title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Early in his Provisional Theatre conductorship Smetana had made a powerful enemy in František Pivoda, the Director of the Prague School of Singing. Formerly a supporter of Smetana, Pivoda was aggrieved when the conductor recruited singing talent from abroad rather than from Pivoda's school. In an increasingly bitter public correspondence, Pivoda claimed that Smetana was using his position to further his own career, at the expense of other composers.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Pivoda then took issue with "Dalibor", calling it an example of extreme "Wagnerism" and thus, unsuited as a model for Czech national opera. "Wagnerism" meant the adoption of Wagner's theories of a continuous role for the orchestra and the building of an integrated musical drama, rather than a stringing together of lyrical numbers. The Provisional Theatre's chairman, František Rieger, had first accused Smetana of Wagnerist tendencies after the first performance of "The Brandenburgers", and the issue eventually divided Prague's musical society. The music critic Otakar Hostinský believed that Wagner's theories should be the basis of the national opera, and argued that "Dalibor" was the beginning of the "correct" direction. The opposite camp, led by Pivoda, supported the principles of Italian opera, in which the voice rather than the orchestra was the predominant dramatic device.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Even within the theatre itself there was division. Rieger led a campaign to eject Smetana from the conductorship and reappoint Maýr, and in December 1872 a petition signed by 86 subscribers to the theatre called for Smetana's resignation. Strong support from vice-chairman Antonín Čísek, and an ultimatum from prominent musicians among whom was Antonín Dvořák, ensured Smetana's survival. In January 1873 he was reappointed, with a bigger salary and increased responsibility as artistic director.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana gradually brought more operas by emergent Czech composers to the theatre, but little of his own work. By 1872 he had completed his monumental fourth opera, "Libuše", his most ambitious work to date, but was withholding its premiere for the future opening of the forthcoming National Theatre. The machinations of Pivoda and his supporters distracted Smetana from composition, and he had further vexation when "The Bartered Bride" was produced in Saint Petersburg, in January 1871. Although the audience was enthusiastic, press reports were hostile, one describing the work as "no better than that of a gifted fourteen-year-old boy." Smetana was deeply offended, and blamed his old adversary, Balakirev, for inciting negative feelings against the opera.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In the respite following his reappointment, Smetana concentrated on his fifth opera, "The Two Widows", composed between June 1873 and January 1874. After its first performance at the Provisional Theatre on 27 March 1874, Smetana's supporters presented him with a decorative baton. But his opponents continued to attack him, comparing his conductorship unfavourably with the Maýr regime and claiming that under Smetana "Czech opera sickens to death at least once annually." By the summer Smetana was ill; a throat infection was followed by a rash and an apparent blockage to the ears. By mid-August, unable to work, he transferred his duties to his deputy, Adolf Čech. A press announcement stated that Smetana had "become ill as a result of nervous strain caused by certain people recently."


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In September, Smetana told the theatre he would resign his appointment unless his health improved. He had become totally deaf in his right ear, and in October lost all hearing in his left ear also. After his subsequent resignation the theatre offered him an annual pension of 1,200 florins for the continued right to perform his operas, an arrangement Smetana reluctantly accepted. Money raised in Prague by former students, and by former lover Fröjda Benecke in Gothenburg, amounted to 1,244 florins. This allowed Smetana to seek medical treatment abroad, but to no avail. In January 1875 Smetana wrote in his journal: "If my disease is incurable, then I should prefer to be liberated from this life." His spirits were further lowered at this time by a deterioration in his relationship with Bettina, mainly over money matters. "I cannot live under the same roof as a person who hates and persecutes me," Smetana informed her. Although divorce was considered, the couple stayed unhappily together.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In worsening health, Smetana continued to compose. In June 1876 he, Bettina, and their two daughters left Prague for Jabkenice, the home of his eldest daughter Žofie where, in tranquil surroundings, Smetana was able to work undisturbed. Before leaving Prague he had begun a cycle of six symphonic poems, called "Má vlast" ("My Fatherland"), and had completed the first two, "Vyšehrad" and "Vltava", which had both been performed in Prague during 1875. In Jabkenice Smetana composed four more movements, the complete cycle being first performed on 5 November 1882 under the baton of Adolf Čech. Other major works composed in these years were the E minor String Quartet, "From My Life", a series of Czech dances for piano, several choral pieces and three more operas: "The Kiss", "The Secret" and "The Devil's Wall", all of which received their first performances between 1876 and 1882.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: The long-delayed premiere of Smetana's opera "Libuše" finally arrived when the National Theatre opened on 11 June 1881. He had not initially been given tickets, but at the last minute was asked into the theatre director's box. The audience received the work enthusiastically, and Smetana was called to the stage repeatedly. Shortly after this event the new theatre was destroyed by fire; despite his infirmities, Smetana helped to raise funds for the rebuilding. The restored theatre reopened on 18 November 1883, again with "Libuše".


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: These years saw Smetana's growing recognition as the principal exponent of Czech national music. This status was celebrated by several events during Smetana's final years. On 4 January 1880, a special concert in Prague marked the 50th anniversary of his first public performance; Smetana attended, and played his Piano Trio in G minor from 1855. In May 1882 "The Bartered Bride" was given its 100th performance, an unprecedented event in the history of Czech opera. It was so popular that a repeat "100th performance" was staged. A gala concert and banquet was arranged to honour Smetana's 60th birthday in March 1884, but he was too ill to attend.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In 1879, Smetana had written to a friend, the Czech poet Jan Neruda, revealing fears of the onset of madness. By the winter of 1882–83 he was experiencing depression, insomnia, and hallucinations, together with giddiness, cramp and a temporary loss of speech. In 1883 he began writing a new symphonic suite, "Prague Carnival", but could get no further than an Introduction and a Polonaise. He started a new opera, "Viola", based on the character in Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night", but wrote only fragments as his mental state gradually deteriorated. In October 1883 his behaviour at a private reception in Prague disturbed his friends; by the middle of February 1884 he had ceased to be coherent, and was periodically violent. On 23 April his family, unable to nurse him any longer, removed him to the Kateřinky Lunatic Asylum in Prague, where he died on 12 May 1884.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: The hospital registered the cause of death as senile dementia. However, Smetana's family believed that his physical and mental decline was due to syphilis. An analysis of the autopsy report, published by the German neurologist Dr Ernst Levin in 1972, came to the same conclusion. Tests carried out by Prof. Emanuel Vlček in the late 20th century on samples of muscular tissue from Smetana's exhumed body provided further evidence of the disease. However, this research has been challenged by Czech physician Dr Jiří Ramba, who has argued that Vlček's tests do not provide a basis for a reliable conclusion, citing the age and state of the tissues and highlighting reported symptoms of Smetana's that were incompatible with syphilis.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's funeral took place on 15 May, at the Týn Church in Prague's Old Town. The subsequent procession to the Vyšehrad Cemetery was led by members of the Hlahol, bearing torches, and was followed by a large crowd. The grave later became a place of pilgrimage for musical visitors to Prague. On the funeral evening, a scheduled performance of "The Bartered Bride" at the National Theatre was allowed to proceed, the stage draped with black cloth as a mark of respect.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana was survived by Bettina, their daughters Zdeňka and Božena, and by Žofie. None of them played any significant role in Smetana's musical life. Bettina lived until 1908; Žofie, who had married Josef Schwarz in 1874, predeceased her stepmother, dying in 1902. The younger daughters eventually married, living out their lives away from the public eye. A permanent memorial to Smetana's life and work is the Bedřich Smetana Museum in Prague, founded in 1926 within the Charles University's Institute for Musicology. In 1936 the museum moved to the former Waterworks building on the banks of the Vltava, and since 1976 has been part of the Czech Museum of Music.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: The basic materials from which Smetana fashioned his art, according to Newmarch, were nationalism, realism and romanticism. A particular feature of all his later music is its descriptive character—all his major compositions outside his operas are written to programmes, and many are specifically autobiographical. Smetana's champions have recognised the major influences on his work as Liszt, Wagner and Berlioz—the "progressives"—while those same advocates have often played down the significance of "traditionalist" composers such as Rossini, Donizetti, Verdi and Meyerbeer.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: All but a handful of Smetana's compositions before his departure for Gothenburg are piano works. Some of these early pieces have been dismissed by music historian Harold Schonberg as "bombastic virtuoso rhetoric derived from Liszt". Under Proksch, however, Smetana acquired more polish, as revealed in works such as the G minor Sonata of 1846 and the E-flat Polka of the same year. The set of "Six Characteristic Pieces" of 1848 was dedicated to Liszt, who described it as "the most outstanding, finely felt and finely finished pieces that have recently come to my note." In this period Smetana planned a cycle of so-called "album leaves", short pieces in every major and minor key, after the manner of Chopin's "Preludes". The project became somewhat disorganised; in the pieces completed, some keys are repeated while others are unrepresented. After Smetana's final return from Gothenburg, when he committed himself primarily to the development of Czech opera, he wrote nothing for the piano for 13 years.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In his last decade Smetana composed three substantial piano cycles. The first, from 1875, was entitled "Dreams". It was dedicated to former pupils of Smetana's, who had raised funds to cover medical expenses, and is also a tribute to the composer's models of the 1840s—Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. Smetana's last major piano works were the two "Czech Dances" cycles of 1877 and 1879. The first of these had the purpose, as Smetana explained to his publisher, of "idealising the polka, as Chopin in his day did with the mazurka." The second cycle is a medley of dances, each given a specific title so that people would know "which dances with real names we Czechs have."


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's early songs are settings of German poems for single voice. Apart from his 1848 "Song of Freedom", he did not begin to write pieces for a full choir until after his Gothenburg sojourn, when he composed numerous works for the Hlahol choral society, mostly for unaccompanied male voices. Smetana's choral music is generally nationalistic in character, ranging in scale from the short "Ceremonial Chorus" written after the death of the composer's revolutionary friend Havlíček, to the setting of "Song of the Sea", a substantial work with the character of a choral drama.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Towards the end of his life Smetana returned to simple song-writing, with five "Evening Songs" (1879) to words by the poet Vítězslav Hálek. His final completed work, "Our Song" (1883), is the last of four settings of texts by Josef Srb-Debrnov. Despite the state of Smetana's health, this is a happy celebration of Czech song and dance. The piece was lost for many years, and only received its first performance after rediscovery in 1924.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Apart from a juvenile fantasia for violin and piano, Smetana composed only four chamber works, yet each had a deep personal significance. The Piano Trio in G minor of 1855 was composed after the death of his daughter Bedřiška; its style is close to that of Robert Schumann, with hints of Liszt, and the overall tone is elegiac. It was 20 years before he returned to the chamber genre with his first String Quartet. This E minor work, subtitled "From My Life", was autobiographical in character, illustrating the composer's youthful enthusiasm for his art, his friendships and loves and, in a change of mood, the onset of his deafness represented by a long harmonic E in the final movement above ominous string tremolos. His second String Quartet, in D minor, written in 1882–83 in defiance of his doctor's orders to refrain from all musical activity, was composed in short snatches, "a swirl of music of a person who has lost his hearing." It represents Smetana's frustrations with his life, but is not wholly gloomy, and includes a bright polka. It was one of his final compositions; between the two quartets he wrote a violin and piano duet "From the homeland", a mixture of melancholy and happiness with strong affinity to Czech folk material.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Dissatisfied with his first large-scale orchestral work, the D major Overture of 1848, Smetana studied passages from Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Weber and Berlioz before producing his "Triumphal Symphony" of 1853. Though this is dismissed by Rosa Newmarch as "an epithalamium for a Habsburg Prince", Smetana's biographer Brian Large identifies much in the piece that characterises the composer's more mature works. Despite the symphony's rejection by the Court and the lukewarm reception on its premiere, Smetana did not abandon the work. It was well received in Gothenburg in 1860, and a revised version was performed in Prague in 1882, without the "triumphal" tag, under Adolf Čech. The piece is now sometimes called the "Festive Symphony".


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's visit to Liszt at Weimar in the summer of 1857, where he heard the latter's "Faust Symphony" and "Die Ideale", caused a material reorientation of Smetana's orchestral music. These works gave Smetana answers to many compositional problems relating to the structure of orchestral music, and suggested a means for expressing literary subjects by a synthesis between music and text, rather than by simple musical illustration. These insights enabled Smetana to write the three Gothenburg symphonic poems, ("Richard III, Wallenstein's Camp" and "Hakon Jarl"), works that transformed Smetana from a composer primarily of salon pieces to a modern neo-Romantic, capable of handling large-scale forces and demonstrating the latest musical concepts.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: From 1862 Smetana was largely occupied with opera and, apart from a few short pieces, did not return to purely orchestral music before beginning "Má vlast" in 1872. In his introduction to the Collected Edition Score, František Bartol brackets "Má vlast" with the opera Libuše as "direct symbols of [the] consummating national struggle". "Má vlast" is the first of Smetana's mature large-scale works that is independent of words, and its musical ideas are bolder than anything he had tried before. To musicologist John Clapham, the cycle presents "a cross-section of Czech history and legend and impressions of its scenery, and ... conveys vividly to us Smetana's view of the ethos and greatness of the nation." Despite its nationalistic associations this work has, according to Newmarch, carried Smetana's name further afield than anything he wrote, with the exception of "The Bartered Bride" Overture. Smetana dedicated "Má vlast" to the city of Prague; after its first performance in November 1882 it was acclaimed by the Czech musical public as the true representation of Czech national style. Its "Vltava" (or "The Moldau" in German) movement, depicting the river that runs through Prague towards its junction with the Elbe, is Smetana's best-known and most internationally popular orchestral composition.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana had virtually no precursors in Czech opera apart from František Škroup, whose works had rarely lasted beyond one or two performances. In his mission to create a new canon, rather than using traditional folksong Smetana turned to the popular dance music of his youth, especially the polka, to establish his link with the vernacular. He drew on existing European traditions, notably Slavonic and French, but made only scarce use of arias, preferring to base his scores on ensembles and choruses.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Although a follower of Wagner's reforms of the operatic genre, which he believed would be its salvation, Smetana rejected accusations of excessive Wagnerism, claiming that he was sufficiently occupied with "Smetanism, for that is the only honest style!" The predominantly "national" character of the first four operas is tempered by the lyrical romanticism of those written later, particularly the last three, composed in the years of Smetana's deafness. The first of this final trio, "The Kiss", written when Smetana was receiving painful medical treatment, is described by Newmarch as a work of serene beauty, in which tears and smiles alternate throughout the score. Smetana's librettist for "The Kiss" was the young feminist Eliška Krásnohorská, who also supplied the texts for his final two operas. She dominated the ailing composer, who had no say in the subject-matter, the voice types or the balance between solos, duets and ensembles. Nevertheless, critics have noted few signs of a decline in Smetana's powers in these works, while his increasing proficiency in Czech meant that his settings of the language are much superior to those of his earlier operas.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's eight operas created the bedrock of the Czech opera repertory, but of these only "The Bartered Bride" is performed regularly outside the composer's homeland. After reaching Vienna in 1892, and London in 1895, it rapidly became part of the repertory of every major opera company worldwide. Newmarch argues that "The Bartered Bride", while not a "gem of the first order", is nevertheless "a perfectly cut and polished stone of its kind." Its trademark overture, which Newmarch says "lifts us off our feet with its madcap vivacity", was composed in a piano version before Smetana received the draft libretto. Clapham believes that this has few precedents in the entire history of opera. Smetana himself was later inclined to disparage his achievement: ""The Bartered Bride" was merely child's play, written straight off the reel". In the view of German critic William Ritter, Smetana's creative powers reached their zenith with his third opera, "Dalibor".


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Even in his own homeland the general public was slow to recognise Smetana. As a young composer and pianist he was well regarded in Prague musical circles, and had the approval of Liszt, Proksch and others, but the public's lack of acknowledgement was a principal factor behind his self-imposed exile in Sweden. After his return he was not taken particularly seriously, and was hard put to get audiences for his new works, hence his "prophet without honour" remark after the nearly empty hall and indifferent reception of "Richard III" and "Wallenstein's Camp" at Žofín Island in January 1862.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's first noteworthy public success was his initial opera "The Brandenburgers in Bohemia", in 1866 when he was already 42 years old. His second opera, "The Bartered Bride", survived the unfortunate mistiming of its opening night and became an enduring popular triumph. The different style of his third opera, "Dalibor", closer to that of Wagnerian music drama, was not readily understood by the public and was condemned by critics who believed that Czech opera should be based on folk-song. It disappeared from the repertory after only a handful of performances. Thereafter the machinations that accompanied Smetana's tenure as Provisional Theatre conductor restricted his creative output until 1874.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: In his final decade, the most fruitful of his compositional career despite his deafness and increasing ill-health, Smetana belatedly received national recognition. Of his later operas, "The Two Widows" and "The Secret" were warmly received, while "The Kiss" was greeted by an "overwhelming ovation". The ceremonial opera "Libuše" was received with thunderous applause for the composer; by this time (1881) the disputes around his music had declined, and the public was ready to honour him as the founder of Czech music. Nevertheless, the first few performances in October 1882 of an evidently under-rehearsed "The Devil's Wall" were chaotic, and the composer was left feeling "dishonoured and dispirited." This disappointment was swiftly mitigated by the acclaim that followed the first performance of the complete "Má vlast" cycle in November: "Everyone rose to his feet and the same storm of unending applause was repeated after each of the six parts ... At the end of "Blaník" [the final part] the audience was beside itself and the people could not bring themselves to take leave of the composer."


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana has a star on the "Walk of Fame" in Vienna, opened to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the opening of the Theater an der Wien.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: Smetana's biographers describe him as physically frail and unimpressive in appearance yet, at least in his youth, he had a "joie-de-vivre" that women evidently found attractive. He was also excitable, passionate and strong-willed, determined to make his career in music whatever the hardships, over the wishes of his father who wanted him to become a brewer or a civil servant. Throughout his career he stood his ground; when under the severest of criticism for the "Wagnerism" in "Dalibor" he responded by writing "Libuše", even more firmly based on the scale and concept of Wagnerian music drama. His personal life became stressful; his marriage to Bettina was loveless, and effectively broke down altogether in the years of illness and relative poverty towards the end of his life. Little of his relationships with his children is on record, although on the day that he was transferred to the asylum, Žofie was "crying as though her heart would break".


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: There is broad agreement among most commentators that Smetana created a canon of Czech opera where none had previously existed, and that he developed a style of music in all his compositions that equated with the emergent Czech national spirit. A modified view is presented by the music writer Michael Steen, who questions whether "nationalistic music" can in fact exist: "We should recognise that, whereas music is infinitely expressive, on its own it is not good at describing concrete, earthly objects or concepts." He concludes that much is dependent upon what listeners are conditioned to hear.


title: Bedřich Smetana

text: According to the musicologist John Tyrrell, Smetana's close identification with Czech nationalism and the tragic circumstances of his last years, have affected the objectivity of assessments of his work, particularly in his native land. Tyrrell argues that the almost iconic status awarded to Smetana in his homeland "monumentalized him into a figure where any criticism of his life or work was discouraged" by the Czech authorities, even as late as the last part of the 20th century. As a result, Tyrrell claims, a view of Czech music has been propagated that downplays the contributions of contemporaries and successors such as Dvořák, Janáček, Josef Suk and other, lesser known, composers. This is at odds with perceptions in the outside world, where Dvořák is far more frequently played and much better known. Harold Schonberg observes that "Smetana was the one who founded Czech music, but Antonín Dvořák ... was the one who popularized it."


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Interstitial lung disease (ILD), or diffuse parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), is a group of respiratory diseases affecting the interstitium (the tissue and space around the alveoli (air sacs)) of the lungs. It concerns alveolar epithelium, pulmonary capillary endothelium, basement membrane, and perivascular and perilymphatic tissues. It may occur when an injury to the lungs triggers an abnormal healing response. Ordinarily, the body generates just the right amount of tissue to repair damage, but in interstitial lung disease, the repair process is disrupted, and the tissue around the air sacs (alveoli) becomes scarred and thickened. This makes it more difficult for oxygen to pass into the bloodstream. The disease presents itself with the following symptoms: shortness of breath, nonproductive coughing, fatigue, and weight loss, which tend to develop slowly, over several months. The average rate of survival for someone with this disease is between three and five years. The term ILD is used to distinguish these diseases from obstructive airways diseases.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: There are specific types in children, known as children's interstitial lung diseases. The acronym ChILD is sometimes used for this group of diseases.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Prolonged ILD may result in pulmonary fibrosis, but this is not always the case. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is interstitial lung disease for which no obvious cause can be identified (idiopathic) and is associated with typical findings both radiographic (basal and pleural-based fibrosis with honeycombing) and pathologic (temporally and spatially heterogeneous fibrosis, histopathologic honeycombing, and fibroblastic foci).


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: In 2015, interstitial lung disease, together with pulmonary sarcoidosis, affected 1.9 million people. They resulted in 122,000 deaths.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia is the term given to ILDs with an unknown cause. They represent the majority of cases of interstitial lung diseases (up to two-thirds of cases). They were subclassified by the American Thoracic Society in 2002 into 7 subgroups:


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Investigation is tailored towards the symptoms and signs. A proper and detailed history looking for the occupational exposures, and for signs of conditions listed above is the first and probably the most important part of the workup in patients with interstitial lung disease. Pulmonary function tests usually show a restrictive defect with decreased diffusion capacity (DLCO).


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: A lung biopsy is required if the clinical history and imaging are not clearly suggestive of a specific diagnosis or malignancy cannot otherwise be ruled out. In cases where a lung biopsy is indicated, a trans-bronchial biopsy is usually unhelpful, and a surgical lung biopsy is often required.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chest radiography is usually the first test to detect interstitial lung diseases, but the chest radiograph can be normal in up to 10% of patients, especially early in the disease process.<ref name="ILD/PF FAQs Northwestern"></ref>


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: High resolution CT of the chest is the preferred modality, and differs from routine CT of the chest. Conventional (regular) CT chest examines 7–10 mm slices obtained


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: intervals using a high spatial frequency reconstruction algorithm. The HRCT therefore provides approximately 10 times more resolution than the conventional CT chest, allowing the HRCT to elicit details that cannot otherwise be visualized.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Radiologic appearance alone however is not adequate and should be interpreted in the clinical context, keeping in mind the temporal profile of the disease process.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Acute: Alveolar hemorrhage syndromes, acute eosinophilic pneumonia, acute interstitial pneumonia, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, lymphoproliferative disorders, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, sarcoidosis


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, connective tissue-associated interstitial lung diseases, asbestosis, sarcoidosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, drug-induced lung disease


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Hypersensitivity pneumonitis, sarcoidosis, silicosis, coal workers pneumoconiosis, respiratory bronchiolitis, alveolar microlithiasis


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Pulmonary langerhans cell histiocytosis, pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis, honeycomb lung caused by IPF or other diseases


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Acute: Alveolar hemorrhage syndromes, pulmonary edema, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, acute inhalational exposures, drug-induced lung diseases, acute interstitial pneumonia


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, respiratory bronchiolitis associated interstitial lung disease, desquamative interstitial pneumonia, drug-induced lung diseases, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Chronic: Lymphangitic carcinomatosis, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, sarcoidosis, pulmonary veno occlusive disease


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis, silicosis, coal workers pneumoconiosis, carmustine related pulmonary fibrosis, respiratory broncholitis associated with interstitial lung disease.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis associated with connective tissue diseases, asbestosis, chronic aspiration


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Pulmonary edema, connective tissue diseases, asbestosis, lymphangitic carcinomatosis, lymphoma, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, drug-induced lung diseases


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Sarcoidosis, silicosis, berylliosis, lymphangitic carcinomatosis, lymphoma, lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: For some types of paediatric ILDs and few forms adult ILDs, genetic causes have been identified. These may be identified by blood tests. For a limited number of cases, this is a definite advantage, as a precise molecular diagnosis can be done; frequently then there is no need for a lung biopsy. Testing is available for


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: ILD is not a single disease but encompasses many different pathological processes. Hence treatment is different for each disease. If a specific occupational exposure cause is found, the person should avoid that environment. If a drug cause is suspected, that drug should be discontinued.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Many cases due to unknown or connective tissue-based causes are treated with corticosteroids, such as prednisolone. Some people respond to immunosuppressant treatment. Oxygen therapy at home is recommended in those with significantly low oxygen levels.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: Pulmonary rehabilitation appears to be useful with the benefits being sustainable longer term with improvement in exercise capacity, dyspnoea, and quality of life. Lung transplantation is an option if the ILD progresses despite therapy in appropriately selected patients with no other contraindications.


title: Interstitial lung disease

text: On October 16, 2014, the Food and Drug Administration approved a new drug for the treatment of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF). This drug, Ofev (nintedanib), is marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc. This drug has been shown to slow the decline of lung function although the drug has not been shown to reduce mortality or improve lung function. The estimated cost of the drug per year is approximately $94,000.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: "Twice Upon a Time" is an episode of the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who", written by Steven Moffat, directed by Rachel Talalay, and was broadcast as the thirteenth (and to date final) Christmas special on 25 December 2017 on BBC One. It features the final regular appearance of Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor, the first official appearance of Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor, and guest-stars David Bradley as the First Doctor, having previously portrayed original First Doctor actor William Hartnell in the 2013 docudrama "An Adventure in Space and Time". Pearl Mackie guest stars as the Twelfth Doctor's former companion Bill Potts, while his other companions make guest appearances –


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: This episode is a continuation of events after "The Doctor Falls", addressing the cliffhanger that it ended on, and takes place during the final serial of the First Doctor, "The Tenth Planet" (1966), which ended with the introduction of the concept of a Doctor regenerating; footage from "The Tenth Planet" is used in the special. "Twice Upon a Time" is Capaldi's fourth and final Christmas special as the Twelfth Doctor, and the last "Doctor Who" story to be written and produced by Moffat, who had served as the show's executive producer and chief writer since taking over from Russell T Davies in 2010. After the special's broadcast, Moffat was succeeded as executive producer and showrunner by Chris Chibnall. It is also the last episode to have music composed by Murray Gold, who had composed music since the series' revival in 2005 and was succeeded by Segun Akinola in Series 11. The special has received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Wandering back to his TARDIS through the South Pole in 1986 after leaving his companions behind, the First Doctor refuses to regenerate. He encounters the Twelfth Doctor outside his own TARDIS in a similar state of mind. The pair are soon approached by a confused and injured First World War British captain (Mark Gatiss), displaced from December 1914 while in a gun-point stalemate with a German soldier. All three are then forcibly taken into a large spaceship. Inside, they meet with Bill Potts. The Twelfth Doctor, however, doubts she is the real Bill. Upon encountering the ship's glass-like holographic pilot, they are offered freedom in exchange for allowing the ship to return the Captain to the moment of his death. Refusing to allow the Captain to die, they escape and take the First Doctor's TARDIS to the planet Villengard in the far future.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Alone, the Twelfth Doctor meets with the rogue Dalek Rusty, who has taken refuge from other Daleks hunting it. Given access to the Dalek Hivemind, the Doctor learns that the pilot and its ship, known as "Testimony", were created on New Earth, designed to extract people from their timelines at the moment of their death, and archive their memories into glass avatars. "Bill" is one such avatar, created from her memories. Seeing no evil to fight, the Doctors agree to return the Captain to his timeline. Upon arrival, the Captain asks the Doctors to keep an eye on his family, introducing himself as Archibald Hamish Lethbridge-Stewart (implying that he is the ancestor of the Doctor's frequent ally and lifelong friend, the Brigadier, and his daughter Kate Stewart). As time resumes, the Doctors watch as soldiers on both sides begin singing "Silent Night". The Twelfth Doctor explains to the First that he deliberately shifted the Captain's timeline forward to the start of the Christmas truce, to ensure his life would be spared.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: With the Captain saved, the First Doctor informs the Twelfth that he is now prepared to regenerate and says his goodbyes before returning to his TARDIS. He returns to the South Pole for Ben and Polly and finally regenerates into his second incarnation. Now alone with Bill's avatar, the Twelfth Doctor adamantly contends she is not really Bill, but she argues that memories are what defines a person. Bill's avatar restores the Doctor's memories of Clara Oswald before they are joined by Nardole's avatar. The Doctor, however, refuses to give the avatars testimony of his life. They respect his wish to be alone and leave after he embraces them both. The Doctor then returns to the TARDIS and decides to regenerate, but not before relaying some personal advice to his next incarnation.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: After the newly regenerated Thirteenth Doctor examines her own reflection, the TARDIS suffers multiple system failures due to damage caused by the delayed regeneration. Falling out of the tumbling ship, the Doctor watches in horror as the time rotor and the console room explode, and the TARDIS dematerialises while she plummets towards the Earth below.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: "Twice Upon a Time" takes place towards the end of the First Doctor's final serial, "The Tenth Planet" (first broadcast in October 1966), some of which is shown at the start of the special. During the last episode's final moments, the Doctor leaves his companions Ben and Polly and returns to the TARDIS; they find him collapsed in the console room, where he undergoes his first regeneration. Derek Martinus, the episode's director, reportedly cut a line from the original script which suggested that the Doctor was refusing to give in to the regeneration process. Steven Moffat's 2017 story creates an extended narrative around that part of the story, in which the First Doctor delays his regeneration and encounters his future self — the Twelfth Doctor — in the snowy wasteland.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: When Testimony shows the First Doctor images of his future incarnations, clips from both the classic series and the revival are used, including the Third Doctor from "Invasion of the Dinosaurs" (1974); the Fifth Doctor from "Arc of Infinity" (1983); the Seventh Doctor from "The Happiness Patrol" (1988); the Eighth Doctor from "The Night of the Doctor" (2013); the Ninth Doctor from "The Parting of the Ways" (2005); and the Tenth Doctor from "The Waters of Mars" (2009).


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Testimony also lists several of the Doctor's future titles: "The Shadow of the Valeyard" (from "The Trial of a Time Lord", said to be a distillation of the Doctor's darker side), "the Oncoming Storm" ("The Parting of the Ways"), "the Imp of the Pandorica" (a reference to the Eleventh Doctor story "The Pandorica Opens"), "the Beast of Trenzalore" ("The Time of the Doctor"), "the Butcher of Skull Moon" and "the Doctor of War" ("Hell Bent"). "The Destroyer of Skaro" refers to the destruction of the planet in "Remembrance of the Daleks" (1988), although Skaro was later restored, as explained in "Asylum of the Daleks" (2012) and shown in "The Magician's Apprentice" (2015).


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The Weapons Factories of Villengard were originally mentioned in "The Doctor Dances" (Steven Moffat's first "Doctor Who" story), where the Ninth Doctor implied that he was responsible for their destruction.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Helen Clay, who would become Testimony's glass pilot, was from New Earth and lectured at "New Earth University," a reference to the Tenth Doctor stories "New Earth" and "Gridlock".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The Doctor addresses his original incarnation as "Mary Berry", "Corporal Jones", and "Mr Pastry". Mr Pastry was a comedic variety stage act and children's show character played by actor Richard Hearne, who was once considered for the role of the Fourth Doctor. Hearne, however, wanted to play the Doctor as a version of Mr. Pastry, so he was passed over in favour of Tom Baker.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The Doctor paraphrases philosopher Bertrand Russell when he advises his future self that "hate is always foolish and love is always wise".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Peter Capaldi reprised his role as the Twelfth Doctor. On 30 January 2017, he confirmed that the tenth series would be his last, and that he was set to leave after the 2017 Christmas special. The episode also sees the introduction of Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor, whose casting was announced on 16 July 2017.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: David Bradley appears in the episode as the First Doctor, having previously portrayed William Hartnell in the docudrama "An Adventure in Space and Time". This makes him the third actor to play the role in the television programme, after William Hartnell and Richard Hurndall (in 1983's "The Five Doctors") since the premiere of "Doctor Who" in 1963. Bradley previously played Solomon in the 2012 episode "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship". Since 2017, Bradley has reprised his role as the First Doctor in many audio dramas for Big Finish Productions alongside his co-stars from "An Adventure in Space and Time".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The first trailer for the episode was shown during the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con, revealing the return of Polly, a companion from the end of William Hartnell's tenure as the First Doctor, portrayed by Lily Travers, and Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts. Also confirmed were appearances by Toby Whithouse, writer of seven episodes between 2006 and 2017, and Mark Gatiss, also writer of nine episodes between 2005 and 2017, marking his fourth acting appearance in the series, playing a character credited as The Captain. In an interview following the episode's broadcast, Gatiss said he cried at the thought of playing the Brigadier's grandfather when he finished reading the script. However, the Haisman Literary Estate asserted their control of the backstory of the Brigadier, stating that Archibald was actually the Brigadier's great-uncle who appeared in "Night of the Intelligence". They later compromised in "What's Past is Prologue" by implying that Archibald may secretly be the biological father of the Brigadier's father, thereby allowing for either interpretation.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: It was later confirmed that Ben Jackson, a companion of the First and Second Doctors, who served alongside Polly, would also feature in the episode and that he would be played by the former Hollyoaks cast member Jared Garfield. Hartnell, Anneke Wills and Michael Craze appeared as the First Doctor, Polly and Ben respectively through archive footage, as also did Patrick Troughton as the freshly regenerated Second Doctor. Nikki Amuka-Bird voices the "Glass Woman".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: As with the last change of showrunners, Chibnall wrote the final moments of the episode, so as to allow him to write Whittaker's first lines on the show. This happened in the 2010 special "The End of Time", when Moffat took over for Russell T. Davies in the final moments of the episode, writing Matt Smith's first words as the Eleventh Doctor.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The episode includes a cameo appearance by Jenna Coleman as Clara Oswald, as the Doctor's memories of Clara, lost during "Hell Bent", are restored. The scene was the last to be filmed for the episode and while Coleman was willing to come back to film, timing between the filming of this special and her work in "Victoria" was difficult to arrange. Moffat said "How many times have I killed that girl off and she was right there in my last shot! It's absolutely extraordinary. The unkillable Coleman!"


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The episode was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Rachel Talalay, who wrote and directed the two-part finale of the tenth series, "World Enough and Time" / "The Doctor Falls", respectively. In January 2016, Moffat announced that he would step down as the programme's showrunner after the tenth series, to be replaced by Chris Chibnall beginning with the eleventh series in 2018, but a 2017 Christmas special was not mentioned in the plans at that time. The change in showrunners almost caused the annual episode to be cancelled, as Moffat planned to leave after the tenth series finale and Chibnall did not want to begin his run with a Christmas special. When he learned of Chibnall's plans, Moffat elected to stay long enough to produce one final episode, as he was concerned that the show would lose the coveted 25 December slot in the future if it missed a year. As a result, he had to rewrite his plans for the tenth series finale to allow Capaldi to appear in one more episode.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Near the end of the special, the two Doctors part company and return to their respective TARDISes to undergo regeneration. The First Doctor's regeneration is shown, using original footage from "The Tenth Planet". Although the last episode of the 1966 story is one of the missing episodes of "Doctor Who", the regeneration sequence was preserved when it was used in a 1973 edition of the children's magazine programme "Blue Peter".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The final scene of "The Doctor Falls" involving David Bradley was filmed as part of the filming of "Twice Upon a Time" in June 2017. Production for "Twice Upon a Time" started on 12 June 2017, and concluded on 10 July 2017. However, the final scene of the episode, in which Whittaker makes her debut as the Doctor, was not filmed until 19 July. The episode had been reportedly titled "The Doctors", before it was announced at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con that it would officially be titled "Twice Upon a Time".


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The episode was watched by 5.70 million viewers overnight, making it the fifth most watched programme of the day across all channels. The episode received 7.92 million views overall, and it received an Appreciation Index of 81. In the United States "Twice Upon a Time" was watched by 2.2 million viewers on BBC America.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: "Twice Upon a Time" was released in cinemas in multiple countries, including Brazil on 25 December, Australia and Denmark on 26 December, and the United States and Canada on 27–28 December. The cinema release includes two bonus features: a behind-the-scenes view of the episode, and a special celebrating the tenure of Peter Capaldi as the Doctor and Steven Moffat as showrunner and lead writer.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: "Twice Upon a Time" received generally positive reviews, with praise given to the performances. 88% of 24 critic reviews are positive on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.55/10. The site's consensus reads ""Doctor Who: Twice Upon a Time" pays gratifying homage to the outgoing Doctor while marking a thoughtful, warm and funny passing of the torch to a new era in the franchise."


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The episode was a finalist in the category of Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form for the 2018 Hugo Awards. It was also nominated for Saturn Award for Best Television Presentation.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Some commentators have criticised elements of the script such as the depiction of the First Doctor, who is portrayed as displaying a sexist attitude. Moffat said that Hartnell's Doctor was "not progressive. Without being too outrageous I think we have re-created that version of Hartnell's Doctor, with all the 1960s political incorrectness in place. At the same time the original Doctor has a lot of fun at the expense of the modern one's sonic glasses and electric guitar. There's something funny about the 12th Doctor realising that he came from this politically incorrect, funny old man. This is who he was." "Den of Geek" reported that this was a controversial aspect of the episode even in the pre-publicity: "the casual sexism of the first Doctor weaved unsubtly throughout this story and played for laughs." Patrick Mulkern of "Radio Times", despite his praise of the episode, criticised Moffat's characterisation for the First Doctor, believing that viewers "will cavil that his character has been revised, made to seem more old-fashioned than he was."


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: Michael Hogan offered a negative review for "The Daily Telegraph", criticising Moffat's writing – in particular, the character of the First Doctor and the sudden appearance of Dalek Rusty, concluding that viewers "would have been left scratching their heads in bafflement. It was self-indulgent, overcomplicated and, most unforgivably, frequently boring."


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: The episode was released on DVD and Blu-ray in Region 2 on 22 January 2018, in Region 4 on 7 February 2018, and in Region 1 on 13 February 2018.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: "Twice Upon a Time" is also the first "Doctor Who" episode to be released on the Ultra HD Blu-ray format. It was released in North America on 25 September 2018.


title: Twice Upon a Time (Doctor Who)

text: A novelisation of the story, written by Paul Cornell, was released in paperback by BBC Books on 5 April 2018. Also on the same day, a digital edition was released, both as part of the "Target Collection".


title: Mere Christianity

text: Mere Christianity is a Christian apologetical book by the British author C. S. Lewis. It was adapted from a series of BBC radio talks made between 1941 and 1944, originally published as three separate volumes: "Broadcast Talks" (1942), "Christian Behaviour" (1943), and "Beyond Personality" (1944). The book consists of four parts: the first presents Lewis's arguments for the existence of God; the second contains his defence of Christian theology, including his notable "Liar, lunatic, or Lord" trilemma; the third has him exploring Christian ethics, among which cardinal and theological virtues; in the final, he writes on the Christian conception of God.


title: Mere Christianity

text: "Mere Christianity" was published in the United Kingdom by Geoffrey Bles on 7 July 1952. While initial reviews to the book were generally positive, modern reviewers were more critical of it, and its overall reception was relatively mixed. The praise was primarily directed to Lewis's humorous, straightforward style of writing; the criticism was primarily around the validity of his trilemma, which defends the Christian doctrine of the divinity of Jesus, and how he should have considered providing more choices.


title: Mere Christianity

text: Deemed a classic in Lewis's career and religious literature, "Mere Christianity" has often received a wide readership decades following its release, and contributed to establishing its author's reputation as "one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith" in the 20th century. The work, with Lewis's arguments for God's existence in it, continued to be examined in scholarly circles. "Mere Christianity" has retained popularity among Christians from various denominations, and appeared in several lists of finest Christian books. Often used as a tool of evangelism, it has been translated into over thirty languages, and cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion to Christianity. Several "biographies" of the book have also been written.


title: Mere Christianity

text: After reading Lewis's "The Problem of Pain" James Welch, the Director of Religious Broadcasting for the BBC, wrote Lewis the following:I write to ask whether you would be willing to help us in our work of religious broadcasting ... The microphone is a limiting, and rather irritating, instrument, but the quality of thinking and depth of conviction which I find in your book ought sure to be shared with a great many other people. Welch suggested two potential subjects. Lewis responded with thanks and observed that modern literature, the first, did not suit him, choosing instead the Christian faith as Lewis understood it.


title: Mere Christianity

text: In the preface to later editions, Lewis described his desire to avoid contested theological doctrine by focusing on core beliefs of the Christian Faith. The succinct and pithy language employed by Lewis enabled him to impact broad audiences, while retaining intellectual substance for more studied readers.


title: Mere Christianity

text: Every Wednesday from 7:45 pm to 8 pm during August 1941, Lewis gave live talks entitled "Right or Wrong: A Clue to the Meaning of the Universe” which would become the first book in Mere Christianity. The first set of talks became very popular and flooded Lewis with responses from an adoring and irate public. This feedback led to Lewis going back on air to answer listeners' questions.


title: Mere Christianity

text: The following January and February, Lewis gave the next set of talks on what would become “What Christians Believe”. The talks remained popular and because of the success of the newly released The Screwtape Letters, Lewis’s publisher was happy to publish the broadcast talks as books that year.


title: Mere Christianity

text: In Autumn 1942, the third series of talks were, ironically, cut down from 15 to 10 minutes. Due to a miscommunication, Lewis had prepared for 15 minutes, but added the cut material back into the next book and added several more chapters.


title: Mere Christianity

text: The fourth set of talks did not take place until 1944. The script drafts had a much wider scope originally, and Lewis prepared for 10-minute talks when the BBC was giving him 15. The timing of these talks was important and strictly adhered to because due to technology and WWII, Germany would broadcast propaganda through the English-spoken "Lord Hawhaw" during any dead air. Due to the timing of the fourth set of talks (10:20 pm), Lewis said he couldn't do them all live and would have to record some.


title: Mere Christianity

text: The core of the first section centres on an argument from morality, the basis of which is the "law of human nature", a "rule about right and wrong," which, Lewis maintained, is commonly available and known to all human beings. He cites, as an example, the case of Nazi Germany, writing: "This law was called the Law of nature because people thought that everyone knew it by nature and did not need to be taught it. They did not mean, of course, that you might not find an odd individual here and there who did not know it, just as you find a few people who are colour-blind or have no ear for a tune. But taking the race as a whole, they thought that the human idea of decent behaviour was obvious to everyone. And I believe they were right. If they were not, then all the things we said about the war were nonsense. What was the sense in saying the enemy were in the wrong unless Right is a real thing which the Nazis at bottom knew as well as we did and ought to have practised? If they had had no notion of what we mean by right, then, though we might still have had to fight them, we could no more have blamed them for that than for the colour of their hair.


title: Mere Christianity

text: On a mundane level, it is generally accepted that stealing is a violation of this moral law. Lewis argues that the moral law is like scientific laws (e.g. gravity) or mathematics in that it was not contrived by humans. However, it is unlike scientific laws in that it can be broken or ignored, and it is known intuitively, rather than through experimentation. After introducing the moral law, Lewis argues that thirst reflects the fact that people naturally need water, and there is no other substance which satisfies that need. Lewis points out that earthly experience does not satisfy the human craving for "joy" and that only God could fit the bill; humans cannot know to yearn for something if it does not exist.


title: Mere Christianity

text: After providing reasons for his conversion to theism, Lewis explicates various conceptions of God. Pantheism, he argues, is incoherent, and atheism too simple. Eventually, he arrives at Jesus Christ, and invokes a well-known argument now known as "Lewis's trilemma". Lewis, arguing that Jesus was claiming to be God, uses logic to advance three possibilities: either He really was God, was deliberately lying, or was not God but thought Himself to be (which would make Him delusional and likely insane). The book goes on to say that the latter two possibilities are not consistent with Jesus' character and it was most likely that He was being truthful.


title: Mere Christianity

text: The next third of the book explores the ethics resulting from Christian belief. He cites the four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. After touching on these, he goes into the three theological virtues: hope, faith, and charity. Lewis also explains morality as being composed of three "layers": relationships between man and man, the motivations and attitudes of the man himself, and contrasting worldviews.


title: Mere Christianity

text: Lewis also covers such topics as social relations and forgiveness, sexual ethics and the tenets of Christian marriage, and the relationship between morality and psychoanalysis. He also writes about "the great sin": pride, which he argues to be the root cause of all evil and rebellion.


title: Mere Christianity

text: His most important point is that Christianity mandates that one "love your neighbour as yourself." He points out that all persons unconditionally love themselves. Even if one does not "like" oneself, one would still love oneself. Christians, he writes, must also apply this attitude to others, even if they do not like them. Lewis calls this one of the "great secrets": when one acts as if he loves others, he will presently come to love them.


title: Mere Christianity

text: Initial reviews of "Mere Christianity" generally show enthusiasm, and most of them were from Christian publications. However, combining them with the reviews published decades later indicated a more mixed reception. The historian Stephanie L. Derrick observed that the book's literary elements, such as its eloquence, were the aspect most frequently noted by contemporary publications. The historian George M. Marsden summarised that "Mere Christianity" "has been hated as well as loved. Nonetheless, as a popular presentation of the faith it has drawn less systematic criticism than would a book that purported to be a definitive treatise on Christian apologetics and theology." On the general reception to the book, the Lewis biographer Margaret Patterson Hannay described it as his "most popular and ... most disparaged" work, adding that "probably because its fans have spoken of it as a profound piece of theology, while it is, as was designed to be, only a primer".


title: Mere Christianity

text: Describing the book as "a rare gift", Edward Skillin of the "Commonweal" magazine commented of Lewis's ability to make "complicated matters" more accessible especially to laypeople. On a passage of the book, Edward D. Myers of "Theology Today" noted, "This is clear, it is simple, it is eminently Christian, and it is typical of the ease with which Mr. Lewis puts great matters into plain language." Joseph McSorley of the "Catholic World" found Lewis writing "with his customary clarity and incisiveness, and with proofs that the average man will find convincing. It is a delight to see him demolish in a paragraph many of the heresies which have contributed to our present ghastly condition." "The Tablet", a Catholic magazine, wrote:


title: Mere Christianity

text: "We have never read arguments better marshalled and handled so that they can be remembered, or any book more useful to the Christian, in the Army or elsewhere, who finds himself called upon to argue briefly from first premises, to say why morality is not herd-instinct, why there is a special and unique character attaching to the sense of obligation, why the conviction that there is a law of right and wrong and a transcendent morality is only intelligible if there is a God."


title: Mere Christianity

text: "The Times Literary Supplement" wrote of Lewis's "quite unique power" of making theology interesting, even "exciting and (one might almost say) uproariously funny". The reviewer added: "No writer of popular apologetics today is more effective than Mr. C. S. Lewis." "The Clergy Review" G. D. Smith opined that Lewis "shows himself a master in the rare art of conveying profound truths in simple and compelling language". J. H. Homes of the "New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review" wrote that "his clarity of thought and simplicity of expression have a magic about them which makes plain the most abstruse problems of theological speculation". "The Guardian" said: "His learning is abundantly seasoned with common sense, his humor and his irony are always at the service of the most serious purposes, and his originality is the offspring of enthusiastically loyal orthodoxy."


title: Mere Christianity

text: The author Colin Duriez praised it as easy to understand, and the biographer Thomas C. Peters opined that his straightforward language makes the book fit to a wide audience. There had been also criticism, which was primarily directed towards Lewis's "Liar, lunatic, or Lord" trilemma. The Lewis biographer and Christian apologist Alister McGrath, while commending the book in general, felt that his trilemma is a weak defence for the doctrine of the divinity of Jesus, calling this the book's "most obvious concern". He wrote his argument is mostly unsupported by the modern biblical scholarship, and argued that others options such as that Jesus was mistaken about his identity should have gotten into consideration of alternatives.


title: Mere Christianity

text: Scathing criticism came from the philosopher John Beversluis, in his book "C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion" (1985). Beversluis analysed Lewis's arguments for Christianity, arriving in the conclusion that each of them is built on faulty logic. He argued that Lewis made his arguments convincing by creating false analogies, with an instance in his trilemma. Beversluis said there are more alternatives in addition to Jesus being a liar or lunatic, one of which is that his disciples misinterpreted his words. The philosopher Victor Reppert replied to Beversluis in "C. S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea" (2003), noting that Beversluis was correct in pointing out that many of Lewis's arguments are not strictly logical but overestimating the degree to which Lewis rested his case for Christianity on reason alone. Reppert continued that Lewis, in his autobiography, "Surprised by Joy" (1955), realised Christianity rests on far more than solely reason.


title: Mere Christianity

text: "Mere Christianity" has been referred to as a classic of Lewis's career, as well as of religious literature, particularly in the category of Christian apologetics. Commentators have also seen it as a guide to the basics of the Christian faith and to his theology. The book, along with his arguments for the existence of God, have frequently received academic evaluation, either complimenting or critical. Analysing Lewis's books, the Australian archeologist Warwick Ball believed "Mere Christianity" is perhaps his most influential and widely read apologetic work; the American philosopher C. Stephen Evans called his moral argument the "most widely-convincing apologetic argument of the twentieth century"; McGrath considered it "perhaps as outstanding an example of a lucid and intelligent presentation of the rational and moral case for Christian belief as we are ever likely to see".


title: Mere Christianity

text: "Mere Christianity" has retained popularity years after its publication, and has been compared to other well-known Christian works, including Augustine's "The City of God" and G. K. Chesterton's "The Everlasting Man" (1925). The BBC journalist Justin Phillips observed that it "continues to transform the lives of those who read it. There is no reason why it won't continue to be potent for decades to come." According to the authors Roger Lancelyn Green and Walter Hooper, its success led to the acknowledgment of Lewis as "one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith" of the 20th century. The book, Hooper continued, shows Lewis's ability of providing a comprehensible guidance of the Christian beliefs/theology to everyone, and "has become synonymous with Lewis". The academic Bruce L. Edwards noted that it contributes to shaping Lewis's reputation as "a witty, articulate proponent of Christianity". The author Marvin D. Hinten wrote: "When people are asked which C. S. Lewis book has most influenced them spiritually, the most common answer is "Mere Christianity"."


title: Mere Christianity

text: According to Peters, the book is more popular among Christians of various denominations, including Catholic, Latter-day Saint, Orthodox, and Protestant, but less among non-Christians. It is often used as an evangelistic tool, predominantly in Christian-majority countries, including the United States, where its influence is most felt. Furthermore, its influence is strengthened by the publication of its translations; according to Marsden, it has been translated to about thirty-six languages. In the next decades, "Mere Christianity" is continued to be reprinted and sold by Christian and online booksellers. For instance, soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it was translated into the several native languages of its breakaway states, which was done by Orthodox Christians to rebuild their influence. As of 2010, the book had been in BookScan Religion Bestseller's list for 513 weeks, consecutively. There is also a considerable readership in China, with 60,000 copies had been sold there as of 2014.


title: Mere Christianity

text: The book has also been cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion, or re-conversion, to Christianity as well as other Christian denominations. The American geneticist Francis Collins related his story of conversion from atheism in his book, "The Language of God" (2006), and described "Mere Christianity" as having influenced him to embrace Christianity. The American attorney Charles Colson's conversion happened after him reading a copy of the book given by his friend, Thomas L. Phillips (the chairman of the board of the Raytheon Company). His story became popular, enhanced by the release of his autobiography in 1976, which was consequently declared the "Year of the Evangelicals" by the "Newsweek" magazine. Catholic converts include the British philanthropist Leonard Cheshire, the German economist E. F. Schumacher, the American author Sheldon Vanauken, the American columnist Ross Douthat, the American theologian Peter Kreeft, and the American philosopher Francis J. Beckwith.


title: Mere Christianity

text: "Mere Christianity" has been featured in several lists. It was included in the 2000 book, "100 Christian Books That Changed the Century", by William J. Petersen and Randy Petersen. In 2000 and 2006, the evangelical magazine "Christianity Today" editorial board included "Mere Christianity" in its "Books of the Century" and "The Top 50 Books That Have Shaped Evangelicals", respectively. In a 2013 article to "Christianity Today", McGrath ranked it the first among the five books by Lewis he liked the most. In the same year's "The Best Christian Book of All Time Tournament", run by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, "Mere Christianity" was voted as the all-time, best Christian book, only after Augustine's autobiography "Confessions". In 2018, "Christianity Today" Greg Cootsona, a writer of the relationship between religion and science, featured it in his "5 Books That Bring Science and Christianity Together" listing.


title: Mere Christianity

text: "Mere Christianity" has influenced other Christian publications, with the scholar Gary L. Tandy noting that it remains the standard for assessing them, mainly the apologetic ones. Subsequent publications with allusion to the book in their titles include N. T. Wright's "Simply Christian" (2006) and McGrath's "Mere Apologetics" (2012). The American pastor Tim Keller referred to his apologetic "The Reason for God" (2012) as ""Mere Christianity" for dummies". The bimonthly ecumenical Christian magazine "Touchstone", which started publication in 1986, is subtitled "A Journal of Mere Christianity". Paul McCusker's "C. S. Lewis & Mere Christianity", which provides insights to the work in its historical context, was published in 2014; it was praised for being well-researched but was criticised for its factual errors. Another "biography" of the book, "C. S. Lewis's Mere Christianity", written by Marsden, was released in 2016, and received a positive reception from critics, with some criticism to its conclusion.


title: Schism

text: A schism ( , , or, less commonly, ) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, such as the Great East–West Schism or the Western Schism. It is also used of a split within a non-religious organization or movement or, more broadly, of a separation between two or more people, be it brothers, friends, lovers, etc.


title: Schism

text: A schismatic is a person who creates or incites schism in an organization or who is a member of a splinter group. Schismatic as an adjective means pertaining to a schism or schisms, or to those ideas, policies, etc. that are thought to lead towards or promote schism.


title: Schism

text: In religion, the charge of schism is distinguished from that of heresy, since the offence of schism concerns not differences of belief or doctrine but promotion of, or the state of division, especially among groups with differing pastoral jurisdictions and authority. However, schisms frequently involve mutual accusations of heresy, and also that of the Great Apostasy. In Roman Catholic teaching, every heresy is a schism, while there may be some schisms free of the added guilt of heresy. Liberal Protestantism, however, has often preferred heresy over schism. Presbyterian scholar James I. McCord (quoted with approval by the Episcopalian Bishop of Virginia, Peter Lee) drew a distinction between them, teaching: "If you must make a choice between heresy and schism, always choose heresy. As a schismatic, you have torn and divided the body of Christ. Choose heresy every time." ("Choose heresy" is a pun; "heresy" is a Latinization of an ancient Greek word for "choice".)


title: Schism

text: In Buddhism, the first schism was set up by Devadatta, during Buddha's life. This schism lasted only a short time. Later (after Buddha's death), the early Buddhist schools came into being, but were not schismatic, only focusing on different interpretations for the same monastic community. In the old texts, 18 or 20 early schools are mentioned. Later, there were the Mahayana and Vajrayana movements, which can be regarded as being schismatic in origin. Each school has various subgroups, which often are schismatic in origin. For example, in Thai Theravadin Buddhism there are two groups (Mahanikaya and Dhammayut), of which the Dhammayut has its origin partly in the Mahanikaya, and is the new and schismatic group. Both Mahanikaya and Dhammayut have many subgroups, which usually do not have schismatic origins, but came into being in a natural way, through the popularity of a (leader) monk. Tibetan Buddhism has seen schisms in the past, of which most were healed, although the Drukpa school centred in Bhutan perhaps remains in a state of schism (since 1616) from the other Tibetan schools.


title: Schism

text: The words "schism" and "schismatic" have found their heaviest usage in the history of Christianity, to denote splits within a church, denomination or religious body. In this context, "schismatic", as a noun, denotes a person who creates or incites schism in a church or a person who is a member of a splinter Church; as an adjective, "schismatic" refers to ideas and activities that are thought to lead to or constitute schism, and ultimately to departure from what the user of the word considers to be the true Christian Church. These words have been used to denote both the phenomenon of Christian group-splintering in general, and certain significant historical splits in particular.


title: Schism

text: One can make a distinction between heresy and schism. Heresy is rejection of a doctrine that a Church considered to be essential. Schism is a rejection of communion with the authorities of a Church, and not every break of communion is necessarily about doctrine, as is clear from examples such as the Western Schism and the breaking of the communion that existed between Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople and Archbishop Christodoulos of Athens in 2004. However, when for any reason people withdraw from communion, two distinct ecclesiastical entities may result, each of which, or at least some members thereof, may then accuse the other(s) of heresy.


title: Schism

text: In Roman Catholic Church canon law, an act of schism, like an act of apostasy or heresy, automatically brings the penalty of excommunication on the individual who commits it. As stated in canon 1312 §1 1° of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, this penalty is intended to be medicinal, so as to lead to restoration of unity. Roman Catholic theology considers formal schismatics to be outside the Church, understanding by "formal schismatics" "persons who, knowing the true nature of the Church, have personally and deliberately committed the sin of schism". The situation, for instance, of those who have been brought up from childhood within a group not in full communion with Rome, but who have orthodox faith, is different: these are considered to be imperfectly, though not fully, related to the Church. This nuanced view applies especially to the Churches of Eastern Christianity, more particularly still to the Eastern Orthodox Church. While they don't possess "full communion" ("communio in sacris") with the Catholic Church, they are still considered much more linked to it than the Protestant ecclesial communities, which have markedly different theological beliefs and rejected the concept of apostolic succession (with the exception of the Anglicans, which, however, are viewed by the Catholic Church as not having a valid priesthood).


title: Schism

text: The First Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325) distinguished between schism and heresy. It declared Arian and non-Trinitarian teachings to be heretical and excluded their adherents from the Church. It also addressed the schism between Peter of Alexandria and Meletius of Lycopolis, considering their quarrel to be a matter of discipline, not of faith.


title: Schism

text: The divisions that came to a head at the Councils of Ephesus (A.D. 431) and Chalcedon (A.D. 451) were seen as matters of heresy, not merely of schism. Thus the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy regard each other as heretical, not orthodox, because of the Oriental Orthodox Church's rejection and the Eastern Orthodox Church's acceptance of the Confession of Chalcedon about the two natures (human and divine) of Christ. However, this view has been challenged in the recent Ecumenical discussion between these two groups, classifying the matter of Chalcedon as a matter of schism, not of heresy.


title: Schism

text: In its extended and final form (possibly derived from the First Council of Constantinople in 381 although only known from the Acts of the Council of Chalcedon seventy years later), what is commonly called the Nicene Creed declares belief in the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. Some who accept this creed believe they should be united in a single Church or group of Churches in communion with each other. Others who accept this creed believe it does not speak of a visible organization but of all those baptized who hold the Christian faith, referred to as "Christendom". Some churches consider themselves to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. For instance, the Roman Catholic Church claims that title and considers the Eastern Orthodox Church to be in schism, while the Eastern Orthodox Church also claims that title and holds the view that the Catholic Church is schismatic. Some Protestant Churches believe that they also represent the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church and consider the Catholic and Orthodox Churches to be in error, while others do not expect a union of all Christian churches on earth. See also One true church and Great Apostasy.


title: Schism

text: Protestant groups, lacking the stronger traditional authority-structures of (say) Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy, and often riven by politico-national divides (sometimes resulting from "cuius regio, eius religio"), show a high degree of fissibility, which ecumenical efforts may only intensify.


title: Schism

text: Schisms have occurred particularly frequently among Anabaptists, to the extent that divisions over even minute details of doctrine and theology are common and scholars have dubbed the phenomenon "Täuferkrankheit" or "The Anabaptist Disease". Emphasizing fully voluntary membership in the church, and without an established authority of hierarchical structure, Anabaptists, especially Mennonites have experienced dozens of schisms, resulting in the establishment of dozens of various unaffiliated Mennonite churches.


title: Schism

text: A current dispute with an acknowledged risk of schism for the Anglican Communion involves responses to homosexuality.


title: Schism

text: In 2018 Eastern Orthodoxy suffered a schism, the 2018 Moscow-Constantinople schism between the primatial See of Eastern Orthodoxy, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Russian Orthodox Church over the issue of Constantinople granting autocephaly to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine.


title: Schism

text: The Kanchi Math was originally established as the Kumbakonam Mutt in 1821 by the Maratha king of Tanjore, Serfoji II Bhonsle, as a branch of the Sringeri Mutt, one of the four cardinal Shankaracharya Maths of the mainstream Smarta denomination. It became a schismatic institution when Tanjore and the Wodeyars of Mysore went to war against each other. It is on record that in 1839 the Kumbakonam Mutt applied for permission to the English Collector of Arcot to perform the “kumbhabhishekham” of the Kamakshi temple in Kanchipuram


title: Schism

text: In 1842, the East India Company headquartered at Fort William, Calcutta appointed the head of the mutt as the sole trustee of the Kamakshi temple. The protests of the traditional priests of the Kamakshi temple are well documented and preserved. Incidentally, Fort William is also the first Freemason lodge of India. Since then, the Math has maintained cordial relations with the British Raj though the main math at Sringeri fell sour with the colonial power


title: Schism

text: After the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, there have arisen many Muslim sects by means of schools of thought, traditions and related faiths. According to a hadith report (collections of accounts of the life and teachings of Muhammad), Muhammad is said to have prophesied "My Ummah (Community or Nation) will be fragmented into seventy-three sects, and all of them will be in the Hell fire except one." The Sahaba (his companions) asked him which group that would be, whereupon he replied, "It is the one to which I and my companions belong" (reported in Sunan al-Tirmidhi Hadith No. 171).


title: Schism

text: Sunni Muslims, often referred to as "Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h" or "Ahl as-Sunnah", are the largest denomination of Islam. The word "Sunni" comes from the word "Sunnah", which means the teachings and actions or examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad; therefore, the term Sunni refers to those who follow or maintain the Sunnah of Muhammad. The Sunni believe that Muhammad died without appointing a successor to lead the Ummah (Muslim community). After an initial period of confusion, a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and father-in-law, as the first Caliph. Sunnis regard the first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Umar (`Umar ibn al-Khattāb), Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali (Ali ibn Abu Talib) - as the "al-Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "Rashidun" (The Rightly Guided Caliphs). Sunnis believe that the position of Caliph may be democratically chosen, but after the first four Rightly Guided Caliphs the position turned into a hereditary dynastic rule. There has not been another widely recognized Caliph since the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923.


title: Schism

text: Shia Islam is the second largest denomination of Islam. Shia Muslims believe that, similar to the appointment of prophets, Imams after Muhammad are also chosen by God. According to Shias, Ali was chosen by Allah and thus appointed by Muhammad to be the direct successor and leader of the Muslim community. They regard him as the first Shia Imam, which continued as a hereditary position through Fatimah and Ali's descendants.


title: Schism

text: Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam practised by both Shia and Sunni Muslims. Some Sufi followers consider themselves Sunni or Shia, while others consider themselves as just Sufi or Sufi-influenced. Sufism is usually considered to be complementary to orthodox Islam, although Sufism has often been accused by the salafi of being an unjustified "Bid‘ah" or religious innovation. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. One starts with sharia (Islamic law), the exoteric or mundane practice of Islam, and then is initiated into the mystical (esoteric) path of a Tariqah (Sufi Order).


title: Schism

text: Kharijite (lit. "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of Islamic sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, eventually rejected his legitimacy after he negotiated with Mu'awiya during the 7th Century Islamic civil war (First Fitna). Their complaint was that the Imam must be spiritually pure, whereas Ali's compromise with Mu'awiya was a compromise of his spiritual purity and therefore of his legitimacy as Imam or Caliph. While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree.


title: Schism

text: The first schism in Jainism happened around the fourth century BCE, leading to rise of two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara, which were later subdivided in further sub-sects.


title: Schism

text: Major Jewish denominations are Orthodox Judaism and non-Orthodox: Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist.


title: Schism

text: In early Jewish history, the Jewish and Samaritan religions were the product of the schism during the Babylonian Exile (6thC BCE). Schisms in Judaism included the emergence of Christianity.


title: Talking Bad

text: Talking Bad was a television aftershow hosted by Chris Hardwick that discussed episodes of the AMC television series "Breaking Bad." Eight episodes were broadcast live from August 11 to September 29, 2013. Guests featured on the show included cast and crew members from "Breaking Bad", celebrity fans, and members from a live audience.


title: Talking Bad

text: Following the success of "Talking Dead", which serves as a companion to "The Walking Dead" franchise, AMC created similar after-shows to accompany other original programming on the network; the first of these was "Talking Bad". The series premiered on August 11, 2013, following the encore presentation of the midseason premiere of "Breaking Bad"'s fifth season. Episodes continued airing following new episodes of "Breaking Bad". "Talking Bad" concluded its run on September 29, 2013, with an extended one-hour episode directly following the series finale.


title: Talking Bad

text: The series features host Chris Hardwick discussing the latest episode with guests who are fans of the series, including the cast and crew from "Breaking Bad". On hosting the show, Hardwick commented: "Breaking Bad’ will go down as one of the best shows in television history. Obviously, it's tonally much different than ‘The Walking Dead,’ and I will strive to give ‘Breaking Bad’ the send-off it deserves. I am honored to be able to give fans a peek behind the curtain for the last eight episodes so we can all say goodbye to it together. AMC will tell you that it's because of the success of ‘Talking Dead’ or my friendship with the BB cast that they asked me to host this, but I maintain it probably has more to do with my unmistakable resemblance to Jesse Pinkman, BITCH."


title: Talking Bad

text: The show uses a logo and theme music similar to "Talking Dead". Episodes aired at 11:00 pm eastern time, and ran at 30 minutes (including commercials), with an online bonus segment following each televised episode. The final episode ran at 60 minutes, at 10:15 pm eastern following the final episode of "Breaking Bad". Segments on "Talking Bad" include "Respect the Chemistry," a "periodic table character study", a "fix" from executive producer/creator Vince Gilligan for the following episode, an online poll, and episode trivia. Questions were also taken from fans via phone, Facebook, Twitter, Reddit, or from the official "Talking Bad" website.


title: Manicure

text: A manicure is a mostly cosmetic beauty treatment for the fingernails and hands performed at home or in a nail salon. A manicure usually consists of filing and shaping the "free edge" of nails, pushing and clipping (with a cuticle pusher and cuticle nippers) any nonliving tissue (but limited to the cuticle and hangnails), treatments with various liquids, massage of the hand, and the application of fingernail polish. When the same is applied to the toenails and feet, the treatment is referred to as a pedicure. Together, the treatments may be known as a mani-pedi. Most nail polish can stay on nails for 2–3 days before another manicure is required for maintenance, if there is no damage done to it.


title: Manicure

text: Some manicures include painting pictures or designs on the nails, applying small decals, or imitation jewels (from 2 dimension to 3 dimension). Other nail treatments may include the application of artificial gel nails, tips, or acrylics, which may be referred to as "French manicures".


title: Manicure

text: Nail technicians, such as manicurists and pedicurists, must be licensed in certain states and countries, and must follow government regulations. Since skin is manipulated and often times trimmed, there is a risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people. Therefore, having improper sanitation can pose serious issues.


title: Manicure

text: The English word "manicure" comes from the French word "manucure", meaning care of the hands, which in turn originates from the Latin words "manus", for hand, and "cura", for care. Similarly, the English word "pedicure" comes from the Latin words "pes" (genitive case: "pedis"), for foot, and "cura", for care. Colloquially, the word for manicure is sometimes shortened to mani.


title: Manicure

text: Jeff Pink, founder of the professional nail brand ORLY, is credited with creating the natural nail look later called the French manicure in 1976.


title: Manicure

text: In the mid-1970s, Pink was tasked by a film director to come up with a universal nail look that would save screen actresses from having to spend time getting their nails redone to go along with their costume changes. Inspired by the instant brightening effect of a white pencil applied to the underside, Pink suspected that the solution was to apply that same neutralizing principle to the top of the nail. "I got one gallon of white polish for the tips, and pink, beige, or rose for the nail," he recalled in a 2014 interview with "The National".The Natural Nail Kit, as Pink called it then, was a hit among movie stars and studios who found the time-saving strategy indispensable. "The director commented that I should get an Oscar for saving the industry so much money," he said. Eventually Pink took the trend to the catwalk crowd in Paris, and they liked it, too. But, it still needed, as he thought, a more pleasing name. He gave it the French rebranding on the flight back home to Los Angeles.


title: Manicure

text: Nails that have undergone a French manicure are characterized by a lack of artificial base color and white tips at the free edge of the nail. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as French tips. The nail tips are painted white, while the rest of the nails are polished in a pink or a suitable nude shade. French manicures can be achieved with artificial nails. However, it is also as common to perform a French manicure on natural nails. Another technique is to whiten the underside of the nail with white pencil and paint a sheer color over the entire nail.


title: Manicure

text: A hot oil manicure is a specific type of manicure that cleans the cuticles and softens them with oil. Types of oils that can be used are mineral oil, olive oil, some lotions or commercial preparations in an electric heater.


title: Manicure

text: Dip powder manicures are an alternative to traditional acrylic nails and gel polish. Dip powders have become popular due to ease of application. They are similar to traditional silk or fiberglass enhancements, with the fiber being replaced by acrylic powder. Both methods rely on layering cyanoacrylate over the natural nail and encasing either the fiber or acrylic powder. While a single layer of fiber is typical, multiple alternating layers of powder and cyanoacrylate may be used in dip nails.


title: Manicure

text: Hands or feet can be covered in melted paraffin wax for softening and moisturizing. Paraffin wax is used because it can be heated to temperatures of over 95 °F (35 °C) without burning or injuring the body. The intense heat allows for deeper absorption of emollients and essential oils. The wax is usually infused with various botanical ingredients such as aloe vera, azulene, chamomile, or tea tree oil, and fruit waxes such as apple, peach, and strawberry, are often used in salons. Occasionally, lotion is rubbed on the hand or foot before being coated in paraffin. Paraffin wax treatments are often charged as an addition to the standard manicure or pedicure. They are often not covered in general training and are a rare treatment in most nail salons.


title: Manicure

text: Professional services should not include dipping clients' hands or feet into a communal paraffin bath, as the wax can be a vector for disease. Paraffin should be applied in a way that avoids contamination, often by placing a portion of the wax into a bag or mitt, which is placed on the client's hand or foot and covered with a warm towel, cotton mitt, or booty to retain warmth. The paraffin is left for a few minutes until it has cooled.


title: Manicure

text: In Australia, the United States, and other countries, many nail salons offer personal nail tool kits for purchase to avoid some of the sanitation issues in the salon. The kits are often kept in the salon and given to the client to take home, or are thrown away after use. They are only used when that client comes in for a treatment.


title: Manicure

text: Another option is to give the client the files and wooden cuticle sticks after the manicure. Since the 1970s, the overwhelming majority of professional salons use electric nail files that are faster and yield higher quality results, particularly with acrylic nail enhancements.


title: Manicure

text: There are several nail shapes: the basic shapes are almond, oval, pointed, round, square, square oval, square with rounded corners, and straight with a rounded tip. The square oval shape is sometimes known as squoval, a term coined in 1984. The squoval is considered a sturdy shape, useful for those who work with their hands.


title: Manicure

text: On May 7, 2015, "The New York Times" journalist Sarah Maslin Nir broke the two-part story titled "The Price of Nice Nails" and "Perfect Nails, Poisoned Workers" about abuses in New York salons related to ill-treatment of workers and associated health risks. As a result, on May 11, 2015, New York governor Andrew Cuomo took immediate measures announcing a Multi-Agency Enforcement Task Force to tackle the abuse in the nail salon industry.


title: Low-pressure area

text: In meteorology, a low-pressure area, low area or low is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations. Low-pressure areas are commonly associated with inclement weather (such as cloudy, windy, with possible rain or storms), while high-pressure areas are associated with lighter winds and clear skies. Winds circle anti-clockwise around lows in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, due to opposing Coriolis forces. Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere (aloft). The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis. In meteorology, atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two kinds of places:


title: Low-pressure area

text: Diverging winds aloft, ahead of these troughs, cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below as air flows upwards away from the surface, which lowers surface pressures as this upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity packing the air close to the ground.


title: Low-pressure area

text: Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater solar incidence over deserts and other land masses. Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings, this warmer air rises, which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth's surface. Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations. Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water. When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, it is known as a monsoon trough. Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February. When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during December.


title: Low-pressure area

text: Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air temperature drops below the dew point as it rises, although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies, which act to dampen diurnal temperature extremes. Since clouds reflect sunlight, incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases, which causes lower temperatures during the day. At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation, such as heat energy from the surface, allows for warmer night-time minimums in all seasons. The stronger the area of low pressure, the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity. Globally, low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains. In Europe (particularly in the British Isles and Netherlands), recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as "low levels".


title: Low-pressure area

text: Cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of cyclonic circulations, or low-pressure areas, within the atmosphere. Cyclogenesis is the opposite of , and has an anticyclonic (high-pressure system) equivalent which deals with the formation of high-pressure areas—anticyclogenesis. Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes, all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone. Meteorologists use the term "cyclone" where circular pressure systems flow in the direction of the Earth's rotation, which normally coincides with areas of low pressure. The largest low-pressure systems are cold-core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on the synoptic scale. Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones, mesocyclones, and polar lows lie within the smaller mesoscale. Subtropical cyclones are of intermediate size. "Cyclogenesis" can occur at various scales, from the microscale to the synoptic scale. Larger-scale troughs, also called Rossby waves, are synoptic in scale. Shortwave troughs embedded within the flow around larger scale troughs are smaller in scale, or mesoscale in nature. Both Rossby waves and shortwaves embedded within the flow around Rossby waves migrate equatorward of the polar cyclones located in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. All share one important aspect, that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere. Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air, which lowers surface pressure.


title: Low-pressure area

text: Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts due to a passing by shortwave aloft or upper-level jet streak before occluding later in their life cycle as cold-core cyclones. Polar lows are small-scale, short-lived atmospheric low-pressure systems that occur over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather-systems. Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations, such as shipping and offshore platforms. They are vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least .