title: Alexander Alekhine

text: After the world championship match, Alekhine returned to Paris and spoke against Bolshevism. Afterwards, Nikolai Krylenko, president of the Soviet Chess Federation, published an official memorandum stating that Alekhine should be regarded as an enemy of the Soviets. The Soviet Chess Federation broke all contact with Alekhine until the end of the 1930s. His elder brother Alexei, with whom Alexander Alekhine had a very close relationship, publicly repudiated him and his anti-Soviet utterances shortly afterward, but Alexei may have had little choice about this decision.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: According to Reuben Fine, Alekhine dominated chess into the mid-1930s. His most famous tournament victories were at the San Remo 1930 chess tournament (+13=2, 3½ points ahead of Nimzowitsch) and the Bled 1931 chess tournament (+15=11, 5½ points ahead of Bogoljubov). He won most of his other tournaments outright, shared first place in two, and the first tournament in which he placed lower than first was Hastings 1933–34 (shared second place, ½ point behind Salo Flohr). In 1933, Alekhine also swept an exhibition match against Rafael Cintron in San Juan (+4−0=0), but only managed to draw another match with Ossip Bernstein in Paris (+1−1=2).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: From 1930 to 1935, Alekhine played first board for France at four Chess Olympiads, winning the first brilliancy prize at Hamburg in 1930, gold medals for board one at Prague in 1931 and Folkestone in 1933, and the silver medal for board one at Warsaw in 1935. His loss to Latvian master Hermanis Matisons at Prague in 1931 was his first loss in a serious chess event since winning the world championship.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In the early 1930s, Alekhine travelled the world giving simultaneous exhibitions, including Hawaii, Tokyo, Manila, Singapore, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and the Dutch East Indies. In July 1933, he played thirty-two people blindfold simultaneously (a new world record) in Chicago, winning nineteen, drawing nine and losing four games.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In 1934 Alekhine married his fourth wife, Grace Freeman (née Wishaar), sixteen years his senior. She was the American-born widow of a British tea-planter in Ceylon, who retained her British citizenship to the end of her life and remained Alekhine's wife until his death.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In the early 1930s, around 1933 according to Reuben Fine, it was noticed that Alekhine was drinking increasing amounts of alcohol. Hans Kmoch wrote that Alekhine first drank heavily during the tournament at Bled in 1931, and drank heavily through the 1934 match with Bogoljubov.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In 1933, Alekhine challenged Max Euwe to a championship match. Euwe, in the early 1930s, was regarded as one of three credible challengers (the others were José Raúl Capablanca and Salo Flohr). Euwe accepted the challenge for October 1935. Earlier that year, Dutch radio sports journalist Han Hollander asked Capablanca for his views on the forthcoming match. In the rare archival film footage, in which Capablanca and Euwe both speak, Capablanca replies: "Dr. Alekhine's game is 20% bluff. Dr. Euwe's game is clear and straightforward. Dr. Euwe's game—not so strong as Alekhine's in some respects—is more evenly balanced." Then Euwe gives his assessment in Dutch, explaining that his feelings alternated from optimism to pessimism, but in the previous ten years, their score had been evenly matched at 7–7.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: On October 3, 1935, the world championship match began in Zandvoort, the Netherlands. Although Alekhine took an early lead, from game thirteen onwards Euwe won twice as many games as Alekhine. The challenger became the new champion on December 16, 1935, with nine wins, thirteen draws, and eight losses. This was the first world championship match in which seconds were officially employed: Alekhine had the services of Salo Landau, and Euwe had Géza Maróczy. Euwe's win was a major upset. Kmoch wrote that Alekhine drank no alcohol for the first half of the match, but later took a glass before most games.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: However, Salo Flohr, who also assisted Euwe, thought overconfidence caused more problems than alcohol did for Alekhine in this match, and Alekhine himself had previously said he would win easily. Later World Champions Vasily Smyslov, Boris Spassky, Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov analyzed the match for their own benefit and concluded that Euwe deserved to win and that the standard of play was worthy of a world championship.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: According to Kmoch, Alekhine abstained from alcohol altogether for five years after the 1935 match. In the eighteen months after losing the title, Alekhine played in ten tournaments, with uneven results: tied for first with Paul Keres at Bad Nauheim in May 1936; first place at Dresden in June 1936; second to Flohr at Poděbrady in July 1936; sixth, behind Capablanca, Mikhail Botvinnik, Reuben Fine, Samuel Reshevsky, and Euwe at Nottingham in August 1936; third, behind Euwe and Fine, at Amsterdam in October 1936; tied for first with Salo Landau at Amsterdam ("Quadrangular"), also in October 1936; in 1936/37 he won at the Hastings New Year tournament, ahead of Fine and Erich Eliskases; first place at Nice ("Quadrangular") in March 1937; third, behind Keres and Fine, at Margate in April 1937; tied for fourth with Keres, behind Flohr, Reshevsky and Vladimirs Petrovs, at Kemeri in June–July 1937; tied for second with Bogoljubow, behind Euwe, at Bad Nauheim ("Quadrangular") in July 1937.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Max Euwe was quick to arrange a return match with Alekhine, something José Raúl Capablanca had been unable to obtain after Alekhine won the world title in 1927. Alekhine regained the title from Euwe in December 1937 by a large margin (+10−4=11). In this match, held in the Netherlands, Euwe was seconded by Fine, and Alekhine by Erich Eliskases. The match was a real contest initially, but Euwe collapsed near the end, losing four of the last five games. Fine attributed the collapse to nervous tension, possibly aggravated by Euwe's attempts to maintain a calm appearance. Alekhine played no more title matches, and thus held the title until his death.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: 1938 began well for Alekhine, who won the Montevideo 1938 chess tournament at Carrasco (in March) and at Margate (in April), and tied for first with Sir George Alan Thomas at Plymouth (in September). In November, however, he only tied for 4th–6th with Euwe and Samuel Reshevsky, behind Paul Keres, Reuben Fine, and Mikhail Botvinnik, ahead of Capablanca and Flohr, at the AVRO tournament in the Netherlands. This tournament was played in each of several Dutch cities for a few days at a time; it was therefore perhaps not surprising that rising stars took the first three places, as the older players found the travel very tiring, though Fine was dismissive of this explanation because the distances were short.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Immediately after the AVRO tournament, Botvinnik, who had finished in third place, challenged Alekhine to a match for the world championship. They agreed on a prize fund of US$10,000 with two-thirds going to the winner, and that if the match were to take place in Moscow, Alekhine would be invited at least three months in advance so that he could play in a tournament to get ready for the match. Other details had not been agreed when World War II interrupted negotiations, which the two players resumed after the war.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Keres, who had won the AVRO tournament on tiebreak over Fine, also challenged Alekhine to a world championship match. Negotiations were proceeding in 1939 when they were disrupted by World War II. During the war Keres' home country, Estonia, was invaded first by the USSR, then by Germany, then again by the USSR. At the end of the war, the Soviet government prevented Keres from continuing the negotiations, on the grounds that he had collaborated with the Germans during their occupation of Estonia (by Soviet standards).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine was representing France at first board in the 8th Chess Olympiad at Buenos Aires 1939 when World War II broke out in Europe. The assembly of all team captains, with leading roles played by Alekhine (France), Savielly Tartakower (Poland), and Albert Becker (Germany), plus the president of the Argentine Chess Federation, Augusto de Muro, decided to go on with the Olympiad.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine won the individual silver medal (nine wins, no losses, seven draws), behind Capablanca (only results from finals A and B—separately for both sections—counted for best individual scores). Shortly after the Olympiad, Alekhine swept tournaments in Montevideo (7/7) and Caracas (10/10).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: At the end of August 1939, both Alekhine and Capablanca wrote to Augusto de Muro regarding a possible world championship rematch. Whereas the former spoke of a rematch as a virtual certainty, even stating that the Cuban was remaining in Buenos Aires until it came about, the latter referred at length to the financial burden in the aftermath of the Olympiad. Supported by Latin-American financial pledges, José R. Capablanca challenged Alexander Alekhine to a world title match in November. Tentative plans—not, however, backed by a deposit of the required purse ($10,000 in gold)—led to a virtual agreement to play at Buenos Aires, Argentina, beginning on April 14, 1940.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Unlike many participants in the 1939 Chess Olympiad, Alekhine returned to Europe in January 1940. After a short stay in Portugal, he enlisted in the French army as a sanitation officer.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: After the fall of France (June 1940), he fled to Marseille. Alekhine tried to go to America by traveling to Lisbon and applying for an American visa. In October 1940, he sought permission to enter Cuba, promising to play a match with Capablanca. This request was denied.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Chess historians have had a significant interest in Alekhine's affiliation with Nazi Germany. Of ongoing speculation among historians specialising in mid-20th century European chess is whether or not Alkehine was the author of numerous antimsemitic pieces of propaganda published in relevant partisan materials at the time. While an analysis of writing styles is perceived to provide evidence supporting the theory Alkehine willingly worked as a propagandist in a non-coercive fashion, Alkehine himself denied this in written letters.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: By some accounts, to protect his wife, Grace, and her French assets (a castle at Saint Aubin-le-Cauf, near Dieppe, which the Nazis looted), he agreed to cooperate with the Nazis. Alekhine took part in chess tournaments in Munich, Salzburg, Kraków/Warsaw, and Prague, organised by Ehrhardt Post, the chief executive of the Nazi-controlled "Grossdeutscher Schachbund" ("Greater Germany Chess Federation")—Keres, Bogoljubov, Gösta Stoltz, and several other strong masters in Nazi-occupied Europe also played in such events. In 1941, he tied for second-third with Erik Lundin in the Munich 1941 chess tournament ("Europaturnier" in September, won by Stoltz), shared first with Paul Felix Schmidt at Kraków/Warsaw (the 2nd General Government chess tournament, in October) and won in Madrid (in December). The following year he won in the Salzburg 1942 chess tournament (June 1942) and in Munich (September 1942; the Nazis named this the "Europameisterschaft", which means "European Championship"). Later in 1942 he won at Warsaw/Lublin/Kraków (the 3rd GG-ch; October 1942) and tied for first with Klaus Junge in Prague ("Duras Jubileé"; December 1942). In 1943, he drew a mini-match (+2−2) with Bogoljubov in Warsaw (March 1943), he won in Prague (April 1943) and tied for first with Keres in Salzburg (June 1943).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: By late 1943, Alekhine was spending all his time in Spain and Portugal, as the German representative to chess events. This also allowed him to get away from the onrushing Soviet invasion into eastern Europe. In 1944, he narrowly won a match against Ramón Rey Ardid in Zaragoza (+1−0=3; April 1944) and won in Gijón (July 1944). The following year, he won at Madrid (March 1945), tied for second place with Antonio Medina at Gijón (July 1945; the event was won by Antonio Rico), won at Sabadell (August 1945), he tied for first with F. López Núñez in Almeria (August 1945), won in Melilla (September 1945) and took second in Caceres, behind Francisco Lupi (Autumn 1945). Alekhine's last match was with Lupi at Estoril near Lisbon, Portugal, in January 1946. Alekhine won two games, lost one, and drew one.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine took an interest in the development of the chess prodigy Arturo Pomar and devoted a section of his last book ("¡Legado!" 1946) to him. They played at Gijon 1944, when Pomar, aged 12, achieved a creditable draw with the champion.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: After World War II, Alekhine was not invited to chess tournaments outside the Iberian Peninsula, because of his alleged Nazi affiliation. His original invitation to the London 1946 tournament was withdrawn when the other competitors protested.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: While planning for a World Championship match against Botvinnik, Alekhine died aged 53 in his hotel room in Estoril, Portugal, on March 24, 1946. The circumstances of his death are still a matter of debate. It is usually attributed to a heart attack, but a letter in "Chess Life" magazine from a witness to the autopsy stated that choking on meat was the actual cause of death. At autopsy, a three-inch-long piece of unchewed meat was discovered blocking his windpipe. Some have speculated that he was murdered by a French "death squad". A few years later, Alekhine's son, Alexander Alekhine, Jr., said that "the hand of Moscow reached his father". Kevin Spraggett, a Canadian Grandmaster who has lived in Portugal since the late 1980s and has thoroughly investigated Alekhine's death, favors this possibility. Spraggett makes a case for the manipulation of the crime scene and the autopsy by the Portuguese secret police PIDE. He believes that Alekhine was murdered outside his hotel room, probably by Soviet agents.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine's burial was sponsored by FIDE, and the remains were transferred to the Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris, France, in 1956.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: His gravestone suffered heavy damage by a cyclone on 26 December 1999. The headstone monument was blown over, shattered and fell on the main gravestone. It was later restored.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Statistical ranking systems differ sharply in their views of Alekhine. "Warriors of the Mind" rates him only the 18th strongest player of all time and comments that victories over players such as Bogoljubov and Euwe are not a strong basis for an "all time" ranking. But the website "Chessmetrics" ranks him between the fourth and eighth best of all time, depending on the lengths of the peak periods being compared, and concludes that at his absolute peak he was a little stronger than Emanuel Lasker and Capablanca, although a little weaker than Botvinnik. Jeff Sonas, the author of the website "Chessmetrics", rates Alekhine as the sixth highest peak strength, relative to other players of the same era, of all-time on the basis of comparable ratings. He also assesses Alekhine's victory at the tournament of San Remo in 1930 as the sixth best performance ever in tournaments. In his 1978 book "The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present", Arpad Elo gave retrospective Elo ratings to players based on their performance over the best five-year span of their career. He concluded that Alekhine (2690) was the joint fifth strongest player of those surveyed (tied with Paul Morphy and Vasily Smyslov), behind Capablanca (2725), Botvinnik (2720), Emanuel Lasker (2720) and Mikhail Tal (2700).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine's peak period was in the early 1930s, when he won almost every tournament he played, sometimes by huge margins. Afterward, his play declined, and he never won a top-class tournament after 1934. After Alekhine regained his world title in 1937, there were several new contenders, all of whom would have been serious challengers.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine was one of the greatest attacking players and could apparently produce combinations at will. What set him apart from most other attacking players was his ability to see the potential for an attack and prepare for it in positions where others saw nothing. Rudolf Spielmann, a master tactician who produced many brilliancies, said, "I can see the combinations as well as Alekhine, but I cannot get to the same positions." Dr. Max Euwe said, "Alekhine is a poet who creates a work of art out of something that would hardly inspire another man to send home a picture post-card." An explanation offered by Réti was, "he beats his opponents by analysing simple and apparently harmless sequences of moves in order to see whether at some time or another at the end of it an original possibility, and therefore one difficult to see, might be hidden." John Nunn commented that "Alekhine had a special ability to provoke complications


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: without taking excessive risks", and Edward Winter called him "the supreme genius of the complicated position." Some of Alekhine's combinations are so complex that even modern champions and contenders disagree in their analyses of them.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Nevertheless, Garry Kasparov said that Alekhine's attacking play was based on solid positional foundations, and Harry Golombek went further, saying that "Alekhine was the most versatile of all chess geniuses, being equally at home in every style of play and in all phases of the game." Reuben Fine, a serious contender for the world championship in the late 1930s, wrote in the 1950s that Alekhine's collection of best games was one of the three most beautiful that he knew, and Golombek was equally impressed.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine's games have a higher percentage of wins than those of any other World Champion, and his drawn games are on average among the longest of all champions'. His desire to win extended beyond formal chess competition. When Fine beat him in some casual games in 1933, Alekhine demanded a match for a small stake. And in table tennis, which Alekhine played enthusiastically but badly, he would often crush the ball when he lost.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Bobby Fischer, in a 1964 article, ranked Alekhine as one of the ten greatest players in history. Fischer, who was famous for the clarity of his play, wrote of Alekhine: Alekhine has never been a hero of mine, and I've never cared for his style of play. There's nothing light or breezy about it; it worked for him, but it could scarcely work for anyone else. He played gigantic conceptions, full of outrageous and unprecedented ideas. ... [H]e had great imagination; he could see more deeply into a situation than any other player in chess history. ... It was in the most complicated positions that Alekhine found his grandest concepts.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine's style had a profound influence on Kasparov, who said: "Alexander Alekhine is the first luminary among the others who are still having the greatest influence on me. I like his universality, his approach to the game, his chess ideas. I am sure that the future belongs to Alekhine chess." In 2012, Levon Aronian said that he considers Alekhine the greatest chess player of all time.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Several openings and opening variations are named after Alekhine. In addition to the well-known Alekhine's Defence (1.e4 Nf6) and the Albin-Chatard-Alekhine Attack in the "orthodox" Paulsen variation of the French Defense, there are Alekhine Variations in: the Budapest Gambit, the Vienna Game, the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez, the Winawer Variation of the French Defense; the Dragon Variation of the Sicilian Defense, the Queen's Gambit Accepted, the Slav Defense, the Queen's Pawn Game, the Catalan Opening and the Dutch Defense (where three different lines bear his name). Irving Chernev commented, "The openings consist of Alekhine's games, with a few variations."


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine also composed a few endgame studies, one of which is shown in the diagram, a miniature (a study with a maximum of seven pieces).


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Alekhine wrote over twenty books on chess, mostly annotated editions of the games in a major match or tournament, plus collections of his best games between 1908 and 1937. Unlike Wilhelm Steinitz, Emanuel Lasker, Capablanca and Euwe, he wrote no books that explained his ideas about the game or showed beginners how to improve their play. His books appeal to expert players rather than beginners: they contain many long analyses of variations in critical positions, and "singularities and exceptions were his forte, not rules and simplifications".


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Although Alekhine was declared an enemy of the Soviet Union after his anti-Bolshevik statement in 1928, he was gradually rehabilitated by the Soviet chess elite following his death in 1946. Alexander Kotov's research on Alekhine's games and career, culminating in a biography, "Alexander Alekhine", led to a Soviet series of Alekhine Memorial tournaments. The first of these, at Moscow 1956, was won jointly by Botvinnik and Vasily Smyslov. In their book "The Soviet School of Chess" Kotov and Yudovich devoted a chapter to Alekhine, called him "Russia's greatest player" and praised his capacity for seizing the initiative by concrete tactical play in the opening. Botvinnik wrote that the Soviet School of chess learned from Alekhine's fighting qualities, capacity for self-criticism and combinative vision. Alekhine had written that success in chess required "Firstly, self-knowledge; secondly, a firm comprehension of my opponent's strength and weakness; thirdly, a higher aim – ... artistic and scientific accomplishments which accord our chess equal rank with other arts."


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Samuel Reshevsky wrote that Alekhine "allegedly made up games against fictitious opponents in which he came out the victor and had these games published in various chess magazines." In a recent book Andy Soltis lists "Alekhine's 15 Improvements". The most famous example is his game with five queens in Moscow in 1915. In the actual game, Alekhine, playing as Black, beat Grigoriev in the Moscow 1915 tournament; but in one of his books he presented the "Five Queens" variation (starting with a move he rejected as Black in the original game) as an actual game won by the White player in Moscow in 1915. (He did not say in the book who was who in this version, nor that it was in the tournament.)


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In the position shown in the diagram, which never arose in real play, Alekhine claimed that White wins by 24.Rh6, as after some complicated play Black is mated or goes into an endgame a queen down. A later computer-assisted analysis concludes that White can force a win, but only by diverging from Alekhine's move sequence at move 20, while there are only three queens.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Chess historian Edward Winter investigated a game Alekhine allegedly won in fifteen moves via a queen sacrifice at Sabadell in 1945. Some photos of the game in progress were discovered that showed the players during the game and their chessboard. Based on the position that the chess pieces had taken on the chessboard in this photo, the game could never have taken the course that was stated in the published version. This raised suspicions that the published version was made up. Even if the published version is a fake, however, there is no doubt that Alekhine did defeat his opponent in the actual game, and there is no evidence that Alekhine was the source of the famous fifteen-move win whose authenticity is doubted.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: During World War II, Alekhine played in several tournaments held in Germany or German-occupied territory, as did many strong players in occupied and neutral countries. In March 1941, a series of articles appeared under Alekhine's name in the "Pariser Zeitung", a German-language newspaper published in Paris by the occupying German forces. Among other things, these articles said that Jews had a great talent for exploiting chess but showed no signs of chess artistry; described the hypermodern theories of Nimzowitsch and Réti as "this cheap bluff, this shameless self-publicity", hyped by "the majority of Anglo-Jewish pseudo-intellectuals"; and described his 1937 match with Euwe as "a triumph against the Jewish conspiracy".


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: During interviews with two Spanish newspapers in September 1941, Alekhine criticised Jewish chess strategy. In one of these, he said that Aryan chess was aggressive but "the Semitic concept admitted the idea of pure defence", thus the "Jewish" style was supposed to focus merely on exploiting the opponents' mistakes. He also praised rival chessplayer Capablanca for taking the world title from "the Jew Lasker". He is reported to have expressed similar views in an interview to the Czech media Svět in 1942.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Almost immediately after the liberation of Paris (and before World War II ended), Alekhine publicly stated that "he had to write two chess articles for the "Pariser Zeitung" before the Germans granted him his exit visa ... Articles which Alekhine claims were purely scientific were rewritten by the Germans, published and made to treat chess from a racial viewpoint." He wrote at least two further disavowals, in an open letter to the organizer of the 1946 London tournament (W. Hatton-Ward) and in his posthumous book "¡Legado!". These three denials are phrased differently.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: Extensive investigations by Ken Whyld have not yielded conclusive evidence of the authenticity of the articles. Chess writer Jacques Le Monnier claimed in a 1986 issue of "Europe Échecs" that in 1958 he saw some of Alekhine's notebooks and found, in Alekhine's own handwriting, the exact text of the first antisemitic article, which appeared in "Pariser Zeitung" on March 18, 1941. In his 1973 book "75 parties d'Alekhine" ("75 of Alekhine's games"), however, Le Monnier had written "It will never be known whether Alekhine was behind these articles or whether they were manipulated by the editor of the "Pariser Zeitung"."


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: British chess historian Edward G. Winter notes that the articles in the "Pariser Zeitung" misspelled the names of several famous chess masters, which could be interpreted as evidence of forgery or as attempts by Alekhine to signal that he was being forced to write things that he did not believe; but these could simply have been typesetting errors, as Alekhine's handwriting was not easy to read. The articles contained (probably) incorrect claims that Lionel Kieseritzky ("Kieseritsky" in English, "Kizierycki" in Polish) was a Polish Jew, although Kieseritzky was neither Polish nor Jewish. Winter concludes: "Although, as things stand, it is difficult to construct much of a defence for Alekhine, only the discovery of the articles in his own handwriting will settle the matter beyond all doubt." Under French copyright law, Alekhine's notebooks did not enter the public domain until January 1, 2017.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: There is evidence that Alekhine was not antisemitic in his personal or chess relationships with Jews. In June 1919, he was arrested by the Cheka, imprisoned in Odessa and sentenced to death. Yakov Vilner, a Jewish master, saved him by sending a telegram to the chairman of the Ukrainian Council of People's Commissars, who knew of Alekhine and ordered his release. Alekhine accepted and apparently used chess analysis from Charles Jaffe in his World Championship match against Capablanca. Jaffe was a Jewish master who lived in New York City, which Alekhine often visited, and upon his return to New York after defeating Capablanca, Alekhine played a short match as a favour to Jaffe, without financial remuneration. Alekhine's second for the 1935 match with Max Euwe was the master Salo Landau, a Dutch Jew. The American Jewish grandmaster Arnold Denker wrote that he found Alekhine very friendly in chess settings, taking part in consultation games and productive analysis sessions. Denker also wrote that Alekhine treated the younger and (at that time) virtually unproven Denker to dinner on many occasions in New York during the 1930s, when the economy was very weak because of the Great Depression. Denker added that Alekhine, during the early 1930s, opined that the American Jewish grandmaster Isaac Kashdan might be his next challenger (this did not in fact take place). He gave chess lessons to 14-year-old prodigy Gerardo Budowski, a German Jew, in Paris in spring 1940. Alekhine also married an American woman who may or may not have had Jewish ancestry, Grace Wishaar, as his fourth wife. Grace Alekhine was the women's champion of Paris in 1944.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: In the town of Cascais, Portugal, there is a street named after Alekhine: Rua Alexander Alekhine. Cascais is near Estoril, where Alekhine died.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: His book "My Best Games of Chess 1924–1937" featured in Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's "A Matter of Life and Death", filmed the same year of his death.


title: Alexander Alekhine

text: A series of books containing Alekhine's chess games, written and collected by chess player and teacher Matěj Gargulák of Brno


title: Lists of killings by law enforcement officers in the United States

text: The numbers show how many total killings per year are recorded in the linked lists, not the actual number of people killed by law enforcement. The listing documents the occurrence of a death, making no implications regarding wrongdoing or justification on the part of the person killed or officer involved.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Charles Thomas "Charlie" Schlatter (born May 1, 1966) is an American actor who has appeared in several films and television series. He is perhaps best known for playing , the resident student of (played by Dick Van Dyke) on the CBS series "". Since the 1990s, he has continued to work mainly as a voice actor, with roles such as the Flash in various media, the titular character on "" and Wonder-Red in "The Wonderful 101".


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter was born in Englewood, New Jersey. Growing up in Fair Lawn, New Jersey, he got his start in acting at the borough's Memorial Junior High School. He reportedly only auditioned for the school play "Oliver!" to impress a girl. He received the lead part of Oliver Twist.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter attended Ithaca College. He later earned a B.F.A. in musical theater. He starred in numerous school plays and became a skilled musician, playing guitar, drums and piano. He also began writing songs.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter was spotted by a casting director during a performance in 1987 and was asked to audition for "Bright Lights, Big City". This led to his first film appearance, as the younger brother of Michael J. Fox.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: He starred in 1988's "Heartbreak Hotel" (directed by Chris Columbus) where his character kidnaps Elvis Presley in an effort to make his mother (Tuesday Weld) happy. His most highly acclaimed role was in the 1988 comedy "18 Again!". His 18-year-old character swaps body and mind with his 81-year-old grandfather, played by George Burns. His work in this film was described as "displaying enormous range and extraordinary skill as an actor in his comedic starring role,"


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: He also starred in Australian romance film "The Delinquents" (1989) opposite Kylie Minogue. In 1990, he was cast in the role of Ferris Bueller for NBC's sitcom "Ferris Bueller" alongside Jennifer Aniston, based on the John Hughes film "Ferris Bueller's Day Off". In 1992, he co-starred in "Sunset Heat" with Michael Paré, Dennis Hopper and Adam Ant. In 1994, he appeared in "" as Cadet Kyle Connors.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: In late 1995, Schlatter began his role as Dr. Jesse Travis on the television series "", opposite Dick Van Dyke, who was impressed with his performance. His character was introduced as a comic relief character in the third season after Scott Baio's character moved to Colorado and never returned. He remained on the show for the next six seasons until the series was cancelled in 2001. During the series, he also wrote the episode "A Resting Place." After the series' ending, he and Van Dyke remain close friends, who continues to visit him, Schlatter's wife Colleen and their three children. He was also one of the participants at his acting mentor's 90th Birthday Party on December 13, 2015 at Disneyland in Anaheim, California. He said in a 2017 interview on Acast.com, if he is still friends with the then 91-year-old Van Dyke: "Yeah, I know! I probably owe him a call or he probably owes me a call ... I don't know! It's been a little while. No, he's the best!"


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: In 2014, he appeared as a guest star on the "NCIS" season 11 episode "Shooter," playing Lorne Davis. In 2015, he became the narrator for truTV's video clip series "Top Funniest" starting in the third season.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Since the early 1990s, Schlatter would begin voicing characters in many series. Among his roles were The Flash on "", The Flash on "The Batman" and "", the titular characters in the pilot of "Jimmy Two-Shoes" and "", Kevin Levin on "Ben 10" (not to be confused with Greg Cipes's portrayal in future variations), Hawk on "A.T.O.M.", Tommy Cadle on "Pet Alien", Chris Kirkman on "Random! Cartoons" (a character he would later voice in the pilot of "Bravest Warriors"), Cameron on "Bratz" and Doctor Mindbender, Wild Bill and Lift-Ticket on "".


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter was originally cast for the role of Philip J. Fry on "Futurama", but Billy West got the role due to a casting change.


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: He also voiced Timmy in the Nickelodeon version of "Winx Club" and various characters on "The Loud House".


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter was the voice of Major Raikov in "" as well as Raiden in the short film "Metal Gear Raiden: Snake Eraser" included on the second disk of the "Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence" game. He voiced Specter, the villain in the game "Ape Escape 3". In 2012, he also voiced Finn in the game "Sorcery".


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: In 2004, he voiced Aatius Vedrix, Lucius Vulso, Tarakh, Steward Daedakovoon, Znink Flatzazzle and Dunn Coldbrow in "EverQuest II". He recently voiced Robin and reprised his role as The Flash in "", "", "" and "Lego Dimensions". He also voiced the main protagonist Wonder-Red in "The Wonderful 101".


title: Charlie Schlatter

text: Schlatter dated Jennifer Aniston in 1990, during the shooting of the "Ferris Bueller" television series. He married Colleen Gunderson in 1994 and they have two daughters and a son.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The Buddh International Circuit () is an Indian motor racing circuit situated in National Capital Region at Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh. The track shares its name with Gautama Buddha, as does the district the track is located in.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The track was officially inaugurated on 18 October 2011. The long circuit was designed by German racetrack designer Hermann Tilke.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The circuit was best known as the venue for the annual Formula One Indian Grand Prix, which was first hosted in October 2011. However, the Grand Prix was suspended for 2014 and subsequently cancelled due to a tax dispute with the Government of Uttar Pradesh during the Akhilesh Yadav administration.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: In 2007, a tentative agreement to host the Indian Grand Prix was reached between the Indian Olympic Association and Bernie Ecclestone, then chief-executive of the Formula One Group. A site in Greater Noida in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh was chosen as the location of the track that would host the race. Delays in the procurement of the land and construction were reported in early 2009 owing in part to the ongoing financial crisis. The design of the track was ultimately revealed in November 2009.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The venue was slated to debut during the 2010 Formula One season, with construction scheduled to be completed in time. However, this date was pushed back and the inaugural race eventually took place the following year.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The first Indian Grand Prix was held at the Buddh International Circuit on 30 October 2011. It was initially scheduled to take place in December 2011. However, following scheduling conflicts with the Bahrain Grand Prix and its subsequent cancellation, the race was rescheduled to October. The inaugural race was won by Red Bull Racing's Sebastian Vettel, who started from pole position. He also set the fastest lap and therefore race lap record that year, which stood for the following two Grands Prix.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: During the 2012 Formula One season and the second Formula One race to take place at the circuit, Sebastian Vettel took pole once again, led every lap and went on to win the race. The fastest lap of the race was set by McLaren's Jenson Button.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The following year, the Indian Grand Prix was the sixteenth race in a nineteen-race season. Sebastian Vettel started on pole and subsequently won the race. Vettel also secured his fourth consecutive Formula One World Drivers' Championship at this race, beating his closest challenger, Ferrari's Fernando Alonso, who finished 11th. Red Bull also secured its fourth consecutive Constructors' Championship. The fastest lap of the race was set by Lotus' Kimi Räikkönen. This was the last Formula One race held at the circuit.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The track was not slated to be part of the 2014 season. One reason given was the rescheduling of the Indian Grand Prix to March for 2014, which made little sense after a race in October 2013. Its appearance in the 2015 season was subsequently ruled out in mid-2014, citing contractual and taxation issues.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The owners were unable to significantly recover their investments through all three seasons the races were held, and were forced to write off losses worth at least $25.1 million. In 2016, the owners reiterated their desire to not sell the circuit to other buyers, despite its high maintenance costs, their own financial distress, and the lack of future scheduled international sporting events. The circuit has continued to host smaller local racing series and championships, including the JK Tyre National Racing Championship which includes open-wheel racing as well as motorcycle racing, and open track days.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The Buddh International Circuit is located in the state of Uttar Pradesh, subject to its local taxes as well as national customs duties. The first signs of a dispute arose in 2009: in a letter to the promoters JPSK Sports, the Indian Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports denied JPSK Sports permission to remit $36.5 million in licensing fees to Formula One administration headquarters in London. The reason given, by the then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh - Akhilesh Yadav, was the nature of Formula One, considered not to be a sport but rather entertainment, and its perceived lack of impact on the development of sports in the country. Customs fees for imported components including engines and tyres were not waived, and tax exemptions given to other sports were not offered to the organisers. Fees worth $51.3 million, meant to be paid by Jaypee Sports to Formula One World Championship Limited (FOWC), were still pending as of Liberty Media's acquisition of the Formula One Group in 2016. The government's expectation of tax revenue meant that Jaypee was prevented from paying its dues to FOWC.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: In a judgement issued in April 2017, the Supreme Court of India ruled that the circuit constituted a 'permanent establishment', and as such FOWC was liable to pay taxes on any income accrued by it in India, estimated at 40% of business income. It considered royalty payments made by Jaypee to FOWC to be business income as well, subject to tax, which contradicted the original agreement between Jaypee and FOWC that stipulated that any fees would be paid free of taxes. Liberty Media was prepared to settle the due amount in July 2017, setting aside $14.8 million.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: For 2022, it was planned that Buddh International Circuit would host events for the Formula Regional Indian Championship and the F4 Indian Championship, however both championships were cancelled in 2022. The circuit will also host the Indian motorcycle Grand Prix from 2023 as part of the MotoGP World Championship.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: Formula One racing's governing body, the FIA, had announced the inclusion of the Indian Grand Prix for 30 October 2011. Estimated to cost about 20 billion ($400 million) to build, the circuit has a length of and is spread over an area of and is another creation of Hermann Tilke. The circuit was officially inaugurated on 18 October 2011, just about two weeks before the first race. The seating capacity is initially expected to be 110,000 with provisions to increase it to 200,000 later on.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The circuit is part of the Jaypee Greens Sports City, which has increasingly delayed plans to include a 100,000 seating capacity international cricket stadium, 18-hole golf course, 25,000 seat field hockey stadium and a sports academy. The circuit design incorporated feedback from the teams on how the circuit could be altered to improve overtaking. This resulted in some minor changes before 2010: the planned hairpin at turn seven was removed, and the track at turn three was widened to allow drivers to take different lines throughout the corner. More information was released in August 2010, revealing that there were plans to make the circuit one of the most challenging for drivers, with the circuit rising fourteen metres within the first three corners alone and a banked double-apex bend on the far side of the circuit. The track has since been praised by drivers, including Lewis Hamilton who compared it to the classic Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The banked multi-apex turn 10–11–12 sequence is one of the most notable sections of the circuit. It has been likened to the long, fast Turn 8 at Turkey's Istanbul Park circuit as it is a challenging sequence that generates high tyre loadings. Unlike Turkey's Turn 8, it tightens on exit and is a clockwise right-hander. Although it is not one of the main overtaking points, it is the corner that shows F1 cars to their full cornering potential. The circuit's main straight, at , is among the longest in F1, with a key overtaking point at its end. The pitlane is also one of the longest in F1, at more than 600 metres: as in most races with pit stops, time spent in the pitlane is an important factor in determining race strategies.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: Before the opening weekend, the expected lap time for a Formula One car around the track was 1 minute, 27.02 seconds, at an average speed of 210.03 km/h (131 mph). At the end of the long straight between corners 3 and 4, Formula One cars were expected to reach a top speed of about . In the inaugural qualifying session, Sebastian Vettel turned in a lap time of 1 minute, 24.178 seconds, beating the predicted lap times from tyre manufacturer Pirelli. Scuderia Toro Rosso driver Jaime Alguersuari posted the top speed through the speed trap, reaching .


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The relatively compact circuit was due to host a GT1 World Championship round as the season finale in December 2012, but the event was cancelled.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The circuit was due to host a Superbike World Championship round for four seasons, starting in 2013. However, the 2013 race was cancelled due to operational charges of Buddh International Circuit.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: From 2014 to 2022, there were no international championships have raced at the circuit except the Asia Road Racing Championship race in 2016. From 2023, the circuit will host the Indian motorcycle Grand Prix as part of the MotoGP World Championship.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The reception among drivers was positive, with praise for the high-speed layout and challenging corner combinations that Jenson Button described as difficult to drive in a consistently quick fashion.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The circuit has been often compared by F1 drivers to the classic Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, a track known for high speeds and the type of corner-to-corner flow that comes from natural terrain. Inaugural winner Sebastian Vettel praised the track saying that "there is a lot of elevation change around the lap which adds to the fun, from as much as 8% downhill and up to 10% uphill; it's like a roller coaster. It really has emerged as one of the most challenging circuits on the calendar for the drivers."


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: Originally known as the Jaypee Group Circuit or the Jaypee International Circuit after the circuit's owners, the circuit was officially named the "Buddh International Circuit" in April 2011. According to Sameer Gaur, the managing director and chief executive officer of Jaypee Sports International Limited, the name 'Buddh International Circuit' has been chosen with reference to the area where the racetrack is situated – Gautam Buddh Nagar district (also known as Greater Noida). Because of its location, naming the circuit 'Buddh International Circuit' was a logical choice for the company.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: The logo consists of a stylized 'B' in the shape of a heart, which stands for 'Buddh' and 'Bharat' (the native name of India). The saffron, green and white colours used in the logo are representative of the Indian flag, while the curves in the stylized 'B' in the logo represent the lines of a racetrack.


title: Buddh International Circuit

text: Buddh International Circuit, which hosted India's first Formula One Grand Prix on 30 October 2011, has been awarded the '2011 Motorsport Facility of the Year' award at the Professional Motorsport World Expo 2011. BIC has also been honored with the 'Best Promoter Trophy' for the successful conduct of Formula One races in 2011 & 2012 at the FIA prize-giving gala.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Nonlinear narrative, disjointed narrative, or disrupted narrative is a narrative technique, sometimes used in literature, film, video games, and other narratives, where events are portrayed, for example, out of chronological order or in other ways where the narrative does not follow the direct causality pattern of the events featured, such as parallel distinctive plot lines, dream immersions or narrating another story inside the main plot-line. Most of the time, it is used to mimic the structure and recall of a character, but has been used for other reasons as well.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Beginning a non-linear narrative "in medias res" (Latin: "into the middle of things") began in ancient times and was used as a convention of epic poetry, including Homer's "Iliad" in the 8th century BC. The technique of narrating most of the story in flashback is also seen in epic poetry, like the Indian epic the "Mahabharata". Several medieval "Arabian Nights" tales such as "The City of Brass" and "The Three Apples" also had nonlinear narratives employing the "in medias res" and flashback techniques. The medieval English poem "Beowulf" also utilizes a non-linear structure, focusing on events throughout the life of the titular character rather than describing them in a linear narrative.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: From the late 19th century and early 20th century, modernist novelists Joseph Conrad, Virginia Woolf, Ford Madox Ford, Marcel Proust, and William Faulkner experimented with narrative chronology and abandoning linear order.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Several of Michael Moorcock's novels, particularly those in the Jerry Cornelius series, in particular "" (1972) and "The Condition of Muzak" (1977) are notable for extending the nonlinear narrative form in order to explore the complex nature of identity within a multiversal universe.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Scott McCloud argues in "Understanding Comics" that the narration of comics is nonlinear because it relies on the reader's choices and interactions.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Defining nonlinear structure in film is, at times, difficult. Films may use extensive flashbacks or flashforwards within a linear storyline, while nonlinear films often contain linear sequences. Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane" (1941)—influenced structurally by "The Power and the Glory" (1933)—and Akira Kurosawa's "Rashomon" (1950) use a non-chronological flashback narrative that is often labeled nonlinear.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Experimentation with nonlinear structure in film dates back to the silent film era, including D. W. Griffith's "Intolerance" (1916) and Abel Gance's "Napoléon" (1927). Nonlinear film emerged from the French avant-garde[5] in 1924 with René Clair’s "Entr'acte", Dadaïst film and then in 1929 with Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's "Un Chien Andalou" (English: "An Andalusian Dog"). The surrealist film jumps into fantasy and juxtaposes images, granting the filmmakers an ability to create statements about the Church, art, and society that are left open to interpretation. Buñuel and Dalí's "L'Âge d'Or" (1930) (English: "The Golden Age") also uses nonlinear concepts. The revolutionary Russian filmmakers Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Alexander Dovzhenko also experimented with the possibilities of nonlinearity. Eisenstein's "Strike" (1925) and Dovzhenko's "Earth" (1930) hint at a nonlinear experience. English director Humphrey Jennings used a nonlinear approach in his World War II documentary "Listen to Britain" (1942).


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Jean-Luc Godard's works since 1959 were also important in the evolution of nonlinear film. Godard famously stated, "I agree that a film should have a beginning, a middle and an end but not necessarily in that order". Godard's "Week End" (French: "Le weekend") (1968), as well as Andy Warhol's "Chelsea Girls" (1966), defy linear structure in exchange for a chronology of events that is seemingly random. Alain Resnais experimented with narrative and time in his films "Hiroshima mon amour" (1959), "L'Année dernière à Marienbad" (1961), and "Muriel" (1963). Federico Fellini defined his own nonlinear cinema with the films "La Strada" (1954), "La Dolce Vita" (1960), "8½" (1963), "Fellini Satyricon" (1969), and "Roma" (1972), as did Soviet filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky with his modernist films "The Mirror" (1975) and "Nostalghia" (1983). Nicolas Roeg's films, including "Performance" (1970), "Walkabout" (1971), "Don't Look Now" (1973), "The Man Who Fell to Earth" (1976), and "Bad Timing" (1980) are characterized by a nonlinear approach. Other mainstream nonlinear filmmakers include Michelangelo Antonioni, Peter Greenaway, Chris Marker, Theo Angelopoulos, Agnès Varda, Raúl Ruiz, Carlos Saura, Alain Robbe-Grillet.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In the United States, Robert Altman carried the nonlinear motif in his films, including "McCabe & Mrs. Miller" (1971), "Nashville" (1975), "The Player" (1992), "Short Cuts" (1993), and "Gosford Park" (2001). Woody Allen embraced the experimental nature of nonlinear narrative in "Annie Hall" (1977), "Interiors" (1978), and "Stardust Memories" (1980).


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In the 1990s, Quentin Tarantino influenced a tremendous increase in the popularity of nonlinear films most notably "Pulp Fiction" (1994). He also used non linear narrative in "Reservoir Dogs" (1992), "Kill Bill" ( and ) and "The Hateful Eight" (2015). Critics have referred shifting of timeline as Tarantino effect. Other important nonlinear films include Atom Egoyan's "Exotica" (1994), Terrence Malick's "The Thin Red Line" (1998), and Karen and Jill Sprecher's "Thirteen Conversations About One Thing" (2001). David Lynch experimented with nonlinear narrative and surrealism in "Lost Highway" (1997), "Mulholland Drive" (2001), and "Inland Empire" (2006).


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In the years leading into and the beginning of the 21st century, some filmmakers have returned to the use of nonlinear narrative repeatedly, including Steven Soderbergh in "Schizopolis" (1996), "Out of Sight" (1998), "The Limey" (1999), "Full Frontal" (2002), "Solaris" (2002), and "Che" (2008); and Christopher Nolan in "Following" (1998), "Memento" (2000), "Batman Begins" (2005), "The Prestige" (2006), "Inception" (2010), "The Dark Knight Rises" (2012) and "Dunkirk" (2017). "Memento", with its fragmentation and reverse chronology, has been described as characteristic of moving towards postmodernism in contemporary cinema. Another example would be Terrence Malick's acclaimed "The Tree of Life" (2011). The element of reverse chronology was explored further in Gaspar Noé's 2002 film "Irréversible". Noé's 2009 film "Enter the Void" also used an uncommon narrative structure as a man recalls his life through flashbacks at the time of his death, induced by the use of psychedelic drugs. Richard Linklater used nonlinear narrative in "Waking Life" (2001), "A Scanner Darkly" (2006); Gus Van Sant in "Elephant" (2003), "Last Days" (2005), and "Paranoid Park" (2007). Alejandro González Iñárritu's film "Babel" is an example of fragmented narrative structure. Hong Kong auteur Wong Kar-wai explored nonlinear storylines in the films "Days of Being Wild" (1991), "Ashes of Time" (1994), "Chungking Express" (1994), "In the Mood for Love" (2000), and "2046" (2004). Fernando Meirelles in "City of God" and "The Constant Gardener". Some of Alejandro González Iñárritu's films feature nonlinear narratives, specially the ones written by Guillermo Arriaga who also uses non linear narratives in his films. Charlie Kaufman is also known for his fondness of nonlinear story-telling as applied in "Adaptation" and "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind". Takashi Shimizu's Japanese horror series, "Ju-on", brought to America as "The Grudge", is also nonlinear in its storytelling (the only exception being "The Grudge 3"). Director Martin Koolhoven has made more movies with a nonlinear narrative, but the most notorious one is probably his controversial western "Brimstone", which premiered in the 2016 Venice Film Festival. Director Vetrimaaran made the Tamil-language thriller film "Vada Chennai" (2018) which has a nonlinear narrative structure. Another Tamil-language film, "Iravin Nizhal" (2022), has a single-shot non-linear structure. "Friend of the World" (2020) is broken up into chapters, which has a nonlinear plot.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In American television, there are several examples of series that make use of nonlinear narrative in different forms and for different purposes. Some notable examples are "Lost", "Undone", "Breaking Bad", "The Walking Dead", "Once Upon a Time", "The Witcher", "Arrow", "Orange Is the New Black", and "True Detective". Even though it is often found in drama, some comedy shows use nonlinear narrative too, such as "Arrested Development" and "How I Met Your Mother". This kind of narrative is used in several ways. Some series only have certain nonlinear episodes, such as "Penny Dreadful" and "The Leftovers". Others use nonlinear storylines throughout the whole series, such as "Lost" and "Arrow". Other series use nonlinear narrative in the beginning of a season and then explore the past until they meet, such as "Damages" and "Bloodline".


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Some television series use nonlinear narrative in certain episodes to fully explore an important part of the main characters' past. An example is Showtime's horror drama "Penny Dreadful", which features one episode per season that is entirely devoted to exploring key moments in Vanessa Ives' (Eva Green) past. Another example is HBO's drama "The Leftovers", whose ninth episode is set in the past and explores the lives of the main characters before the critical event that drives the story took place. Fox's sci-fi series "Fringe", the Amazon original comedy drama "Transparent" and the Netflix original comedy "Grace and Frankie" use this technique only in certain episodes too.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: There are certain television series that use nonlinear narrative to explore the past - or future - of one or various characters throughout its whole run. The ABC television series "Lost" made extensive use of nonlinear story telling, with each episode typically featuring a primary storyline on the island as well as a secondary storyline from another point in a character's life, either past or future. So does The CW's series "Arrow" which, in every episode, features a storyline following the life of Oliver Queen (Stephen Amell) stranded in an island and a main storyline five years later in which he goes back home and decides to become a vigilante. Using a similar storytelling technique, Netflix's original series "Orange Is the New Black" explores the lives of the main characters in prison and also some important part of their past before they became inmates. Another example is FX's horror-drama series "The Strain".


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Some television series use nonlinear narrative in the beginning of a season as a narrative hook, showing an intense or shocking event, and then extensively explore the past and the reasons that lead that event to happen. A notable example is the AMC drama series "Breaking Bad", which in the beginning of its final season showed a neglected and lonesome Walter White (Bryan Cranston) and then explored what had happened to him. This technique was also used in "Breaking Bad"'s Pilot and in its second season. Using the same formula, FX's Emmy Award winning legal drama "Damages" starring Glenn Close, begins each season with an intensely melodramatic event taking place and then traveling back six months earlier. Throughout the season, each episode shows events both in the past, present, and future that lead up to and follow said event. Netflix's original series "Bloodline" and ABC's crime drama "How to Get Away with Murder" use a similar storytelling technique.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Another reason why a television series uses nonlinear narrative is to better portray the way human memory recalls events. In its first season, the HBO anthology series "True Detective" used nonlinear narrative depicting the events that the main characters described and in the way they remembered them. Showtime's Golden Globe winning drama "The Affair" uses this narrative technique in the same way. However, by using unreliable narrators, this show emphasizes how differently two people recall the same events.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In its fourth and fifth season, AMC's post-apocalyptic drama "The Walking Dead" used nonlinear narrative extensively.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Even though it is not common, some comedy also shows use nonlinear narrative. An example is the sitcom "Arrested Development" which, in its fourth season, made heavy use of nonlinear narrative, devoting each episode to explore the story of each of its characters separately.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Other examples of nonlinear narrative in American television are: "12 Monkeys", "A to Z", "Alcatraz", "American Horror Story", "Better Call Saul", "BoJack Horseman", "Daredevil", "Dopesick", "Fargo", "The Flash", "FlashForward", "Forever", "Gotham", "Grounded for Life", "Hannibal", "Heroes", "House of Cards", "Once Upon a Time in Wonderland", "Person of Interest", "Pretty Little Liars", "The Returned", "Revolution", "Sense8", "Undone", "The Vampire Diaries", "Wayward Pines" and "The Witcher".


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Japanese anime series sometimes present their plot in nonlinear order. In "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya", for example, the episodes were deliberately aired in non-chronological order. A more nonlinear example is "Baccano!", where every scene is displayed in non-chronological order, with most scenes taking place at various times during the early 1930s and some scenes taking place before (extending back to the 18th century) and after (extending forward to the 21st century). Other examples include "Durarara!!", "Monogatari Series", "Yami to Bōshi to Hon no Tabibito", "Touka Gettan", "Rental Magica", "Ergo Proxy", "Fullmetal Alchemist," "Axis Powers Hetalia", "Hidamari Sketch", "Mekakucity Actors", "Princess Principal", "The Garden of Sinners" and (partly) "Boogiepop Phantom".


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Some video games mimic film non-linearity by presenting a single plot in a chronologically distorted way instead of letting the player determine the story flow themselves. The first-person shooter "" is an example of this; another is Sega's "Sonic Adventure".


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Some games tell their nonlinear story without the player being able to change any (or very little) of the plot structure. For example, "Uncharted 2" begins "in medias res", with the lead character in the aftermath of an accident that the player only reaches several hours of gameplay later.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Indie game "Fragments of Him" also begins "in medias res" but, in addition to the nonlinear beginning, it later jumps between characters to build the story and character relationships in a nonlinear fashion, and a subtle branch means that players may see the stories in a different order if they walk into a different room at the beginning.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Indie developers Dennaton Games use non-linear passages of time in their game Hotline Miami 2 in the same way Pulp Fiction is written. For example, some segments of the game take place before the events of the Prequel. It is used for dramatic effect in most cases, some characters have already had onscreen deaths but the player will not realise it until a later chapter of the character walking blindly to their already shown death.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: Often game developers use the idea of character amnesia in games. It helps give the game a beginning because the audience only has the understanding that there is a history before the events of the game take place. Furthermore, by creating a nonlinear storyline the complexity of game play is greatly expanded. Nonlinear game play allows for greater replay value, allowing the player to put together different pieces of a potentially puzzling storyline. A fitting example of character amnesia is the 2005 video game "Façade". In "Façade" the player is put into a situation that lasts approximately 10 to 15 minutes in real time, yet the events recalled seem to have a basis in years of dramatic history.


title: Nonlinear narrative

text: In contemporary society webpages or to be more correct, hypertext, have become affluent forms of narratives. Hypertexts have great potential to create non-linear forms of narratives. They allow for individuals to navigate within the story through links, images, audio and video, consisting of multiple subtopics that do not force the audience to make their next selection based on what their previous experiences are.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Shota Arveladze (; born 22 February 1973) is a Georgian professional football manager and former player who was most recently the manager of EFL Championship club Hull City.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze played at Dinamo Tbilisi, Trabzonspor, Ajax, Rangers, AZ and Levante. He is Georgia's all-time top scorer with 291 goals in his 410 league games for his clubs and 26 goals in his 61 games for the national team.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: His 27 goals scored in the UEFA Cup competition, including qualifiers ranks him third in the tournament's history before it became the Europa League. He has the best strike record of independent Georgian Football. He was nominated as the best player of Georgia as well as the best player by the Georgian Professional Football league survey.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze played at Dinamo Tbilisi, Trabzonspor, and Ajax, and finished at least one season as the top goal scorer at all three. In 1993, he scored an effective first Euro Tournament goal in the history of independent Georgian Football in the match against Linfield, Northern Ireland. When he led Trabzonspor in goals in 1995–96, he also led the Süper Lig, making him the second non-Turk to date to lead that league in goals after Tarik Hodžić 1983–84. He is recorded as ""most loved foreign player"" for Trabzonspor supporters.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In summer 1997, Arveladze signed for Ajax Amsterdam. Later, he declared that he was so nervous during his first training session, that he even forgot to take football boots with him. He became a close friend to Ronald de Boer during his spell in Amsterdam. His first game at Amsterdam Arena was a special day for the Georgian player. On 15 August 1997, Ajax Amsterdam faced Brazilian side Grêmio in a friendly game. Arveladze scored a goal, while his wife Tamuna gave birth to their first child, Giorgi hours before the game.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze made a debut for Ajax against Vitesse Arnhem, where he replaced Gerald Sibon and scored the fourth goal for the club. During his first season, he scored three hat-tricks in Eredivisie and total 25 goals in 31 appearances. The manager of the Amsterdam-based club Morten Olsen was very pleased with the performance of the young striker. Arveladze was a key figure for the club during 1997–98 UEFA Cup as well. He scored 7 goals in 8 games for the club, including hat-trick against NK Maribor. Ajax were eliminated in quarter-finals, against Spartak Moscow. Arveladze scored the club's single goal in a tie. During his first season, he faced twice NAC Breda, where his twin brother Archil played. This remains as one of the most memorable facts in Shota's career.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In summer 1998, Ajax signed Arveladze's close friend Giorgi Kinkladze from Manchester City for £5 million. They had been friends since their childhood and that looked like a dream move for both. However, Kinkladze's spell at Ajax proved unsuccessful.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze joined Rangers from Ajax for £3m in 2001. He agreed a four-year deal with the club. It was obvious that the Georgian would face a fierce competitions for the starting place in the Rangers' strikeforce from the players like Tore Andre Flo, Claudio Caniggia, Michael Mols, Kenny Miller, Billy Dodds, Ronald de Boer and Russell Latapy.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: During the first season with Glasgow-based club, Arveladze scored 17 goals overall, including 11 in Scottish Premier League. He only managed to take part in 30 games, after being injured in February in the quarterfinal of the Scottish Cup against Forfar Athletic, an injury which meant he missed the 2002 Scottish League Cup Final. However, he scored six goals for his club, which managed to win the title. Arveladze played in the final, replacing Claudio Caniggia. This was his first title with the Scottish club.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: The following season was the most successful in the career of the Georgian player. Rangers won treble. In March 2003, Rangers defeated their arch-rivals Celtic in the League Cup Final. Later in the Scottish Cup Final, Rangers won another title, after they managed to defeat Dundee with a goal from Lorenzo Amoruso. Arveladze's two compatriots Georgi Nemsadze and Zurab Khizanishvili also took part in this game. The latter joined Arveladze at Rangers during that summer.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In May 2005, Arveladze declared that he would leave the club after the end of the season, in which he managed to score 9 goals. He confirmed receiving offers from various clubs in Europe, including teams from England, Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: During his time at Rangers, Arveladze had a nickname, "Mr. Bean", because of his facial likeness to Rowan Atkinson.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: During a legal case in 2015, Arveladze's agent claimed that the true transfer fee had been 12 million Euro, the equivalent of £8.5 million at the time. Arveladze scored the 300th goal in the SPL and was part of Rangers squads that won the domestic treble in 2002–03 and a double in 2004–05.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze departed Rangers for Dutch side AZ on a free transfer before the start of 2005–06 season, signing a two-year deal with the club.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Under the guidance of Louis van Gaal, Arveladze became the key figure of the club. He scored 22 goals in Eredivisie, becoming the second best top-scorer of the tournament after Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, who scored 33 goals during the season. Alkmaar participated in UEFA Cup this time as well. In 6 game for the club, Arveladze made 2 assists and scored 2 goals, one of them against Real Betis. At the end of the season, AZ Alkmaar and Arveladze agreed a contract extension to keep the Georgian international striker at the Dutch club until the summer of 2008.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: During the second and the final season with the club, Arveladze was appointed as the new captain of the club. He was offered the armband after Denny Landzaat and Joris Mathijsen left for Wigan Athletic and Hamburger SV respectively. The Georgian was praised by Louis van Gaal, under whose guidance he played at Ajax Amsterdam as well. Van Gaal compared Arveladze to Danny Blind and Frank Rijkaard in terms of personality, calling him "the top professional in the squad".


title: Shota Arveladze

text: He scored 23 goals, accumulating total 48 goals for AZ in 89 competitive appearances. The Georgian striker scored 7 goals in UEFA Cup as well, two of them in Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium in a 2–1 away win against Sevilla.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In July 2007, Arveladze passed a medical and agreed a one-year contract with the Spanish club Levante. He was injured in summer training and missed nearly ten months, undergoing surgery in Amsterdam. He returned and made his debut against Villarreal on 23 March, replacing Juanma. He managed to take part in other 3 games until the end of the season.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In April, Levante confirmed that Arveladze would retire at the end of the season. In the last game of his career he played at Santiago Bernabeu against Real Madrid, losing 5–2.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Shota Arveladze was a regular in the Georgian national team and is its all-time leading scorer with 26 goals in his 61 games.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: He made his international debut in Georgia's first official game on 2 September 1992, a 1–0 friendly loss away to Lithuania. Fifteen days later, he scored his first goal in the country's first home game, a 6–3 win over neighbours Azerbaijan. His first competitive goal was on 16 November, in a 5–0 win over Wales in Tbilisi for UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: On 30 March 1997, Arveladze scored a hat-trick in a 7–0 home friendly win against neighbours Armenia. With Georgia he won in 1998 the Malta International Football Tournament. On 18 August 2006, he scored a hat-trick away to the Faroe Islands in a 6–0 win in the opening game of UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying. His final game was the following 24 March in another qualifier, equalising in a 2–1 loss away to Scotland.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: After retiring as a player, Arveladze was appointed as assistant manager of AZ under head coach and former Ajax coach Louis van Gaal in July 2008. He maintained this position in the 2009–10 season under Ronald Koeman and Dick Advocaat.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: For the 2010–11 season, Arveladze served as manager of Turkish side Kayserispor. From 2012 to 2015, he managed Istanbul-based Kasımpaşa SK. In his final game, the team scored away to Konyaspor while their players were attending to his injured player, Ryan Babel. Arveladze then allowed Konyaspor to score an equaliser in the name of fair play, and Konyaspor won the game 2–1. He resigned after the game.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: On 3 July 2015, Arveladze was named manager of Turkish side Trabzonspor. He resigned in November. Under him and his successor Hami Mandıralı, the side lost a record 17 games that season.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In June 2016 Arveladze was announced as the new head coach of Israeli club Maccabi Tel Aviv Around the middle of the season, he was fired; it was the first time that Maccabi dismissed a coach during a season since 2011.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: In 2017, Arveladze was announced as head coach of Pakhtakor Tashkent FK in Uzbekistan. He won the Uzbekistan Super League and Cup in 2019 and 2020. On 21 December 2020, he left.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: On 27 January 2022, Arveladze was announced as the new head coach of Hull City on a 2-year deal. On his debut two days later, the team won 2–0 at home to Swansea City. Arveladze was dismissed by Hull City on 30 September 2022, with the team 20th in the EFL Championship and after four consecutive defeats.


title: Shota Arveladze

text: Arveladze's brothers Archil (twin) and Revaz (older) also played international football, as did Revaz's son Vato.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The Boeing Chinook is a large, tandem rotor helicopter operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF). A series of variants based on the United States Army's Boeing CH-47 Chinook, the RAF Chinook fleet is the largest outside the United States. RAF Chinooks have seen extensive service in the Falklands War, the Balkans, Northern Ireland, Iraq, and Afghanistan.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The Chinook, normally based at RAF Odiham in England, provides heavy-lift support and transport across all branches of the British armed forces. The RAF has a total of sixty Chinooks in active inventory as of 2015. In 2018, the UK issued a request to the United States to purchase sixteen additional aircraft. The Chinook is expected to remain in RAF service until the 2040s.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In March 1967, the United Kingdom placed an order for fifteen Boeing Vertol CH-47B Chinook to replace the Royal Air Force's Bristol Belvedere HC.1 fleet. In British service the new aircraft was to be designated as the Chinook HC Mk 1 (also formatted as HC.1 or HC1) standing for "Helicopter, Cargo Mark 1". However in November of that year, the order was cancelled in a review of defence spending.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: UK Chinook procurement ambitions were revived in 1978 with an announced requirement for a new heavy-lift helicopter to replace the Westland Wessex. Thirty Chinooks were ordered at a price of US$200 million. These helicopters, comparable to the CH-47C with Lycoming T55-L-11E engines, were again designated Chinook HC1, and entered service in December 1980. Eight more HC1 were delivered from 1984 to 1986, with the CH-47D's Lycoming T55-L-712 turbo-shaft engines.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The replacement of the HC1s metal rotor blades with aluminium and glass fibre composite rotor blades saw these aircraft designated Chinook HC1B. All surviving aircraft were later returned to Boeing and updated to the Chinook HC2 standard for further service within the RAF.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The US Army's next generation Chinook, the CH-47D, entered service in 1982. Improvements from the CH-47C included upgraded engines, composite rotor blades, a redesigned cockpit to reduce pilot workload, redundant and improved electrical systems, an advanced flight control system (FCS) and improved avionics. The RAF returned their original HC1 fleet to Boeing for upgrading to CH-47D standard, the first of which returned to the UK in 1993.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: Three additional HC2 Chinooks were ordered with delivery beginning in 1995. Another six were ordered in 1995 under the Chinook HC2A designation; the main difference between these and the standard HC2 was the strengthening of the front fuselage to allow the fitting of an aerial refuelling probe in future.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: One Argentine CH-47C was captured during the Falklands War, and used by the RAF as a training aid. The rear fuselage was later used to repair a crashed RAF Chinook in 2003.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In 2006, the retirement dates for the HC2 and HC2A fleets were scheduled for 2015 and 2025 respectively, but if planned upgrades are made both types could expect to be flying until 2040.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: Eight Chinook HC3 were ordered in 1995 as dedicated special forces helicopters, which were intended to be low-cost variants of the US Army's MH-47E. The HC3s include improved range, night vision sensors and navigation capability. The eight aircraft were to cost £259 million and the forecast in-service date was November 1998. Although delivered in 2001, the HC3 could not receive airworthiness certificates as it was not possible to certify the avionics software.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The programme was widely judged to be "a profoundly inept piece of procurement": Sir Peter Spencer, who as head of the Defence Procurement Agency inherited the project, said that the "original requirement was ... actually impossible. I mean, there were 100 essential requirements. I read all of them. One of them said to give protection against any missile coming from any direction." Spencer later commented: "it is always hard to imagine why people think you would be able cost effectively to buy a bespoke requirement for a very small production run."


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The avionics were unsuitable due to poor risk analysis and necessary requirements omitted from the procurement contract. "The Times" claimed that the Ministry of Defence (MOD) planned to perform software integration itself, without Boeing's involvement, in order to reduce costs. While lacking certification, the helicopters were only permitted to fly in visual meteorological conditions and subsequently stored in climate controlled hangars.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: "Air Forces Monthly" reported in November 2006 that after protracted negotiations to allow them to enter service, the Defence Aviation Repair Agency would likely receive a contract to install the Thales "TopDeck" avionics system on the Chinook HC3s. However, the MOD announced in March 2007 that this so-called "Fix to Field" programme would be cancelled, and instead it would revert the helicopters' avionics to Chinook HC2/2A specification. The programme was estimated to cost £50–60 million. In June 2008, the National Audit Office issued a scathing report on the MOD's handling of the affair, stating that the whole programme was likely to cost £500 million by the time the helicopters enter service. On 6 July 2009, the first of the eight modified Chinook HC3s made its first test flight at MOD Boscombe Down as part of the flight testing and evaluation phase of the HC3 "reversion" programme.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: A programme to upgrade forty-six Chinook HC2/2A and HC3 helicopters was initiated in December 2008. Known as "Project Julius", it included new digital flight deck avionics based on the Thales TopDeck avionics suite, comprising new multifunction displays, a digital moving map display and an electronic flight bag, installation of a nose-mounted forward-looking infrared (FLIR) detector, and upgrading the engines to the more powerful T55-714 standard. Upgraded HC2/2A and HC3 aircraft were redesignated HC4 and HC5 respectively. Deliveries were expected to commence in 2011. The first conversion, a Chinook HC4, first flew on 9 December 2010. Initial operating capability status was reached in June 2012 with seven aircraft delivered.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The Chinook HC6 designation has been assigned to the twenty-four (later reduced to fourteen) CH-47F-derived Chinooks ordered in 2009. In December 2015, the fourteenth and final HC6 was delivered to the RAF.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In July 2017, it was announced that the thirty-eight Chinook HC4s were to be upgraded to a HC6A standard including the replacement of the analogue flight control systems with the Boeing Digital Automatic Flight Control System (DAFCS). By February 2022, no HC4 variants remained, with the fleet comprising HC5, HC6 and HC6A variants.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: RAF Chinooks have been widely deployed in support of British military engagements, serving their first wartime role in Operation Corporate, the Falklands War, in 1982. Chinooks were used in Operation Granby in the 1991 Gulf War, attached to large peace-keeping commitments in the Balkans, took part in Operation Herrick and Operation Toral as part of the War in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2021, and in Operation Telic in the 2003 Iraq War. They provide routine supply and support missions to the British military, notably in Operation Banner in Northern Ireland. The helicopter has also been of use in military humanitarian missions and the extraction of civilians from war-zones, such as the evacuation of Sierra Leone in 2000, and the evacuation from Lebanon in 2006.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: One Chinook in particular, known by its original squadron code "Bravo November", has come to widespread public recognition due to its remarkable service record. It has seen action in every major operation involving the RAF in the helicopter's almost 40-year service life, including the Falkland Islands, Lebanon, Germany, Northern Ireland, Iraq, and Afghanistan.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: During the Falklands War, Chinooks were deployed by both the British and Argentinian forces. In April 1982, four Chinooks were loaded aboard the container ship MV "Atlantic Conveyor" bound for the Falkland Islands, to support the British operations. On 25 May 1982, the Chinook "Bravo November" was sent to pick up freight from HMS "Glasgow". While the helicopter was airborne, "Atlantic Conveyor" was attacked by an Argentine Navy Dassault Super Étendard with an Exocet sea-skimming missile. "Bravo November" avoided the ship's destruction, assisted in the evacuation of the ship, and later landed on the aircraft carrier , gaining the nickname "The Survivor". Owing to the rapid spread of fire and smoke aboard "Atlantic Conveyor" after the Exocet strike, it was not possible to fly any of the helicopters that remained on the ship's deck.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: One Argentine Army Chinook was captured intact by British Army after the surrender. RAF Chinooks were part of an estimated force of forty helicopters in the British task force, alongside Westland Sea King and Westland Wessex helicopters.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: Post-war, four Chinooks were operated by "ChinDet" (Chinook Detachment) which became No.1310 Flight in 1983. Subsequently, No. 78 Squadron was re-formed in 1986 from the merger of No. 1310 Flight and No.1564 Flight (Sea Kings) and operated two Chinooks as part of the Falklands Garrison. This was reduced to a single helicopter in the mid-1990s and the type was eventually withdrawn from the Falklands in 2006, in order to free up resources and aircraft for operations in Afghanistan.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: RAF Chinooks provided routine supply and support missions to the British military during Operation Banner in Northern Ireland. On 2 June 1994, a Chinook flying from RAF Aldergrove to Scotland crashed on the Mull of Kintyre, Scotland killing all 25 passengers and all four crew members, it is widely regarded as the RAF's fourth-worst peacetime disaster.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The Chinook became a vital transit tool during the 1991 Gulf War in Iraq. They were used for moving troops into the region at the start of the conflict; a Chinook was used on 22 January 1991 to transport a Special Air Service (SAS) patrol on the infamous Bravo Two Zero mission. In the aftermath of the conflict as many as nine British Chinooks delivered food and supplies to thousands of Kurdish refugees from Iraq.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: On 6 June 1999, two Chinooks of No. 7 Squadron left RAF Odiham in Hampshire, carrying paratroopers to join NATO forces serving in the Balkans; six more arrived the following week in Kosovo to support operations such as casualty evacuations and transporting vital supplies. On 12 June 1999, waves of Chinooks, escorted by Westland Lynx and American AH-64 Apache attack helicopters, were used to rapidly deploy British infantry forces into Kosovo as a part of NATO's first phase of deployment. On 10 August 1999, hundreds of Chinooks around the world, including those used by the British armed forces, were grounded due to cracking discovered in the landing gear of a British helicopter during routine inspection.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In May 2000, several Chinook helicopters airlifted British and European Union citizens out of Freetown in Sierra Leone in an evacuation due to regional instability. In September 2000, Chinooks were being used to evacuate casualties from fighting in Freetown to RFA "Sir Percivale", a support ship docked there.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In July 2006, three Chinook helicopters of No. 27 Squadron deployed to RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus to evacuate British citizens from Lebanon; the squadron also flew the EU foreign affairs representative Javier Solana to Beirut at the start of the crisis.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: Chinook helicopters have been relied upon heavily to support the British forces in Afghanistan continuously since the start of the war in Afghanistan in 2001; Operation Snipe saw the helicopters used to assist the 1,000 British Commandos sweeping a region of southeastern Afghanistan. Due to the threat of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) scattered throughout the terrain by insurgents, transport helicopters have become highly valued and demanded units in this style of warfare. By April 2006, six Chinooks had been deployed by C-17A Globemaster III transport aircraft to Kandahar in Southern Afghanistan, in support of Operation Herrick. Two RAF Chinooks were lost in August 2009 during combat operations with the Taliban, one of which was brought down by enemy fire, in spite of warnings months before of Taliban plans to attack the helicopters.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: The continued operation of the fleet was made more cost effective when maintenance and support regimes were altered in 2006 and 2007. On 15 December 2009, the British government announced its Future Helicopter Strategy including the purchase of twenty-four new build Chinooks, twenty-two to expand the force and two to replace losses in Afghanistan, to be delivered to the RAF from 2012. The number of additional Chinooks was cut by twelve in the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010. This brought the total fleet size to sixty aircraft; as of 2009, the RAF had forty-eight Chinooks in inventory.


title: Boeing Chinook (UK variants)

text: In July 2018, three RAF Chinook helicopters were deployed to assist French forces in the Northern Mali conflict with logistics and troop movement.


title: Education in Germany

text: Education in Germany is primarily the responsibility of individual German states (), with the federal government playing a minor role. Optional Kindergarden (nursery school) education is provided for all children between one and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory. Overall, Germany is one of the best performing OECD countries in reading literacy, mathematics and sciences with the average student scoring 515 in the PISA Assessment Test, well above the OECD average of 497 points. Germany has a less competitive system, leading to low rates of bullying and students having a weak fear of failure but a high level of self-confidence and general happiness compared to other OECD countries like South Korea. Additionally, Germany has one of the largest percentage of top performers in reading among socio-economically advantaged students, ranking 3rd out of 76 OECD countries. This leads to Germany having one of the highest-educated labour forces among OECD countries. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Germany is achieving 75.4% of what should be possible for the right to education, at their level of income.


title: Education in Germany

text: The schooling system varies throughout Germany because each state () decides its own educational policies. Most children, however, first attend (primary or elementary school) for 4 years from the age of 6 to 9.


title: Education in Germany

text: Germany's secondary education is separated into two parts, lower and upper. Lower-secondary education in Germany is meant to teach individuals basic general education and gets them ready to enter upper-secondary education. In the upper secondary level Germany has a vast variety of vocational programs. German secondary education includes five types of school. The is designed to prepare pupils for higher education and finishes with the final examination , after grade 12 or 13.


title: Education in Germany

text: From 2005 to 2018 a school reform known as G8 provided the in 8 school years. The reform failed due to high demands on learning levels for the children and were turned to G9 in 2019. Only a few stay with the G8 model. Children usually attend from 10 to 18 years.


title: Education in Germany

text: The has a broader range of emphasis for intermediate pupils and finishes with the final examination , after grade 10; the prepares pupils for vocational education and finishes with the final examination , after grade 9 and the after grade 10. There are two types of grade 10: one is the higher level called type 10b and the lower level is called type 10a; only the higher-level type 10b can lead to the and this finishes with the final examination after grade 10b. This new path of achieving the at a vocationally-oriented secondary school was changed by the statutory school regulations in 1981—with a one-year qualifying period. During the one-year qualifying period of the change to the new regulations, pupils could continue with class 10 to fulfil the statutory period of education. After 1982, the new path was compulsory, as explained above.


title: Education in Germany

text: The format of secondary vocational education is designed for individuals to learn advanced skills for a specific profession. According to Clean Energy Wire, a news service covering the country's energy transition, "Most of Germany's highly-skilled workforce has gone through the dual system of vocational education and training (VET)". Many Germans participate in the V.E.T. programs. These programs are partnered with about 430,000 companies, and about 80 percent of those companies hire individuals from those apprenticeship programs to get a full-time job. This educational system is very encouraging to young individuals because they are able to actively see the fruits of their labor. The skills gained through these programs are easily transferable and once a company commits to an employee from one of these vocational schools, they have a commitment to each other. Germany's V.E.T. programs prove that a college degree is not necessary for a good job and that training individuals for specific jobs could be successful as well.


title: Education in Germany

text: Other than this, there is the , which combines the , and . There are also , schools for students with special educational needs. One in 21 pupils attends a . Nevertheless, the or can also lead, in special circumstances, to a of both type 10a or type 10b, the latter of which is the .


title: Education in Germany

text: The amount of extracurricular activity is determined individually by each school and varies greatly. With the 2015 school reform the German government has tried to push more of those pupils into other schools, which is known as .


title: Education in Germany

text: Many of Germany's hundred or so institutions of higher learning charge little or no tuition by international comparison. Students usually must prove through examinations that they are qualified.


title: Education in Germany

text: To enter university, students are, as a rule, required to have passed the examination; since 2009, however, those with a (master craftsman's diploma) have also been able to apply. Those wishing to attend a university of applied sciences () must, as a rule, have , , or a . If lacking those qualifications, pupils are eligible to enter a university or university of applied sciences if they can present additional proof that they will be able to keep up with their fellow students through a or (which is a test confirming excellence and above average intellectual ability).


title: Education in Germany

text: A special system of apprenticeship called (the dual education system) allows pupils in vocational courses to do in-service training in a company as well as at a state school.


title: Education in Germany

text: Historically, Lutheranism had a strong influence on German culture, including its education. Martin Luther advocated compulsory schooling so that all people would independently be able to read and interpret the Bible. This concept became a model for schools throughout Germany. German public schools generally have religious education provided by the churches in cooperation with the state ever since.


title: Education in Germany

text: During the 18th century, the Kingdom of Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce free and generally compulsory primary education, consisting of an eight-year course of basic education. It provided not only the skills needed in an early industrialized world (reading, writing, and arithmetic) but also a strict education in ethics, duty, discipline and obedience. Children of affluent parents often went on to attend preparatory private schools for an additional four years, but the general population had virtually no access to secondary education and universities.


title: Education in Germany

text: In 1810, during the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching. The final examination, , was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812 and extended to all of Germany in 1871. The state also established teacher training colleges for prospective teachers in the common or elementary grades.


title: Education in Germany

text: When the German Empire was formed in 1871, the school system became more centralized. In 1872, Prussia recognized the first separate secondary schools for females. As learned professions demanded well-educated young people, more secondary schools were established, and the state claimed the sole right to set standards and to supervise the newly established schools.


title: Education in Germany

text: By the turn of the 20th century, the four types of schools had achieved equal rank and privilege, although they did not have equal prestige.


title: Education in Germany

text: After 1919, the Weimar Republic established a free, universal four-year elementary school (). Most pupils continued at these schools for another four-year course. Those who were able to pay a small fee went on to a that provided a more challenging curriculum for an additional one or two years. Upon passing a rigorous entrance exam after year four, pupils could also enter one of the four types of secondary school.


title: Education in Germany

text: During the Nazi era (1933–1945), though the curriculum was reshaped to teach the beliefs of the regime, the basic structure of the education system remained unchanged.


title: Education in Germany

text: The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) started its own standardized education system in the 1960s. The East German equivalent of both primary and secondary schools was the Polytechnic Secondary School (), which all students attended for 10 years, from the ages of 6 to 16. At the end of the 10th year, an exit examination was set. Depending upon the results, a pupil could choose to come out of education or undertake an apprenticeship for an additional two years, followed by an . Those who performed very well and displayed loyalty to the ruling party could change to the (extended high school), where they could take their examinations after 12 school years. Although this system was abolished in the early 1990s after reunification, it continues to influence school life in the eastern German states.


title: Education in Germany

text: After World War II, the Allied powers (Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, and the U.S.) ensured that Nazi ideology was eliminated from the curriculum. They installed educational systems in their respective occupation zones that reflected their own ideas. When West Germany gained partial independence in 1949, its new constitution (Grundgesetz) granted educational autonomy to the state () governments. This led to widely varying school systems, often making it difficult for children to continue schooling whilst moving between states.


title: Education in Germany

text: Multi-state agreements ensure that basic requirements are universally met by all state school systems. Thus, all children are required to attend one type of school (five or six days a week) from the age of 6 to the age of 16. A pupil may change schools in the case of exceptionally good (or exceptionally poor) ability. Graduation certificates from one state are recognized by all the other states. Qualified teachers are able to apply for posts in any of the states.