title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The other half of the 2008 prize was split between Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi "for their discovery of human immunodeficiency virus". The omission of Robert Gallo was controversial: 106 scientists signed a letter to the journal "Science" stating that 'While these awardees fully deserve the award, it is equally important to recognize the contributions of Robert C. Gallo', which 'warrant equal recognition'. Montagnier said that he was 'surprised' that the award had not been shared with Gallo.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 2006 prize went to Andrew Fire and Craig C. Mello "for their discovery of RNA interference—gene silencing by double-stranded RNA". Many of the discoveries credited by the committee to Fire and Mello, who studied RNA interference in "Caenorhabditis elegans", had been previously studied by plant biologists, and it was suggested that at least one plant biologist, such as David Baulcombe, should have been awarded a share of the prize.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 2003 prize was awarded to Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging" (MRI). Two independent alternatives have been alleged. Raymond Damadian first reported that NMR could distinguish "in vitro" between cancerous and non-cancerous tissues on the basis of different proton relaxation times. He later translated this into the first human scan. Damadian's original report prompted Lauterbur to develop NMR into the present method. Damadian took out large advertisements in an international newspapers protesting his exclusion. Some researchers felt that Damadian's work deserved at least equal credit. Separately, Herman Y. Carr both pioneered the NMR gradient technique and demonstrated rudimentary MRI imaging in the 1950s. The Nobel prize winners had almost certainly seen Carr's work, but did not cite it. Consequently, the prize committee very likely was unaware of Carr's discoveries, a situation likely abetted by Damadian's campaign. Mansfield said in his autobiography that "the person who really missed out" the prize was Erwin Hahn for his contribution to the principles of spin echoes.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1998 to Robert Furchgott, Louis Ignarro and Ferid Murad "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system". There followed protest by the scientific community due to the omission of Salvador Moncada, who was internationally recognised as the major contributor to the discovery of this field together with Robert Furchgott.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 1997 prize was awarded to Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner for his discovery of prions. This award caused a long stream of polemics. Critics attacked the validity of the work and questioned whether prions exist at all, which claim had been criticized by other researchers as not yet proven. The existence of prions was not fully accepted by the scientific community for at least a decade after the awarding of the prize.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 1993 prize went to Phillip Allen Sharp and Richard J. Roberts "for their discoveries of split genes" the discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene splicing. Several other scientists, such as Norman Davidson and James Watson, argued that Louise T. Chow, a China-born Taiwanese researcher who collaborated with Roberts, should have had part of the prize. In 1976, as Staff Investigator, Chow carried out the studies of the genomic origins and structures of adenovirus transcripts that led directly to the discovery of RNA splicing and alternative RNA processing at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island in 1977. Norman Davidson, (a Caltech expert in electron microscopy, under whom Chow apprenticed as a graduate student), affirmed that Chow operated the electron microscope through which the splicing process was observed, and was the crucial experiment's sole designer, using techniques she had developed.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 1952 prize was awarded to Selman Waksman "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis". Albert Schatz, who was a graduate student working under Waksman's direction at the time of discovery in 1943, petitioned the Nobel committee saying he had done all the work in isolating the antibiotic properties of Streptomyces griseus. Schatz, who two years earlier had successfully sued Waksman and Rutgers University for his share in the discovery, patent, and resulting royalties, was turned down by the Nobel committee. It was a reflection of the times when department heads were normally awarded the prize and has been looked on as a considerable mistake.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: In 1926, no prize was awarded because the works of the two nominees Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger and Katsusaburo Yamagiwa were considered undeserving. Fibiger had demonstrated that he could induce stomach cancer in rats using a roundworm "Gongylonema neoplasticum" that he discovered (but which he preferred to call "Spiroptera carcinoma"). Yamagiwa followed suit and induced cancer in rabbit by applying coal tar on the rabbit's ears. Theirs were the first experimental induction of cancer. One of the assessors Hilding Bergstrand concluded that "one cannot, at this point, find much support for the possibility that the work of Fibiger and Yamagiwa will have great importance in the solving of the riddle of cancer. Under such circumstances I do not consider these discoveries worthy of the Nobel Prize." In 1927, Fibiger was again nominated alongside Otto Heinrich Warburg and Julius Wagner-Jauregg; but Yamagiwa was excluded. The Nobel Committee decided to award the 1926 prize jointly to Fibiger and Warburg, and the 1927 prize to Wagner-Jauregg. But at the final selection, Karolinska Institute rejected Warburg. The 1926 prize went solely to Fibiger "for his discovery of the "Spiroptera carcinoma"." Fibiger's "finding" was discredited by other scientists shortly thereafter. Particularly after the last major experiment in 1952, it was established that the roundworm is not carcinogenic, and that cancers developed in Fibiger's experiments were due to vitamin A deficiency. Yamagiwa's exclusion was also criticised, because his experiment was a valid finding. Coal tar (and substances containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs) are true carcinogens. Yamagiwa's work has become the primary basis for this line of research. "Encyclopædia Britannica"'s guide to Nobel Prizes in cancer research mentions Yamagiwa's work as a milestone without mentioning Fibiger.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 1923 prize was awarded to Frederick Banting and John Macleod "for the discovery of insulin". Banting clearly deserved the prize, but the choice of Macleod as co-winner was controversial. Banting felt that Charles Best was the proper corecipient, while Macleod had merely given them laboratory space at the University of Toronto while Macleod was away for the summer. On his return, though, Macleod pointed out some flaws in their experimental design and gave them advice about directions in which to work. Banting's original method of isolating insulin required performing surgery on living dogs, which was too labor-intensive to produce insulin on a large scale. Best then set about finding a biochemical extraction method, while James Bertram Collip, a chemistry professor on sabbatical from the University of Alberta, joined Macleod's team and worked in parallel with Best. The two of them succeeded within days of each other. When Banting agreed to receive the prize, he decided to give half of his prize money to Best. Macleod, in turn, split his half of the prize money with Collip.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal were jointly awarded "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system". However, their interpretation of discoveries were directly in opposition. Much as Golgi made significant contributions to the techniques in the study of nervous system in terms of actual structure, he made a completely erroneous conclusion that nervous system is nothing but a single continuous network, the notion called reticular theory. On the other hand, Ramón y Cajal described nervous system as composed of interlinking nerve cells or neurons as suggested by a theory called the neuron doctrine. Golgi strongly advocated the reticular theory such that even his Nobel lecture was a direct attack on Cajal's work and the neuron doctrine, and even depicted a diagram of continuous network which he claimed was "an exact reproduction after life". Therefore, recognising a work on wrong conclusion is inappropriate. The controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after the award of the Nobel Prize. The award is even dubbed as creating the "storm centre of histological controversy". Cajal even commented that: "What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!". The neuron doctrine turned out to be a more correct description, and Golgi was proved wrong with the development of electron microscopy in the 1950s by which it was clearly demonstrated that neurons are individual cells in the nervous system, and that they are interconnected through gaps called synapses. Recent studies suggest that there are notable exceptions. Electrical synapses are more common in the central nervous system than previously thought. Thus, rather than functioning as individual units, in some parts of the brain large ensembles of neurons may be active simultaneously to process neural information.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Ronald Ross was awarded basically for his discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite (as the citation goes: "for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism..."). In 1897, independent of Ross, Giovanni Battista Grassi, along with his Italian associates, had established the developmental stages of malaria parasites in anopheline mosquitoes; and they described the complete life cycles of "P. falciparum", "P. vivax" and "P. malariae" the following year. The initial opinion of the Nobel Committee was that the prize should be shared between Ross and Grassi. Then Ross made a defamatory campaign accusing Grassi of deliberate fraud. The weight of favour ultimately fell on Ross, largely upon the influences of Robert Koch, the appointed "neutral arbitrator" in the committee; as reported, "Koch threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor". The indelible irony was that Ross was definitely the first to show that malarial parasite was transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, in his case the avian "Plasmodium relictum". But Grassi's work was much more directly relevant to human health as he demonstrated that human malarial parasites were infected only by female "Anopheles" (Ross never identified the mosquito species, being not a zoologist, "grey mosquito with dappled wings" was all that he could offer). Grassi identified the species correctly, and in 1898 who first established the complete life cycle of "P. falciparum", the first human malarial parasite for which the entire cycle was determined. By today's standard, they should have undoubtedly shared the Nobel.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Oswald Theodore Avery, best known for his 1944 demonstration that DNA is the cause of bacterial transformation and potentially the material of which genes are composed, never received a Nobel Prize, although two Nobel Laureates, Joshua Lederberg and Arne Tiselius, praised him and his work as a pioneering platform for further genetic research. According to John M. Barry, in his book "The Great Influenza", the committee was preparing to award Avery, but declined to do so after the DNA findings were published, fearing that they would be endorsing findings that had not yet survived significant scrutiny.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Carlos Chagas' 1909 discovery of the tropical parasitic disease which bears his name, Chagas disease, has been looked on by some historical researchers as worthy of a Nobel prize, but may have been denied it because of misunderstandings and infighting between him and his colleges and government officials.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The Nobel Committee does not rescind Prizes, even when their validity is eventually disproven. For example, António Egas Moniz received the prize in 1949 for the prefrontal lobotomy which was bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: In 1936, the Nobel Foundation offended Adolf Hitler when it awarded the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize to Carl von Ossietzky, a German writer who publicly opposed Hitler and Nazism. (The prize was awarded the following year.) Hitler reacted by issuing a decree on 31 January 1937 that forbade German nationals to accept any Nobel Prize. Awarding the peace prize to Ossietzky was itself considered controversial. While Fascism had few supporters outside Italy, Spain, and Germany, those who did not necessarily sympathize felt that it was wrong to (deliberately) offend Germany.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Hitler's decree prevented three Germans from accepting their prizes: Gerhard Domagk (1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), Richard Kuhn (1938 Nobel Prize in Chemistry), and Adolf Butenandt (1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry). The three later received their certificates and medals, but not the prize money.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: On 19 October 1939, about a month and a half after World War II had started, the Nobel Committee of the Karolinska Institutet met to discuss the 1939 prize in physiology or medicine. The majority favoured Domagk and someone leaked the news, which traveled to Berlin. The Ministry of Culture in Berlin replied with a telegram stating that a Nobel Prize to a German was "completely unwanted" ("durchaus unerwünscht"). Despite the telegram, a large majority voted for Domagk on 26 October 1939. Once he learned of the decision, hopeful that it only applied to the peace prize, Domagk sent a request to the Ministry of Education in Berlin asking permission to accept the prize. Since he did not receive a reply after more than a week had passed, Domagk felt it would be impolite to wait any longer without responding, and on 3 November 1939 he wrote a letter to the Institute thanking them for the distinction, but added that he had to wait for the government's approval before he could accept the prize.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Domagk was subsequently ordered to send a copy of his letter to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Berlin, and on 17 November 1939, was arrested by the Gestapo. He was released after one week, then arrested again. On 28 November 1939, he was forced by the Ministry of Culture to sign a prepared letter, addressed to the institute, declining the prize. Since the Institute had already prepared his medal and diploma before the second letter arrived, they were able to award them to him later, during the 1947 Nobel festival. Domagk was the first to decline a prize. Due to his refusal, the procedures changed so that if a laureate declined the prize or failed to collect the prize award before 1 October of the following year, the money would not be awarded.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: On 9 November 1939, the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences awarded the 1938 Prize for Chemistry to Kuhn and half of the 1939 prize to Butenandt. When notified of the decision, the German scientists were forced to decline by threats of violence. Their refusal letters arrived in Stockholm after Domagk's refusal letter, helping to confirm suspicions that the German government had forced them to refuse the prize. In 1948, they wrote to the academy expressing their gratitude for the prizes and their regret for being forced to refuse them in 1939. They were awarded their medals and diplomas at a ceremony in July 1949.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Boris Pasternak at first accepted the 1958 Nobel Prize in Literature, but was forced by Soviet authorities to decline, because the prize was considered a "reward for the dissident political innuendo in his novel, "Doctor Zhivago"." Pasternak died without ever receiving the prize. He was eventually honoured by the Nobel Foundation at a banquet in Stockholm on 9 December 1989, when they presented his medal to his son.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The 2010 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Liu Xiaobo while he was serving a prison sentence for "subversion of the state", with the Chinese government not allowing him or his family members to attend the ceremony.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Two laureates voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. Jean-Paul Sartre declined the 1964 prize for Literature, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form." The second person who refused the prize is Lê Đức Thọ, who was awarded the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords. He declined, saying there was no actual peace in Vietnam. The war resumed four months after he was declared the winner.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: 1915 saw a newspaper rumor (starting with a 6 November Reuters report from London) along the lines that the Nobel Prize in Physics was to be awarded to both Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla. The story had gone to press in many publications before a 15 November Reuters story from Stockholm with the announcement that the prize that year was being awarded to William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays". There were unsubstantiated rumors at the time that Tesla and Edison had won the prize and that the Nobel committee had changed recipients when Tesla and/or Edison refused the award (a claim also made many years later attributed to Tesla). The Nobel Foundation declined to comment on the rumours other than saying, "Any rumor that a person has not been given a Nobel Prize because he has made known his intention to refuse the reward is ridiculous", further stating a recipient could only decline a Nobel Prize after he is announced a winner.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Otto Heinrich Warburg, a German national who won the 1931 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, was rumored to have been selected for the 1944 prize but forbidden to accept it. According to the Nobel Foundation, this story is not true.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Multiple primary fields of human intellectual endeavor—such as mathematics, philosophy and social studies—were not included among the Nobel Prizes, because they were not part of Alfred Nobel's will. When Jakob von Uexkull approached the Nobel Foundation with a proposal to establish two new awards for the environment and for the lives of the poor, he was turned down. He then established the Right Livelihood Award.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: In 2003 purportedly a new Nobel-equivalent Award was also created especially for mathematics, the Abel Prize, though the older Fields Medal is often considered as the mathematical Nobel equivalent.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: However, the Nobel Committee did allow the creation of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics. Many people have opposed this expansion, including the Swedish human rights lawyer Peter Nobel, a great-grandnephew of Alfred Nobel. In his speech at the 1974 Nobel banquet, awardee Friedrich Hayek stated that had he been consulted whether to establish an economics prize, he would "have decidedly advised against it" primarily because "the Nobel Prize confers on an individual an authority which in economics no man ought to possess... This does not matter in the natural sciences. Here the influence exercised by an individual is chiefly an influence on his fellow experts; and they will soon cut him down to size if he exceeds his competence. But the influence of the economist that mainly matters is an influence over laymen: politicians, journalists, civil servants and the public generally."


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The Kluge Prize, a $1 million prize given by the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress, is awarded for lifetime achievement in fields of humanistic and social science studies that are not included in the Nobel Prizes, most notably history, philosophy, politics, psychology, anthropology, sociology, religious studies, linguistics, and criticism in the arts and humanities.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The Shaw Prize is awarded for achievements in the fields of astronomy and mathematical sciences besides life science and medicine.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: The Tang Prize categories include areas of sustainable development and rule of law which are not included in Nobel Prize, and also include biopharmaceutical science and sinology. The panels of judges are convened by Academia Sinica, located in Taiwan, Republic of China.


title: Nobel Prize controversies

text: Following the announcement of the award of the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize to incarcerated Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo, the Chinese tabloid "Global Times" created the Confucius Peace Prize. The award ceremony was deliberately organized to take place on 8 December, one day before the Nobel ceremony. Organizers said that the prize had no relation to the Chinese government, the Ministry of Culture or Beijing Normal University.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Mike Vallely ( ), also known as Mike V, is an American professional skateboarder and musician. Since November 2013, he has been the lead vocalist of hardcore punk band Black Flag. Vallely is the second-longest-serving member of the band, although he has not appeared on any albums.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely grew up in Edison, New Jersey. He has an older brother, Joe, and a younger sister, Amy. Growing up, Vallely played little league baseball, but, in 1984, aged 14, Vallely discovered skateboarding and punk music, borrowed a skateboard from a friend and proceeded to dedicate his life to skateboarding.


title: Mike Vallely

text: At Christmas in 1984, Vallely's parents purchased a Jeff Phillips professional signature model skateboard for him. Besides street skating, Vallely also began vert skateboarding, and often skated at Tom Groholski's ramp, as well as The Barn Ramp, both of which are located in New Jersey. Vallely also skated at the Brooklyn Banks, a well-known skateboarding location under New York's Brooklyn Bridge.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 1986, Vallely moved with his family to Virginia Beach, Virginia, for a brief period and, while living there, befriended some local skaters at Kempsville High School. Skating with a local team called "Subculture", in the Kempsville area of Virginia Beach, Vallely tested his street skills in local contests, as well as on neighborhood quarter-pipe and launch ramps. In the spring of 1986, the Virginia Beach Skate park, Mount Trashmore, hosted a professional vert skateboard contest. Vallely and his friend began skating in the car park, adjacent to the vert ramp, during practice, and drew the attention of professional skateboarder, Neil Blender, from atop the ramp. Lance Mountain and Stacy Peralta, both of Powell Peralta and the Bones Brigade, were also impressed with Vallely. Seeing Vallely skate on a worn board, Mountain provided him with a brand new skateboard. Following the impromptu demo, Peralta offered Vallely an amateur sponsorship deal with Powell-Peralta Skateboards.


title: Mike Vallely

text: "Thrasher Magazine" photographed Vallely performing in the handplant circle, one of the photographs appearing on the cover of magazine's August 1986 issue. In July 1986, Vallely's new sponsor flew him to California to compete at the "Street Attack" contest, in Oceanside, California. Vallely won the amateur division, which led to a full-page spread in "Transworld Skateboarding"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s September issue. Also in 1986, Vallely appeared in the third Powell-Peralta video, "The Search for Animal Chin", which was released in 1987. Later that year, Vallely became a professional skateboarder at a vert contest in Toronto, Canada on May 31, 1987.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 1988, Powell-Peralta released Vallely's first professional signature model skateboard. Initially adorned with graphics of a large bug, which was later changed to a graphic that featured an elephant. In 1989, Vallely left Powell-Peralta, at which time the company was the largest skateboarding brand in the world. Following this departure, Vallely became involved with World Industries, a skater-run brand that was conceived of and launched with peers Steve Rocco, Jesse Martinez, and Rodney Mullen. World Industries created the second ever double-kick skateboard design (a skateboard deck with a kicktail at both ends). The first was the Vision Double Tail, which Vallely's double kick was modeled after but with a mellower kick and shorter tail than nose which would become the industry standard. A Vallely signature board was used for the new design's introduction into the retail market.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely was a part of World Industries until early 1991, when he joined New Deal Skateboards, where he stayed until January 1992, before starting the short-lived TV Skateboards with friend and professional skateboarder Ed Templeton. Due to health concerns and financial setbacks, TV Skateboards folded later that year, and Vallely returned to the newly reformed Powell Skateboards in 1993, where he stayed until 1997. Vallely then briefly rode for Transit Skateboards, before joining Black Label Skateboards in 1998, a company that he rode for until 2002. Vallely appeared in the Black Label video "Label Kills". Vallely founded Vallely Skateboards in 2002, after he left Black Label. Vallely Skateboards were distributed through Giant Distribution and eventually folded in 2003 due to poor growth.


title: Mike Vallely

text: From 2003 until 2010, Vallely rode for Element Skateboards, before leaving to start yet another company, By the Sword, with fellow skateboarder Jason Filipow. However, the company was short-lived, as Vallely joined the roster of a rejuvenated Powell Peralta Skateboards in late 2010 – his third time with Skate One Distribution – along with Airwalk Footwear and Bones Bearings. In mid-2011, Vallely joined Iron Fist Clothing, as well as Tork Trux as their first team rider, after noticing the company's innovative assembly method; however, Vallely quickly left Tork. A press release from the Swedish skate shoe company, Servant Footwear, was published in February 2013, announcing that Vallely was the first American ambassador and team rider for the brand.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In late 2011, Vallely again resigned from Powell-Peralta and founded Elephant Skateboards in December 2011. In April 2012, Jason Adams – formerly of Black Label and Enjoi – was added to the team roster. On a late June episode of the Ride Channel's "Weekend Buzz", the addition of Kyle Berard to the Elephant team roster was revealed.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In early 2015, Vallely launched a new skateboard company called "Street Plant". As of 2016, the Street Plant team roster includes Vallely, Kristian Svitak and Joey Jett. The company was inspired by the DIY ethic, which influenced Vallely deeply, and the constant pressure from sponsors which constrained his values. After cutting all ties with sponsorships, he established Street Plant along with his family, completely independent of industry financial, distribution and marketing support. Vallely is involved in the addition of personal artwork on the decks and complete skateboard ordered from his house in Long Beach, California.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely joined a band called Resistance in 1985, although he only played one live show with the group, in which the bands 7 Seconds and Aggression also played. Vallely was asked to leave the band for spending too much time on skateboarding.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely was the lead singer for Mike V & The Rats, and the band's song "The Days" appeared in the video game "Tony Hawk's Underground" (THUG). Their song "Never Give Up" appeared in THUG's successor, "Tony Hawk's Underground 2".


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 2003, Greg Ginn invited Vallely to sing for Black Flag at their 2003 reunion shows in Los Angeles, where he performed the entire "My War" album.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 2013, Vallely formed a band called Good for You with Greg Ginn. Their debut album was released on SST Records in February 2013.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In November 2013 during a Black Flag show in Australia, singer Ron Reyes was fired mid-show by the band with Vallely doing the duties of informing him and replacing him on vocals for the remainder of the show. Reyes said that his microphone was taken and he was told to get off the stage by Vallely: "'You're done, party's over get off it's over...' He said something else to me but it was a lie so I won't repeat it here. So with a sense of great relief that it was finally over I left the stage and walked to the hotel room. They finished the set with Mike V on vocals."


title: Mike Vallely

text: In January 2014, founding member Greg Ginn announced Vallely would be the new lead singer of Black Flag. In July 2015, Vallely put together the 'Switchblades & Urethane' music festival taking place at Alex's Bar in Long Beach, California.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely appears in the "Tony Hawk's" skateboarding video game series, from the fourth release ("Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4") onwards. He appears as a secret character in "Pro Skater 4", but has been featured more prominently in the subsequent releases. In the fifth game of the series, "Tony Hawk's Underground", Vallely's ingame character teaches a special trick in the game.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely released his own skateboarding video game for the iPhone and the iPod Touch, entitled "Mike V: Do or Die – Skateboarding", in February 2010.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 2010, Vallely signed a contract to play professional hockey for the Danbury Whalers of the Federal Hockey League, becoming the first-ever professional board sport athlete to play a traditional team sport at a professional level. In his first career game (October 23, 2010), he fought Joe Pelle of the Brooklyn Aviators, a career minor-league enforcer. Several seconds into the fight, Vallely lost his footing and landed awkwardly, breaking his right arm.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 2015, Vallely started his own podcast, "The Mike V Show", with his friend, author and podcaster Daniele Bolelli.


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely has appeared in several films, including "", "The Hangover, The Hangover Part III" and "XXX".


title: Mike Vallely

text: Vallely has been married to his wife Ann since 1992. The couple have two daughters, born in 1992 and 2001. His family has been key in the establishment of some of his ventures, such as Street Plant. They reside in Des Moines, Iowa.


title: Mike Vallely

text: As of 2016, Vallely only agrees to give interviews about animal rights and safety of children athletes.


title: Mike Vallely

text: At the age of seventeen, Vallely watched a television program about endangered African elephants which impacted and made him reflect on the harm that humans do to other species. This led him to become a vegetarian and subsequently vegan. His 1988 debut skateboard model had an African elephant as the artwork, because he wanted "to remind people" of them. His third signature model skateboard, 1989's "The Barnyard", had emblazoned the words "Please Don't Eat My Friends" and was one of the first models that promoted vegetarianism. Vallely's vocal opinions on this subject were typically met with derision by both skaters and promoters. In 1999, he and his family abandoned this lifestyle. He later stated that this decision was partly due to compromising himself to please his sponsors and that he felt "lost" for the next fifteen years.


title: Mike Vallely

text: In 2014, Vallely was touring with Black Flag as vocalist and before a show in Louisville, Kentucky he walked through the city and accidentally came across an open slaughterhouse, which "completely crumble[d]" him and motivated to change his diet again. After sharing this decision with his family, they all became vegans in 2015. In 2016, his two daughters and wife started the blog "The Vintage Vegans" which shares cruelty-free fashion and American cuisine options.


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: Jansen Rayne Panettiere (born September 25, 1994) is an American actor. He is known for his roles in films "The Perfect Game", "", "The Martial Arts Kid" and "How High 2". His elder sister is actress Hayden Panettiere.


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: Panettiere was born on September 25, 1994, in Palisades, New York, to Lesley R. Vogel, a former soap opera actress, and Alan Lee "Skip" Panettiere, a fire department lieutenant.


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: Jansen had a supporting role in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Tiger Cruise", which starred his sister Hayden (this is one of only two productions to date in which both siblings have featured onscreen, the other being "The Forger" – Jansen lent his voice to "Racing Stripes", in which Hayden appeared). He portrayed the voice of Truman X in "The X's". He starred as Lucas Malloy in the made-for-television Nickelodeon film "The Last Day of Summer", which first showed July 20, 2007. It was released on DVD on August 28, 2007.


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: His next film, "The Perfect Game", was going to be released in theaters on August 8, 2008, but Lionsgate Films decided to push it back to the spring of 2010. "The Perfect Game" is directed by William Dear, is based on the true story of how a group of boys from Monterrey, Mexico become the first non-U.S. team to win the Little League World Series. Panettiere also co-stars with Gavin MacLeod in "The Secrets of Jonathan Sperry", a film directed by Rich Christiano about faith and friendship. He appeared with Martin Sheen, Jamie Lee Curtis and Christine Lahti, as Elliott Perry in Dustin Lance Black's play "8", a reenactment of the Perry v. Schwarzenegger trial, at the Wilshire Ebell Theatre on March 3, 2012. The performance was broadcast on YouTube to raise money for the American Foundation for Equal Rights.


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: In 2019, Jansen guest starred in the AMC network series "The Walking Dead" and co-starred in MTV's "How High 2".


title: Jansen Panettiere

text: In 2008, Panettiere was nominated for a Young Artist Award at the Young Artist Awards for Best Performance in a TV Movie, Miniseries or Special by a Leading Young Actor for "The Last Day of Summer".


title: Least-concern species

text: A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. They do not qualify as threatened, near threatened, or (before 2001) conservation dependent.


title: Least-concern species

text: Species cannot be assigned the "Least Concern" category unless they have had their population status evaluated. That is, adequate information is needed to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution or population status.


title: Least-concern species

text: Since 2001 the category has had the abbreviation "LC", following the IUCN 2001 Categories & Criteria (version 3.1). Before 2001 "least concern" was a subcategory of the "Lower Risk" category and assigned the code "LR/lc" or lc. Around 20% of least concern taxa (3261 of 15636) in the IUCN database still use the code "LR/lc", which indicates they have not been re-evaluated since 2000.


title: Least-concern species

text: While "least concern" is not considered a "red listed" category by the IUCN, the 2006 IUCN Red List still assigns the category to 15636 taxa. The number of animal species listed in this category totals 14033 (which includes several undescribed species such as a frog from the genus "Philautus"). There are also 101 animal subspecies listed and 1500 plant taxa (1410 species, 55 subspecies, and 35 varieties). No fungi or protista have the classification, though only four species in those kingdoms have been evaluated by the IUCN. Humans were formally assessed as a species of least concern in 2008.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: The Gulf of Aden (, 𐒅𐒖𐒐𐒕𐒌 𐒋𐒖𐒆𐒗𐒒) is a deepwater gulf of the Indian Ocean between Yemen to the north, the Arabian Sea to the east, Djibouti to the west, and the Guardafui Channel, Socotra and Somalia to the south. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, and it connects with the Arabian Sea to the east. To the west, it narrows into the Gulf of Tadjoura in Djibouti.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: The ancient Greeks regarded the gulf as one of the most important parts of the Erythraean Sea. It later came to be dominated by Muslims, as the area around the gulf converted to Islam. From the late 1960s onwards, there started to be an increased Soviet naval presence in the Gulf. The importance of the Gulf of Aden declined when the Suez Canal was closed, but it was revitalized when the canal was reopened in 1975, after being deepened and widened by the Egyptian government.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: The waterway is part of the important Suez Canal shipping route between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean, with 21,000 ships crossing the gulf annually. This route is often used for the delivery of Persian Gulf oil, making the gulf an integral waterway in the world economy. Important cities along the Gulf of Aden include the namesake Aden in Yemen. Other Yemeni cities are Zinjibar, Shuqrah, Ahwar, Balhaf, Mukalla. On the Horn African side, the cities of Djibouti, Berbera and Bosaso.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: Despite a lack of large-scale commercial fishing facilities, the coastline supports many isolated fishing towns and villages. The Gulf of Aden is richly supplied with fish, turtles, and lobsters. Local fishing takes place close to the shore; sardines, tuna, kingfish, and mackerel make up the bulk of the annual catches. Crayfish and sharks are also fished locally.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: In antiquity, the modern-day Gulf of Aden was seen as an extension of the Erythraean Sea (Red Sea) , "Erythrà Thálassa" in Ancient Greek geography. The Greeks named several islands within the gulf, including Stratonis Insula, although it is no longer clear which existing islands had which Greek names.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: In Abu'l-Fida's, "A Sketch of the Countries" (), the present-day Gulf of Aden was called the Gulf of Berbera, which shows how important Berbera was in both regional and international trade during the medieval period.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: Legendary navigator Ibn Majid referred to the Gulf of Aden as the Gulf of Berbera in his 15th century magnum opus "The Book of the Benefits of the Principles and Foundations of Seamanship". In his description of the Somali coast and wider Indian Ocean he used the then contemporary reference to the Gulf as being named after Berbera like Abu'l-Fida before him. Berbera has been a prominent port since antiquity


title: Gulf of Aden

text: The temperature of the Gulf of Aden varies between and , depending on the season and the appearance of monsoons. The salinity of the gulf at depth varies from 35.3 ‰ along the eastern Somali coast to as high as 37.3 ‰ in the gulf's center, while the oxygen content in the Gulf of Aden at the same depth is typically between 4.0 and 5.0 mg/L.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: The Gulf of Aden is a vital waterway for shipping, especially for Persian Gulf oil, making it an integral waterway in the world economy. Approximately 11% of the world's seaborne petroleum passes through the Gulf of Aden on its way to the Suez Canal or to regional refineries. The main ports along the gulf are Aden, Balhaf, Bir Ali, Mukalla, and Shokra in Yemen; Djibouti City in Djibouti; Zeila, Berbera, Maydh and Las Khorey in Somaliland and Bosaso in Somalia.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: In antiquity, the gulf was a thriving area of international trade between Ptolemaic Egypt and Rome in the west and Classical India, its Indonesian colonies, and Han China in the east. It was not limited to transshipment, as Yemeni incense, tortoiseshell, and other goods were in high demand in both directions. After Egyptian sailors discovered the monsoon winds and began to trade directly with India, caravan routes and their associated kingdoms began to collapse, leading to a rise in piracy in the area. The 1st-century "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" documents one Egyptian captain's experiences during this era.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: After the collapse of the Roman economy, direct trade ceased but the Awsan I port Crater, located just south of the modern city of Aden, remained an important regional center. In late antiquity and the early medieval period, there were several invasions of Yemen from Ethiopia; after the rise of Islam, the gulf permitted repeated migrations of northwest Africa by Arab settlers.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: In the late 2000s, the gulf evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks in the waters had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols. India receives US$50 billion in imports and sends US$60 billion in exports through this area annually. Due to this, and for the sake of protecting the trade of other countries, India keeps a warship escort in this area.


title: Gulf of Aden

text: A geologically young body of water, the Gulf of Aden has a unique biodiversity that contains many varieties of fish, coral, seabirds and invertebrates. This rich ecological diversity has benefited from a relative lack of pollution during the history of human habitation around the gulf. However, environmental groups fear that the lack of a coordinated effort to control pollution may jeopardize the gulf's ecosphere. Whales, dolphins, and dugongs were once common before being severely reduced by commercial hunts, including by mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union and Japan in 1960s to 70s. Critically endangered Arabian humpback whales were once seen in large numbers, but only a few large whales still appear in the gulf waters, including Bryde's whales, blue whales, and toothed whales inhabiting deep-seas such as sperm whales and tropical bottlenose whales.


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: The 1991 NBA draft took place on June 26, 1991, in New York City, New York. Larry Johnson was selected first overall; he won the 1992 NBA Rookie of the Year award and as a two-time All-Star, was the first player to represent the Charlotte Hornets franchise at an All-Star game.


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: Dikembe Mutombo was selected fourth overall, and became one of the greatest defensive centers in the history of the league. He was a four-time NBA Defensive Player of the Year award winner and an eight-time All-Star, and played in the league for 18 seasons.


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: Other notable picks include Kenny Anderson, Steve Smith, Terrell Brandon, Dale Davis and Chris Gatling, who all made All-Star appearances, but with the exception of Brandon at two, each only appeared once.


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: The remaining picks in the first round failed to make an impact. Billy Owens was selected by the Sacramento Kings but refused to sign with them. He was traded to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for high-scoring guard Mitch Richmond, a trade that has been regarded as one of the most lopsided in NBA history. Owens was solid but unspectacular in his career, while Richmond was a six-time All-Star and was the 1989 NBA Rookie of the Year. Luc Longley was a three-time NBA Championship winner with the Chicago Bulls and held the record for playing the most NBA games by an Australian (broken by Andrew Bogut during the 2015–16 season).


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: As of 2011, two players are deceased: Bobby Phills and Bison Dele. Phills died in a car accident involving teammate David Wesley. Dele disappeared in the South Pacific in July 2002, with French authorities claiming that Dele's brother had killed Dele and his girlfriend and thrown them overboard the catamaran they were travelling on. Dele's brother committed suicide in September 2002.


title: 1991 NBA draft

text: These eligible players were not selected in the 1991 NBA draft but have played at least one game in the NBA.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Acrimony is a 2018 American psychological thriller film written, produced and directed by Tyler Perry. The film stars Taraji P. Henson, Lyriq Bent and Crystle Stewart. It follows a loyal wife who decides to take revenge on her ex-husband who has wronged her in life. Principal photography began in October 2016 in Pittsburgh. "Acrimony" was released in the United States by Lionsgate on March 30, 2018. It received generally negative reviews and grossed $46 million worldwide.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Melinda Moore is a steadfast, hardworking wife who supports her husband, Robert Gayle, an engineer trying to sell an innovative battery design. A running total/dwindling balance of the proceeds Melinda receives after her mother's death is portrayed as the couple gets in over their heads in debt, which fractures their marriage over time. The film is divided into categories based in the emotional spectrum that Melinda experiences, as follows:


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Melinda bumps into engineering student Robert during college, goes into a rage and assaults him physically and verbally, revealing her normal tendencies. Later that day he appears at her dorm room to return some papers that got mixed up when they bumped into each other, and they gradually become close. On the day of her mother's funeral, Robert comforts Melinda, leading to them having sex, and the pair start dating. Melinda frequently listens to Robert speak about his life and she decides to buy him a new car. Although he did not ask her to buy the car, he accepts it. Melinda believes he is aware of his own influence on her but she strives to please him anyway. Melinda later visits Robert at his RV and discovers him cheating on her with a woman named Diana Wells. She goes into another rage and rams the RV with her car with both the two lovers inside, seriously injuring herself in the process. Melinda destroys Robert's car before passing out from injury and is rushed to the hospital for an emergency full hysterectomy, rendering her unable to bear children. Melinda and Robert reconcile and marry, despite the objections of her sisters, June and Brenda. Brenda warns Melinda not to tell Robert about the amount of money their mother left her.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Years later, Melinda supports them both, as Robert is unable to find work because he was a felon and spent two years in prison for robbing a grocery store. June and Brenda are leery of Robert's intentions with Melinda's inheritance. Robert talks Melinda into mortgaging their house so he can build a prototype of a revolutionary battery he has been designing since prison, which he hopes to sell to Prescott, a venture capitalist. Diana, now working as an assistant to Prescott, arranges for Robert to have a meeting with him. After finding Diana's wallet in Robert's truck, June and Brenda tell Melinda that Robert is cheating on her. Melinda's family runs a catering business and they offer Robert a job, warning him that if they miss out on delivering to a client they will lose their truck contract. As Robert is in route to his delivery, he gets a call from Diana saying Prescott wants to reconsider his deal. This causes Robert to abandon his delivery job during mid-route. Prescott offers Robert $800,000 for the design, but Robert wants to license the technology to them instead and declines the offer. Melinda, furious at both Robert's declining of Prescott's offer and his interaction with Diana, files for divorce and moves in with Brenda. Robert moves into a homeless shelter, but Diana finds out and insists that he live with her.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Prescott reconsiders and offers Robert a multimillion-dollar deal while allowing him to keep the intellectual property of the battery technology proprietary, which he accepts. Robert visits Melinda at work, although she refuses to reconcile. Robert accepts her decision but, as an apology to her and much to Melinda's surprise, gives her $10 million and buys back her home.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: After showing her sisters the money Robert has given her and berating them for their influence, Melinda visits Robert in his new penthouse apartment and attempts to seduce him and rekindle their relationship, but Diana comes in and introduces herself as Robert's fiancée.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Angry and hurt, Melinda becomes obsessed with the couple and swears to destroy them. Melinda sues Robert and Diana, claiming that the deal with Prescott happened before their divorce, but the case is dismissed. Robert and Diana file a countersuit against Melinda and obtain restraining orders. Melinda retaliates by visiting the bridal shop and destroying Diana's wedding gown with hydrochloric acid, although she is caught and sentenced to court-mandated counseling, where she tells her therapist that Robert took advantage of her. Her therapist suggests that she may have borderline personality disorder. Melinda's mental state further deteriorates after learning Diana is pregnant. On Robert's wedding day, her family and friends are forced to prevent Melinda from leaving her house and ruining the wedding.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Robert and Diana leave on their honeymoon cruise. Melinda sneaks onto the boat, shoots Robert, and makes the crew of the boat jump overboard. Melinda attempts to shoot Diana but Robert tells Diana to take the dinghy and rescue the crew before overpowering Melinda and throwing her in the water. Melinda returns and attempts to kill Robert with an axe but is trapped by the anchor that pulls her off and into the ocean, thus she drowns. Diana returns with the crew and comforts a bleeding Robert.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Filming took place around Pittsburgh and Atlanta in fall 2016. Tika Sumpter originally was cast as Diana Wells, but later left and Crystle Stewart took the role.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: The film was released in the United States on March 30, 2018. It was originally titled "She's Living My Life".


title: Acrimony (film)

text: "Acrimony" has grossed $43.5million in the United States and Canada, and $2.8million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $46.3million.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Acrimony" was released alongside "" and "Ready Player One", and was projected to gross $10–15 million from 2,006 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $7.6 million on its first day, including $1 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $17.2 million, finishing second, behind "Ready Player One", and besting both projections and the $10 million opening of Henson's "Proud Mary" two months earlier. It fell 51.2% in its second weekend to $8.4 million, finishing fifth.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Tyler Perry's "Acrimony" might be of interest to hardcore Tyler Perry fans, but all other viewers are advised to make time for another "Fatal Attraction" screening instead." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 32 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Acrimony (film)

text: Monica Castillo of RogerEbert.com gave the film a negative review, writing that "Taraji P. Henson deserves better." Ben Kenigsberg of "The New York Times" also gave the film a negative review, writing that "the moral of "Acrimony" seems to be: Leave a bad man, especially one who cheated on you before marriage and leeches off your financial resources — unless he has poured his life into the dream of inventing a self-recharging battery, in which case the bonds of matrimony are sacrosanct and no sacrifice is too great." He further wrote that the film itself was "endorsing the logic that keeps spouses Stockholm syndrome'd in bad marriages".


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The 1st millennium BC, also known as the last millennium BC, was the period of time lasting from the years 1000 BC to 1 BC (10th to 1st centuries BC; in astronomy: JD – ). It encompasses the Iron Age in the Old World and sees the transition from the Ancient Near East to classical antiquity.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: World population roughly doubled over the course of the millennium, from about 100 million to about 200–250 million.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The Neo-Assyrian Empire dominates the Near East in the early centuries of the millennium, supplanted by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century. Ancient Egypt is in decline, and falls to the Achaemenids in 525 BC.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: In Greece, Classical Antiquity begins with the colonization of Magna Graecia and peaks with the conquest of the Achaemenids and the subsequent flourishing of Hellenistic civilization (4th to 2nd centuries).


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The Roman Republic supplants the Etruscans and then the Carthaginians (5th to 3rd centuries). The close of the millennium sees the rise of the Roman Empire. The early Celts dominate Central Europe while Northern Europe is in the Pre-Roman Iron Age. In East Africa, the Nubian Empire and Aksum arise.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: In South Asia, the Vedic civilization gives rise to the Maurya Empire. The Scythians dominate Central Asia. In China, the Zhou dynasty rules the Chinese heartland at the beginning of the millennium. The decline of the Zhou dynasty during Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period sees the rise of such philosophical and spiritual traditions as Confucianism and Taoism. Towards the close of the millennium, the Han Dynasty extends Chinese power towards Central Asia, where it borders on Indo-Greek and Iranian states. Japan is in the Yayoi period.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The Olmec civilization declines, and the Maya and Zapotec civilizations emerge in Mesoamerica. The Chavín culture flourishes in Peru.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The first millennium BC is the formative period of the classical world religions, with the development of early Judaism and Zoroastrianism in the Near East, and Vedic religion and Vedanta, Jainism and Buddhism in India. Early literature develops in Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Tamil and Chinese. The term Axial Age, coined by Karl Jaspers, is intended to express the crucial importance of the period of c. the 8th to 2nd centuries BC in world history.


title: 1st millennium BC

text: Close to 90% of world population at the end of the first millennium BC lived in the Iron Age civilizations of the Old World (Roman Empire, Parthian Empire, Graeco-Indo-Scythian and Hindu kingdoms, Han China).


title: 1st millennium BC

text: The population of the Americas was below 20 million, concentrated in Mesoamerica (Epi-Olmec culture);


title: 1st millennium BC

text: that of Sub-Saharan Africa was likely below 10 million. The population of Oceania was likely less than one million people.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nina Ann Nunes (; born December 3, 1985) is an American former mixed martial artist who most competed in the women's flyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes was born and raised in Weston, Florida. Her maternal grandparents descend from North Macedonia. Nunes started practicing Taekwondo at the age of 6. She wrestled while at Lake Region High School. She began training in mixed martial arts in 2009 as a way to lose weight and to help keep in shape following a motorcycle accident.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes made her professional debut in 2010 competing in regional promotions, and amassed a record of 5–3 before joining Invicta FC.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes made her promotional debut against Munah Holland on December 7, 2013 at Invicta FC 7. Nunes won the fight via TKO in the third round and earned the "Knockout of the Night" bonus award.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes made her debut in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) against Juliana Lima on November 8, 2014 at UFC Fight Night 56. Nunes lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes was expected to face Rose Namajunas on May 23, 2015 at UFC 187. Nunes missed weight on her first attempt at the weigh-ins, coming in 4 lbs overweight at 120 lbs. After having made no attempts to cut further, she was fined 20 percent of her fight purse, which went to Namajunas. However, on the day of the event, Nunes was pulled out of the bout by UFC doctors after contracting a case of the flu. As a result, Namajunas was pulled from the event entirely.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes next faced Justine Kish at UFC 195 on January 2, 2016. She lost the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes faced Jocelyn Jones-Lybarger at on January 15, 2017. She won the fight via submission in the third round.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes faced Cláudia Gadelha on December 8, 2018 at UFC 231. She won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Nina Nunes

text: On October 10, 2019, Nunes announced that she would put her mixed martial arts career on hold in order to attempt to have her first child. The attempts were successful as in March 2020, her wife Amanda Nunes announced that the couple is expecting their first child, to be born later that year. Nina Nunes gave birth to a daughter in September 2020.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes faced Mackenzie Dern on April 10, 2021 at UFC on ABC 2. She lost the bout via first round armbar.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes was scheduled to face Amanda Lemos on December 18, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 199. However, Nunes was removed from the bout for undisclosed reason and she was replaced by Angela Hill.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes was scheduled to face Cynthia Calvillo in a flyweight bout on July 9, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 39. However, the day of the event, Nunes withdrew due to illness and the bout was initially cancelled, but eventually rescheduled for UFC on ESPN 41 on August 13, 2022. Nunes won the fight via split decision, and she announced her retirement after the fight.


title: Nina Nunes

text: Nunes is married to fellow UFC fighter Amanda Nunes, the reigning UFC Women's Bantamweight and Featherweight champion. On March 6, 2020, she announced that she was expecting a girl, due date being in September 2020. The couple welcomed a daughter on September 24, 2020. In April 2021 she began using the last name Nunes within the UFC. Her April 10 fight against Mackenzie Dern was her first fight under her new last name.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The Sydney Metro is a fully automated rapid transit system serving the city of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Currently consisting of one line that opened on 26 May 2019, it runs from Tallawong to Chatswood and consists of 13 stations and of twin tracks, mostly underground. Work is progressing to extend this line from Chatswood to Bankstown, running under Sydney Harbour and the Sydney Central Business District (CBD) with a scheduled 2024 completion. When completed, this line will have of twin tracks and 31 stations.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Two additional lines have been announced; Sydney Metro Western Sydney Airport and Sydney Metro West. Sydney Metro Western Sydney Airport will run approximately 23 km from St Marys to the planned Aerotropolis Core. It will comprise six stations and service the new Western Sydney International (Nancy-Bird Walton) Airport upon opening in 2026.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Sydney Metro West will run approximately 24 km from Westmead to the Sydney CBD. It is planned to comprise nine stations, serviced by underground twin tracks. The line will also service Parramatta and Sydney Olympic Park upon opening in 2030.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Sydney Metro is Australia's first fully automated (driverless) rapid transit system. There have been plans for an underground metro system for the city as early as 2001, with unsuccessful attempts to build a line between 2008 and 2010. Despite extensive plans, disputes over privatisation and funding had hampered government approval, delaying its inception. Government approval for what was initially known as the North West Rail Link, Sydney's first underground metro, was given in 2013. Later, the route was extended and the name changed to Sydney Metro.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The network is controlled by the Sydney Metro agency, under the umbrella of Transport for NSW. Services are operated by Metro Trains Sydney and integrated with the established Sydney Trains network.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The first proposals for a metro system in Sydney were put forward in 2001, when Co-ordinator-General of Rail Ron Christie released his "Long-term Strategic Plan for Rail" report, outlining long-term goals for the expansion of the rail network. He suggested that some "metro" lines—operationally independent from the existing network—should be constructed past 2020 due to capacity constraints. This was later dismissed by the New South Wales Government as only a "shopping list" of potential projects.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The idea for a metro resurfaced in late 2007 when discussions about an underground 'Anzac Line' took place within the NSW Government. The line would have run from West Ryde in Sydney's northwest to Malabar in the southeast but did not come to fruition. In early 2008, following the shelving of various heavy rail expansion projects from the 2005 Metropolitan Rail Expansion Program (MREP), the Government officially announced the North West Metro. Expected to cost $12 billion, it would have linked Rouse Hill in Sydney's northwest with the CBD, with construction starting in 2010 and finishing in 2017.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The construction of the North West Metro was however dependent on the privatisation of the electricity network, and after a change of the state's Premier in late 2008, it was cancelled due to budgetary concerns. Its replacement was the , $4 billion CBD Metro, a shortened route running from Rozelle in the inner-west and into the CBD through to Central railway station. Construction was scheduled to start in 2010, like its predecessor, but finished earlier in 2015. The CBD Metro was to have formed the "central spine" of a future metro network, with a planned West Metro extension to Westmead and Parramatta to be constructed soon after, subject to Federal funding. Reception to the plans was mixed, with Opposition leader Barry O'Farrell accusing the Premier of "making it up as he goes along" after costings weren't released until after the press conference, and criticism came from the Greens because the route seemed designed to pass through marginal electoral seats. The Government's initial submission to Infrastructure Australia for funding was rejected due to "a lack of integrated planning". It was later revealed that the cost had jumped from $4 billion to $5.3 billion in six months, and internal estimates showed that the metro would run at only 15% of its maximum capacity.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The CBD Metro was cancelled in early 2010 after the Premier was deposed a few months before in 2009. The Government had spent almost $410 million on the project. The new Premier Kristina Keneally chose instead to focus on the expansion of the existing heavy rail network, including the North West Rail Link and South West Rail Link.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In mid-2012, the newly elected Coalition government announced Sydney's Rail Future and the NSW Transport Masterplan. Under this proposal, the North West Rail Link would be built as a single-deck, privately operated metro connecting to a future second harbour crossing. These plans received criticism on the basis that they might not have the capacity of existing double-deck trains and concerns over the inability of trains on the existing network to use the new crossing.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In 2014, the Government announced the second harbour crossing under the name Sydney Rapid Transit, as part of the 'Rebuilding NSW' infrastructure plan funded through the sale of electricity infrastructure. The new railway would cross Sydney Harbour, tunnel beneath the CBD, and join the Bankstown line which would be converted to metro standards.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The system was officially renamed 'Sydney Metro' in June 2015 following the passage of power privatisation bills. Opposing parties warned the government that the sale of the power infrastructure may not provide the capital needed.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In July 2018, Sydney Metro was established as a statutory authority, tasked with leading the delivery of the metro system. , Peter Regan is the Chief Executive of the agency.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Sydney Metro services are operated by Metro Trains Sydney, a joint venture between MTR Corporation, John Holland Group, and UGL Rail, who will operate and maintain the network under a 15-year contract. The network is fully automated to the GoA4 level and uses CBTC signalling throughout.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The Metro North West Line is currently the only line in the Sydney Metro network, linking Tallawong to Chatswood with 13 stations along a 36 km distance. Since July 2019, services take 37 minutes from end to end, at a frequency of every 4 minutes during peak hours and every 10 minutes at all other times. Before that, for the first few weeks after opening, the line operated once every 5 minutes during the peak hours until it was increased to every 4 minutes.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Services began on 26 May 2019. For the first 6 months of operation, they were supplemented with trackwork-style rail replacement buses for late-night services from Sundays to Wednesdays.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Stage 1 (Metro North West) operates with 6-car trains running on 4-minute headways. After the addition of the Stage 2 extension to Bankstown, the stations’ platforms will be configured to allow for future use of 8-car trains and the signalling system designed to allow for 2-minute headways, both of which are planned to be introduced once sufficient patronage demands it. Eight-car trains have a design capacity of 1,539 customers and increasing the running frequency to ultimately 30 trains per hour (2-minute headway) would provide a maximum capacity of 46,170 passengers per hour per direction.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The network operates using 22 6-car Metropolis Stock trains, which are fully automated electric multiple units. Each single-deck train features two dedicated areas for prams, luggage and bicycles. There are three doorways per side per carriage and no internal doors between the carriages. In a 6-car configuration, the trains have a seating capacity of 378 people, with a total capacity of 1,100. Seating arrangements on the Alstom trains are longitudinal, following the style of most other metro trains. The trains utilise Alstom's trademark Urbalis 400 Grade-of-Automation signalling system that ensures that trains are capable of operating automatically at all times including door closing, obstacle detection and emergencies.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Before the introduction of services, a full-scale model of the new train was built for use on public display, including at the annual Sydney Royal Easter Show. The trains were built at Alstom's rolling stock manufacturing facility in India, with the first six-car Sydney Metro train arriving in Rouse Hill on 26 September 2017 to undergo testing.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In February 2018, dynamic testing on the first of the trainsets began. Testing was done on brakes, passenger information displays, lighting and door operation.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The following table lists patronage figures for the network during the corresponding financial year. Major events that affected the number of journeys made or how patronage is measured are included as notes.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Sydney Metro uses the Opal card ticketing system. The fare system is fully integrated with the Sydney Trains network and the NSW TrainLink Intercity network - trips involving suburban, metro and intercity services are calculated as a single fare and there is no interchange penalty. Students who use the Sydney Metro network to get to and from schools can apply for a free School Opal card. Opal is also valid on bus, ferry, and light rail services but separate fares apply for these modes. The following table lists Opal fares for reusable smartcards and single trip tickets:


title: Sydney Metro

text: As there are no return or periodical options available, reusable Opal cards include several caps to reduce the cost for frequent travellers:


title: Sydney Metro

text: The first stage connects Sydney's north-western suburbs to Chatswood. It consists of of new track between Rouse Hill and Epping, which includes eight new stations. At Epping, the line connects to the existing Epping to Chatswood rail link, which was converted from heavy rail to rapid transit standards and segregated from the existing Sydney Trains network. Passengers can interchange with the existing system at both Epping and Chatswood. Construction on Sydney Metro Northwest began in late 2013. The line opened on 26 May 2019.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In November 2016, Sydney Metro, in particular, the John Holland Group, Dragados and Transport for NSW, were awarded the 2016 NSW Premier's Award for Building Infrastructure for the 15 km twintunnels in Bella Vista and Epping, which are currently the longest tunnels constructed in Australia. The completion of these tunnels in early 2016 marked the completion of the first stage of Sydney Metro Northwest. The NSW Premier's award recognises "infrastructure projects in the state that make a difference to the local community".


title: Sydney Metro

text: The second stage will extend Sydney Metro Northwest from on the North Shore, to , in the south of the city centre. The centrepiece of the project is a new twin-tunnel rail crossing under Sydney Harbour. From Central, the new track will be built to Sydenham railway station. From Sydenham, the existing Bankstown railway line as far as Bankstown railway station will be converted from heavy rail to rapid transit standard. Construction on Sydney Metro City & Southwest began in mid-2017. The line is planned to open in 2024.


title: Sydney Metro

text: Together with planned improvements to the Main Western line, the project is expected to increase capacity on the Sydney rail network by up to 60%, and allow for the movement of over 100,000 extra commuters across the network every hour. The City & Southwest extension represents the first phase of the "southern sector conversion" envisaged in "Sydney's Rail Future".


title: Sydney Metro

text: Sydney Metro West is a separate line between the Sydney CBD and Westmead. The line was announced as an official project on 14 November 2016, with up to 12 stations being considered including station locations at Parramatta, Sydney Olympic Park, Five Dock, the Bays Precinct and the CBD. In March 2018, the government announced that an additional station would be built at Westmead, as well as one that connected to either of the existing stations at Concord West or North Strathfield.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The 2019-2020 New South Wales state budget in June 2019 allocated funding of $6.4 billion over four years to the project, with construction to be fast-tracked to start in 2020.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The government announced and confirmed seven station locations along the line in 2019, with a further 2 stations announced in 2021. Initial work is expected to start in 2020, with tunnelling to begin in 2022. The line is expected to open to the public by 2030.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In March 2018, the federal and state governments signed the Western Sydney City Deal and announced the development of stage 1 of the North-South Link as part of the deal. Stage 1 of the Western Sydney Airport line will operate between St Marys and Badgerys Creek Aerotropolis via Western Sydney Airport. The line is expected to start construction in late 2020 and to be completed in 2026 in time for the opening of the airport.


title: Sydney Metro

text: In the 2019-2020 federal budget in April 2019, the federal government announced a contribution of $3.5 billion to deliver stage 1 of the rail link. This funding also includes $50 million towards the business case process for the North-South Rail Link and $61 million for the Elizabeth Drive overpass. In the 2019–2020 New South Wales state budget in June 2019, the state government announced an investment of $2.0 billion to commence the construction of stage 1 for the next 4 years.


title: Sydney Metro

text: This line will have a much higher voltage than that of the North West, City & Southwest lines, this time a single-phase alternating current at 50 Hz.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The Western Sydney Airport line is planned to be extended to connect to the Northwest line in Tallawong, and the Sydney Trains North Shore & Western and Cumberland lines at Schofields to the north, as well as the Airport & South Line at Macarthur to the south. The West line would also be extended from Westmead to the Western Sydney Airport.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The second phase of the southern sector conversion would see two of the four tracks between Sydenham and Hurstville, part of the Sydney Trains Illawarra line, converted to rapid transit and added to the Sydney Metro network. This would increase rail capacity between Hurstville and the city by 10 trains per hour. Though a precise construction timeframe was not provided, the plan envisages all work being completed by 2031. The Hurstville conversion would add eight stations and to the metro network. Developing plans for this extension has proven difficult, and the "Sydney Morning Herald" reported in February 2016 that the project may have been dropped.


title: Sydney Metro

text: The South East Sydney Transport Strategy of the New South Wales government envisions a metro line starting from the CBD with stations at Green Square, Randwick, two at Maroubra, Malabar and La Perouse built by 2041, as well as another one from Randwick to Eastlakes and, via the Domestic and International terminals of Sydney Airport, further on to Brighton-Le-Sands and then Kogarah by 2056.


title: Sydney Metro

text: A "Seven News" documentary on the early construction of part of the Sydney Metro aired on the Seven Network on 14 July 2016 titled "World's Best Metro".


title: Sydney Metro

text: A multi-part SBS documentary on the tunnelling for the metro titled "Sydney's Super Tunnel" aired in 2020.


title: Socioeconomics

text: Socioeconomics (also known as social economics) is the social science that studies how economic activity affects and is shaped by social processes. In general it analyzes how modern societies progress, stagnate, or regress because of their local or regional economy, or the global economy.


title: Socioeconomics

text: “Socioeconomics” is sometimes used as an umbrella term for various areas of inquiry. The term “social economics” may refer broadly to the "use of economics in the study of society". More narrowly, contemporary practice considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets" (not excluding, for example, sorting by marriage) and the formation of social norms. In the relation of economics to social values.


title: Socioeconomics

text: A distinct supplemental usage describes social economics as "a discipline studying the reciprocal relationship between economic science on the one hand and social philosophy, ethics, and human dignity on the other" toward social reconstruction and improvement or as also emphasizing multidisciplinary methods from such fields as sociology, history, and political science. In criticizing mainstream economics for its alleged faulty philosophical premises (for example the pursuit of self-interest) and neglect of dysfunctional economic relationships, such advocates tend to classify social economics as heterodox.


title: Socioeconomics

text: The socioeconomic system at the regional level refers to the way social and economic factors influence one another in local communities and households. These systems have a significant impact on the environment through deforestation, pollution, natural disasters, and energy production and use. Through telecoupled systems, these interactions can lead to global impact. Local economies, food insecurity, and environmental hazards are all negative effects that are a direct outcome of socioeconomic systems.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The Croat–Bosniak War was a conflict between the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, supported by Croatia, that lasted from 18 October 1992 to 23 February 1994.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: It is often referred to as a "war within a war" because it was part of the larger Bosnian War. In the beginning, Bosniaks and Croats fought in an alliance against the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS). By the end of 1992, however, tensions between Bosniaks and Croats increased. The first armed incidents between them occurred in October 1992 in central Bosnia. Their military alliance held out until early 1993 when their cooperation fell apart and the two former allies engaged in open conflict.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The Croat–Bosniak War escalated in central Bosnia and soon spread to Herzegovina, with most of the fighting taking place in those two regions. The Bosniaks were organized in the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), and Croats in the Croatian Defence Council (HVO). The war generally consisted of sporadic conflicts with numerous ceasefires signed in the course of it. However, it was not an all-out war between the Bosniaks and Croats and they remained allied in other regions – mainly Bihać, Sarajevo and Tešanj. Several peace plans were proposed by the international community during the war, but each of them failed. On 23 February 1994, a ceasefire was reached, and an agreement ending the hostilities was signed in Washington on 18 March 1994, by which time the HVO had significant territorial losses. The agreement led to the establishment of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and joint operations against the Serb forces, which helped alter the military balance and bring the Bosnian War to an end.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted 17 HVO and Herzeg-Bosnia officials, six of whom were convicted for participating together with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and other top Croatian officials, in a Joint Criminal Enterprise that sought to annex or control Croat-majority parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and ethnically cleanse Bosnian Muslims. Two ARBiH officials were also convicted for war crimes committed during the conflict. The ICTY ruled that Croatia had overall control over the HVO and that Croatia sent its army into Bosnia, which made the conflict international.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: In November 1990, the first free elections were held in Bosnia and Herzegovina, putting nationalist parties into power. These were the Party of Democratic Action (SDA), led by Alija Izetbegović, the Serbian Democratic Party (SDS), led by Radovan Karadžić, and the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH), led by Stjepan Kljuić. Izetbegović was elected as the Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Jure Pelivan, of the HDZ, was elected as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Momčilo Krajišnik, of the SDS, was elected as the speaker of Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: In 1990 and 1991, Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina had proclaimed a number of "Serbian Autonomous Regions" with the intent of later unifying them to create a Greater Serbia. Serbs used the well equipped Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) in defending these territories. As early as September or October 1990, the JNA had begun arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias. By March 1991, the JNA had distributed an estimated 51,900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23,298 firearms to the SDS.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: In early 1991, the leaders of the six republics began a series of meetings to solve the crisis in Yugoslavia. The Serbian leadership favoured a federal solution, whereas the Croatian and Slovenian leadership favoured an alliance of sovereign states. Izetbegović proposed an asymmetrical federation on 22 February, where Slovenia and Croatia would maintain loose ties with the 4 remaining republics. Shortly after that, he changed his position and opted for a sovereign Bosnia as a prerequisite for such a federation.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The ICTY states that Croatian President Franjo Tuđman's ultimate goal in Bosnia was to create a "Greater Croatia", based on the borders of the Croatian Banovina, which would include western Herzegovina, Posavina and other parts of Bosnia with majority Croat populations. Because he knew the international community opposed the division of Bosnia, Tuđman pursued a dual policy: on the one hand proclaiming his formal support for the unity of Bosnia, while on the other seeking to divide Bosnia between Croats and Serbs. On 25 March 1991, Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo, reportedly to discuss the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: On 6 June, Izetbegović and Macedonian president Kiro Gligorov proposed a weak confederation between Croatia, Slovenia, and a federation of the other four republics, which was rejected by Milošević. On 13 July, the government of Netherlands, then the presiding EC country, suggested to other EC countries that the possibility of agreed changes to Yugoslav Republics borders should be explored, but the proposal was rejected by other members. In July 1991, Radovan Karadžić, president of the SDS, and Muhamed Filipović, vice president of the Muslim Bosniak Organisation (MBO), drafted an agreement between the Serbs and Bosniaks which would leave Bosnia in a state union with SR Serbia and SR Montenegro. The HDZ BiH and the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SDP BiH) denounced the agreement, calling it an anti-Croat pact and a betrayal. Although initially welcoming the initiative, Izetbegović also dismissed the agreement.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: From July 1991 to January 1992, during the Croatian War of Independence, the JNA and Serb paramilitaries used Bosnian territory to wage attacks on Croatia. The Croatian government began arming Croats in the Herzegovina region as early as October or November 1991, expecting that the Serbs would spread the war into Bosnia and Herzegovina. It also helped arm the Bosniak community. By late 1991, about 20,000 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from the Herzegovina region, enlisted in the Croatian National Guard. During the war in Croatia, Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović gave a televised proclamation of neutrality, stating that "this is not our war", and the Sarajevo government was not taking defensive measures against a probable attack by the Bosnian Serbs and the JNA. Izetbegović agreed to disarm the existing Territorial Defense (TO) forces on the demand of the JNA. This was defied by Bosnian Croats and Bosniak organizations that gained control of many facilities and weapons of the TO. On 21 September 1991, Ante Paradžik, the vice-president of the Croatian Party of Rights (HSP) and Croat-Bosniak alliance advocate, was killed by Croatian police in mysterious circumstances.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: On 12 November 1991, on a meeting chaired by Dario Kordić and Mate Boban, local party leaders of the HDZ BiH reached an agreement to undertake a policy of achieving an "age-old dream, a common Croatian State" and decided that the proclamation of a Croatian banovina in Bosnia and Herzegovina should be the "initial phase leading towards the final solution of the Croatian question and the creation of a sovereign Croatia within its ethnic and historical [...] borders." On the same day, the Croatian Community of Bosnian Posavina was proclaimed in municipalities of northwest Bosnia. On 18 November, the autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia (HZ-HB) was established, it claimed it had no secessionary goal and that it would serve a "legal basis for local self-administration". It vowed to respect the Bosnian government under the condition that Bosnia and Herzegovina was independent of "the former and every kind of future Yugoslavia." Boban was established as its president. From its inception the leadership of Herzeg-Bosnia and HVO held close relations to the Croatian government and the Croatian Army (HV). At a session of the Supreme State Council of Croatia, Tuđman said that the establishment of Herzeg-Bosnia was not a decision to separate from Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 23 November, the Bosnian government declared Herzeg-Bosnia unlawful.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The HDZ BiH leadership was split regarding the establishment of the two Croatian communities. The president of the party, Stjepan Kljuić, opposed the move, while party representatives from Herzegovina, Central Bosnia and Bosnian Posavina supported it. On 27 December 1991, the leadership of the HDZ of Croatia and of HDZ BiH held a meeting in Zagreb chaired by Tuđman. They discussed Bosnia and Herzegovina's future, their differences in opinion on it, and the creation of a Croatian political strategy. Kljuić favored that Croats stay within a unified Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Bosniak line. He was criticized by Tuđman for acceding to Izetbegović's policies. Boban held that, in the event of Bosnia and Herzegovina's disintegration or if it remained in Yugoslavia, Herzeg-Bosnia should be proclaimed an independent Croatian territory "which will accede to the State of Croatia but only at such time as the Croatian leadership [...] should decide." Kordić, the vice president of Herzeg-Bosnia, claimed that the spirit of Croats in Herzeg-Bosnia had grown stronger since its declaration and that Croats in the Travnik region were prepared to become a part of the Croatian State "at all costs [...] any other option would be considered treason, save the clear demarcation of Croatian soil in the territory of Herceg-Bosna."


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: At the same meeting, Tuđman stated that "from the perspective of sovereignty, Bosnia-Herzegovina has no prospects" and recommended that Croatian policy should be one of "support for the sovereignty [of Bosnia and Herzegovina] until such time as it no longer suits Croatia." He based this on the belief that the Serbs did not accept Bosnia and Herzegovina and that Bosnian representatives did not believe in it and wished to remain in Yugoslavia. Tuđman declared "it is time that we take the opportunity to gather the Croatian people inside the widest possible borders". Tudjman then described a proposed partition of Bosnia among Croatia and Serbia, “where Croatia would get the areas...in the community of Herceg-Bosnia and the community of Croatian Posavina, and probably for geopolitical reasons in Cazin, in the Bihać region, which would provide almost optimal satisfaction of Croatian national interests”. From the remainder, Tuđman says a mini-state of Bosnia could be created around Sarajevo that would then serve as a buffer between Croatia and Serbia in the partitioned Bosnia. Tuđman later removed from leadership Stjepan Kljuić and other Bosnian Croats who opposed his plans for dividing Bosnia.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: On 2 January 1992, Gojko Šušak, the Minister of Defence of Croatia, and JNA General Andrija Rašeta signed an unconditional ceasefire in Sarajevo. The JNA moved relieved troops from the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) into Bosnia and Herzegovina, where they were stationed at strategic routes and around major towns. On 16 January, a rally celebrating Croatian independence was held in Busovača. Kordić spoke and declared Croats in Busovača were part of a united Croatian nation and that Herzeg-Bosnia, including Busovača, is "Croatian land and that is how it will be". HVO commander Ignac Koštroman also spoke, stating "we will be an integral part of our dear State of Croatia by hook or by crook." On 27 January the Croatian Community of Central Bosnia was proclaimed.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: There was a change in the presidency of the HDZ BiH during winter, probably under influence of the Croatian leadership. On 2 February, Kljuić had resigned. Tuđman commented that "[he] disappeared under Alija Izetbegović's fez and the HDZ [BIH] [...] stopped leading an independent Croatian policy". Milenko Brkić, who also supported an integral Bosnia and Herzegovina, became the new president of HDZ BiH. Bosnian Croat authorities in predominately Croat-populated municipalities answered more to the HDZ leadership and the Zagreb government than the Bosnian government. The HDZ held important positions in the Bosnian government including the premiership and the ministry of defence, but despite this carried out a separate policy.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: On 29 February and 1 March 1992, an independence referendum was held in Bosnia and Herzegovina and asked "are you in favor of a sovereign and independent Bosnia-Herzegovina, a state of equal citizens and nations of Muslims, Serbs, Croats and others who live in it?" In the meantime Boban publicly circulated an alternative referendum version that designated Bosnia and Herzegovina as a "state community of its constituent and sovereign nations, Croats, Muslims, and Serbs, living on their national territories." Independence was strongly favored by Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats, while Bosnian Serbs largely boycotted the referendum. The majority of voters voted for independence and on 3 March 1992 Alija Izetbegović declared independence of the country, which was immediately recognised by Croatia.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: Following the declaration of independence, the Bosnian War started. In April 1992, the siege of Sarajevo began, by which time the Bosnian Serb-formed Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) controlled 70% of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 8 April, Bosnian Croats were organized into the Croatian Defence Council (HVO). A sizable number of Bosniaks also joined the HVO, constituting between 20 and 30 percent of HVO. Boban said that the HVO was formed because the Bosnian government did nothing after Croat villages, including Ravno, were destroyed by the JNA. A number of them joined the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS), a paramilitary wing of the far-right HSP, led by Blaž Kraljević, which "supported Bosnian territorial integrity much more consistently and sincerely than the HVO". However, their views on an integral Bosnia and Herzegovina were related to the legacy of the fascist Independent State of Croatia. On 15 April 1992, the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) was formed, with slightly over two-thirds of troops consisting of Bosniaks and almost one-third of Croats and Serbs. The government in Sarajevo struggled to get organized and form an effective military force against the Serbs. Izetbegović concentrated all his forces on retaining control of Sarajevo. In the rest of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the government had to rely on the HVO, that had already formed their defenses, to stop the Serb advance.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: A Croat-Bosniak alliance was formed in the beginning of the war, but over time there were notable breakdowns of it due to rising tensions and the lack of mutual trust. Each side held separate discussions with the Serbs, and soon there were complaints from both sides against the other. In February 1992, in the first of several meetings, Josip Manolić, Tuđman's aide and previously the Croatian Prime Minister, met with Radovan Karadžić in Graz, Austria. The Croatian position was not significantly different from that of the Serbs and held that Bosnia and Herzegovina should consist of sovereign constituent nations in a confederal relationship. In mid-April 1992, the HVO proposed a joint military headquarters for the HVO and the TO, but Izetbegović ignored the request. The HVO, on the other hand, refused to be integrated into the ARBiH. On 6 May, Croatian Bosnian leader, Mate Boban, and Serb Bosnian leader, Radovan Karadžić, met in Graz and formed an agreement for a ceasefire and on the territorial division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. However, the parties ultimately parted ways and on the following day the JNA and Bosnian Serb forces mounted an attack on Croat-held positions in Mostar. On 15 May, the United Nations issued resolution 752 which recognized the presence of JNA and HV soldiers in Bosnia and Herzegovina and demanded that they withdraw. In mid-June, the combined military efforts of the ARBiH and HVO managed to break the siege of Mostar and capture the east bank of the Neretva River, that was under control of the VRS for two months. The deployment of Croat forces to engage the VRS was one of the key obstacles for a total Serb victory in the early stage of the war.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: The Croatian and Herzeg-Bosnia leadership offered Izetbegović a confederation of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Izetbegović rejected it, whether because he wanted to prevent Bosnia and Herzegovina from coming under the influence of Croatia, or because he thought that such a move would give a justification to Serbian claims, cripple reconciliation between Bosniaks and Serbs and make the return of Bosniak refugees to eastern Bosnia impossible. His attempts to remain neutral were met with disfavor in Croatia, which at the time had different and clearer military and strategic objectives. Izetbegović received an ultimatum from Boban warning him that if he did not proclaim a confederation with Tuđman that Croatian forces would not help defend Sarajevo from strongholds as close as away. Boban later blocked the delivery of arms to the ARBiH, which were secretly bought despite the United Nations embargo. The Croatian government recommended moving ARBiH headquarters out of Sarajevo and closer to Croatia and pushed for its reorganization in an effort to heavily add Croatian influence.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: On 3 July 1992, the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia was formally declared, in an amendment to the original decision from November 1991. It claimed power over its own police, army, currency, and education and included several districts where Bosniaks were the majority. It only allowed a Croat flag to be used, the only currency allowed was the Croatian dinar, its official language was Croatian, and a Croat school curriculum was enacted. Mostar, a town where Bosniaks constituted a slight majority, was set as the capital. In the preamble it was attested that "the Croatian people of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in these difficult moments of their history when the last Communist army of Europe, united with the Chetniks, is endangering the existence of the Croatian people and the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, are deeply aware that their future lies with the future of the entire Croatian people." In July, Sefer Halilović became the Chief of the General Staff of the ARBiH. This move further damaged relations between Zagreb and Sarajevo as Halilović was an officer in the JNA during the war in Croatia.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: Beginning in June, discussions between Bosniaks and Croats over military cooperation and possible merger of their armies started to take place. On 21 July, Izetbegović and Tuđman signed the Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia in Zagreb, Croatia. The agreement allowed them to "cooperate in opposing [the Serb] aggression" and coordinate military efforts. It placed the HVO under the command of the ARBiH. Cooperation was inharmonious, but enabled the transportation of weapons to ARBiH through Croatia in spite of the UN sanctioned arms embargo, reopening channels blocked by Boban. It established "economic, financial, cultural, educational, scientific and religious cooperation" between the signatories. It also stipulated that Bosnian Croats hold dual citizenship for both Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Croatia. This was criticized as Croatian attempts at "claiming broader political and territorial rights in the parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina where large numbers of Croats live". After its signature Boban vowed to Izetbegović that Herzeg-Bosnia would remain an integral part of Bosnia and Herzegovina when the war ended. At a session held on 6 August, the Bosnian Presidency accepted HVO as an integral part of the Bosnian armed forces.


title: Croat–Bosniak War

text: Disagreements between Croats and Bosniaks first surfaced over the distribution of arms and ammunition from captured JNA barracks. The first of these disputes occurred in May in Busovača over the Kaonik Barracks and in Novi Travnik over an arms factory and the distribution of supplies from a TO depot. In July, disputes arose in Vareš and in Vitez, where an explosives factory was located, and the HVO secured the JNA barracks in Kiseljak. The two sides also wanted greater political power in various municipalities of central Bosnia. The HVO took full control over Busovača on 10 May and blockaded the town, following an incident in which an HVO member was injured. The HVO gave an ultimatum to the Bosnian Territorial Defense to hand over its weapons and place itself under HVO command, issuing arrest warrants for 3 Muslim leaders, including General Merdan, the latter arrested and beaten up.