title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: , Mumbai's metro area GDP (PPP) was estimated at $368 billion. Many of India's numerous conglomerates (including Larsen & Toubro, State Bank of India (SBI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), Tata Group, Godrej and Reliance), and five of the Fortune Global 500 companies are based in Mumbai. This is facilitated by the presence of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), the National Stock Exchange of India (NSE), and financial sector regulators such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Until the 1970s, Mumbai owed its prosperity largely to textile mills and the seaport, but the local economy has since then diversified to include finance, engineering, diamond-polishing, healthcare and information technology.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The key sectors contributing to the city's economy are: finance, gems & jewellery, leather processing, IT and ITES, textiles, and entertainment. Nariman Point and Bandra Kurla Complex (BKC) are Mumbai's major financial centres. Despite competition from Bangalore, Hyderabad and Pune, Mumbai has carved a niche for itself in the information technology industry. The Santacruz Electronic Export Processing Zone (SEEPZ) and the International Infotech Park (Navi Mumbai) offer excellent facilities to IT companies.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: State and central government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. Mumbai also has a large unskilled and semi-skilled self-employed population, who primarily earn their livelihood as hawkers, taxi drivers, mechanics and other such blue collar professions. The port and shipping industry is well established, with Mumbai Port being one of the oldest and most significant ports in India. Dharavi, in central Mumbai, has an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of the city; the district has an estimated 15,000 single-room factories.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Mumbai has been ranked sixth among top ten global cities on the billionaire count with 28 and 46,000 millionaires, with total wealth around $820 billion 48th on the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index 2008, seventh in the list of "Top Ten Cities for Billionaires" by "Forbes" magazine (April 2008), and first in terms of those billionaires' average wealth. , the Globalization and World Cities Study Group (GaWC) has ranked Mumbai as an "Alpha world city", third in its categories of Global cities. Mumbai is the third most expensive office market in the world, and was ranked among the fastest cities in the country for business startup in 2009.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: As one of the largest cities of India and major centre of learning with several colleges and universities, Pune has emerged as a prominent location for IT and manufacturing. Pune has the eighth largest metropolitan economy


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Automotive companies such as Bajaj Auto, Tata Motors, Mahindra & Mahindra, Mercedes Benz, Force Motors (Firodia-Group), Kinetic Motors, General Motors, Land Rover, Jaguar, Renault, Volkswagen, and Fiat have set up greenfield facilities near Pune, leading "The Independent" to cite Pune as India's "Motor City".


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The Kirloskar Group, was the first to bring industry to Pune by setting up Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd. in 1945 at Kirkee in Pune. The Group was originally set up in Kirloskarwadi. Kirloskar Brothers Limited (One of India's largest manufacturer and exporter of pumps and the largest infrastructure pumping project contractor in Asia), Kirloskar Oil Engines (India's largest diesel engine company), Kirloskar Pneumatics Co. Ltd., and other Kirloskar companies are based in Pune.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The Hinjawadi IT Park (officially called the Rajeev Gandhi IT Park) is a project started by MIDC to house the IT sector in Pune. When completed, the Hinjawadi IT Park is expected to encompass an area of about . The estimated investment in the project is . To facilitate economic growth, the government made liberal incentives in its IT and ITES Policy, 2003 and leased properties on MIDC land. The IT sector employs more than 4 lakh people. Software giant Microsoft intends to set up a project in Hinjawadi.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Pune Food Cluster development project is an initiative funded by the World Bank. It is being implemented with the help of SIDBI, Cluster Craft to facilitate the development of the fruit and vegetable processing industries in and around Pune.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Pune has also emerged as a new startup hub in India with tech startups like Pubmatic, Firstcry.com, Storypick.com, TripHobo, TastyKhana.com (acquired by Foodpanda), Swipe setting up base in Pune. NASSCOM in association with MIDC have started a co-working space for city based startups under its '10,000 startup' initiative at Kharadi MIDC. It will incubate startup such as Kandawale from OhMyDealer in first batch.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The Meetings, Incentives, Conferencing, Exhibitions trade is expected to get a boost once the Pune International Exhibition and Convention Centre (PIECC) completes in 2017. The 97-hectare PIECC will boast a seating capacity of 20,000 with a floor area of . It will have seven exhibition centres, a convention centre, a golf course, a five-star hotel, a business complex, shopping malls, and residences. The US$115 million project is developed by the Pimpri-Chinchwad New Town Development Authority. Nowadays a growing number of automotive dealerships are springing up all over the city. They include luxury car makers like Jaguar Land Rover, Mercedes Benz, BMW, Audi, and motorcycle manufacturers like Kawasaki, KTM, Benelli, Ducati, BMW and Harley Davidson.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: An international cargo hub project, the Multi-modal International Cargo Hub and Airport at Nagpur, (MIHAN), has been developed. MIHAN will be used for handling heavy cargo coming from South-East Asia and Middle-East Asia. The project will also include a Special Economic Zone (SEZ)<ref name="Nagpur container depot fastest growing in India, Nagpur ATR busiest in India, Trains going through Nagpur, National Highways through Nagpur, Nagpur SEZ stats, Land prices in Ramdaspeth etc./"> </ref> for information-technology companies. This will be India's biggest development project.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Gondia, Yavatmal, Chandrapur, Akola, Amravati and Nagpur are the major cities of the region. Nagpur is a central hub for business and healthcare. Nagpur is the winter capital, a sprawling metropolis and the third largest city of the state after Mumbai and Pune. Nagpur is also called Orange city for the huge orange producing area surrounding the city. It also has the largest timber market of Asia.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Chandrapur has a thermal power station which is one of the biggest in India and some other heavy industries such as paper (BILT Ballarpur), steel (MEL from Steel Authority of India, etc.), cement (UltraTech Cement, Ambuja Cements, ACC Limited, Manikgarh Cement, Murli Cement) industries and numerous coal mines.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Nashik is one of the fast-growing cities of India and has been included in Smart city project by Central Government of India along with The Igatpuri-Nashik-Sinnar investment region as an important node in the US$90 billion Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project. Economy of the city is mainly driven by manufacturing and engineering industry and highly progressive agriculture in the areas surrounding the Nashik city. Many Large scale industry giants have their manufacturing plants and units in the city with presence of companies such as Atlas Copco, Robert Bosch GmbH, CEAT Limited, Crompton Greaves, Graphite India, Schneider Electric, ThyssenKrupp, Epcos, Everest Industries, Gabriel India, GlaxoSmithKline, Hindustan Coca-Cola, Hindustan Unilever Limited, Jindal Polyester, Jyoti Structures, Kirloskar Oil Engines, KSB Pumps, Larsen & Toubro, Mahindra and Mahindra, Mahindra Sona, United Spirits Limited, Perfect Circle Industries, Mahindra Ugine Steel, Samsonite, Shalimar Paints, Siemens, VIP Industries, Indian Oil Corporation, XLO India Limited and Jindal Saw.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Apart from manufacturing, Nashik is also emerging as an investment destination for Information Technology companies. Tata Consultancy Services has invested in Nashik under the Government of India BPO promotion scheme (IBPS). Also, WNS, ACRES, Accenture, ICOMET technologies TCS has set up Digital Impact Square, or DISQ, which is a social innovation center.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Nashik has a textile industry. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development has selected Yeola Block for development of Paithani Cluster. To facilitate exports, a container freight station was started at MIDC Ambad by the Central Government.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Smith Kline. There are main five industrial zones under Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC) in the city which are Satpur, Ambad, Sinnar, Igatpuri, Dindori, and Vinchur. The proposed additional areas are Sinnar, Malegaon and Rajur Bahula.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: local wineries and vineyards lead by brands such as Sula Vineyards, Yorkwinery, Zampa and Soma which have


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: international recognition as Nashik Valley wines these vineyards are also developing the tourism related to wine testing and vineyards. Nashik is also known as a main


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: Nashik is a defense and aerospace manufacturing hub with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited aircraft manufacturing plant and DRDO located at Ozar. Artillery Centre in Nashik is the biggest in Asia Nashik is also among the two cities selected by the Central Government for establishing defence innovation centre other being in Coimbatore.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The city is also home to The Currency Note Press and India Security Press, where Indian currency and government stamp papers are printed respectively.


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: The word "Marathwada" has been used since the times of the Nizams. The region coincides with the Aurangabad Division of Maharashtra. Since the establishment of the state of Maharashtra in 1960 and later that of MIDC, new industrial development has taken place in Marathwada region however it is concentrated mainly around the district of Aurangabad. The remaining six districts of the region have not benefited to any great extent in the process of industrialization. The main reason for such uneven development was the better


title: Economy of Maharashtra

text: infrastructure facilities available in Aurangabad city in relation to other districts and places in the region.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Biangbiang noodles (), alternatively known as youpo chemian () in Chinese, are a type of Chinese noodle originating from Shaanxi cuisine. The noodles, touted as one of the "eight curiosities" of Shaanxi (), are described as being like a belt, owing to their thickness and length.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Biangbiang noodles are renowned for being written using a unique character. The character is unusually complex, with the standard variant of its traditional form containing 58 strokes.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: The noodles are thick and belt-like, and are usually hand-made. For most of their existence, they have been an obscure dish local to Xi'an, eaten by workers lacking the time to make thinner noodles. More recently, the noodles have become more widely known across China, in a rise driven to some extent by social media interest in the esoteric character used to write "biáng".


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: The word "biáng" is onomatopoeic, being said to resemble the sound of the thick noodle dough hitting a work surface.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: There are many variations of the character for "biáng", but the most widely accepted version is made up of 58 strokes in its traditional form (42 in simplified Chinese). It is one of the most complex Chinese characters in modern usage, although it is not found in modern dictionaries or even in the Kangxi dictionary.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: The character is composed of (speak; 7 strokes) in the middle flanked by (tiny; 2 × 3 strokes) on both sides. Below it, (horse; 10 strokes) is similarly flanked by (grow; 2 × 8 strokes). This central block itself is surrounded by (moon; 4 strokes) to the left, (heart; 4 strokes) below, and (knife; 2 strokes) to the right. These in turn are surrounded by a second layer of characters, namely (cave; 5 strokes) on the top and (walk; 4 strokes) curving around the left and bottom.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Both the traditional and simplified Chinese characters for "biáng" were encoded in Unicode, on March 20, 2020, for Unicode 13.0.0. The code point is U+30EDE for the traditional form (𰻞) and U+30EDD for the simplified form (𰻝).


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Until that point, there were no standardized ways of entering or representing them on computers. Both traditional and simplified forms had been submitted to the Ideographic Rapporteur Group for inclusion in CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G. As the characters are not widely available on computers (and not supported by many fonts), images of the characters, phonetic substitutes like () or (), as well as the pinyin, are often used instead.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: In Adobe's Source Han Sans (prior to 2.002) and Source Han Serif font these IDS sequences do not display as IDS sequences, but display the actual glyphs for the character.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: After an email discussion with Lee Collins, John Jenkins submitted an application of "" in 2006. However, its IDS was too long at the time and "radical 心 (heart)" is missing from the character shape.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Ming Fan () submitted an application to the Unicode Consortium. At WS 2015, the traditional character had a code of UTC-00791 and the code of its simplified character is UTC-01312.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: However, the evidence for this character does not fully match the character shape. For UTC-00791, "radical 刂 (knife)" has disappeared from the dictionary (which is used as evidence). For UTC-01312, "radical 刂 (knife)" has become "radical 戈 (dagger-axe)" in the academic paper used as evidence. Members of the Unicode Consortium supported the character shape. In a possible April fools' joke, Toshiya Suzuki suggested adding a new block ("CJK Complex Ideographic Symbols"), setting "" as a basic shape, unifying the variation and even admitting "" as a variant of the character.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: The character's traditional and simplified forms were added to Unicode version 13.0 in March 2020 in the CJK Unified Ideographs Extension G block of the newly allocated Tertiary Ideographic Plane. The corresponding Unicode characters are:


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: There are a number of mnemonics used by Shaanxi residents to aid recall of how the character is written.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: Note that the first two lines probably refer to the character (roof), building it up systematically as a point and a line (river) with two bends.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: The origins of the biangbiang noodles and the character "biáng" are unclear. In one version of the story, the character "biáng" was invented by the Qin Dynasty Premier Li Si. However, since the character is not found in the "Kangxi Dictionary", it may have been created much later than the time of Li Si. Similar characters were found used by Tiandihui.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: In the 2007 season of the TVB show "The Web" (), the show's producers tried to find the origin of the character by contacting university professors, but they could not verify the Li Si story or the origin of the character. It was concluded that the character was invented by a noodle shop.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: One hypothesis is that there was no such character or meaning for this word in the beginning, and the word actually came from the sound people make from chewing the noodles, "biang biang biang".


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: A legend about a student fabricating a character for the noodle to get out of a biangbiang noodle bill also is a commonly believed hypothesis about the origin of the character.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: According to a "China Daily" article, the word "biang" is an onomatopoeia that actually refers to the sound made by the chef when he creates the noodles by pulling the dough and slapping it on the table.


title: Biangbiang noodles

text: More than twenty variants of the Traditional character for "biáng", having between 56 and 70 strokes:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: In ring theory, a branch of abstract algebra, an ideal of a ring is a special subset of its elements. Ideals generalize certain subsets of the integers, such as the even numbers or the multiples of 3. Addition and subtraction of even numbers preserves evenness, and multiplying an even number by any integer (even or odd) results in an even number; these closure and absorption properties are the defining properties of an ideal. An ideal can be used to construct a quotient ring in a way similar to how, in group theory, a normal subgroup can be used to construct a quotient group.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Among the integers, the ideals correspond one-for-one with the non-negative integers: in this ring, every ideal is a principal ideal consisting of the multiples of a single non-negative number. However, in other rings, the ideals may not correspond directly to the ring elements, and certain properties of integers, when generalized to rings, attach more naturally to the ideals than to the elements of the ring. For instance, the prime ideals of a ring are analogous to prime numbers, and the Chinese remainder theorem can be generalized to ideals. There is a version of unique prime factorization for the ideals of a Dedekind domain (a type of ring important in number theory).


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: The related, but distinct, concept of an ideal in order theory is derived from the notion of ideal in ring theory. A fractional ideal is a generalization of an ideal, and the usual ideals are sometimes called integral ideals for clarity.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Ernst Kummer invented the concept of ideal numbers to serve as the "missing" factors in number rings in which unique factorization fails; here the word "ideal" is in the sense of existing in imagination only, in analogy with "ideal" objects in geometry such as points at infinity.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: In 1876, Richard Dedekind replaced Kummer's undefined concept by concrete sets of numbers, sets that he called ideals, in the third edition of Dirichlet's book "Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie", to which Dedekind had added many supplements.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Later the notion was extended beyond number rings to the setting of polynomial rings and other commutative rings by David Hilbert and especially Emmy Noether.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: For an arbitrary ring formula_1, let formula_2 be its additive group. A subset formula_3 is called a left ideal of formula_4 if it is an additive subgroup of formula_4 that "absorbs multiplication from the left by elements of formula_4"; that is, formula_3 is a left ideal if it satisfies the following two conditions:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: A right ideal is defined with the condition replaced by . A two-sided ideal is a left ideal that is also a right ideal, and is sometimes simply called an ideal. In the language of modules, the definitions mean that a left (resp. right, two-sided) ideal of "R" is an "R"-submodule of "R" when "R" is viewed as a left (resp. right, bi-) "R"-module. When "R" is a commutative ring, the definitions of left, right, and two-sided ideal coincide, and the term ideal is used alone.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: To understand the concept of an ideal, consider how ideals arise in the construction of rings of "elements modulo". For concreteness, let us look at the ring ℤ/"n"ℤ of integers modulo "n" given integer (note that ℤ is a commutative ring). The key observation here is that we obtain ℤ/"n"ℤ by taking the integer line ℤ and wrapping it around itself so that various integers get identified. In doing so, we must satisfy 2 requirements:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: The second requirement forces us to make additional identifications (i.e., it determines the precise way in which we must wrap ℤ around itself). The notion of an ideal arises when we ask the question: What is the exact set of integers that we are forced to identify with 0? The answer is, unsurprisingly, the set of all integers congruent to 0 modulo "n". That is, we must wrap ℤ around itself infinitely many times so that the integers ..., , , , , ... will all align with 0. If we look at what properties this set must satisfy in order to ensure that ℤ/"n"ℤ is a ring, then we arrive at the definition of an ideal. Indeed, one can directly verify that "n"ℤ is an ideal of ℤ.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Remark. Identifications with elements other than 0 also need to be made. For example, the elements in must be identified with 1, the elements in must be identified with 2, and so on. Those, however, are uniquely determined by "n"ℤ since ℤ is an additive group.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: We can make a similar construction in any commutative ring "R": start with an arbitrary , and then identify with 0 all elements of the ideal It turns out that the ideal "xR" is the smallest ideal that contains "x", called the ideal generated by "x". More generally, we can start with an arbitrary subset , and then identify with 0 all the elements in the ideal generated by "S": the smallest ideal ("S") such that . The ring that we obtain after the identification depends only on the ideal ("S") and not on the set "S" that we started with. That is, if , then the resulting rings will be the same.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Therefore, an ideal "I" of a commutative ring "R" captures canonically the information needed to obtain the ring of elements of "R" modulo a given subset . The elements of "I", by definition, are those that are congruent to zero, that is, identified with zero in the resulting ring. The resulting ring is called the quotient of "R" by "I" and is denoted "R"/"I". Intuitively, the definition of an ideal postulates two natural conditions necessary for "I" to contain all elements designated as "zeros" by "R"/"I":


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: It turns out that the above conditions are also sufficient for "I" to contain all the necessary "zeros": no other elements have to be designated as "zero" in order to form "R"/"I". (In fact, no other elements should be designated as "zero" if we want to make the fewest identifications.)


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Remark. The above construction still works using two-sided ideals even if "R" is not necessarily commutative.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: "To simplify the description all rings are assumed to be commutative. The non-commutative case is discussed in detail in the respective articles."


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Ideals are important because they appear as kernels of ring homomorphisms and allow one to define factor rings. Different types of ideals are studied because they can be used to construct different types of factor rings.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Two other important terms using "ideal" are not always ideals of their ring. See their respective articles for details:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: The sum and product of ideals are defined as follows. For formula_18 and formula_62, left (resp. right) ideals of a ring "R", their sum is


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: i.e. the product is the ideal generated by all products of the form "ab" with "a" in formula_18 and "b" in formula_62.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Note formula_99 is the smallest left (resp. right) ideal containing both formula_18 and formula_62 (or the union formula_102), while the product formula_103 is contained in the intersection of formula_18 and formula_62.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Remark: The sum and the intersection of ideals is again an ideal; with these two operations as join and meet, the set of all ideals of a given ring forms a complete modular lattice. The lattice is not, in general, a distributive lattice. The three operations of intersection, sum (or join), and product make the set of ideals of a commutative ring into a quantale.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: If formula_59 are ideals of a commutative ring "R", then formula_114 in the following two cases (at least)


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: (More generally, the difference between a product and an intersection of ideals is measured by the Tor functor: formula_118)


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: An integral domain is called a Dedekind domain if for each pair of ideals formula_119, there is an ideal formula_112 such that formula_121. It can then be shown that every nonzero ideal of a Dedekind domain can be uniquely written as a product of maximal ideals, a generalization of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: In the first computation, we see the general pattern for taking the sum of two finitely generated ideals, it is the ideal generated by the union of their generators. In the last three we observe that products and intersections agree whenever the two ideals intersect in the zero ideal. These computations can be checked using Macaulay2.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Let "R" be a commutative ring. By definition, a primitive ideal of "R" is the annihilator of a (nonzero) simple "R"-module. The Jacobson radical formula_135 of "R" is the intersection of all primitive ideals. Equivalently,


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Indeed, if formula_137 is a simple module and "x" is a nonzero element in "M", then formula_138 and formula_139, meaning formula_140 is a maximal ideal. Conversely, if formula_141 is a maximal ideal, then formula_141 is the annihilator of the simple "R"-module formula_143. There is also another characterization (the proof is not hard):


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: For a not-necessarily-commutative ring, it is a general fact that formula_145 is a unit element if and only if formula_146 is (see the link) and so this last characterization shows that the radical can be defined both in terms of left and right primitive ideals.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: The following simple but important fact (Nakayama's lemma) is built-in to the definition of a Jacobson radical: if "M" is a module such that formula_147, then "M" does not admit a maximal submodule, since if there is a maximal submodule formula_148, formula_149 and so formula_150, a contradiction. Since a nonzero finitely generated module admits a maximal submodule, in particular, one has:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: where the intersection on the left is called the nilradical of "R". As it turns out, formula_154 is also the set of nilpotent elements of "R".


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: If "R" is an Artinian ring, then formula_155 is nilpotent and formula_156. (Proof: first note the DCC implies formula_157 for some "n". If (DCC) formula_158 is an ideal properly minimal over the latter, then formula_159. That is, formula_160, a contradiction.)


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Let "A" and "B" be two commutative rings, and let "f" : "A" → "B" be a ring homomorphism. If formula_18 is an ideal in "A", then formula_162 need not be an ideal in "B" (e.g. take "f" to be the inclusion of the ring of integers Z into the field of rationals Q). The extension formula_163 of formula_18 in "B" is defined to be the ideal in "B" generated by formula_162. Explicitly,


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: If formula_62 is an ideal of "B", then formula_168 is always an ideal of "A", called the contraction formula_169 of formula_62 to "A".


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Assuming "f" : "A" → "B" is a ring homomorphism, formula_18 is an ideal in "A", formula_62 is an ideal in "B", then:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: It is false, in general, that formula_18 being prime (or maximal) in "A" implies that formula_163 is prime (or maximal) in "B". Many classic examples of this stem from algebraic number theory. For example, embedding formula_180. In formula_181, the element 2 factors as formula_182 where (one can show) neither of formula_183 are units in "B". So formula_184 is not prime in "B" (and therefore not maximal, as well). Indeed, formula_185 shows that formula_186, formula_187, and therefore formula_188.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Remark: Let "K" be a field extension of "L", and let "B" and "A" be the rings of integers of "K" and "L", respectively. Then "B" is an integral extension of "A", and we let "f" be the inclusion map from "A" to "B". The behaviour of a prime ideal formula_198 of "A" under extension is one of the central problems of algebraic number theory.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: The following is sometimes useful: a prime ideal formula_199 is a contraction of a prime ideal if and only if formula_200. (Proof: Assuming the latter, note formula_201 intersects formula_202, a contradiction. Now, the prime ideals of formula_203 correspond to those in "B" that are disjoint from formula_202. Hence, there is a prime ideal formula_205 of "B", disjoint from formula_202, such that formula_207 is a maximal ideal containing formula_208. One then checks that formula_205 lies over formula_199. The converse is obvious.)


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Ideals can be generalized to any monoid object formula_211, where formula_4 is the object where the monoid structure has been forgotten. A left ideal of formula_4 is a subobject formula_3 that "absorbs multiplication from the left by elements of formula_4"; that is, formula_3 is a left ideal if it satisfies the following two conditions:


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: A right ideal is defined with the condition "formula_223" replaced by "'formula_224". A two-sided ideal is a left ideal that is also a right ideal, and is sometimes simply called an ideal. When formula_4 is a commutative monoid object respectively, the definitions of left, right, and two-sided ideal coincide, and the term ideal is used alone.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: An ideal can also be thought of as a specific type of -module. If we consider formula_4 as a left formula_4-module (by left multiplication), then a left ideal formula_3 is really just a left sub-module of formula_4. In other words, formula_3 is a left (right) ideal of formula_4 if and only if it is a left (right) formula_4-module which is a subset of formula_4. formula_3 is a two-sided ideal if it is a sub-formula_4-bimodule of formula_4.


title: Ideal (ring theory)

text: Example: If we let formula_237, an ideal of formula_32 is an abelian group which is a subset of formula_32, i.e. formula_240 for some formula_241. So these give all the ideals of formula_32.


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: The 1993–94 UEFA Champions League was the 39th season of the UEFA Champions League, UEFA's premier club football tournament, and the second season with the UEFA Champions League logo (it was adopted in the group stage and semi-finals, the rest of the tournament continued to be called "European Champion Clubs' Cup" or "European Cup"). The competition was won by Milan, their fifth title, beating Barcelona 4–0 in the final. Marseille were the defending champions, but were not allowed to enter the competition due their involvement in a match-fixing scandal in Division 1 the season prior. This saw them stripped of their league title and demoted to Division 2 at the end of 1993–94. This was the first and only time which the defending champions did not participate in the following season of the competition. Third-placed Monaco took the vacated French berth (second-placed Paris Saint-Germain, who refused the defaulted French title, competed in the Cup Winners' Cup instead as Coupe de France winners).


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: There were changes made to the UEFA Champions League's format from the previous year. After two seasons, with the groups, it introduced one legged semi-finals taking place after the group stage, meaning the two sides qualified from each group as group winners playing the semi-finals at home.


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: This edition was marked by the absence of Yugoslav participants because Yugoslavia was under UN economic sanctions. Yugoslav participants were frequently present in advanced stages of the competition with Red Star Belgrade having won the European Cup in 1991 and finished second in the group the following season. FK Partizan were to represent Yugoslavia in this edition, but were not allowed to participate. Meanwhile, Croatia, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia and Wales entered their champions for the first time this edition.


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: 42 national champions participated in 1993–94 UEFA Champions League season. 20 lowest-ranked of them by 1993 UEFA club ranking entered in the Preliminary Round, 22 best-ranked champions entered in the First Round.


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: The group stage began on 24 November 1993 and ended on 13 April 1994. The eight teams were divided into two groups of four, and the teams in each group played against each other on a home-and-away basis, meaning that each team played a total of six group matches. For each win, teams were awarded two points, with one point awarded for each draw. At the end of the group stage, the two teams in each group with the most points advanced to the semi-finals.


title: 1993–94 UEFA Champions League

text: All teams except Milan and Porto made their group stage debuts. Two of these teams (Barcelona and Anderlecht) had previously contested the 1991–92 group stage, the only season of the European Cup to adopt such a format.


title: The Pale

text: The Pale (Irish: "An Pháil") or the English Pale (' or ') was the part of Ireland directly under the control of the English government in the Late Middle Ages. It had been reduced by the late 15th century to an area along the east coast stretching from Dalkey, south of Dublin, to the garrison town of Dundalk. The inland boundary went to Naas and Leixlip around the Earldom of Kildare, towards Trim and north towards Kells. In this district, many townlands have English or French names, the latter associated with Norman influence in England.


title: The Pale

text: The word "pale", meaning a fence, is derived from the Latin word "", meaning "stake", specifically a stake used to support a fence. A paling fence is made of pales ganged side by side, and the word "palisade" is derived from the same root. From this came the figurative meaning of "boundary". The Oxford English Dictionary is dubious about the popular notion that the phrase "", as something outside the boundary — i.e., uncivilised, derives from this specific Irish meaning. Also derived from the "boundary" concept was the idea of a pale as an area within which local laws were valid. The term was used not only for the Pale in Ireland but also for various other English overseas settlements, notably English Calais. The term was also used to refer to specific regions in other nations: the term Pale of Settlement was applied to the area in the west of Imperial Russia where Jews were permitted to reside.


title: The Pale

text: The Pale was a strip of land, centred on Dublin, that stretched from Dundalk in Louth to Dalkey in Dublin; it became the base of English rule in Ireland. The Norman invasion of Ireland, beginning in 1169, created the Lordship of Ireland and brought Ireland under the theoretical control of the Plantagenet Kings of England. From the 13th century onwards the Hiberno-Norman occupation in Ireland at first, faltered, then waned. Across most of Ireland, the Normans increasingly assimilated into Irish culture after 1300. They made alliances with neighbouring autonomous Gaelic lords. In the long periods when there was no large royal army in Ireland, the Norman lords, like their Gaelic neighbours in the provinces, acted essentially as independent rulers in their own areas.


title: The Pale

text: The Lordship controlled by the English king shrank accordingly, and as parts of its perimeter in counties Meath and Kildare were fenced or ditched, it became known as the Pale, deriving from the Latin word "palus", a stake, or, synecdochically, a fence. Parts can still be seen west of Clane on the grounds of what is now Clongowes Wood College. The military power of the crown itself was greatly weakened by the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), and the Wars of the Roses (1455–85). The Parliament of Ireland was created, often sitting at Drogheda until the Tudors took a greater interest in Irish affairs from 1485 and moved it back to Dublin. The Pale generally consisted of fertile lowlands which were easier for the garrison to defend from ambush than hilly or wooded ground. For reasons of trade and administration, a version of English became the official language. Its closest modern derivative is said to be the accent used by natives of Fingal.


title: The Pale

text: In 1366, so that the English Crown could assert its authority over the settlers, a parliament was assembled in Kilkenny and the Statute of Kilkenny was enacted. The statute decreed that intermarriage between English settlers and Irish natives was forbidden. It also forbade the settlers from using the Irish language and adopting Irish modes of dress or other customs, as such practices were already common. The adoption of Gaelic Brehon property law, in particular, undermined the feudal nature of the Lordship. The Act was never implemented successfully, even in the Pale itself. This inability to enforce the statute indicated that Ireland was withdrawing from English cultural norms.


title: The Pale

text: By the Tudor period, the Irish culture and language had reestablished itself in regions conquered by the Anglo-Normans: "even in the Pale, all the common folk ... for the most part are of Irish birth, Irish habit and of Irish language". At a higher social level, there was extensive intermarriage between the Gaelic Irish aristocracy and Anglo-Norman lords, beginning not long after the invasion.


title: The Pale

text: By the late 15th century, the Pale became the only part of Ireland that remained subject to the English king, with most of the island paying only token recognition of the overlordship of the English crown. The tax base shrank to a fraction of what it had been in 1300. A proverb quoted by Sir John Davies said that "whoso lives by west of the Barrow, lives west of the law." The earls of Kildare ruled as Lords Deputy from 1470 (with more or less success), aided by alliances with the Gaelic lords. This lasted until the 1520s, when the earls passed out of royal favour, but the 9th earl was reinstated in the 1530s. The brief revolt by his son "Silken Thomas" in 1534–35 served in the following decades to hasten the Tudor conquest of Ireland, in which Dublin and the surviving Pale were used as the crown's main military base. A book "A Perambulation of Leinster, Meath, and Louth, of which consist the English Pale" (1596) expressed contemporary usage.


title: The Pale

text: The Pale boundary essentially consisted of a fortified ditch and rampart built around parts of the medieval counties of Louth, Meath, Dublin and Kildare, leaving out half of Meath, most of Kildare, and southwest County Dublin. Border or garrison towns of the pale included Ardee, Siddan, Kells, Athboy, Trim, Kilcock, Clane, Naas, Harristown, Ballymore Eustace, Rathmore, Kilteel, Saggart, Tallaght and Dalkey. The northern frontier of the Pale was marked by the De Verdon fortress of Castle Roche, while the southern border roughly corresponded to the present day M50 motorway in Dublin, which crosses the site of what was Carrickmines Castle. The following description is from "The Parish of Taney: A History of Dundrum, near Dublin, and Its Neighbourhood" (1895):


title: The Pale

text: In the period immediately after the Norman Settlement was constructed the barrier, known as the "Pale," separating the lands occupied by the settlers from those remaining in the hands of the Irish. This barrier consisted of a ditch, raised some ten or twelve feet from the ground, with a hedge of thorn on the outer side. It was constructed, not so much to keep out the Irish, as to form an obstacle in their way in their raids on the cattle of the settlers, and thus give time for a rescue. The Pale began at Dalkey, and followed a southwesterly direction towards Kilternan; then turning northwards passed Kilgobbin, where a castle still stands, and crossed the Parish of Taney to the south of that part of the lands of Balally now called Moreen, and thence in a westerly direction to Tallaght, and on to Naas in the County of Kildare. In the wall bounding Moreen is still to be seen a small watch-tower and the remains of a guard-house adjoining it. From this point a beacon-fire would raise the alarm as far as Tallaght, where an important castle stood. A portion of the Pale is still to be seen in Kildare between Clane and Clongowes Wood College at Sallins.


title: The Pale

text: Within the confines of the Pale, the leading gentry and merchants lived lives not too different from those of their counterparts in England, save for the constant fear of attack from the Gaelic Irish.


title: The Pale

text: The idea of the Pale was inseparable from the notion of a separate Anglo-Irish polity and culture. After the 17th century and especially after the Anglican Reformation and the Plantation of Ulster, the "Old English" settlers were gradually assimilated into the Irish population. This was in large part due to their relative reluctance to give up Roman Catholicism (those who worshipped in the Church of Ireland were rewarded with a higher status). They kept their version of the English language, though by that time many of them also spoke Irish. Several of these men were notable contributors to literature in Irish, including Pierce Ferriter and Geoffrey Keating. Christopher Nugent, 6th Baron Delvin, wrote an Irish-language primer for Elizabeth I.


title: The Pale

text: The term continues to be used in contemporary Irish speech to refer to County Dublin and nearby counties, generally critically—for example, a government department may be criticised for concentrating its resources on the Pale.


title: Case law

text: Case law, also used interchangeably with common law, is law that is based on precedents, that is the judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on constitutions, statutes, or regulations. Case law uses the detailed facts of a legal case that have been resolved by courts or similar tribunals. These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. "Stare decisis"—a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions.


title: Case law

text: These judicial interpretations are distinguished from statutory law, which are codes enacted by legislative bodies, and regulatory law, which are established by executive agencies based on statutes. In some jurisdictions, case law can be applied to ongoing adjudication; for example, criminal proceedings or family law.


title: Case law

text: In common law countries (including the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand), it is used for judicial decisions of selected appellate courts, courts of first instance, agency tribunals, and other bodies discharging adjudicatory functions.


title: Case law

text: In the common law tradition, courts decide the law applicable to a case by interpreting statutes and applying precedents which record how and why prior cases have been decided. Unlike most civil law systems, common law systems follow the doctrine of stare decisis, by which most courts are bound by their own previous decisions in similar cases. According to stare decisis, all lower courts should make decisions consistent with the previous decisions of higher courts. For example, in England, the High Court and the Court of Appeals are each bound by their own previous decisions, however, since 1966 the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom can deviate from its earlier decisions, although in practice it rarely does. A notable example of when the court has overturned its precedent is the case of R v Jogee, where the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled that it and the other courts of England and Wales had misapplied the law for nearly 30 years.


title: Case law

text: Generally speaking, higher courts do not have direct oversight over the lower courts of record, in that they cannot reach out on their initiative ("sua sponte") at any time to overrule judgments of the lower courts. Normally, the burden rests with litigants to appeal rulings (including those in clear violation of established case law) to the higher courts. If a judge acts against precedent, and the case is not appealed, the decision will stand.


title: Case law

text: A lower court may not rule against a binding precedent, even if it feels that it is unjust; it may only express the hope that a higher court or the legislature will reform the rule in question. If the court believes that developments or trends in legal reasoning render the precedent unhelpful, and wishes to evade it and help the law evolve, it may either hold that the precedent is inconsistent with subsequent authority, or that it should be "distinguished" by some material difference between the facts of the cases; some jurisdictions allow for a judge to recommend that an appeal be carried out. If that judgment goes to appeal, the appellate court will have the opportunity to review both the precedent and the case under appeal, perhaps overruling the previous case law by setting a new precedent of higher authority. This may happen several times as the case works its way through successive appeals. Lord Denning, first of the High Court of Justice, later of the Court of Appeal, provided a famous example of this evolutionary process in his development of the concept of estoppel starting in the "High Trees" case: "Central London Property Trust Ltd v. High Trees House Ltd" [1947] K.B. 130.


title: Case law

text: The different roles of case law in civil and common law traditions create differences in the way that courts render decisions. Common law courts generally explain in detail the legal rationale behind their decisions, with citations of both legislation and previous relevant judgments, and often interpret the wider legal principles. The necessary analysis (called "ratio decidendi"), then constitutes a precedent binding on other courts; further analyses not strictly necessary to the determination of the current case are called "obiter dicta", which constitute persuasive authority but are not technically binding. By contrast, decisions in civil law jurisdictions are generally shorter, referring only to statutes .


title: Case law

text: The reason for this difference is that these civil law jurisdictions adhere to a tradition that the reader should be able to deduce the logic from the decision and the statutes


title: Case law

text: Some pluralist systems, such as Scots law in Scotland and types of civil law jurisdictions in Quebec and Louisiana, do not precisely fit into the dual common-civil law system classifications. These types of systems may have been heavily influenced by the Anglo-American common law tradition; however, their substantive law is firmly rooted in the civil law tradition. Because of their position between the two main systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as mixed systems of law.


title: Case law

text: Law professors traditionally have played a much smaller role in developing case law in common law than professors in civil law. Because court decisions in civil law traditions are historically brief


title: Case law

text: and not formally amenable to establishing precedent, much of the exposition of the law in civil law traditions is done by academics rather than by judges; this is called doctrine and may be published in treatises or in journals such as "Recueil Dalloz" in France. Historically, common law courts relied little on legal scholarship; thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, it was very rare to see an academic writer quoted in a legal decision (except perhaps for the academic writings of prominent judges such as Coke and Blackstone). Today academic writers are often cited in legal argument and decisions as persuasive authority; often, they are cited when judges are attempting to implement reasoning that other courts have not yet adopted, or when the judge believes the academic's restatement of the law is more compelling than can be found in case law. Thus common law systems are adopting one of the approaches long-held in civil law jurisdictions.


title: Case law

text: Judges may refer to various types of persuasive authority to decide a case. Widely cited non-binding sources include legal encyclopedias such as "Corpus Juris Secundum" and "Halsbury's Laws of England", or the published work of the Law Commission or the American Law Institute. Some bodies are given statutory powers to issue guidance with persuasive authority or similar statutory effect, such as the Highway Code.


title: Case law

text: In federal or multi-jurisdictional law systems there may exist conflicts between the various lower appellate courts. Sometimes these differences may not be resolved, and it may be necessary to distinguish how the law is applied in one district, province, division or appellate department. Usually, only an appeal accepted by the court of last resort will resolve such differences and, for many reasons, such appeals are often not granted.


title: Case law

text: Any court may seek to distinguish the present case from that of a binding precedent, to reach a different conclusion. The validity of such a distinction may or may not be accepted on appeal of that judgment to a higher court. An appellate court may also decide on an entirely new and different analysis from that of junior courts, and may or may not be bound by its own previous decisions, or in any case, may distinguish them on the facts.


title: Case law

text: Where there are several members of a court deciding a case, there may be one or more judgments given (or reported). Only the reason for the decision of the majority can constitute a binding precedent, but all may be cited as persuasive, or their reasoning may be adopted in an argument. Apart from the rules of procedure for precedent, the weight given to any reported judgment may depend on the reputation of both the reporter and the judges.


title: Case law

text: The legal systems of the Nordic countries are sometimes included among the civil law systems, but as a separate branch, and sometimes counted as separate from the civil law tradition. In Sweden, for instance, case law arguably plays a more important role than in some of the Continental codified law systems. The two highest courts, the Supreme Court ("Högsta domstolen") and the Supreme Administrative Court ("Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen"), have the right to set precedent which is in practice (however not formally) binding on all future application of the law. Courts of appeal, both general courts ("hovrätter") and administrative courts ("kammarrätter"), may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law, but these decisions may be overturned by higher courts. Much of the "case law" is used to prove the existence of a law and not, unlike many common law jurisdictions, the creation of law.


title: Management SOOP

text: Management SOOP Corporation () t/a Management SOOP () is a South Korean actors agency that was established in 2011, and is currently operating as a subsidiary of Kakao Entertainment (a Kakao company). The roster includes actors Jeon Do-yeon, Gong Yoo, Gong Hyo-jin, Jung Yu-mi, Kim Jae-wook, Seo Hyun-jin, Choi Woo-shik, Nam Joo-hyuk, Bae Suzy, and Nam Ji-hyun, among others.


title: Management SOOP

text: Management SOOP was founded on April 19, 2011 by Kim Jang-kyun, who formerly worked for SidusHQ and Network of Asia (N.O.A) Entertainment (now Fantagio).


title: Management SOOP

text: On June 27, 2018, Kakao M (now Kakao Entertainment) shared an update following reports that it was in talks to acquire entertainment agencies and created partnerships with three actor management agencies BH Entertainment, J.Wide Company, Management SOOP, and Korea’s leading advertisement model casting agency Ready Entertainment in order to globalize its content.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Joseph Hubertus Pilates (9 December 1883 – 9 October 1967) was a German physical trainer, credited with inventing and promoting the Pilates method of physical fitness.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Joseph Hubertus Pilates was born on 9 December 1883 in Mönchengladbach, Germany. His father, Heinrich Friedrich Pilates, who was born in Greece, was a metal worker and enthusiastic gymnast, and his German-born mother was a housewife.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Pilates was a sickly child. He suffered from asthma, rickets, and rheumatic fever, and he dedicated his entire life to improving his physical strength. He was introduced by his father to gymnastics and body-building, and to martial arts like jiu-jitsu and boxing. By the age of 14, he was fit enough to pose for anatomical charts. Pilates came to believe that the "modern" life-style, bad posture, and inefficient breathing lay at the roots of poor health. He ultimately devised a series of exercises and training techniques, and engineered all the equipment, specifications, and tuning required to teach his methods properly.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Pilates was originally a gymnast and bodybuilder, but when he moved to England in 1912, he earned a living as a professional boxer, a circus-performer, and a self-defense trainer at police schools and Scotland Yard.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: During World War I, the British authorities interned Pilates, along with other German citizens, in Lancaster Castle, where he taught wrestling and self-defense, boasting that his students would emerge stronger than they were before their internment. Pilates studied yoga and the movements of animals and trained his fellow inmates in fitness and exercises. He later said that the intuitive movements of cats, in particular, inspired many aspects of his fitness regime. It was there that he began refining and teaching his minimal-equipment system of mat exercises that later became "Contrology". He was then transferred to another internment camp at Knockaloe on the Isle of Man. During that involuntary break, he began to intensively develop his concept of an integrated, comprehensive system of physical exercise, which he himself called "Contrology". Some of the early use of Pilates's exercise methods included rehabilitation of seriously injured veterans.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: After World War I, Pilates returned to Germany and collaborated with important experts in dance and physical exercise such as Rudolf Laban. In Hamburg, he trained police officers.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Around 1925, Pilates immigrated to the United States. On the ship to America, he met his future wife Clara. The couple founded a studio in New York City and directly taught and supervised their students well into the 1960s. "Contrology", related to encouraging the use of the mind to control muscles, focusing attention on core postural muscles that help keep the body balanced and provide support for the spine. In particular, Pilates exercises teach awareness of breath and of alignment of the spine, and strengthen the deep torso and abdominal muscles.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Joseph and Clara Pilates soon established a devoted following in the local dance and performing-arts community of New York. Well-known dancers such as George Balanchine, who arrived in the United States in 1933, and Martha Graham, who had come to New York in 1923, became devotees and regularly sent their students to the Pilates for training and rehabilitation. His exercise regimen built flexibility, strength and stamina. Soon after it became known that ballerinas were attending the Pilates gym on 8th Avenue, society women followed.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: One of the ballerinas was Romana Kryzanowska, who became Pilates' protégée. Kryzanowska started Pilates at the age of 16 following an ankle injury. Pilates said of her, "she's a natural". Kryzanowska was named a helper and started teaching Pilates alongside Pilates and his wife. Toward the end of his life, Pilates named Kryzanowska as the director of The Pilates Studio. Kryzanowska and her daughter continued to operate Pilates' original studio.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Joseph Pilates wrote several books, including "Return to Life through Contrology" and "Your Health," and he was also a prolific inventor, with over 26 patents cited.


title: Joseph Pilates

text: Pilates continued to advocate for and teach his method well into his old age, even once he was physically incapable of performing the exercises himself.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine, also rendered Ini or Ina, (; c. AD 670 – after 726) was King of Wessex from 689 to 726. At Ine's accession, his kingdom dominated much of southern England. However, he was unable to retain the territorial gains of his predecessor, Cædwalla, who had expanded West Saxon territory substantially. By the end of Ine's reign, the kingdoms of Kent, Sussex, and Essex were no longer under West Saxon sway; however, Ine maintained control of what is now Hampshire, and consolidated and extended Wessex's territory in the western peninsula.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine is noted for his code of laws ("Ines asetnessa" or "laws of Ine"), which he issued in about 694. These laws were the first issued by an Anglo-Saxon king outside Kent. They shed much light on the history of Anglo-Saxon society, and reveal Ine's Christian convictions. Trade increased significantly during Ine's reign, with the town of Hamwic (now Southampton) becoming prominent. It was probably during Ine's reign that the West Saxons began to mint coins, though none have been found that bear his name.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine abdicated in 726 to go to Rome, leaving, in the words of the contemporary chronicler Bede, the kingdom to "younger men". He was succeeded by Æthelheard.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Early sources agree that Ine was the son of Cenred, and that Cenred was the son of Ceolwald; further back there is less agreement. Ine was born around 670 and his siblings included a brother, Ingild, and two sisters, Cuthburh and Cwenburg. Ingild is given by the Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies as ancestor of king Egbert of Wessex and the subsequent kings of England. Cuthburh was married to King Aldfrith of Northumbria, and Ine himself was married to Æthelburg. Bede tells that Ine was "of the blood royal", by which he means the royal line of the Gewisse, the early West Saxon tribal name.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The genealogy of Ine and of the kings of Wessex is known from two sources: the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. The "Chronicle" was created in the late 9th century, probably at the court of Alfred the Great, and some of its annals incorporated short genealogies of kings of Wessex. These are often at variance with the more extensive information in the Regnal List. The inconsistencies appear to result from the efforts of later chroniclers to demonstrate that each king on the list was descended from Cerdic, the founder, according to the "Chronicle", of the West Saxon line in England.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine's predecessor on the throne of Wessex was Cædwalla, but there is some uncertainty about the transition from Cædwalla to Ine. Cædwalla abdicated in 688 and departed for Rome to be baptized. According to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List, Ine reigned for 37 years, abdicating in 726. These dates imply that he did not gain the throne until 689, which could indicate an unsettled period between Cædwalla's abdication and Ine's accession. Ine may have ruled alongside his father, Cenred, for a period: there is weak evidence for joint kingships, and stronger evidence of subkings reigning under a dominant ruler in Wessex, not long before this time. Ine acknowledges his father's help in his code of laws, and there is also a surviving land-grant that indicates Cenred was still reigning in Wessex after Ine's accession.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The extent of West Saxon territory at the start of Ine's reign is fairly well known. The upper Thames valley on both sides of the river had long been the territory of the Gewisse, though Cædwalla had lost territory north of the river to the kingdom of Mercia before Ine's accession. To the west, Ceawlin of Wessex is known to have reached the Bristol Channel one hundred years before. The West Saxons had since expanded further down the southwestern peninsula, pushing back the boundary with the British kingdom of Dumnonia, which was probably roughly equivalent to modern Devon and Cornwall. On the West Saxons' eastern border was the kingdom of the East Saxons, which included London and what is now Surrey. To the southeast were the South Saxons, on the coast east of the Isle of Wight. Beyond Sussex lay the kingdom of Kent. Ine's predecessor, Cædwalla, had made himself overlord of most of these southern kingdoms, though he had not been able to prevent Mercian inroads along the upper Thames.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine retained control of the Isle of Wight, and made further advances in Dumnonia, but the territorial gains Cædwalla had made in Sussex, Surrey and Kent were all lost by the end of Ine's reign.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine made peace with Kent in 694, when its king Wihtred gave Ine a substantial sum in compensation for the death of Cædwalla's brother Mul, who had been killed during a Kentish rebellion in 687. The value of the amount offered to Ine by Wihtred is uncertain; most manuscripts of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" record "thirty thousand", and some specify thirty thousand pounds. If the pounds are equal to sceattas, then this amount is the equal of a king's weregild—that is, the legal valuation of a man's life, according to his rank.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine kept the South Saxons, who had been conquered by Cædwalla in 686, in subjugation for a period. King Nothhelm of Sussex is referred to in a charter of 692 as a kinsman of Ine (perhaps by marriage). Sussex was still under West Saxon domination in 710, when Nothhelm is recorded as having campaigned with Ine in the west against Dumnonia.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Control of Surrey, which may never have been an independent kingdom, passed between Kent, Mercia, Essex, and Wessex in the years before Ine's reign. Essex also included London, and the diocese of London included Surrey; this appears to have been a source of friction between Ine and the East Saxon and Mercian kings, until the province was transferred to the diocese of Winchester in 705. Evidence for Ine's early control of Surrey comes from the introduction to his laws, in which he refers to Eorcenwald, bishop of London, as "my bishop". Ine's subsequent relations with the East Saxons are illuminated by a letter written in 704 or 705 by Bishop Wealdhere of London to Brihtwold, the Archbishop of Canterbury. The letter refers to "disputes and discords" that had arisen "between the king of the West Saxons and the rulers of our country". The rulers that Wealdhere refers to are Sigeheard and Swæfred of the East Saxons, and the cause of the discord was the East Saxons' sheltering of exiles from the West Saxons. Ine had agreed to peace on the condition that the exiles were expelled. A council at Brentford was planned to resolve the disputes. By this point Surrey had clearly passed out of West Saxon control.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Bede records that Ine held Sussex in subjection for "several years", but in 722 an exile named Ealdbert fled to Surrey and Sussex, and Ine invaded Sussex as a result. Three years later Ine invaded again, this time killing Ealdberht. Sussex had evidently broken away from West Saxon domination some time before this. It has been suggested that Ealdberht was a son of Ine, or a son of Ine's brother Ingild.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: In 710, Ine and Nothhelm fought against Geraint of Dumnonia, according to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"; John of Worcester states that Geraint was killed in this battle. It has traditionally been thought that Ine's advance brought him control of what is now Devon, the new border with Dumnonia being the river Tamar. However, this does not match with subsequent events such as the Battle of Hehil or Athelstan driving the Britons from Isca (Exeter). The "Annales Cambriae", a 10th-century chronicle, records that in 722 the British defeated their enemies at the Battle of Hehil. The "enemies" must be Ine or his people, but the location is unidentified; historians have suggested locations in both Cornwall and Devon.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine fought a battle at Woden's Barrow in 715, either against the Mercians under Ceolred or together with them against an unnamed opponent; the result is not recorded. Woden's Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam's Grave, at Alton Prior, Wiltshire. Ine may not have recovered any of the lands north of the Thames that had belonged to the West Saxons under previous kings, but it is known that he controlled the southern bank: a charter dated 687 shows him giving land to the church at Streatley on the Thames and at nearby Basildon.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: In 721, the "Chronicle" records that Ine slew one Cynewulf, of whom nothing else is known, though his name suggests a connection to the Wessex royal line. A quarrel apparently arose in the royal family soon afterwards: in 722, according to the "Chronicle", Ine's queen Æthelburg destroyed Taunton, which her husband had built earlier in his reign, around 710.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The first mention of the office of ealdorman in Wessex, and the first references to the shires they led, occur during Ine's reign. It may have been Ine who divided Wessex into something approximating the modern counties of Hampshire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Devon, and Dorset, though earlier administrative boundaries might also have influenced these borders. It has also been suggested that these counties began as divisions of the kingdom among members of the royal family.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: By about 710, in the middle of Ine's reign, the trading settlement of Hamwic had become established on the west bank of the river Itchen; the site is now part of the modern city of Southampton. The goods traded at this port included glass vessels, and finds of animal bones suggest an active trade in hides. Further evidence of trade comes from finds of imported goods such as quernstones, whetstones, and pottery; and finds of sceattas from the town include Frisian coins. Specialist trades carried on in the town included cloth-making, smithying, and metalworking. It is not known whether Ine took an interest in Hamwic, but some of the goods he favoured, including luxuries, were imported there, and the merchants would probably have needed royal protection. The total population of Hamwic has been estimated at 5,000, and this high population itself implies Ine's involvement, since no-one but the king would have been able to arrange to feed and house such a large group of people.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The growth of trade after about 700 was paralleled by an expansion of the area of circulation of the sceat, the common coin of the day, to include the upper Thames valley. It is thought that the first West Saxon coinage was minted during Ine's reign, though no coins bearing his name have been found—sceattas typically gave no hint of the reigning king.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The earliest Anglo-Saxon law code to survive, which may date from 602 or 603, is that of Æthelberht of Kent, whose reign ended in 616. In the 670s or 680s, a code was issued in the names of Hlothhere and Eadric of Kent. The next kings to issue laws were Wihtred of Kent and Ine.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The dates of Wihtred's and Ine's laws are somewhat uncertain, but there is reason to believe that Wihtred's laws were issued on 6 September 695, while Ine's laws were written in 694 or shortly before. Ine had recently agreed peaceful terms with Wihtred over compensation for the death of Mul, and there are indications that the two rulers collaborated to some degree in producing their laws. In addition to the coincidence of timing, there is one clause that appears in almost identical form in both codes. Another sign of collaboration is that Wihtred's laws use "gesith", a West Saxon term for noble, in place of the Kentish term "eorlcund". It is possible that Ine and Wihtred issued the law codes as an act of prestige, to re-establish authority after periods of disruption in both kingdoms.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine's laws survive only because Alfred the Great appended them to his own code of laws. The oldest surviving manuscript, and only complete copy, is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge MS 173, which contains both Alfred's and Ine's law codes and the oldest extant text of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". Two more partial texts survive. One was originally a complete copy of Ine's laws, part of British Library MS Cotton Otho B xi, but that manuscript was largely destroyed in 1731 by a fire at Ashburnham House in which only Chapters 66 to 76.2 of Ine's laws escaped destruction. A fragment of Ine's laws can also be found in British Museum MS Burney 277.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: It is possible that we do not have Ine's laws in their original 7th-century form. Alfred mentions in the prologue to his laws that he rejected earlier laws which he disliked. He did not specify what laws he omitted, but if they were the ones no longer relevant in his own time, it cannot be assumed that the surviving version of Ine's laws is complete.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The prologue to Ine's laws lists his advisors. Three people are named: bishops Eorcenwald and Hædde, and Ine's father, King Cenred. Ine was a Christian king, whose intent to encourage Christianity is clear from the laws. The oath of a communicant, for example, is declared to carry more weight than that of a non-Christian; and baptism and religious observance are also addressed. Significant attention is also paid to civil issues—more than in the contemporary Kentish laws.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: One of the laws states that common land might be enclosed by several ceorls (the contemporary name for Saxon freemen). Any ceorl who fails to fence his share, however, and allows his cattle to stray into someone else's field is to be held liable for any damage caused. This does not mean that the land was held in common: each ceorl had his own strip of land that supported him. It is notable that a king's law is required to settle a relatively minor issue; the laws do not mention the role of local lords in obtaining compliance from the ceorls. It is clear from this and other laws that tenants held the land in tenure from a lord; the king's close involvement indicates that the relationship between lord and tenant was under the king's control.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The laws that deal with straying cattle provide the earliest documentary evidence for an open-field farming system. They show that open-field agriculture was practiced in Wessex in Ine's time, and it is probable that this was also the prevalent agricultural method throughout the English midlands, and as far north and east as Lindsey and Deira. Not all of Wessex used this system, however: it was not used in Devon, for example. The law which mentions a "yard" of land is the first documented mention of that unit. A yard was a unit of land equal to a quarter of a hide; a hide was variable from place to place but could be as much as . The yard in this sense later became the standard holding of the medieval villein, and was known as the virgate. One historian has commented that "the beginnings of a manorial economy are clearly visible in Ine's laws."


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The fine for neglecting fyrd, the obligation to do military service for the king, is set at 120 shillings for a nobleman, and 30 shillings for a ceorl, incidentally revealing that ceorls were required to serve in the army. Scholars have disagreed on the military value of the ceorl, but it is not surprising that all free men would fight, since defeat might have meant slavery.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Another law specified that anyone accused of murder required at least one high-ranking person among his "oath-helpers". An oath-helper would swear an oath on behalf of an accused man, to clear him from the suspicion of the crime. Ine's requirement implies that he did not trust an oath sworn only by peasants. It may represent a significant change from an earlier time when a man's kin were expected to support him with oaths.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The laws made separate provision for Ine's English and British subjects, favouring the former over the latter; the weregilds paid for Britons were half of those paid for Saxons of the same social class, and their oaths also counted for less. The evidence they provide for the incomplete integration of the two populations is supported by research into placename history, the history of religious houses, and local archaeology, which indicates that the western part of Wessex was thinly settled by the Germanic newcomers at the time the laws were issued. It is notable that, although issued by the Saxon king of a Saxon kingdom, the term used in the laws to define Ine's Germanic subjects is "Englisc". This reflects the existence, even at this early date, of a common English identity encompassing all the Germanic peoples of Britain.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine was a Christian king, who ruled as a patron and protector of the church. The introduction to his laws names his advisors, among whom are Eorcenwald, Bishop of London and Hædde, Bishop of Winchester; Ine says that the laws were also made with the advice and instruction of "all my ealdormen, and chief councillors of my people, and also a great assembly of the servants of God". The laws themselves demonstrate Ine's Christian convictions, specifying fines for failing to baptize infants or to tithe. Ine supported the church by patronising religious houses, especially in the new diocese of Sherborne, which had been divided from the diocese of Winchester in 705. Ine had opposed this division, ignoring threats of excommunication from Canterbury, but he agreed to it when Bishop Haedde died.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: The first West Saxon nunneries were founded in Ine's reign by Ine's kinswoman, Bugga, the daughter of King Centwine, and by Ine's sister Cuthburh, who founded the abbey of Wimborne at some point after she separated from her husband, King Aldfrith of Northumbria. At the bishop Aldhelm's suggestion in 705, Ine built the church which later became Wells Cathedral, and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" also records that Ine built a minster at Glastonbury. This must refer to additional building or re-building since there was already a British monastery at Glastonbury.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine has been credited with supporting the establishment of an organized church in Wessex, though it is not clear that this was his initiative. He is also connected with the oldest known West Saxon synods, presiding at one himself and apparently addressing the assembled clerics.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: There is a tradition that Ine was a saint, and was the dedicatee of St Ina's Church in Llanina near New Quay, Wales. However, a more likely dedicatee for this church is the fifth-century Welsh Saint Ina.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: In 726, Ine abdicated, with no obvious heir and, according to Bede, left his kingdom to "younger men" in order to travel, with his wife Æthelburg, to Rome where they both died; his predecessor, Cædwalla, had also abdicated to go to Rome and was baptized there by the pope. A pilgrimage to Rome was thought to aid one's chance of a welcome in heaven, and according to Bede, many people went to Rome at this time for this reason: "... both noble and simple, layfolk and clergy, men and women alike." Either Ine or Offa of Mercia is traditionally supposed to have founded the Schola Saxonum there, in what is today the Roman rione, or district, of Borgo. The Schola Saxonum took its name from the militias of Saxons who served in Rome, but it eventually developed into a hostelry for English visitors to the city. According to Roger of Wendover, Ine founded the Schola Saxonum in 727.


title: Ine of Wessex

text: Ine's successor was King Æthelheard; it is not known whether Æthelheard was related to Ine, though some later sources state that Æthelheard was Ine's brother-in-law. Æthelheard's succession to the throne was disputed by an ætheling, Oswald, and it may be that Mercian support for Æthelheard in the unsettled aftermath of Ine's abdication both helped establish Æthelheard as king and also brought him into the sphere of influence of Æthelbald, the king of Mercia.


title: Allophone

text: In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is a set of multiple possible spoken soundsor "phones"or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in "stop" ) and the aspirated form (as in "top" ) are allophones for the phoneme , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Thai. On the other hand, in Spanish, (as in "dolor" ) and (as in "nada" ) are allophones for the phoneme , while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English.


title: Allophone

text: The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called positional variants, but some allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.


title: Allophone

text: Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes.


title: Allophone

text: The term "allophone" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.


title: Allophone

text: Whenever a user's speech is vocalized for a given phoneme, it is slightly different from other utterances, even for the same speaker. That has led to some debate over how real and how universal phonemes really are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is significant, by being detectable or perceivable, to speakers.


title: Allophone

text: There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a specific allophone in a specific situation or whether the speaker has the unconscious freedom to choose the allophone that is used.


title: Allophone

text: If a specific allophone from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme must be selected in a given context, and using a different allophone for a phoneme would cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native, the allophones are said to be "complementary". The allophones then complement each other, and one of them is not used in a situation in which the usage of another is standard. For complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.


title: Allophone

text: In other cases, the speaker can freely select from "free-variant" allophones on personal habit or preference, but free-variant allophones are still selected in the specific context, not the other way around.


title: Allophone

text: Another example of an allophone is assimilation, in which a phoneme is to sound more like another phoneme. One example of assimilation is consonant voicing and devoicing, in which voiceless consonants are voiced before and after voiced consonants, and voiced consonants are devoiced before and after voiceless consonants.


title: Allophone

text: There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.


title: Allophone

text: Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between a number of (dialect-dependent) allophones of the phoneme :


title: Allophone

text: In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English;


title: Allophone

text: However, speakers may become aware of the differences iffor examplethey contrast the pronunciations of the following words:


title: Allophone

text: A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated "nitrate" than for the unaspirated "night rate." The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.


title: Allophone

text: One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English such as the (palatal) alveolar "light" of "leaf" as opposed to the velar alveolar "dark" in "feel" found in the U.S.A. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a Turkish-speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.


title: Allophone

text: Peter Ladefoged, a renowned phonetician, clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant.


title: Allophone

text: There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Pirahã. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):


title: Allophone

text: Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.


title: Allophone

text: However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the "elsewhere condition" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The "elsewhere" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.


title: Allophone

text: For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the "elsewhere" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.


title: Allophone

text: In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.


title: Allophone

text: An alternative, which is commonly used for archiphonemes, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for [m], [n], [ŋ].


title: Allophone

text: In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, to avoid privileging any particular allophone.


title: Nuckelavee

text: The nuckelavee () or nuckalavee is a horse-like demon from Orcadian folklore that combines equine and human elements. British folklorist Katharine Briggs called it "the nastiest" of all the demons of Scotland's Northern Isles. The nuckelavee's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock, and the creature was held responsible for droughts and epidemics on land despite being predominantly a sea-dweller.


title: Nuckelavee

text: A graphic description of the nuckelavee as it appears on land was given by an islander who claimed to have had a confrontation with it, but accounts describing the details of the creature's appearance are inconsistent. In common with many other sea-monsters, it is unable to tolerate fresh water, therefore, those it is pursuing have only to cross a river or stream to be rid of it. The nuckelavee is kept in confinement during the summer months by the Mither o' the Sea, an ancient Orcadian spirit, and the only one able to control it.


title: Nuckelavee

text: Orcadian folklore had a strong Scandinavian influence, and it may be that the nuckelavee is a composite of a water horse from Celtic mythology and a creature imported by the Norsemen. As with similar malevolent entities such as the kelpie, it possibly offered an explanation for incidents that islanders in ancient times could not otherwise understand.


title: Nuckelavee

text: The late 19th century saw an upsurge of interest in transcribing folklore, but the recorders used inconsistent spelling and frequently anglicised words, thus the same entity could be given different names. The term "nuckelavee" derives from Orcadian "knoggelvi", and according to Orkney resident and 19th-century folklorist Walter Traill Dennison means "Devil of the Sea". The same demon is called a "mukkelevi" in Shetland, where it was considered a nasty sea-trow or sea-devil.


title: Nuckelavee

text: Samuel Hibbert, an antiquarian of the early nineteenth century, considered the component "nuck" of the nuckelavee's name to be cognate with both the "Nick" in Old Nick, a name sometimes given to the Devil of Christian belief, and with the Latin "necare", to kill.


title: Nuckelavee

text: Stories of mythical Orcadian demons are recorded in the 16th-century Latin manuscripts of Jo Ben, who may have been referring to the nuckelavee in his description of the Orkney island of Stronsay. Dennison transcribed much of the information available about traditional tales told on Orkney, but to an extent romanticised and systematically altered certain elements of the stories in the process of transforming them into prose.


title: Nuckelavee

text: The nuckelavee is a mythical sea-creature that appears as a horse-like demon when it ventures onto land. Writer and folklorist Ernest Marwick considered it very similar to the Norwegian nøkk, the nuggle of Shetland and the kelpie. A unique and solitary creature possessing extensive evil powers, its malevolent behaviour can influence events throughout the islands. Islanders were terrified of the creature and would not speak its name without immediately saying a prayer. It was often found in the vicinity of a beach, but would never come ashore if it was raining.


title: Nuckelavee

text: No tales describe what form the nuckelavee takes when in the sea, but its appearance on land has been recounted in graphic detail. An islander, Tammas, claimed to have survived a confrontation with the beast and, after much cajoling from Dennison, reluctantly gave his description of the monster, the only known first-hand account. According to Tammas, the nuckelavee has a man's torso attached to a horse's back as if it were a rider. The male torso has no legs, but its arms can reach the ground from its position on top of the equine body, the legs of which have fin like appendages. The torso has a large head – possibly as much as in diameter – that rolls back and forth. The monster described by Tammas has two heads; the equine head has an enormous gaping mouth that exudes a pungent, toxic vapour, and a single giant eye like a burning red flame. A particularly gruesome detail is that the nuckelavee has no skin; black blood courses through yellow veins, and the pale sinews and powerful muscles are visible as a pulsating mass. Other reports state that the creature resembles a centaur; narratives are inconsistent in the finer details of the demon's description however. Traill Dennison only describes a man's head with a "mouth projected like that of a pig". Marwick also only mentions one head with a single red eye, and he borrows some of Tammas's characterisation by recording the creature's mouth as "like a whale's".


title: Nuckelavee

text: The nuckelavee's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock, and it was considered responsible for epidemics and drought. Seaweed burning to create what was known at the time as "kelp" began on Stronsay in 1722. The product – soda ash – was an alkali mainly used to treat acidic soil, although as time went on its commercial importance in soap and glass manufacture increased. The pungent smoke emitted during the process was believed to enrage the nuckelavee, resulting in a wild rampage of plague, the deaths of cattle and the destruction of crops. The nuckelavee was said to have infected horses on Stronsay with the deadly disease known as mortasheen, to demonstrate its fury and exact its revenge against the islanders for burning seaweed; the infection subsequently spread to all the other islands involved in the industry. The creature was also blamed for prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall, leading to water shortages and poor harvests.


title: Nuckelavee

text: The nuckelavee is the most malevolent of the demons in and around the Scottish islands, without any redeeming characteristics. The only entity able to control it is the Mither o' the Sea, an ancient spirit in Orcadian mythology who keeps the nuckelavee confined during the summer months. In common with other mythical sea-monsters, with the possible exception of kelpies and the nuggle of Shetland, it is unable to wade through fresh flowing water, therefore it can be escaped by crossing a stream. Tammas managed to escape from the nuckelavee after he inadvertently splashed it with water from the loch he was alongside; this briefly distracted the monster, allowing Tammas to run over to a nearby channel of fresh water and jump to safety on the opposite bank.


title: Nuckelavee

text: Malevolent creatures possibly served to provide explanations for incidents that islanders were otherwise unable to account for; many ancient myths were based upon the natural elements of the turbulent and ever changing sea around Orkney. Established Orcadian tales were strongly influenced by Scandinavian mythology with a blending of traditional Celtic stories, so the nuckelavee may have its roots in a mythical creature imported by the Norsemen fused with a traditional Celtic water horse.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: Hegra (), known to Muslims as Al-Hijr (), also known as Mada’in Salih (), is an archaeological site located in the area of Al-'Ula within Medina Province in the Hejaz region, Saudi Arabia. A majority of the remains date from the Nabataean Kingdom (1st century AD). The site constitutes the kingdom's southernmost and second largest city after Petra (now in Jordan), its capital city. Traces of Lihyanite and Roman occupation before and after the Nabatean rule, respectively, can also be found.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: The Quran places the settlement of the area by the Thamudi people during the days of Salih, between those of Nuh (Noah) and Hud on one hand, and those of Ibrahim (Abraham) and Musa (Moses) on the other. However, a definitive historical chronology can not be obtained through the order of verses due to the fact that the Quranic chapters (see surah) deal with different subjects in non-chronologic order. According to the Islamic text, the Thamudis were punished by God for their idolatry, struck by an earthquake and lightning blasts. Thus, the site has earned a reputation as a cursed place—an image which the national government is attempting to overcome as it seeks to develop Mada'in Salih for its potential for tourism.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: In 2008, UNESCO proclaimed Mada'in Salih as a site of patrimony, becoming Saudi Arabia's first World Heritage Site. It was chosen for its well-preserved remains from late antiquity, especially the 131 monumental rock-cut tombs, with their elaborately ornamented façades, of the Nabataean Kingdom.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: Its long history and the multitude of cultures occupying the site have produced several names. References by Strabo and other Mediterranean writers use the name Hegra () for the Nabatean site. The use of Mada'in Salih refers to the (Prophet) Salih, sent to Ancient Arabs, a name and identity which may be derived from the Biblical Figure "Methuselah" ( "Məṯūšélaḥ", in pausa "Məṯūšālaḥ" "Man of the javelin" or "Death of Sword"; "Mathousalas")


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: The archaeological site of Hegra is situated north of the town of Al-'Ula, north-west of Medina, and south-east of Petra, Jordan. Al-Istakhri wrote in "Al-Masalik":


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: The site is on a plain, at the foot of a basalt plateau, which forms a portion of the Hijaz mountains. Beneath the western and north-western parts of the site, the water table can be reached at a depth of . The setting is notable for its desert landscape, marked by sandstone outcroppings of various sizes and heights.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: According to Islam the site of Al-Hijr was settled by the tribe of Thamud, who "(took) for (themselves) palaces from its plains and (carved) from the mountains, homes". The tribe fell to idol worship, and oppression became prevalent. Salih, to whom the site's name of "Mada'in Salih" is often attributed, called on the Thamudis to repent. The Thamudis disregarded the warning and instead commanded Salih to summon a pregnant she-camel from the back of a mountain. And so a pregnant she-camel was sent to the people from the back of the mountain, as proof of Salih's divine mission. However, only a minority heeded his words. The non-believers killed the sacred camel instead of caring for it as they were told, and its calf ran back to the mountain from whence it came. The Thamudis were given three days before their punishment was to take place, since they disbelieved and did not heed the warning. Salih and his Monotheistic followers left the city, but the others were punished by God—their souls leaving their lifeless bodies in the midst of an earthquake and lightning blasts.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: According to the Qur'an and tradition, the Thamud existed much earlier than the 715BC inscription from Sargon II would suggest. However, recent research in Islamic studies asserts that a definitive chronology of the Thamūd cannot be attained from the Quranic context and that this narrative does not "depict a continuous history of the ancient people, because these are not in any genealogical succession, nor do they interact with one another." Robert Hoyland suggested that their name was subsequently adopted by other new groups that inhabited the region of Mada'in Salih after the disappearance of the original people of Thamud. This suggestion is also supported by the narration of ʿAbdullah ibn ʿUmar and analysis of Ibn Kathir which report that people called the region of Thamud "Al-Hijr", while they called the province of Mada'in Salih as "Ardh Thamud" (Land of Thamud) and "Bayt Thamud" (house of Thamud). So the term ‘Thamud’ was not applied to the groups that lived in Mada'in Salih, such as Lihyanites and Nabataeans, but rather to the region itself, and according to classical sources, it was agreed upon that the only remaining group of the native people of Thamud are the tribe of Banu Thaqif which inhabited the city of Taif south of Mecca.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous rock writings and pictures not only on Mount Athleb, but also throughout central Arabia. They date between the sixth century BC and the fourth century AD and are labelled as being Thamudic. "Thamudic" was the name invented by nineteenth-century scholars for these large numbers of inscriptions which had not yet been properly studied.


title: Hegra (Mada'in Salih)

text: Archaeological traces of cave art on the sandstones and epigraphic inscriptions, considered by experts to be Lihyanite script, on top of the Athleb Mountain, near Hegra (Mada’in Salih), have been dated to the 3rd–2nd century BC, indicating the early human settlement of the area, which has an accessible source of freshwater and fertile soil. The settlement of the Lihyans became a center of commerce, with goods from the east, north and south converging in the locality.