped seal a 51% to 49% victory.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Blake Griffin won the 2011 slam dunk contest by jumping and dunking over the hood of a Kia sedan on February 19 in Los Angeles. JaVale McGee of the Washington Wizards, DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors, and Serge Ibaka of the Oklahoma City Thunder all competed against Griffin. Griffin and McGee advanced to the final round, where Griffin stole the show, winning the contest with 68% of the vote.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Jeremy Evans won the 2012 Sprite Slam Dunk Contest by performing a dunk over Kevin Hart on February 25 in Orlando, Florida with 29% of the votes. Joining Evans were Chase Budinger of the Houston Rockets, Paul George of the Indiana Pacers, and Derrick Williams of the Minnesota Timberwolves. While George awed the crowd with a dunk with the lights turned off, Evans had perhaps the dunk of the contest by jumping teammate Gordon Hayward, catching two balls from Hayward, and dunking it.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Terrence Ross won the 2013 Sprite Slam Dunk Contest after a tomahawk dunk in tribute to former Toronto Raptors player Vince Carter, as well as a between-the-legs dunk performed while jumping over a ball boy. Ross took on Jeremy Evans of the Utah Jazz, Eric Bledsoe of the Los Angeles Clippers, Kenneth Faried of the Denver Nuggets, Gerald Green of the Indiana Pacers, and James White of the New York Knicks. Evans advanced to the final round to defend his title of slam dunk champion, but was thwarted by Ross. Ross carried the momentum of his near-perfect first round, in which he scored a 99 out of a possible 100, with a stellar final round. Ross won the competition decisively, earning 58% of the vote.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Team East, composed of dunkers Paul George, defending champion Terrence Ross, and John Wall won the 2014 Sprite Slam Dunk Contest in commanding fashion. Under the new team format, they dominated the Freestyle Round, capping it off with a pass off the backboard from Ross to Wall, then off the shot clock from Wall to George for the finish. In the Battle Round, Ross defeated Damian Lillard with a through the legs dunk from rapper Drake, George took down Harrison Barnes with a 360-degree, through the legs finish, and Wall defeated Ben McLemore by jumping over the Wizards' mascot G-Man and throwing down a reverse on the first try. Though Team East are the official winners, Wall was voted by fans as the Dunker of the Night.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: To the delight of NBA fans, the 2015 contest was changed back to its original format, as the Freestyle Round as well as the teams were taken out. The 4 dunkers competing were all up-and-coming players: The Bucks' Giannis Antetokounmpo, the Timberwolves' Zach LaVine, the Magic's Victor Oladipo, and the Nets' Mason Plumlee. LaVine took home the hardware with dunks that included a between-the-legs reverse, a behind-the-back slam in which he caught it in midair, a between-the-legs lefthanded dunk, and finished with a between-the-legs dunk as he caught it off the pole behind the backboard. Similar to Howard with Superman, LaVine did his first dunk with a cultural homage, wearing Michael Jordan's jersey from "Space Jam".


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Zach LaVine won the 2016 slam dunk contest with incredibly talented dunks, from a windmill from the free throw line to a sensational between-the-legs reverse dunk. Aaron Gordon (runner-up) of the Orlando Magic, Will Barton of the Denver Nuggets and Andre Drummond of the Detroit Pistons also competed.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Many people, including 2010 winner Nate Robinson, thought that the 2011 contest was rigged to allow up-and-coming star Blake Griffin to win and that runner-up JaVale McGee deserved to win. It was even disputed if Griffin even legitimately qualified for the finals since his final dunk got a perfect score but was basically a copy of DeMar DeRozan's first dunk with a lower degree of difficulty. Ben Maller of Fox Sports Radio reported that a media advisory sent out by the NBA over an hour before the 2011 Slam Dunk Contest began already referring to Blake Griffin as the winner.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: Many people condemned Derrick Jones Jr.'s win in 2020, believing that Aaron Gordon deserved to win both the 2016 edition and this one. They posted hate comments against judges Dwayne Wade and Scottie Pippen for giving Gordon a 9 after he dunked over Tacko Fall, the tallest NBA player, and giving Jones a 10 though he repeated the between-the-legs dunk many times.


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: 1991"Beginning with this year, final round competitors were allowed three dunks, with the two highest scores comprising the total."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: 1993"The two highest score dunks of three in each round constituted the competitor's score.Shawn Kemp (Seattle) was scheduled to compete but was injured."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: 1994"In the first round, each competitor was allowed 90 seconds to do as many dunks as he chooses with one overall score. The final round score was the best of two dunks."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: 1995"This year, each competitor was allowed 90 seconds to do at least three dunks and then given an overall score in round one. In the final round, each competitor was allowed 60 seconds to do at least two dunks and then given an overall score."


title: Slam Dunk Contest

text: 1996"Beginning this year, in the first round, each competitor was allowed 90 seconds to do as many dunks as he chooses with one overall score. The final round score was the best of two dunks."