title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: The election was also seen as a rebuke to the PAP's "fourth generation" (4G) leaders which saw their vote majorities slashed, such as the "prime minister in waiting" Heng Swee Keat narrowly retaining East Coast GRC with a marginal 53.41% and the defeat of Ng Chee Meng and his team in Sengkang GRC. In contrast, senior PAP leaders' constituencies fared better such as Jurong GRC (74.62%), Pasir Ris-Punggol GRC (64.15%) and Bishan-Toa Payoh GRC (67.26%) despite seeing an anti-PAP vote swing. Speculation rose that PAP will be forced to rethink the issue of leadership transition given the lacklustre results for the 4G leaders.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Former PAP MP Inderjit Singh criticised the PAP for running personal attacks instead of focusing on the issues. He added that there was a perception that the PAP had failed to adequately address issues of contention during the last term like the reserved presidential elections, expiring Housing and Development Board (HDB) leases, population and job policies, and rising cost of living. There was also a perception that the PAP's fourth generation (4G) leaders were arrogant and elitist, a "natural aristocracy who project a 'we know best' attitude". Singh suggested that Prime Minister Lee saved the PAP from losing more votes to below 60% when he said in his lunchtime rally that he would delay handing over to the 4G until the COVID-19 crisis was over, along with Tharman Shanmugaratnam presenting the government's strategy for the next term during the final days of campaigning, adding the fact that "the GRC system is no longer an advantage for the PAP" as PAP fared better even with first-time candidates in SMCs but performing below expectations in GRCs with strong credible opposition candidates.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Finally, Inderjit Singh suggested the results for Aljunied GRC was a sign that Singaporeans have matured on the question of race where three elected WP candidates were minorities. Under the tenure of former leader Low Thia Khiang, WP established a Chinese-speaking support base.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: There were concerns citing that the fielding of more minority candidates and the failure to send a representative to the Chinese language televised election debate which may hamper WP's chances from holding Aljunied for a third term, but WP held on with a 9%-swing and expanded its support under Pritam Singh; Inderjit went on to praise WP on the quality of its selection of candidates and voters "are therefore willing to vote on the brand name" of the party instead of looking at the candidates' merits.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Other analysts said that the election showed that Singaporeans are beginning to move away from "bread and butter" issues which have been typically discussed in past election campaigns, towards topics like social inequality and government accountability. The swing against the government during a crisis was seen as "unprecedented", as Singaporeans were usually seen as "traditionally risk-averse".


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Citi economist Kit Wei Zheng argued that as a result of the election among other things, due to discontent related to foreign workers (especially those white collar workers who compete with locals, such as the author, in industries such as financial services), the government could shrink this portion of the workforce which would affect both long term growth as well as property prices. He also believed it would shift the country towards more left-leaning policies. Others such as Chua Hak Bin and Associate Professor Lawrence Loh took a more nuanced view, suggesting that voters were swayed more by the quality of the opposition candidates and a shift from basic needs to social responsibilities.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Group Representation Constituencies were traditionally regarded as a PAP "fortress" in the past, but The Straits Times political analyst Linette Lai mentioned that GRCs now no longer became a "haven" but cited that the scheme is still a dilemma to win, regardless if the GRC is helmed by an anchor minister or not. In another analysis through an interview, NUS economics professor Ivan Png mentioned that PAP outperformed more in single-member constituencies than in GRCs, while another NUS political professor Bilveer Singh cited the opposition success like how WP managed to retain Aljunied GRC for two terms (nine years) up until the election. Observers noted a pattern that overstates the degree to which GRCs are now vulnerable, even to opposition parties that fielded credible teams, such as in the case for PSP's Tan and WP's Pritam contesting in West Coast GRC and Aljunied GRC respectively. Law professor Eugene Tan explained the GRCs are "not invincible" and "The PAP may well win big in GRCs, but it must not be forgotten that it has lost, and can lose big, in GRCs." Risk analyst Harrison Cheng mentioned the GRC system is meant to be difficult to lose to the oppositions though not impossible.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: In a survey conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies on 1 October, the PAP's opinion rating has dropped by 93% from the last election down to 86%, while WP came second with ratings rising from 71% to 79%, and the new PSP have ratings of 60%.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: In another observation according to Analytix Labs chief data analyst Chua Chin Hon, Facebook has become a widely used social media platform that tackles serious questions, and increasing its trend starting on April and overtaking the COVID-19 pandemic topics, based on a 8 October's analysis report.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: In a press conference on 18 July, Lawrence Wong stated while 61.2% was a "clear mandate", it was below what PAP expected at 65% of the popular vote. He acknowledged that the Workers' Party ran a good campaign with a message of more checks and balances in Parliament resonating with many voters and the PSP had strong appeal in some parts of Singapore such as their western strongholds. He attributed a fall in support amongst voters aged in the 40s and 50s, and perhaps those in their early 60s driving the swing against the government. He added that the swing against PAP was not concentrated solely amongst younger voters while acknowledging unhappiness about the PAP style of campaigning, or how race issues were discussed and also the use of POFMA against opposition candidates. Middle-aged voters, he specified, voted against PAP due to economic hardship from business disruptions, job and income losses and also professionals who were displaced and forced into jobs with lower pay. Wong concluded that it was unlikely that PAP would win more than 65% in future due to increased desire for diversity in Parliament and for checks and balances, calling it a "new reality". He added that PAP had to better understand and connect with younger voters by being "a party that is able to represent their aspirations and bond with them" and address the "real economic pain" that a substantial segment of people in their 40s and 50s are feeling, also known as the "sandwiched generation" who are looking after elderly parents and also caring for young children.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: As the first election where physical rallies are not allowed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, social media, internet and memes, and for the first time in the history of elections, Constituency Political Broadcasts have been heavily used in terms on campaigning, and thus the increase of the election expenses, where it was capped at S$4 per voter per the number of electoral division by average. An analyst company, Circus Social suggested that candidates with a higher credibility or mention during the election generally performed better, such as in the case of WP's Aljunied GRC and Sengkang GRC teams and PSP's West Coast GRC team.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: In another data analysis website Meltwater, the volume for social media conversations has increased by at least fourfold compared to the previous election in 2015, with the volume peaked on polling day where it had 128,311 conversations as compared to 8,071. PAP took up nearly half of the entire conversations during the entire election period, followed by WP which garnered more than a quarter of conversations and the most Facebook interactions, then PSP and SDP at about 8% each. Analysis however reported that it was currently 'unclear' whether social media interactions do necessarily translate into votes, but heavily praised on the efficiency of resources and campaigning and would continue to do so in future elections. Institute of Policy Studies researcher and vice-chairman of Media Literacy Council Carol Soon mentioned the evolving use of technology but most features were lesser used when writing posts, and noted that the smaller parties, such as RDU and RP, were putting at a disadvantage due to a smaller supporter's base. Associate Professor Eugene Tan emphasises that receiving viral headlines or highlights during election, such as Jamus Lim and Raeesah Khan, and the blooper made by Heng Swee Keat during his acceptance speech about the "East Coast plan", contributed a crucial factor on canvassing votes.


title: 2020 Singaporean general election

text: Under the rules by the Election Department, each candidate's spending limit is S$4 per voter multiplied by the total electorate in an electoral division (with no maximum spending cap), and participating candidates were required to declare their election expenses within 31 days after the election (all 192 candidates managed to declare it on 15 August), after which inspection are allowed from that date onwards until six months later on 20 February 2021. A report published on 21 August that S$9,164,967 were spent from all 192 candidates in total, more than the figure of S$7,136,943 compared from the 2015 election; among the expenditure, PAP spent the largest at S$6,972,369, followed by PSP at S$781,275, then WP with S$705,647, and SDP S$323,292. The figure also amounted to a combined S$7.82 million for election advertising (mostly through the internet), and about S$5.6 million for printed material, but other details such as the purchase of services and items were not mentioned. Analyst Eugene Tan highlighted PSP's expenditure in a statement for a new party: "the need to get the message out there in what is a very crowded opposition space in a very short time probably necessitated that sort of higher spending".


title: Silver Sable

text: Silver Sable (Silvija Sablinova) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is usually depicted as a mercenary, hunter of war criminals, leader of the Wild Pack, and owner of Silver Sable International. While not a criminal, her work as a mercenary has sometimes brought her into conflict with several superheroes. Silver Sable is primarily an ally and sometimes enemy of Spider-Man.


title: Silver Sable

text: The character has appeared in several media adaptations over the years, including animated series and video games.


title: Silver Sable

text: Created by Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz, Silver Sable first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #265 (June 1985). The inspiration for the character comes from safari cards bought by DeFalco. After her debut, she made occasional appearances in various Spider-Man titles, often (but not always) as an ally. Marvel Comics began to publish the series "Silver Sable and The Wild Pack" in June 1992, written by Gregory Wright and penciled by Steven Butler. This series lasted for 35 issues, until it was canceled in 1995.


title: Silver Sable

text: After the cancellation, Silver made occasional guest appearances in various comics. A limited series titled "Sable and Fortune" and featuring Silver Sable and Dominic Fortune began in 2006. Originally solicited as a six issue series, "Sable and Fortune" was later shortened to four issues.


title: Silver Sable

text: The operations of Wild Pack and Silver Sable International drive the national economy of the fictional small European state of Symkaria. The name "Wild Pack" had been used by the mercenary squad led by Cable for some time, until a legal notice forced them to change it to "Six Pack".


title: Silver Sable

text: The State of Symkaria is adjacent to Latveria, the nation ruled by Doctor Doom. Silver Sable and Victor Von Doom have an annual diplomatic dinner at Castle Doom, situated in Doomstadt. Apparently, the friendship between the two states is deep-rooted and dates back to World War II.


title: Silver Sable

text: The family of Silver Sable is composed of her father Ernst Sablinov, her uncle Morty, and the young cousin Anna, who Silver Sable calls her niece, orphaned daughter of an unnamed uncle. Silver's mother, Anastasia Sablinova, was killed in front of her by enemies of her father, who ran a Nazi-hunting group. After this traumatic event, she was trained by her father to become a Nazi-hunting mercenary. After her father's death, she became the leader of the Wild Pack, a team formed by Ernst to apprehend international criminals. She also founded her own company, the Silver Sable International. Like her father's, Sable's squad originally focused on bringing Nazi war criminals to justice, but over time they started to accept other type of missions for profit.


title: Silver Sable

text: Silver was briefly married to the Foreigner, an international assassin and the head of the 1400 Club, but they divorced after she discovered his attempt to kill the President of U.S. After that, their relation varied between non-belligerent and attempts to kill one another.


title: Silver Sable

text: Uncle Morty functions as Sable's assistant, organizing some missions and sometimes trying to influence her sense of judgement. Silver supports Anna's boarding school education. When HYDRA agents took over Anna's school, Sable infiltrated it, rescuing the hostages with the help of Spider-Man, Sandman, and the Wild Pack.


title: Silver Sable

text: While hunting the international criminal Black Fox to recover valuable gems stolen by the thief, she was inadvertently thwarted by Spider-Man. She was later hired by a South African government to neutralize the international terrorist Jack O'Lantern. She enlisted Spider-Man's aid against the Sinister Syndicate, and forms a first alliance with the Sandman. Some time later, she joined forces with Spider-Man, Paladin, Solo, and Captain America to track down Sabretooth and the Red Skull, who masterminded a plot to put the United States against Symkaria.


title: Silver Sable

text: She later worked with Spider-Man to steal incriminating documents from a Maggia money launderer; soon after, she formed The Outlaws. An intelligence mission in Iraq resulted in the death of a Wild Pack member, and she denied compensation to the slain man's family due to his negligence. She devised an initiation test for the Prowler to join The Outlaws, while teaching him a lesson in humility in the process. She hired The Outlaws to retrieve a Symkarian nuclear device in England and to rescue the kidnapped daughter of a Canadian official.


title: Silver Sable

text: Sable's cordial diplomatic relationship with Doctor Doom once proved almost fatal when the annual dinner happened to fall on the time when Doctor Doom's castle had been overtaken by an alien impersonator during the Infinity War crisis. Although Silver noticed that the doppelgänger looked differently, she interpreted it as Doom's desires to change his look. During the dinner, Sable's driver was killed by Doom's robots and a human butler was killed by the doppelgänger himself. Sable protested the brutality and was attacked herself, leading to a chase throughout the castle. The Silver Sable International's soldier came to rescue her, despite Sandman himself also having been replaced by another doppelgänger.


title: Silver Sable

text: Silver has collaborated with various superheroes, including the aforementioned Spider-Man, the Punisher, Daredevil, Luke Cage, Venom, and Captain America.Sandman was a mercenary working for Silver Sable as part of her Wild Pack for a long time, heading The Intruders, the squad of superpowered mercenaries employed by Silver Sable International.


title: Silver Sable

text: Later, Sable was hired to protect Professor Wolfgang Hessler holed up in the Symkarian monastery of St. Eboars. Wolfgang knew of a powerful genetic weapon and, attacked by guilt, was working on a neutralizing agent to give to the world so the weapon would be useless. For this mission, Silver Sable hired a new team formed by , Paladin, and what she thought was Nomad but turned out to be Madcap. The group fought the Heroes for Hire, who had been hired to take the Professor. Sable's team had the upper hand until Deadpool freed his Heroes allies and Luke Cage turned out to be a traitor, sending the Professor off to the Master of the World.


title: Silver Sable

text: During the "Shadowland" storyline, Silver Sable ended up paired up with Misty Knight, Paladin, and Shroud when Daredevil's Hand ninjas secretly targeted members of the mafia.


title: Silver Sable

text: During the "Ends of the Earth" storyline involving one of Doctor Octopus' schemes, Silver Sable recovered Spider-Man and Black Widow after the Avengers are defeated by the Sinister Six. She joined them in an attack on a Sahara facility controlled by Doctor Octopus, with the three defeating Sandman after Spider-Man's allies at Horizon Labs helped determine a way to identify the one particle of sand containing Sandman's consciousness. She was apparently drowned by the Rhino in the final battle when Rhino pinned her to the ground in a flooding corridor in Doctor Octopus' base. Even though Doctor Octopus' plan had been stopped, Rhino also decided to kill himself in the process after the loss of his own wife. However, Madame Web later revealed to Spider-Man that Silver Sable did not perish in the fight within Doctor Octopus' underwater base.


title: Silver Sable

text: She has later revealed to be alive, as she requested Spider-Man's help in thwarting a recent coup of Symkaria organized by Norman Osborn. Sable explained that she had survived her confrontation with the Rhino by using her suit to cloak herself, distracting him long enough for her to escape, using her apparent death to discreetly hunt down most of her enemies.


title: Silver Sable

text: Silver Sable is an athletic woman with no superhuman powers. She is a formidable hand-to-hand combatant, and skilled in various martial arts. She is also an expert markswoman, swordswoman, and gymnast. Silver Sable also possesses strong leadership capabilities.


title: Silver Sable

text: Silver Sable wears synthetic stretch fabric lined with Kevlar throughout the torso. She often carries a katana, chais (three-pronged half-moon throwing projectiles), a stun gun, and a derringer. Silver Sable generally has the latest technology and equipment at her disposal, provided by Silver Sable International.


title: Silver Sable

text: In the "Spider-Verse" storyline, a character resembling Silver Sable but called Sable appears as a member of the Hounds who work for Verna of the Inheritors. She and the other Hounds accompany Verna to Earth-1610 to hunt Miles Morales. She is killed by the Superior Spider-Man, and his allies Spider-Punk and Assassin Spider-Man.


title: Silver Sable

text: The Ultimate Marvel iteration of Silver Sable is the mercenary leader of the Wild Pack. A mercenary from Symkaria, she had a troubled childhood, apparently ignored by her father and abused by her alcoholic mother. In reality, her father hunted Nazis and she forgave him at his deathbed, deciding to follow his footsteps. While an antagonist to Spider-Man, she is not actually a villain so much as a bounty hunter, and she holds no particular ill-will towards Spider-Man.


title: Silver Sable

text: As the central antagonist in the "Silver Sable" story arc, Silver Sable was hired by Donald Roxxon to capture Spider-Man for questioning. After weeks of tracking, Sable's mercenaries mistakenly captured Flash Thompson. As they discussed whether to murder Thompson to prevent him from identifying them, Flash escaped. Sable's Wild Pack later captured and brought Spider-Man to Roxxon, who wanted to know why Spider-Man had been defending his company from super villain attacks. Not believing Spider-Man's explanation that he was only in a position to defend the company through sheer chance, Sable and Roxxon ran a background check on him, but this caused a high level S.H.I.E.L.D. alert. While listening to Roxxon's argument for protection, Sable's Wild Pack were attacked by the Vulture. After escaping the chaos, Sable threateningly demanded Roxxon to pay the reward money and swore she will kill Roxxon if their names were told to the authorities.


title: Silver Sable

text: During the "War of the Symbiotes" story arc, Silver Sable and her Wild Pack members were hired by Bolivar Trask to capture Eddie Brock Jr. Sable and the Pack captured Venom after a fight with Spider-Man. However, Sable spared Spider-Man from being taken by the Wild Pack as a thanks for subduing Venom. After delivering Venom to Trask, Sable's Wild Pack provided security for Trask's experiment to remove the Venom symbiote. However, the Beetle breached the facility, paralyzing Sable with knockout gas. Sable's Wild Pack later fought with the Venom symbiote after it abandoned Brock and possessed Spider-Man. Sable's Wild Pack tried to subdue Venom, but were unable to do so until the Ultimates arrived. Despite trying to escape, the Ultimates took the Wild Pack into custody, with Sable being tranquilized by the Wasp. Sable and the Pack were then imprisoned by S.H.I.E.L.D.


title: Silver Sable

text: In the "What If?" storyline "What If Spider-Man had married the Black Cat?", after Black Cat was accidentally killed by the Paladin, Silver Sable and Spider-Man entered into a romantic relationship due to their shared grief over the loss of their loved ones. Uatu the Watcher left it ambiguous whether this relationship will work out or not.


title: Silver Sable

text: In March 2017, it was reported that Sony Pictures was developing a Black Cat and Silver Sable-centered film with writer Christopher Yost. It was intended to be a part of a shared universe called the Sony's Spider-Man Universe, which is centered on characters from the "Spider-Man" mythology and began with the live-action "Venom" in 2018. The film was to be more adult-oriented and though it would have taken place in the same reality as the Marvel Cinematic Universe, they would have not crossed over with each other. In May 2017, it was announced that Gina Prince-Bythewood would direct the film, now titled "Silver & Black". Production was to begin in March 2018, but the film was later delayed "indefinitely". Prince-Bythewood revealed that the cause of the delay was due to script issues. While the film was initially scheduled to be released on February 8, 2019, Sony removed the release date from the schedule. In August 2018, Sony announced that "Silver & Black" was canceled in favor of having both characters appear in their own feature films. "Black Cat" was reportedly a re-worked version of the "Silver & Black" script while the studio was searching for screenwriters for "Silver Sable". Prince-Bythewood will serve as a producer on both projects. As of April 2020, the film is now believed to be cancelled in favour of the proposed live-action television series.


title: King of Rome

text: The king of Rome () was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 BC, when the last king was overthrown. These kings ruled for an average of 35 years.


title: King of Rome

text: The kings after Romulus were not known to be dynasts and no reference is made to the hereditary principle until after the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus. Consequently, some have assumed that the Tarquins' attempt to institute a hereditary monarchy over this conjectured earlier elective monarchy resulted in the formation of the Republic.


title: King of Rome

text: Early Rome was ruled by the king ("rex"). The king possessed absolute power over the people, no one could rule over him. The Senate was a weak oligarchy, capable of exercising only minor administrative powers, so that Rome was ruled by its king who was in effect an absolute monarch. The Senate's main function was to carry out and administer the wishes of the king. After Romulus, Rome's first legendary king, Roman kings were elected by the people of Rome, sitting as a Curiate Assembly, who voted on the candidate that had been nominated by a chosen member of the Senate called an "interrex". Candidates for the throne could be chosen from any source. For example, one such candidate, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, was originally a citizen and migrant from a neighboring Etruscan city-state. The people of Rome, sitting as the Curiate Assembly, could then either accept or reject the nominated candidate-king.


title: King of Rome

text: The king had twelve lictors wielding fasces, a curule chair which served as a throne, a purple toga picta, red shoes, and a white diadem worn on the head. Only the king could wear a purple toga.


title: King of Rome

text: Beyond his religious authority, the king was invested with the supreme military, executive, and judicial authority through the use of "imperium". The "imperium" of the king was held for life and protected him from ever being brought to trial for his actions. As the sole holder of "imperium" in Rome at the time, the king possessed ultimate executive power and unchecked military authority as the commander-in-chief of all Rome's forces. His executive power and his sole "imperium" allowed him to issue decrees with the force of law. Also, the laws that kept citizens safe from the misuse of magistrates holding "imperium" did not exist during the time of the kings.


title: King of Rome

text: The king was also empowered to appoint or nominate all officeholders. He would appoint a "tribunus celerum" to serve both as the tribune of Ramnes tribe in Rome and also as the commander of the king's personal bodyguard, the Celeres. The king was required to appoint the tribune upon entering office, and the tribune left office upon the king's death. The tribune was second in rank to the king and also possessed the power to convene the Curiate Assembly and lay legislation before it.


title: King of Rome

text: Another officer appointed by the king was the "praefectus urbi", who acted as the warden of the city. When the king was absent from the city, the prefect held all of the king's powers, even to the point of being bestowed with "imperium" while inside the city. The king was the sole person empowered to appoint patricians to the Senate.


title: King of Rome

text: The king's "imperium" granted him both military powers as well as qualified him to pronounce legal judgement in all cases as the chief justice of Rome. Although he could assign pontiffs to act as minor judges in some cases, he had supreme authority in all cases brought before him, both civil and criminal. This made the king supreme in times of both war and peace. While some writers believed there was no appeal from the king's decisions, others believed that a proposal for appeal could be brought before the king by any patrician during a meeting of the Curiate Assembly.


title: King of Rome

text: To assist the king, a council advised the king during all trials, but this council had no power to control the king's decisions. Also, two criminal detectives (Quaestores Parridici) were appointed by him as well as a two-man criminal court (Duumviri Perduellionis) which oversaw for cases of treason.


title: King of Rome

text: Under the kings, the Senate and Curiate Assembly had very little power and authority; they were not independent bodies in that they possessed the right to meet together and discuss questions of state. They could only be called together by the king and could only discuss the matters the king laid before them. While the Curiate Assembly did have the power to pass laws that had been submitted by the king, the Senate was effectively an honorable council. It could advise the king on his action but, by no means, could prevent him from acting. The only thing that the king could not do without the approval of the Senate and Curiate Assembly was to declare war against a foreign nation. These issues effectively allowed the King to more or less rule by decree with the exception of the above-mentioned affairs.


title: King of Rome

text: Whenever a Roman king died, Rome entered a period of "interregnum". Supreme power in the state would be devolved to the Senate, which had the task of finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members as the interrex to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome. After the five-day period, the interrex would appoint (with the Senate's consent) another senator for another five-day term. This process would continue until the election of a new king. Once the interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he would bring the nominee before the Senate and the Senate would examine him. If the Senate confirmed the nomination, the interrex would convene the Curiate Assembly and preside as its chairman during the election of the king.


title: King of Rome

text: Once a candidate was proposed to the Curiate Assembly, the people of Rome could either accept or reject the King-elect. If accepted, the King-elect did not immediately take office: two additional acts had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power. First, it was necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods respecting his appointment by means of the auspices, since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. An augur performed this ceremony by conducting the King-elect to the citadel where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below. If the King-elect was found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens, thus confirming the King-elect's priestly character. Second, the "imperium" had to be conferred upon the King. The Curiate Assembly's vote only determined who was to be king, but that act did not bestow the powers of the king upon him. Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Curiate Assembly a bill granting him "imperium", and the Curiate Assembly, by voting in favour of the law, would grant it.


title: King of Rome

text: In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process.


title: King of Rome

text: Since Rome's records were destroyed in 390 BC when the city was sacked, it is impossible to know for certain how many kings actually ruled the city, or if any of the deeds attributed to the individual kings, by later writers, are accurate.


title: King of Rome

text: Titus Tatius, King of the Sabines, was also joint king of Rome with Romulus for five years, until his death. However, he is not traditionally counted among the seven kings of Rome.


title: King of Rome

text: The overthrow of the Roman monarchy of Tarquinius Superbus led to a limited separation of the powers mentioned above.


title: King of Rome

text: The actual title of king was retained for the "rex sacrorum", who formally remained Rome's first priest. He was forbidden any political or military career, except for a seat in the Senate. However, the Roman desire to prevent the kingship from becoming important went so far that, even in the area of religion, the king of sacrifices was formally, in all but protocol, subordinated to the first of the pontiffs, the "pontifex maximus" (whose position in origin, rather than with the name of priest, is better described as "minister of religion"), to the extent that at some point in history, the "Regia" or royal palace at the Forum Romanum, originally inhabited by the king of sacrifices, was ceded to the "pontifex maximus". Significantly enough, one of his major public appearances was at the festival of "Regifugium", where he impersonated the king being thrown out of the city. Further, the consuls retained religious roles which were considered so important that the office of "interrex" was retained for the opening prayer of "electional" assemblies in case both consuls died in office, and the ritual of driving a nail into the temple of Jupiter sometimes even induced a dictatorship. The "rex sacrorum" was not elected publicly, but chosen by the pontifical college.


title: King of Rome

text: The king of sacrifices retained some religious rites only he could perform, and acted as quasi-flamen to Janus. The position seems to have continued in existence until the official adoption of the Christian religion. To qualify for the office, patrician ancestry was necessary; however it was once performed by a member of a family otherwise known as plebeian, the "Marcii", earning for himself and his descendants the cognomen "Rex".


title: King of Rome

text: As has been mentioned, the administrative functions in religion, including at some point the housing in the ancient royal court, were ceded to the supreme pontiff.


title: King of Rome

text: In the late Republic, the previous role of the king in choosing new senators and dismissing people from the Senate was ceded to the censors. However, the role of choosing senators became rather limited as all magistrates down to the rank of quaestor eventually gained admission to the Senate after the office's expiration.


title: King of Rome

text: The modern concept of a head of state, insofar as the republican times excepting the dictatorships are concerned, can hardly be translated to Roman conceptions, but most other powers—the "imperium"—were ceded to the consuls (the etymology suggests that these were originally the king's chief counsellors) and to the praetors ("leaders") after the creation of that office (about 367, according to Livy); thereby at least roughly separating the judiciary from the executive. According to tradition (which is disputed by historians for the first decades), the consulate was always entrusted to two persons to prevent autocracy. In case of emergencies, the power to appoint a dictator for a six-month term was introduced. Later, proconsuls and propraetors could be given an "imperium" by appointment of the Senate. Whoever used the "imperium" to victoriously lead an army could acquire the title of "imperator", which later became chief title of the emperors, who were formally included in the system as proconsuls over most (and the strategically most important) parts of the empire, chief senators, and popular tribunes without the title. The republican idea that all promagisterial imperium ends upon entering the city was not observed in the emperors' case.


title: King of Rome

text: At the same time, the legislation was practically passed from the Curiate Assembly to the Centuriate Assembly (and Tribal Assembly), with the exception of the formality, more or less, of a "lex curiata de imperio", which ratified the elections of the previous Centuriate Assembly. The consuls did, however, retain the power to rule by ordinance.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: Vittorio Gassman (; born Gassmann; 1 September 1922 – 29 June 2000), popularly known as , was an Italian actor, director and screenwriter.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: He is considered one of the greatest Italian actors, whose career includes both important productions as well as dozens of "divertissements".


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: Gassmann was born in Genoa to a German father, Heinrich Gassmann (an engineer from Karlsruhe), and a Jewish mother, Luisa Ambron, born in Pisa. While still very young, he moved to Rome, where he studied at the Silvio D'Amico National Academy of Dramatic Arts.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: Gassman's debut was in Milan, in 1942, with Alda Borelli in Niccodemi's "La Nemica" (theatre). He then moved to Rome and acted at the "Teatro Eliseo" joining Tino Carraro and Ernesto Calindri in a team that remained famous for some time; with them he acted in a range of plays from bourgeois comedy to sophisticated intellectual theatre. In 1946, he made his film debut in "Preludio d'amore", while only one year later he appeared in five films. In 1948 he played in "Riso amaro".


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: It was with Luchino Visconti's company that Gassman achieved his mature successes, together with Paolo Stoppa, Rina Morelli and Paola Borboni. He played Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee Williams' "Un tram che si chiama desiderio" ("A Streetcar Named Desire"), as well as in "Come vi piace" ("As You Like It") by Shakespeare and "Oreste" (by Vittorio Alfieri). He joined the "Teatro Nazionale" with Tommaso Salvini, Massimo Girotti, Arnoldo Foà to create a successful "Peer Gynt" (by Henrik Ibsen). With Luigi Squarzina in 1952 he co-founded and co-directed the "Teatro d'Arte Italiano", producing the first complete version of "Hamlet" in Italy, followed by rare works such as Seneca's "Thyestes" and Aeschylus's "The Persians".


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: In 1956 Gassman played the title role in a production of "Othello". He was so well received by his acting in the television series entitled "" that "Il Mattatore" became the nickname that accompanied him for the rest of his life. Gassman's debut in the commedia all'italiana genre was rather accidental, in Mario Monicelli's "I soliti ignoti" ("Big Deal on Madonna Street", 1958). Famous movies featuring Gassman include: "Il sorpasso" (1962), "La Grande Guerra" (1962), "I mostri" (1963), "L'Armata Brancaleone" (1966), "Profumo di donna" (1974) and "C'eravamo tanto amati" (1974).


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: He directed "Adelchi", a lesser-known work by Alessandro Manzoni. Gassman brought this production to half a million spectators, crossing Italy with his "Teatro Popolare Itinerante" (a newer edition of the famous "Carro di Tespi"). His productions have included many of the famous authors and playwrights of the 20th century, with repeated returns to the classics of Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky and the Greek tragicians. He also founded a theatre school in Florence (Bottega Teatrale di Firenze), which educated many of the more talented actors of the current generation of Italian thespians.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: In cinema, he worked frequently both in Italy and abroad. He met and fell in love with American actress Shelley Winters while she was touring Europe with fiancé Farley Granger. When Winters was forced to return to Hollywood to fulfill contractual obligations, he followed her there and married her. With his natural charisma and his fluency in English he scored a number of roles in Hollywood, including "Rhapsody" with Elizabeth Taylor and "The Glass Wall" before returning to Italy and the theatre.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: In the 1990s he took part in the popular Italian Rai 3 TV show "Tunnel" in which he very formally and "seriously"' recited documents such as utility bills, yellow pages and similar trivial texts, such as washing instructions for a wool sweater or cookies ingredients. He rendered them with the same professional skill that made him famous while reciting Dante's "Divine Comedy".


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: In 1994, Gassman voiced Mufasa in the Italian dubbed version of "The Lion King". Gassman's voice was redubbed in several of his films by historical Italian actors and dubbers which include Emilio Cigoli, Sandro Ruffini, Gualtiero De Angelis, Stefano Sibaldi, Enrico Maria Salerno and Pino Locchi.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: Gassman married three times, all to actresses: Nora Ricci (with whom he had Paola, an actress and wife of Ugo Pagliai); Shelley Winters (mother of his daughter Vittoria); and Diletta D'Andrea (mother of his son Jacopo).


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: While rehearsing "Hamlet", he began an affair with Anna Maria Ferrero, his 16-year-old Ophelia, which ended his marriage to Winters. He and Winters were forced to work together on "Mambo" just as their marriage was unraveling, providing fodder for tabloids all over the world.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: From 1964 to 1968 he was the partner of French actress Juliette Mayniel (mother of his son Alessandro, also an actor). Through Alessandro, he is the grandfather of singer-songwriter Leo Gassmann.


title: Vittorio Gassman

text: On 29 June 2000, Gassman died of a heart attack in his sleep at his home in Rome at the age of 77. He was buried at Campo Verano.


title: Glen Rice

text: Glen Anthony Rice Sr. (born May 28, 1967) is an American former professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association (NBA). As a small forward, Rice was a three-time NBA All-Star and made 1,559 three-point field goals during his 15-year career. Rice won both an NCAA championship and NBA championship during his collegiate and professional career. In recent years, Rice has taken up mixed martial arts fight promotion as owner of G-Force Fights based in Miami, Florida.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice played college basketball for the University of Michigan Wolverines for four seasons (1985–1989), a starter for three of those seasons. He became the school's all-time leading scorer with 2,442 points. He led Michigan to the 1989 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, scoring an NCAA-record 184 points in tournament play, a record that still stands. Rice was also voted the tournament's Most Outstanding Player and was part of the Associated Press All-America second-team, after averaging 25.6 points for the season, while shooting 58% from the floor and 52% from three-point range. After Rice's junior year, he was invited to try out for the 1988 United States Olympic basketball team, but he was cut before reaching the group of 48. On February 20, 2005, Rice's No. 41 jersey was retired during a ceremony at Michigan's Crisler Arena. Rice made the cover of "Sports Illustrated" on April 10, 1989.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice continues to rank among Michigan's all-time leaders in several statistical categories, including:


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice started his senior season as a projected mid-first-round selection, but his stock rose due to his record-breaking performance in the NCAA Tournament, and he was selected #4 overall in the 1989 NBA draft by the Miami Heat.


title: Glen Rice

text: The Heat was an expansion team in the NBA and was now in their second-year in need of some offensive help after finishing last in the NBA in points per game in 1988–89. Joining other young players such as Sherman Douglas and Rony Seikaly, Rice would be called upon to deliver some of the scoring load despite being a rookie. Starting in 60 games, Rice averaged 13.6 points per game his rookie season just behind Douglas and Seikaly, but the lottery-bound Heat only won 18 games. The following year only saw modest improvement for the team from 18 wins to 24 wins, but Rice started in every game he played and increased his scoring load to 17.4 points a game while leading the team in three-point field goals with 71.


title: Glen Rice

text: The 1991–92 season would prove to be a breakthrough season for Rice and the Heat, as the team improved to 38 wins and featured other young players such as Steve Smith and Brian Shaw. By now Rice had become the team's leading scorer and averaged 22.3 points a game with 155 three-point field goals (second in the league), leading the Heat to its first playoff series in which the young team was swept by the defending champion Chicago Bulls led by Michael Jordan. Despite this, the Heat won fewer games the following year, while Rice's scoring average slipped to 19 as the scoring load of Seikaly and Smith increased.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice averaged 21.1 points a game in the 1993–94 season and led the Heat back into the playoffs and to their first-ever playoff game win against the Atlanta Hawks, but the Heat were unable to win the hard-fought first-round series in which the Hawks prevailed 3 games to 2.


title: Glen Rice

text: In the 1994–95 season, Rice averaged 22.3 points a game (10th in the league) and made 185 three-point shots (6th in the league). Despite not being selected to play in the annual NBA All-Star Game, Rice participated in the NBA All-Star Long Distance Shootout at the 1995 All-Star game in Phoenix, and won the contest, edging out another sharp-shooter, Reggie Miller. Later during the season in a nationally televised game against Shaquille O'Neal and the Orlando Magic he scored a career-high 56 points on 20 of 27 shots from the floor including 7 three-pointers. The 56 points were an NBA season-high for the 1994–95 season. Despite his success, the Heat was unable to make the playoffs.


title: Glen Rice

text: Days before the start of the 1995–96 season, newly hired Coach/GM Pat Riley organized a trade in which Rice was sent to the Charlotte Hornets along with Matt Geiger in exchange for disgruntled Hornets center Alonzo Mourning who had refused any contract negotiations.


title: Glen Rice

text: The Hornets paired Rice with high scoring forward Larry Johnson, and the two led the team to 41 wins. Rice led the team in scoring with 21.6 points a game and led his team in three-point field goals (171) and three-point shooting percentage (42%). He was also named to play in the 1996 NBA All-Star Game, but the Hornets failed to make the playoffs.


title: Glen Rice

text: It would be the 1996–97 season in which Rice would earn the distinction of an elite player in the league. The Hornets had acquired veteran players Vlade Divac and Anthony Mason and no longer featured Johnson, and also hiring a new head coach and NBA legend Dave Cowens. Rice averaged 26.8 points a game during the season, placing him third in the league in scoring while leading the league in three-point shooting (47%) and minutes played. His play earned him his second straight All-Star Game election, and at the 1997 NBA All-Star Game set an individual All-Star game records of 20 points in the third quarter and 24 points in the second half to finish with 26 points for the game. His 8–11 shooting performance including 4–5 three-pointer shooting and his 20 points in the third quarter broke Philadelphia guard Hal Greer's record (19), set in 1968. By scoring 24 in a half, Rice surpassed the previous mark of 23, owned by Wilt Chamberlain and Tom Chambers. Rice's performance is listed on the NBA's 57 Memorable All-Star Moments. His performance helped the Eastern Conference win the game, and earned him the NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player Award. The Hornets won 54 games, and made it into the 1997 Playoffs where they were swept 3–0 by the New York Knicks in the first round.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice would average 22.3 points a game (8th in the league) during the 1997–98 season, finishing second in the league in minutes played and scoring 16 points in the 1998 NBA All-Star Game. The Hornets won 51 games, and in the first round of the 1998 Playoffs, they managed to win a playoff series, defeating the Atlanta Hawks before losing to the defending champion Chicago Bulls in the second round. The 1998–99 season would start late and last only 50 games due to a league lockout, and on March 10, 1999, the Hornets traded Rice to the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: Glen Rice

text: In 1999, Rice was again traded in exchange for fan favorite, Eddie Jones and Elden Campbell. The trade did not immediately sit well with Laker fans but Rice was considered the last piece of the puzzle for the Lakers to return to the NBA Finals. Rice was leaving a Hornets team in turmoil with many players demanding trades coming out of a 4-month lockout. Coach Cowens had resigned, Anthony Mason was out for the year, Rice was coming back from an elbow injury that he needed to have surgery on, and the owner was in legal trouble. The trade to the Lakers made Rice the third scorer behind Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, a trio that general manager and Laker legend Jerry West envisioned would bring Los Angeles another NBA championship. The Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the 1999 Playoffs, but Rice averaged 18 points per game.


title: Glen Rice

text: Before the 1999–2000 season the Lakers hired head coach Phil Jackson, who had won 6 NBA Championships with the Chicago Bulls teams that featured Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen. The Lakers also acquired veterans such as Ron Harper, A.C. Green, as well as Rice's former Miami teammates John Salley and Brian Shaw. Led by the play of O'Neal, who won the MVP award for the season, and the all-star play of Bryant, the Lakers won 67 games for first place in the Western Conference. Rice started in 80 games and averaged 15.9 points as the team's third option with 84 three-point shots to lead the Lakers.


title: Glen Rice

text: In the 2000 Playoffs, Rice averaged 12.4 points per game while shooting 41 percent from beyond the three-point arc, a career-best for the playoffs. The Lakers defeated the Sacramento Kings, Phoenix Suns, and Portland Trail Blazers in the first three rounds of the playoffs en route to advancing to the 2000 NBA Finals to play the Indiana Pacers. In the second game of the Finals, Bryant suffered an ankle injury, and Rice scored 21 points to help the Lakers take a 2–0 lead in the series. Rice would average 11.5 points a game for the series, including 16 points with 3 shots from three-point range in Game 6 as the Lakers defeated the Pacers 4 games to 2 to give Rice his first and only NBA championship.


title: Glen Rice

text: Although the Lakers had won the championship, a lot of drama had unfolded behind the scenes between Rice, head coach Phil Jackson and GM Jerry West since the time between getting swept by the Spurs and the eventual championship. There was a report that Rice was upset when the Lakers exercised a $7-million option for 1999–2000 instead of letting him become a free agent. Shaquille O'Neal, Rice's close friend, believed that Rice was the pure shooter he needed to keep teams from double- and triple-teaming him in the playoffs, and felt partly responsible for bringing Rice to the Lakers (and trading Eddie Jones to do it). In the end, Rice was not able to win the hearts of Los Angeles fans after being traded for fan-favorite Eddie Jones, with many citing suspect defense and Rice's inability to perform in the triangle offense. As a result, the disgruntled Rice was eventually traded to the New York Knicks.


title: Glen Rice

text: In New York, Rice would take on a sixth-man role on the team and provide the Knicks with well-needed support off the bench. In the 2000–01 season he played in 72 games, averaging 12 points-per-game. Rice made 25 starts, averaging 14.2 points and 5.2 rebounds in those games and led the Knicks in scoring 9 times. While Rice's defense is often singled out as the reason for his departure, he ranks 145th among all-time NBA players in career steals (958). His tenure with the Knicks lasted only one year, as he was hobbled by a foot injury (plantar fasciitis) and was unable to find a niche in New York behind Allan Houston and Latrell Sprewell. After the season in which the Knicks lost in five games to the Toronto Raptors in the first round of the 2001 Playoffs, he would eventually be traded to the Houston Rockets for Shandon Anderson.


title: Glen Rice

text: In Houston, Rice joined a young team featuring Steve Francis and Cuttino Mobley and was initially excited about returning to a starting role after being relegated to more of a third-option with both the Lakers and Knicks. Things started slowly in Houston as Rice was still on the mend, rehabbing from his foot injury which limited him to just 20 games in the 2001–02 season. The following year, he would manage to play in 62 games including 26 starts to average 9 points a game for a Rockets team that now featured center Yao Ming. Following the 2003 season he would be traded to the Utah Jazz for John Amaechi, but would then sign with the Los Angeles Clippers.


title: Glen Rice

text: A knee injury (partially torn tendon) ultimately derailed and eventually brought Rice's career to an end. In his final season with the Clippers, he became the 48th player in NBA history to score 18,000 career points. Fittingly, it was on February 18, 2004, against the Lakers, and he would retire after playing just 18 games.


title: Glen Rice

text: On January 11, 2008, Rice was arrested in Miami on suspicion of felony battery. Police say he assaulted a man that he found hiding in his estranged wife's closet. Rice surrendered to police and was released after posting $5,000 bond. Charges were later dropped by the victim J.C.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice's son, Glen Rice Jr. (born January 1, 1991), was selected by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 35th overall pick of the 2013 NBA draft.


title: Glen Rice

text: Rice also has five other children; G'mitri Rice (born April 22, 1992) Brianna Rice (born February 26, 1999) Giancarlo Rice (born August 28, 2001) Giovanni Rice (born February 5, 2004) and Bella Rice (born July 28, 2010).


title: Glen Rice

text: On April 28, 2016, Rice married his longtime girlfriend and youngest daughter's mother, Tia Santoro, at Vizcaya Museum and Gardens in Miami.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Deadly Premonition is an open world survival horror video game developed by Access Games. Set in the fictional, rural American town of Greenvale, Washington, the story follows FBI Special Agent Francis York Morgan as he investigates the murder of an eighteen-year-old woman, which bears similarities to a series of murders across the country. "Deadly Premonition" was originally released in February 2010 for Xbox 360 and in March 2010 for PlayStation 3; the Xbox 360 version was published by Ignition Entertainment in North America, Marvelous Entertainment in Japan, and Rising Star Games in Europe. Marvelous Entertainment released the PlayStation 3 version exclusively in Japan. A director's cut edition for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows was released worldwide by Rising Star Games in 2013. A port for the Nintendo Switch, "Deadly Premonition: Origins", followed in 2019.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" is a reboot of Access Games' earlier video game "Rainy Woods". In production from September 2004 to October 2007, "Rainy Woods" was cancelled soon after its debut at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show due to technical issues. "Deadly Premonition" combined its assets with a new game scenario and protagonist, Francis York Morgan. Gameplay is divided into York's detective investigation into Greenvale and its inhabitants, and supernatural combat sequences in which York must battle or evade otherworldly beings. Development on "Deadly Premonition"s setting was guided by an intention to imbue the game with a sense of realism: the non-player characters follow an individualized 24-hour schedule, and the scale of Greenvale is intended to replicate that of a rural American town. Issues with memory allocation, various lighting and shadow aspects, and the physics engine PhysX were faced during development.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" received wildly varying critical reviews and holds the Guinness World Record for the most critically polarizing survival horror game. Although the original release has not been commercially successful, "Deadly Premonition" has garnered a cult following and has been cited as an example of games as art. A sequel, "", was released on the Nintendo Switch on July 10, 2020.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" is a survival horror game set in an open world environment and played from an over-the shoulder third-person perspective. The game's objective is to guide the player character, FBI Special Agent Francis York Morgan, as he investigates the identity of the Raincoat Killer, who is responsible for a murder in the rural town of Greenvale. York receives in-game money for numerous actions—both for finishing levels and for minor events, such as shaving his beard or changing suits; he can also be fined for poor performance, such as wearing a filthy outfit, which attracts flies. Additionally, he requires food and sleep at regular intervals, as indicated by the gauges measuring his hunger and neediness for sleep. If his gauge for sleepiness reaches zero, he will become hungry far more quickly and his heartbeat gauge will increase much faster when running; if his gauge for hunger depletes, he will begin to lose health until he dies. Sleeping restores his health and tiredness, while food and items used to ward off sleepiness, such as coffee, can be purchased from stores in Greenvale.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: York may explore Greenvale on foot, by car, or by using a special item which can be obtained by completing a sidequest. Cars must be maintained, as they consume fuel, which York must purchase, and accumulate damage that eventually renders them useless unless York pays for their repair. York often has a specific time frame for investigating sites and interviewing non-player characters; however, if he misses the timeslot, the player may simply try again during the next day without a penalty. Places of business and entertainment venues in Greenvale have specific hours of operation and must be visited at the proper time to make use of their services. Non-player characters also have their own specific routines and travel around town as they go about their business. It also features a dynamic weather system and day-night cycle which affects the responses of the non-player characters. If York engages one at the right place and time of day, he or she may offer him a side-quest to perform for additional rewards. In addition to side-quests, trading cards are scattered throughout the town, which the player can collect while exploring. York can also participate in mini-games, such as darts, racing through checkpoints, and fishing, and may accelerate the passing of time by smoking cigarettes.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" contains several combat sequences, in which York encounters supernatural enemies while trapped in the Other World. York may battle them using melee weapons or firearms, or may choose to evade them by holding his breath. Melee weapons will eventually break with continued use, and York's pulse increases whenever he runs or holds his breath. Periodically, York encounters the Raincoat Killer, which will activate either a quick time event, a chase sequence, or a hiding event necessary to escape the murderer. During the Other World sequences, York's primary objective is to investigate crimes that took place there in the recent past. He collects photos of evidence to use to "profile" the scene and reconstruct events that took place with his deductive skills. Furthermore, the Other World regularly affects the entire town, excepting the interior of buildings, from midnight to six in the morning.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" is set in the world in which good and evil are spread by the messengers influenced by the Forest and Red Tree respectively. Contrasting pairs play a role in the game, such as "good and evil, reality and abnormality, earthly life and eternal life, day and night, criminals and victims, the forest and the red tree, and twins and dual personalities". Throughout the game, the protagonist, Francis York Morgan (Jeff Kramer), periodically visits two supernatural rooms: the White Room and the Red Room. The White Room represents a normal subconscious, while the Red Room represents one influenced by evil.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Francis York Morgan investigates the murder of 18-year-old Anna Graham (Melissa Hutchison) in the rural town of Greenvale, Washington, in the United States. He takes on the case due to the manner of the killing: a ritualistic murder of a young woman where red seeds have been found on or near the body, similar to a series of other murders across the United States. York generates considerable friction with his dismissive attitude toward the locals, bizarre demeanor, and tendency to interrupt conversations to deliver asides to an unseen person referred to as "Zach". He is assisted by the town's sheriff George Woodman (Casey Robertson), who is scarred by a past of childhood abuse; the deputy sheriff Emily Wyatt (Rebecca Wink), who becomes a love interest for York; and Thomas MacLaine (Christopher Sullivan), George's meek assistant. Additionally, York finds himself regularly ambushed and attacked by the Raincoat Killer, who, according to the folklore of the town, kills only when it rains.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: As the investigation continues, Anna's close friend Becky Ames (Amy Provenzano) and Diane (Christiane Crawford), Becky's elder sister and art gallery owner, are murdered in a similar fashion, with a mark placed nearby that York believes to be a peace symbol upside-down. He learns that the trees producing the red seeds grow in Greenvale and that there are two Raincoat Killers. The original one, who inspired the folklore, went on a killing spree after the United States military released gas made from the red seeds into the town in 1956, causing the residents to temporarily experience an uncontrollable, murderous rage. The second, the New Raincoat Killer, hopes to gain immortality by consuming the red seeds and murdering four people, who have also been forced to eat the seeds.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: When Thomas abruptly disappears, York suspects his involvement in the crimes, a hunch that is confirmed when Thomas kidnaps him. While tied up, York realizes his romantic feelings for Emily, who searches for him with Forrest Kaysen (Doug Boyd), a traveling tree salesman. It is also revealed that Anna, Becky, Thomas, and his younger sister Carol all belonged to a secret sex club created by George; jealous of George's romantic interest in Emily, Thomas draws her into a physical confrontation with him and dies when he falls on a hook. York, now rescued, reveals that he believes the copycat raincoat killer is George. Emily and York find the final victim, Carol; before dying, Carol attacks Emily out of jealousy as well and forces her to ingest some of the red seeds, which sickens her to the point of unconsciousness. York leaves Emily in Kaysen's care to confront George. George confesses to being the murderer and has gained shape-shifting powers as the result of eating the red seeds; in the ensuing fight, York kills him.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Afterward, York realizes that, while George was the Greenvale killer, he could not have been responsible for the other similar murders nationwide and was likely just a pawn. He eventually discovers that Kaysen is responsible and that the symbol seen close to all the victims was a tree. York finds that Kaysen has planted a tree inside Emily's stomach, and the sight causes him to recover his repressed memories: as a child, Zach witnessed his mother (Rebecca Wink) dying with a tree sprouting from her body, with his father (David Rosenthal) and Kaysen in the room. His father was unable to kill her out of mercy, leading to a more agonising death for her, and then he killed himself. Unable to cope with the trauma, Zach psychologically switched places with his newly created other personality, York. Though unable to save Emily, Zach kills Kaysen, revealed to be a supernatural entity from the Red World and messenger of the Red Tree, and leaves the town with optimism for his future. In the closing scene, the spirits of York, Emily, Thomas, and the Greenvale murder victims are seen happily residing in a parallel plane of existence.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" originates from "Rainy Woods", a game that Access Games began work on in fall 2004. A design document was produced in September 2004, followed by the project's start in March 2005. The prototype was assessed in October, as was an alpha iteration in March 2006. A trailer for "Rainy Woods" debuted in September 2007, promoting the title as a multi-platform game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles during the Tokyo Game Show; it featured the "young and very cynical" FBI Special Agent David Young Henning as its protagonist. Several video game journalists noted that the title shared strong similarities with the American supernatural television series "Twin Peaks". "Rainy Woods" was cancelled soon after its debut, due to considerable "technological difficulties" with the two platforms' hardware, including memory allocation and lighting.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: In 2008, Suehiro began work on "Deadly Premonition", which was intended to be a reboot of "Rainy Woods", combining the assets from "Rainy Woods" with a new scenario and game design. In March 2009, the project started, although it would face cancellation four times. Access Games also began simultaneous development on "Lord of Arcana", which would be released in October 2010. The budget for the overall project, according to Suehiro, was "[n]ot very much". Suehiro created a new protagonist, Francis York Morgan, with help from his friends in the United States, and he and Kenji Gota, an independent film director, created York's dialogue with his split personality, Zach. As Gota and Suehiro are good friends and often have conversations about film, Suehiro tried to imbue the dialogue with that atmosphere. Additionally, they wrote the main plotline, while Suehiro wrote eighty percent of the sidequests and all of York's conversations with the nonplayer characters. The character Zach was intended to involve the player emotionally in the game by providing the sense that York was directly addressing and conversing with the player in his asides.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: A central focus of the gameplay is freedom for the player, as Suehiro had wanted to create a game that players could progress at their own speed. He had planned to incorporate two more mini-games involving chess and perfume, and had considered having the player character's weight and hair length fluctuate. Additionally, the combat sections of "Deadly Premonition" were added last in development, after a publisher worried that the game would not sell well in the West without it. Aspects of the game were initially more violent as well, as a way to express a fear of death; for example, the second victim was intended to be disemboweled while still living. However, the scenes were later toned down, as Suehiro felt that they were "too extreme".


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Suehiro's guiding concepts for the game's setting focused on "real time, real scale, and real life". The developers traveled to the United States and noted the width measurements of the various billboards, railroad crossings, and roads to create a sense of realism for the town; the angles of the sun and weather patterns were also calculated. To add to that sense of realism, every street in Greenvale is named, and an hourly wage was decided on for a local diner. Additionally, the daily schedules of the non-player characters were created from their detailed background profiles.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Areas of difficulties in the game's development were memory allocation, various lighting and shadow aspects, and their use of the physics engine PhysX. According to Wataru Nishide, the lead level artist, and J's Kataoka, the lead programmer, the team's data management had been "sloppy" due to their initial amazement at the amount of RAM that the next-generation consoles provided. The team found a balance between the practicalities of the available memory with the desired aesthetic of the outdoor sections of the game, which initially contained too many objects. The developers also had difficulties with balancing the game's lighting, desired aesthetics of the game's shadows and the processing rate. Furthermore, their use of PhysX proved to have mixed results; the developers enjoyed the "dynamic expression" that it gave the game's world, but had problems with the inability to "cheat" the "brutally honest" simulation and the resulting toll on the frame rate and processing. The team also had to cut back on the number of objects run in the PhysX engine, which initially included hair, clothing, and fishing rods among others, to preserve the frame rate.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Riyou Kinugasa, Takuya Kobayashi, and Hiromi Mizutani composed the soundtrack for "Deadly Premonition". In his retrospective on "Deadly Premonition", the lead planner Keiji Teranishi considered its soundtrack a strength, helping to add depth to the game's world and characters. He credited this partially to efforts in working with the composers to "appreciate the unique aesthetic" of the game's world. This included humming ideas for songs, using concept designs, and playing music with a similar feel. "Life is Beautiful", which uses whistling to evoke a calm walk in the countryside, was easily composed, along with "York and Zach", which appears during York's monologues. "Miss Stilletto Heels", the second theme of the game, and "Red Tree", a song meant to symbolize madness, proved more difficult to create, particularly its improvisation section. The sound effects were outsourced to another company, as Access Games lacked a department to deal with the sound.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Voice recording took place at WebTone Studio in San Jose, California (WebTone later moved to Los Angeles). Six thousand lines of dialogue were recorded over two weeks, about half of which were lines for York's voice actor, Jeff Kramer. Before recording, the voice actors were provided with character biographies and concept art. Teranishi recalled directing the voice recording as "quite a task", and Suehiro sometimes acted out the lines himself to show what he wanted conveyed. Teranishi was particularly pleased with Kramer's performance as York, remarking that he "brought even greater depth and style to the lead role than Access Games had envisioned".


title: Deadly Premonition

text: "Deadly Premonition" was published for the Xbox 360 by Ignition Entertainment in North America, priced within the budget range, on February 23, 2010; by Marvelous Entertainment in Japan on March 11, and by Rising Star Games in Europe on October 29. In Japan, the game was also simultaneously released for the PlayStation 3. Additionally, Rising Star decided to forgo an Australian release, as a result of what it cited as "classification concerns". In 2017, "Deadly Premonition" was made compatible with the Xbox One. In 2019, it was released as "Deadly Premonition: Origins" on the Nintendo Switch.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The director's cut of "Deadly Premonition" was developed by ToyBox Inc. In 2013, Rising Star published it for the PlayStation 3 in Europe and North America on April 30, and in Australia on May 16. The same year, Rising Star published it for Microsoft Windows on October 29, and its non-configurable resolution for the PC edition was fixed by a fan-made patch. "Deadly Premonition: Red Seeds Profile: Complete Edition", a Japanese version of the director's cut, was released for the PlayStation 3 in March 2015. Also that year, NIS America published a limited collector's edition for the PlayStation 3 on November 24; it includes a hardcover artbook, soundtrack CD, a 54-card deck inspired by the game, and a voucher for the downloadable content.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The director's cut has updated controls, stereoscopic 3D, updated HD visuals, PlayStation Move support, downloadable content including various pre-order bonuses, and additional scenarios written by Suehiro. It adds a frame story of an elderly Zach narrating the plot of "Deadly Premonition" to his granddaughter, Michelle Louise Morgan. The extended ending shows the elderly Zach entering the parallel plane of existence, where he is warmly greeted by the inhabitants. York reassures him that he was there every step of the way and tells him about a new case involving an outbreak of illness in New Orleans. After asking his opinion on the case, York tells him to wake up, and Louise can be heard off-screen informing her mother that he has disappeared and wondering where he could have gone to.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: An interactive guide, "Deadly Premonition The Director's Cut: The Official Visual Companion" was released by Rising Star Games exclusively for iPad in October 2013. It includes three interactive maps, concept sketches, the soundtrack, Suehiro's notebook from the development of the game, and other interactive elements, such as puzzles.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: In North America, "Deadly Premonition" led sales of Xbox 360 games on Amazon.com for the week of April 9, 2010, temporarily overtaking higher-profile releases such as "", "", "Mass Effect 2", and "Left 4 Dead 2". 50,000 copies of "Deadly Premonition" were sold in North America during the first three months after its debut. According to an interview with Suehiro in February 2013, the original release of the game has not been commercially successful.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The original version of "Deadly Premonition" for Xbox 360 received a weighted average score of 68/100 from aggregator Metacritic, indicating "mixed or average" reception. It is a critically polarizing game, with scores ranging from as low as 2 out of 10 from IGN US to as high as 10 out of 10 from Destructoid. In the 2012 "Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition", "Deadly Premonition" holds the record as the "Most Critically Polarizing Survival Horror Game".


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The plot was positively received as eccentric and enjoyable. A reviewer for "Edge" wrote: "The beauty of "Deadly Premonition" is that it's a straightforward whodunnit viewed through the cracked prism of an unreliable narrator, conjuring an atmosphere of suspicion and confusion throughout". "Destructoid"s Jim Sterling appreciated the game's pop culture references, humor, and the dialogue, which they found to be hilarious and befuddling. The characters were positively received by reviewers as memorable and endearing. According to IGN UK, the interaction with characters and uncovering the details of their fictional lives helped to create a sense of emotional engagement with them that lasted after the game ended. York received a similar reception as "oddly endearing" despite his arrogance, and "one of the most interesting gaming protagonists for years".


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The gameplay received a range of critical reaction, from competently done for a budget title to horribly executed. The gameplay of "Deadly Premonition" drew comparisons to that of "Shenmue" and the "Clock Tower" series while its combat was compared to that of "Resident Evil 4". According to 1UP's Frank Cifaldi, "Deadly Premonition"s combination of similar gameplay to "Shenmue", "The Last Express", "Resident Evil 4", and the "Grand Theft Auto" series, proved to be "a 'jack of all trades, master of none' scenario", a sentiment that Erik Brudvig of IGN US agreed with. The controls also were criticized as detracting from the game's appeal. The combat sections received mixed reactions. IGN UK's Matt Wales wrote that while the combat was simple, the atmosphere and profiling worked nicely. According to Eurogamer's Chris Shilling, the sudden appearances of the Raincoat Killer made the sections frightening and the profiling made for some unsettling yet "relatively restrained" moments of horror, despite the "over-long and frequently clumsy" combat sequences. Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot described the supernatural enemies as not particularly aggressive and boss battles as taking too long.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Further criticism was directed at the game's music and visual quality. The graphics were frequently remarked upon as "terrible" and low quality. "PALGN"s Bev Chen, in contrast, felt that the quality of the graphics worked in the game's favor by adding a "bizarre charm". Similarly, the game's soundtrack received criticism as sometimes thematically inappropriate, with serious scenes often containing a light-hearted jazz track; conversely, some critics found the soundtrack memorable and enjoyable, though repetitive in its selection.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Nevertheless, the game has received a significant cult following. This cult success was attributed to how the game's "wildly mixed critical reception and headline-making strangeness got people talking" by Will Herring of "GamePro". Citing the game as an example of "video games as art", David Jenkins of the "Metro" praised it for an "emotional range" encompassing survival horror and comedic farce. G4TV named it one of the "Top 10 Games of 2010... So Far" in June 2010. The game has received over a dozen other awards from various publications, including "Best Cult Game" from Gamasutra, "Most Surprisingly Good Game" from GameSpot, and "Best Worst Game" from GamesRadar.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: Critics have noted multiple allusions to "Twin Peaks"; among them are "its well dressed FBI agent, rural Pacific Northwest setting, and a healthy dose of woodsy supernatural mythos". Reviewers have remarked on similarities in "Deadly Premonition"s characters with those of "Twin Peaks". York has been commented on as sharing similarities with "Twin Peak"s protagonist Dale Cooper, notably a love of coffee and habitually addressing an unseen character; the first murder victim, Anna Graham, may be a homage to Laura Palmer, while her name may be a reference to both the character Annie and the actress who portrayed her, Heather Graham. The Pot Lady, a side character who carries around a pot, may be a reference to the Log Lady, although they serve different narrative functions. The Red Room of "Deadly Premonition" has some similarities with the Red Room of "Twin Peaks", in that both are supernatural locations that the protagonist can access. The A & G Diner might be a reference to the RR Diner of "Twin Peaks", both of which are based on Twede's Cafe in North Bend, Washington. The Great Deer Yard Hotel may be inspired by "Twin Peaks"s the Great Northern Hotel, which was based on the Salish Lodge in Snoqualmie Falls, Washington. The character Emily has also been noted to visually resemble actress Naomi Watts, who starred in a film directed by David Lynch, "Mulholland Drive", and later appeared in "".


title: Deadly Premonition

text: The director's cut for the PlayStation 3 received a weighted average of 70/100 from Metacritic, also indicating "mixed or average reviews". Eurogamer's Oli Welsh wrote that the director's cut corrects some of the original flaws but others are left untouched, "just as you'd want it, really". Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot remarked that, while the director's cut had not been "a dramatic overhaul", the game remained enjoyable and entertaining. Conversely, the "Official PlayStation Magazine"s concluded that the retail price was too high to justify recommending the director's cut with all its flaws. Critics praised the new controls as an improvement. The graphics received more mixed reviews: Sterling wrote that "this new version at least looks better on modern televisions -- though your mileage may vary", while other reviewers concluded that, even with improvements, the graphics still either barely met or fell beneath standards for a later PlayStation 2 game. The inclusion of the minor narrative additions were generally enjoyed, although not viewed by critics as adding anything substantial to the plot. Issues with the frame rate and an "echo" effect with the voice acting were also noted in the port.


title: Deadly Premonition

text: A sequel called "" for the Nintendo Switch, was released on July 10, 2020. Set in 2019 in Boston, the plot focuses on Aaliyah Davis, an FBI agent who reopens an old investigation; her story intertwines with that of Francis York Morgan, fourteen years prior in the city of Le Carré, which is based on New Orleans.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita (सुश्रुतसंहिता, IAST: "Suśrutasaṃhitā", literally "Suśruta's Compendium") is an ancient Sanskrit text on medicine and surgery, and one of the most important such treatises on this subject to survive from the ancient world. The "Compendium of Suśruta" is one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine), alongside the "Charaka-Saṃhitā", "the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā", and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript. It is one of the two foundational Hindu texts on the medical profession that have survived from ancient India.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The "Suśrutasaṃhitā" is of great historical importance because it includes historically unique chapters describing surgical training, instruments and procedures which is still followed by modern science of surgery. One of the oldest "Sushruta Samhita" palm-leaf manuscripts is preserved at the Kaiser Library, Nepal.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Over a century ago, the scholar Rudolf Hoernle (1841 – 1918) proposed that given that the author of "Satapatha Brahmana", a Vedic text from the mid-first-millennium BCE, was aware of Sushruta's doctrines, Sushruta's doctrines should be dated based on the composition date of Satapatha Brahmana. The composition date of the Brahmana is itself unclear, added Hoernle, and he estimated it to be about the 6th century BCE. Hoernle's date of 600 BCE for the "Suśrutasaṃhitā" continues to be widely and uncritically cited in spite of much intervening scholarship. Scores of scholars have subsequently published opinions on the date of the work, and these many views have been summarized by Meulenbeld in his "History of Indian Medical Literature".Boslaugh dates the currently existing text to the 6th-century CE.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Central to the problem of chronology is the fact that the Suśrutasaṃhitā is the work of several hands. The internal tradition recorded in manuscript colophons and by medieval commentators makes clear that an old version of the "Suśrutasaṃhitā" consisted of sections 1-5, with the sixth part having been added by a later author. However, the oldest manuscripts we have of the work already include the sixth section.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The most detailed and extensive consideration of the date of the "Suśrutasaṃhitā" is that published by Meulenbeld in his "History of Indian Medical Literature" (1999-2002). All serious consideration of this complex question must show awareness of this work. Meulenbeld stated that the "Suśrutasaṃhitā" is likely a work that includes several historical layers, whose composition may have begun in the last centuries BCE and was completed in its presently surviving form by another author who redacted its first five sections and added the long, final section, the "Uttaratantra." It is likely that the "Suśruta-saṃhitā" was known to the scholar (fl. 300-500 CE), which gives the latest date for the version of the work that has survived into the modern era.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: In "Suśrutasaṃhitā - A Scientific Synopsis", the historians of Indian science Ray, Gupta and Roy noted the following view, which is broadly the same as Meulenbeld's:"The Chronology Committee of the National Institute of Sciences of India (Proceedings, 1952), was of the opinion that third to fourth centuries A. D. may be accepted as the date of the recension of the Suśruta Saṃhitā by Nāgārjuna, which formed the basis of Dallaṇa's commentary."This view remains the consensus amongst university scholars of the history of Indian medicine and Sanskrit literature.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: As mentioned above, scores of scholars have proposed hypotheses on the formation and dating of the "Suśrutasaṃhitā". The following are some of these views that broadly follow Hoernle's old 1907 publication.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Rao in 1985 suggested that the original layer to the Sushruta Samhita was composed in 1st millennium BCE by "elder Sushruta" consisting of five books and 120 chapters, which was redacted and expanded with Uttara-tantra as the last layer of text in 1st millennium CE, bringing the text size to six books and 184 chapters. Walton et al., in 1994, traced the origins of the text to 1st millennium BCE.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Tipton in a 2008 historical perspectives review, states that uncertainty remains on dating the text, how many authors contributed to it and when. Estimates range from 1000 BCE, 800–600 BCE, 600 BCE, 600–200 BCE, 200 BCE, 1–100 CE, and 500 CE. Partial resolution of these uncertainties, states Tipton, has come from a comparison of the Sushruta Samhita text with several Vedic hymns particularly the Atharvaveda such as the hymn on the creation of man in its 10th book, the chapters of Atreya Samhita which describe the human skeleton, better dating of ancient texts that mention Sushruta's name, and critical studies on the ancient Bower Manuscript by Hoernle. These information trace the first Sushruta Samhita to likely have been composed by about mid 1st millennium BCE.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: "Sushruta" or "Suśruta" (Sanskrit: सुश्रुत, IAST: , , an adjective meaning "renowned") is named in the text as the author, who is presented in later manuscripts and printed editions a narrating the teaching of his guru, Divodāsa. A person of this name is said in early texts such as the Buddhist Jatakas to have been a physician who taught in a school in Kashi (Varanasi) in parallel to another medical school in Taxila (on Jhelum river), sometime between 1200 BCE and 600 BCE. The earliest known mentions of the name Sushruta firmly associated with the tradition of the "Suśrutasaṃhitā" is in the "Bower Manuscript" (4th or 5th century CE), where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Rao in 1985 suggested that the author of the original "layer" was "elder Sushruta" ("Vrddha Sushruta"), although this name appears nowhere in the early Sanskrit literature. The text, states Rao, was redacted centuries later "by another Sushruta, then by Nagarjuna, and thereafter Uttara-tantra was added as a supplement". It is generally accepted by scholars that there were several ancient authors called "Suśruta" who contributed to this text.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The text has been called a Hindu text by many scholars. The text discusses surgery with the same terminology found in more ancient Hindu texts, mentions Hindu gods such as Narayana, Hari, Brahma, Rudra, Indra and others in its chapters, refers to the scriptures of Hinduism namely the Vedas, and in some cases, recommends exercise, walking and "constant study of the Vedas" as part of the patient's treatment and recovery process. The text also uses terminology of Samkhya and other schools of Hindu philosophy.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita and Caraka Samhita have religious ideas throughout, states Steven Engler, who then concludes "Vedic elements are too central to be discounted as marginal". These ideas include the use of terms and same metaphors that are pervasive in the Hindu scriptures – the Vedas, and the inclusion of theory of Karma, self (Atman) and Brahman (metaphysical reality) along the lines of those found in ancient Hindu texts. However, adds Engler, the text also includes another layer of ideas, where empirical rational ideas flourish in competition or cooperation with religious ideas. Following Engler's study, contemporary scholars have abandoned the distinction "religious" vs. "empirico-rational" as no longer being a useful analytical distinction.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The text may have Buddhist influences, since a redactor named Nagarjuna has raised many historical questions, whether he was the same person of Mahayana Buddhism fame. Zysk states that the ancient Buddhist medical texts are significantly different from both Sushruta and Caraka Samhita. For example, both Caraka and Sushruta recommend "Dhupana" (fumigation) in some cases, the use of cauterization with fire and alkali in a class of treatments, and the letting out of blood as the first step in treatment of wounds. Nowhere in the Buddhist Pali texts, states Zysk, are these types of medical procedures mentioned. Similarly, medicinal resins ("Laksha") lists vary between Sushruta and the Pali texts, with some sets not mentioned at all. While Sushruta and Caraka are close, many afflictions and their treatments found in these texts are not found in Pali texts.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: In general, states Zysk, Buddhist medical texts are closer to Sushruta than to Caraka, and in his study suggests that the Sushruta Samhita probably underwent a "Hinduization process" around the end of 1st millennium BCE and the early centuries of the common era after the Hindu orthodox identity had formed. Clifford states that the influence was probably mutual, with Buddhist medical practice in its ancient tradition prohibited outside of the Buddhist monastic order by a precedent set by Buddha, and Buddhist text praise Buddha instead of Hindu gods in their prelude. The mutual influence between the medical traditions between the various Indian religions, the history of the layers of the Suśruta-saṃhitā remains unclear, a large and difficult research problem.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Sushruta is reverentially held in Hindu tradition to be a descendant of Dhanvantari, the mythical god of medicine, or as one who received the knowledge from a discourse from Dhanvantari in Varanasi.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: One of the oldest palm-leaf manuscripts of "Sushruta Samhita" has been discovered in Nepal. It is preserved at the Kaiser Library, Nepal as manuscript KL–699, with its digital copy archived by Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (NGMCP C 80/7). The partially damaged manuscript consists of 152 folios, written on both sides, with 6 to 8 lines in transitional Gupta script. The manuscript has been verifiably dated to have been completed by the scribe on Sunday, April 13, 878 CE (Manadeva Samvat 301).


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Much of the scholarship on the "Suśruta-saṃhitā" is based on editions of the text that were published during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This includes the important edition by Vaidya Yādavaśarman Trivikramātmaja Ācārya that also includes the commentary of the scholar Dalhaṇa.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The printed editions are based on the small subset of surviving manuscripts that was available in the major publishing centers of Bombay, Calcutta and elsewhere when the editions were being prepared — sometimes as few as three or four manuscripts. But these do not adequately represent the large number of manuscript versions of the "Suśruta-saṃhitā" that have survived into the modern era. Taken together, all printed versions of the Suśrutasaṃhitā are based on no more than ten percent of the more than 230 manuscripts of the work that exist today. These manuscripts exist in the libraries in India and abroad today. More than two hundred manuscripts of the work exist, and a critical edition of the "Suśruta-saṃhitā" is yet to be prepared.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises. It is one of the foundational texts of the medical tradition in India, alongside the "Caraka-Saṃhitā", "the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā", and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita was composed after Charaka Samhita, and except for some topics and their emphasis, both discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles, Pathology, Diagnosis, Anatomy, Sensorial Prognosis, Therapeutics, Pharmaceutics and Toxicology.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta and Charaka texts differ in one major aspect, with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of surgery, while Charaka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The "Sushruta Samhita", in its extant form, is divided into 186 chapters and contains descriptions of 1,120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The "Suśruta-Saṃhitā" is divided into two parts: the first five books (Skt. Sthanas) are considered to be the oldest part of the text, and the "Later Section" (Skt. "Uttaratantra") that was added by the author Nagarjuna. The content of these chapters is diverse, some topics are covered in multiple chapters in different books, and a summary according to the Bhishagratna's translation is as follows:


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Sushruta, states Tipton, asserts that a physician should invest the effort to prevent diseases as much as curative remedial procedures. An important means for prevention, states Sushruta, is physical exercise and hygienic practices. The text adds that excessive strenuous exercise can be injurious and make one more susceptible to diseases, cautioning against such excess. Regular moderate exercise, suggests Sushruta, improves resistance to disease and physical decay.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita states, per Hoernle's translation, that "the professors of Ayurveda speak of three hundred and sixty bones, but books on "Shalya-Shastra" (surgical science) know of only three hundred". The text then lists the total of 300 as follows: 120 in the extremities (e.g. hands, legs), 117 in the pelvic area, sides, back, abdomen and breast, and 63 in the neck and upwards. The text then explains how these subtotals were empirically verified. The discussion shows that the Indian tradition nurtured diversity of thought, with Sushruta school reaching its own conclusions and differing from the Atreya-Caraka tradition.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The osteological system of Sushruta, states Hoernle, follows the principle of homology, where the body and organs are viewed as self-mirroring and corresponding across various axes of symmetry. The differences in the count of bones in the two schools is partly because Charaka Samhita includes thirty two teeth sockets in its count, and their difference of opinions on how and when to count a cartilage as bone (both count cartilages as bones, unlike current medical practice).


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita is best known for its approach and discussions of surgery. It was one of the first in human history to suggest that a student of surgery should learn about human body and its organs by dissecting a dead body. A student should practice, states the text, on objects resembling the diseased or body part. Incision studies, for example, are recommended on "Pushpaphala" (squash, "Cucurbita maxima"), "Alabu" (bottle gourd, "Lagenaria vulgaris"), "Trapusha" (cucumber, "Cucumis pubescens"), leather bags filled with fluids and bladders of dead animals.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The ancient text, state Menon and Haberman, describes haemorrhoidectomy, amputations, plastic, rhinoplastic, ophthalmic, lithotomic and obstetrical procedures.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The "Sushruta Samhita" mentions various methods including sliding graft, rotation graft and pedicle graft. Reconstruction of a nose (rhinoplasty) which has been cut off, using a flap of skin from the cheek is also described. Labioplasty too has received attention in the samahita.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita, along with the Sanskrit medicine-related classics Atharvaveda and Charak Samhita, together describe more than 700 medicinal herbs. The description, states Padma, includes their taste, appearance and digestive effects to safety, efficacy, dosage and benefits.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: Sushruta's treatise provides the first written record of a cheek flap rhinoplasty, a technique still used today to reconstruct a nose.The text mentions more than 15 methods to repair it.  These include using a flap of skin from the cheek, which is akin to the most modern technique today..


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The nose in Indian society has remained a symbol of dignity and respect throughout antiquity. Rhinoplasty was an especially important development in India because of the long-standing tradition of rhinotomy (amputation of the nose) as a form of punishment. Convicted criminals would often have their noses amputated to mark them as untrustworthy, but amputation was also frequently practiced on women accused of adultery – even if they were not proven guilty. Once branded in this fashion, an individual had to live with the stigma for the rest of his or her life. Reconstructive surgery, therefore, offered a hope of redemption and normalcy.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The practice of Rhinoplasty slowly started as a result of the need to reconstruct the external nose and later developed to full-fledged science.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The text was translated to Arabic as "Kitab Shah Shun al-Hindi"' in Arabic, also known as "Kitab i-Susurud", in Baghdad during the early 8th century at the instructions of a member of the Barmakid family of Baghdad. Yahya ibn Barmak facilitated a major effort at collecting and translating Sanskrit texts such as Vagbhata's "Astangahrdaya Samhita", Ravigupta's "Siddhasara" and Sushruta Samhita. The Arabic translation reached Europe by the end of the medieval period. There is some evidence that in Renaissance Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gasparo Tagliacozzi (Bologna) were familiar with the rhinoplastic techniques mentioned in the "Sushruta Samhita".


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The text was known to the Khmer king Yaśovarman I (fl. 889-900) of Cambodia. Suśruta was also known as a medical authority in Tibetan literature.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: In India, a major commentary on the text, known as "Nibandha-samgraha", was written by Dalhana in ca. 1200 CE.Other commentaries include "Nyaya Chandrika" by Gayadas written in 11th century AD and "Susrutardha Sandipini" by Haranachandra written in 19th century AD.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: A number of Sushruta's contributions have been discussed in modern literature. Some of these include "Hritshoola" (heart pain), circulation of vital body fluids (such as blood ("rakta dhatu") and lymph ("rasa dhatu"), Diabetes ("Madhumeha"), obesity, and hypertension. Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in "Sushruta Samhita". The text discusses kidney stones and its surgical removal.


title: Sushruta Samhita

text: The first printed edition of the text was prepared by Madhusudan Gupta (2 vols, Calcutta 1835, ). A partial English translation by U. C. Datta appeared in 1883. The first complete English translation of the Sushruta Samhita was by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, who published it in three volumes between 1907 and 1916 (reprinted 1963, 2006).