title: Zug

text: There are three museums in the town: the Museum of Prehistory, which displays archaeological finds from Canton Zug; the castle houses the Museum of Cultural History of the town and Canton Zug, and the Zug Art Gallery attracts visitors with its exhibitions.


title: Zug

text: Several municipalities also have their own local museum. The Casino Theatre in Zug and the Zug "Burgbachkeller", along with the "Chollerhalle" cultural center, are the most famous establishments. The event centers in Baar, Cham and Rotkreuz and the Zug youth scene (Galvanik, Podium Industrie 45) enrich the range of cultural events.


title: Zug

text: Zug is surrounded with mountains, rivers and lakes including the mountains Zugerberg and the Walchwilerberg Oberallmig, the Höhronen and the river Sihl. The Choller nature reserve is also near Lake Zug.


title: Zug

text: Sights within the town include the late Gothic church of St. Wolfgang, near Hühnenberg, or St. Oswald in Zug, the old town of Zug with the Town Hall and the Zytturm (clock tower), the Huwiler Tower, the Zurlaubenhof, feudal estate of the family Zurlauben, on the outskirts of the town.


title: Zug

text: Zug's culture also includes the famous Zuger cherry liqueur cake. Local specialties, in addition to the cherry and the cherry liqueur cake, include the Zug 'Rötel', a fine lake charfish, found on many menus.


title: Zug

text: The IG Culture Zug society, an umbrella organization of museums, theaters, orchestras and other cultural organizations, was founded in Zug in 1995. The society publishes calendars and a magazine of cultural events in the canton. In 2019 it had 167 members.


title: Zug

text: There are a number of Swiss heritage sites of national significance in Zug. These include two libraries, the Library of the former Capuchin monastery and the library of the parish church of St. Michael. One archeological site, the "Sumpf" a late Bronze Age lake shore settlement, is included, as are three museums; the "Burg" (Castle museum), "Kunsthaus" (Art museum) and "Museum für Urgeschichte" (Museum for ancient history). There are three archives that are included in the list; "Bürgerarchiv Zug" (Citizen's archive of Zug), "Staatsarchiv Zug" (State/Canton of Zug archive) and the "Unternehmensarchiv der Landis & Gyr AG" (Landis & Gyr AG company archives). The rest of the sites are the Catholic Church of St. Oswald with Charnel house, the Seminary of St. Michael, the town walls and several buildings in the old town of Zug.


title: Zug

text: The prehistoric settlements at Oterswil/Insel Eielen, Riedmatt and Sumpf are part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Zug

text: The Zug education system is based on equal abilities and includes compulsory primary and secondary school, with optional secondary education and vocational training. Two thirds of young people go into vocational education, connected to an apprenticeship, joining the professional world after the 9th grade of secondary school. The international business community of Zug offers many and varied apprenticeships along with the Zug technical and industrial college, GIBZ, and the business college, KBZ, provide the academic knowledge and skills.


title: Zug

text: Zug has a long tradition of education. Private schools, like the Montana Institute Zug, on Zugerberg, International School of Zug or Lucerne (ISZL), or the Dr. Pfister Institute AG, Oberägeri supplement the range available. In addition, there are the three former non-state teacher training colleges in Menzingen, Holy Cross in Cham and St. Michael in Zug.


title: Zug

text: Canton Zug has two high schools: the Canton High School in the town of Zug, and the Cantonal School in Menzingen. Also at higher secondary level, is the Vocational School Zug and the Business Studies School, incorporated within the Canton School. Zug is one of the university cantons, with, on the one hand, the University of Teacher Training, PHZ Zug, on the other, a polytechnic for financial services.


title: Zug

text: There are also six technical colleges (for business, computer science, engineering design, naturopathy and homeopathy, child education, and rescue services).


title: Zug

text: The range of educational institutions is a key factor for location in the globalized world of competition, especially for foreign employees, the so-called 'Expats'. The four international schools have been developed accordingly, and report a high student intake.


title: Zug

text: The Swiss Federal Railways link at Zug railway station for Cham – Horgen – Zürich, Steinhausen – Affoltern am Albis, Arth-Goldau – St. Gotthard – Ticino and Italy, and Rotkreuz – Luzern. Zug is the hub of the Zug Stadtbahn (an S-Bahn-style commuter rail network). The network consisted of the following lines:


title: Zug

text: The Zugerbergbahn is a funicular linking the Zug suburb of Schönegg (558 m) with the Vordergeissboden (literally: anterior goat terrain, 925 m), the plateau of the Zugerberg overlooking the town and Lake Zug.


title: Zug

text: Water transportation on Lake Zug is centred on the town, with public transport on the lake provided by (Motor Ship) "MS Zug", "MS Schwyz", "MS Rigi" and "MS Schwan". These vessels belong to the Zugersee Schifffahrt, a partner of the local public transport executive, ZVB Zugerland Verkehrsbetriebe.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Glomerulonephritis (GN) is a term used to refer to several kidney diseases (usually affecting both kidneys). Many of the diseases are characterised by inflammation either of the glomeruli or of the small blood vessels in the kidneys, hence the name, but not all diseases necessarily have an inflammatory component.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: As it is not strictly a single disease, its presentation depends on the specific disease entity: it may present with isolated hematuria and/or proteinuria (blood or protein in the urine); or as a nephrotic syndrome, a nephritic syndrome, acute kidney injury, or chronic kidney disease.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: They are categorized into several different pathological patterns, which are broadly grouped into non-proliferative or proliferative types. Diagnosing the pattern of GN is important because the outcome and treatment differ in different types. Primary causes are intrinsic to the kidney. Secondary causes are associated with certain infections (bacterial, viral or parasitic pathogens), drugs, systemic disorders (SLE, vasculitis), or diabetes.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Glomerulonephritis refers to an inflammation of the glomerulus, which is the unit involved in filtration in the kidney. This inflammation typically results in one or both of the nephrotic or nephritic syndromes.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: The nephrotic syndrome is characterised by the finding of edema in a person with increased protein in the urine and decreased protein in the blood, with increased fat in the blood. Inflammation that affects the cells surrounding the glomerulus, podocytes, increases the permeability to proteins, resulting in an increase in excreted proteins. When the amount of proteins excreted in the urine exceeds the liver's ability to compensate, fewer proteins are detected in the blood – in particular albumin, which makes up the majority of circulating proteins. With decreased proteins in the blood, there is a decrease in the oncotic pressure of the blood. This results in edema, as the oncotic pressure in tissue remains the same. Although decreased intravascular oncotic (i.e. osmotic) pressure partially explains the patient's edema, more recent studies have shown that extensive sodium retention in the distal nephron (collecting duct) is the predominant cause of water retention and edema in the nephrotic syndrome. This is worsened by the secretion of the hormone aldosterone by the adrenal gland, which is secreted in response to the decrease in circulating blood and causes sodium and water retention. Hyperlipidemia is thought to be a result of the increased activity of the liver.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: The nephritic syndrome is characterised by blood in the urine (especially Red blood cell casts with dysmorphic red blood cells) and a decrease in the amount of urine in the presence of hypertension. In this syndrome, inflammatory damage to cells lining the glomerulus are thought to result in destruction of the epithelial barrier, leading to blood being found in the urine. At the same time, reactive changes, e.g. proliferation of mesangial cells, may result in a decrease in kidney blood flow, resulting in a decrease in the production of urine. The renin–angiotensin system may be subsequently activated, because of the decrease in perfusion of juxtaglomerular apparatus, which may result in hypertension.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: This is characterised by forms of glomerulonephritis in which the number of cells is not changed. These forms usually result in the nephrotic syndrome. Causes include:


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Minimal change disease is characterised as a cause of nephrotic syndrome without visible changes in the glomerulus on microscopy. Minimal change disease typically presents with edema, an increase in proteins passed from urine and decrease in blood protein levels, and an increase in circulating lipids (i.e., nephrotic syndrome) and is the most common cause of the nephrotic syndrome in children. Although no changes may be visible by light microscopy, changes on electron microscopy within the glomeruli may show a fusion of the foot processes of the podocytes (cells lining the basement membrane of the capillaries of glomerulus). It is typically managed with corticosteroids and does not progress to chronic kidney disease.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis is characterised by a sclerosis of segments of some glomeruli. It is likely to present as a nephrotic syndrome. This form of glomerulonephritis may be associated with conditions such as HIV and heroin abuse, or inherited as Alport syndrome. The cause of about 20–30% of focal-segmental glomerulosclerosis is unknown. On microscopy, affected glomeruli may show an increase in hyalin, a pink and homogenous material, fat cells, an increase in the mesangial matrix and collagen. Treatment may involve corticosteroids, but up to half of people with focal segmental glomerulonephritis continue to have progressive deterioration of kidney function, ending in kidney failure.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Membranous glomerulonephritis may cause either nephrotic or a nephritic picture. About two-thirds are associated with auto-antibodies to phospholipase A2 receptor, but other associations include cancers of the lung and bowel, infections such as hepatitis B and malaria, drugs including penicillamine, and connective tissue diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. Individuals with cerebral shunts are at risk of developing shunt nephritis, which frequently produces MGN.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Microscopically, MGN is characterized by a thickened glomerular basement membrane without a hyperproliferation of the glomerular cells. Immunofluorescence demonstrates diffuse granular uptake of IgG. The basement membrane may completely surround the granular deposits, forming a "spike and dome" pattern. Tubules also display the symptoms of a typical Type III hypersensitivity reaction, which causes the endothelial cells to proliferate, which can be seen under a light microscope with a PAS stain.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Prognosis follows the rule of thirds: one-third remain with MGN indefinitely, one-third remit, and one-third progress to end-stage kidney failure. As the glomerulonephritis progresses, the tubules of the kidney become infected, leading to atrophy and hyalinisation. The kidney appears to shrink. Treatment with corticosteroids is attempted if the disease progresses.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: In extremely rare cases, the disease has been known to run in families, usually passed down through the females. This condition, similarly, is called Familial Membranous Glomerulonephritis. There have only been about nine documented cases in the world.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Thin basement membrane disease is an autosomal dominant inherited disease characterized by thin glomerular basement membranes on electron microscopy. It is a benign condition that causes persistent microscopic hematuria. This also may cause proteinuria which is usually mild and overall prognosis is excellent.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Fibronectin glomerulopathy is a rare form of glomerulopathy characterised by enlarged glomeruli with deposits in the mesangium and subendothelial space. The deposits have been shown to be fibronectin. This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. About 40% of cases are due to mutations in the fibronectin (FN1) gene located on chromosome 2 (2q34).


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Proliferative glomerulonephritis is characterised by an increased number of cells in the glomerulus. These forms usually present with a triad of blood in the urine, decreased urine production, and hypertension, the nephritic syndrome. These forms usually progress to end-stage kidney failure (ESKF) over weeks to years (depending on type).


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: IgA nephropathy, also known as "Berger's disease", is the most common type of glomerulonephritis, and generally presents with isolated visible or occult hematuria, occasionally combined with low grade proteinuria, and rarely causes a nephritic syndrome characterised by proteinuria, and visible blood in the urine. IgA nephropathy is classically described as a self-resolving form in young adults several days after a respiratory infection. It is characterised by deposits of IgA in the space between glomerular capillaries.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Henoch–Schönlein purpura refers to a form of IgA nephropathy, typically affecting children, characterised by a rash of small bruises affecting the buttocks and lower legs, with abdominal pain.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Post-infectious glomerulonephritis can occur after essentially any infection, but classically occurs after infection with the bacteria "Streptococcus pyogenes". It typically occurs 1–4 weeks after a pharyngeal infection with this bacterium, and is likely to present with malaise, a slight fever, nausea and a mild nephritic syndrome of moderately increased blood pressure, gross haematuria, and smoky-brown urine. Circulating immune complexes that deposit in the glomeruli may lead to an inflammatory reaction.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Diagnosis may be made on clinical findings or through antistreptolysin O antibodies found in the blood. A biopsy is seldom done, and the disease is likely to self-resolve in children in 1–4 weeks, with a poorer prognosis if adults are affected or if the affected children are obese.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Membranoproliferative GN (MPGN), also known as "mesangiocapillary glomerulonephritis," is characterised by an increase in the number of cells in the glomerulus, and alterations in the glomerular basement membrane. These forms present with the nephritic syndrome, hypocomplementemia, and have a poor prognosis. Three subtypes have been proposed:


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, also known as "crescentic GN", is characterised by a rapid, progressive deterioration in kidney function. People with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis may present with a nephritic syndrome. In management, steroid therapy is sometimes used, although the prognosis remains poor. Three main subtypes are recognised:


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Histopathologically, the majority of glomeruli present "crescents". Formation of crescents is initiated by passage of fibrin into the Bowman space as a result of increased permeability of glomerular basement membrane. Fibrin stimulates the proliferation of endothelial cells of Bowman capsule, and an influx of monocytes. Rapid growing and fibrosis of crescents compresses the capillary loops and decreases the Bowman space, which leads to kidney failure within weeks or months.


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Some forms of glomerulonephritis are diagnosed clinically, based on findings on history and examination. Other tests may include:


title: Glomerulonephritis

text: Antibiotic therapy to prevent streptococcal infection (prophylaxis). Steroids to suppress inflammation. Provide high calories & low protein, sodium & potassium diet. Monitor for sign of kidney failure, heart failure, and hypertensive encephalopathy.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Uriah the Hittite ( "ʾŪrīyyā haḤītī") is a minor figure in the Hebrew Bible, mentioned in the Books of Samuel, an elite soldier in the army of David, king of Israel and Judah, and the husband of Bathsheba, the daughter of Eliam. While Uriah was serving in David's army abroad, David himself, from the roof of his palace, looked down on his city and spied upon Bathsheba bathing in the privacy of her courtyard. Moved by lust at the sight of her, David called for Bathsheba to be brought to him and slept with her, impregnating her. In an effort to hide his misdeeds, David called Uriah home from war, hoping that he and Bathsheba would have relations and that he would be able to pass the child off as belonging to Uriah. But Uriah, being a disciplined soldier, refused to visit his wife. So David murdered him by proxy by ordering all of Uriah's comrades to abandon him in the midst of battle, so that he ended up getting killed by an opposing army. Following Uriah's death, David took Bathsheba as his eighth wife.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: The name Uriah is of Hebrew origin, a theophoric name referencing Yahweh, meaning "the (Yahweh) is my light."


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Based on the Biblical account, Uriah was probably of the ethnic Hittite minority resident in Israel that had lived in and around the region, "the Land of Canaan", since before the time of Abraham. The Hebrews, upon their entry into Canaan, had been commanded (Deuteronomy 20:16–17) to kill "anything that breathes ... in the cities of the nations the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance," with the explanation that "otherwise, they will teach you to follow all the detestable things they do in worshiping their gods, and you will sin against the Lord your God" (Deuteronomy 20:18). Even so, some of the earlier inhabitants were spared, in some cases for cooperating with the Hebrews (Joshua 2:12–14, 6:23, Judges 1:24–25) in other cases from failure to carry out the extermination order (Joshua 15:63, 16:10, Judges 1:19, 21, 27–36).


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: The era of David's rule was generations after this time, a length of time so long that by his day, many residents of non-Israelite descent who followed the Israelite religion had come to be accepted as Israelites. It is likely this included Uriah, as his name in Hebrew means "Yahweh is my light". In addition, his status as an officer in the army and as one of David's "mighty men" would indicate acceptance within the ethnic community.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: The Talmud states two opinions as to who Uriah was. 1) He was a convert to Judaism. 2) He lived amongst Hittites and so is known as a Hittite despite his being born Jewish. (Kiddushin 76b) Either way, he was not actually part of the Hittite nation since he would have been forbidden to marry Bathsheba had he been a Gentile.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: David's mighty men were a group of his best thirty-seven fighters (later expanded to around eighty). Although the lists of his mighty men (2 Samuel 23:8–39 & 1 Chronicles 11:10–47) are given after David has become king, many of them may have been the loyal followers who stayed with him when he was fleeing King Saul. At the very least, they fought side by side with him. Uriah's closeness to David is illustrated by how closely he lived to the palace, and his position as one of the mighty men at the front battle lines allowed David to formulate and carry out his plot.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: According to Second Samuel, King David was tempted upon seeing Bathsheba bathe in her courtyard from the roof of his palace. He had her brought to his chambers and had sex with her, resulting in a pregnancy. Informed that her husband was Uriah, David summoned Uriah from battle to meet him, suggesting that he go home and "wash his feet," meaning to spend time at home and attend to his wife.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Uriah refused, claiming a code of honor with his fellow warriors while they were in battle. It was common for warriors in preparation for battle to abstain from sex, as a practice of discipline. After Uriah repeatedly refused to see his wife Bathsheba, David sent him to his commanding officer Joab with a letter that ordered Joab to put Uriah on the front lines of the battle and have the other soldiers move away from him so that he would be killed by enemy soldiers.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Despite Uriah's status as one of David's mighty men, British rabbi Jonathan Magonet observes that Uriah refers to Joab, not David, as "my lord (or commander)" (2 Samuel 11:11). Joab is, Magonet notes, a kingmaker who dispatches ruthlessly his own military rivals, Abner and Amasa. He is sufficiently powerful that David, on his deathbed, advises Solomon to arrange his death (1 Kings 2:5–6). This prompts Magonet to speculate that David saw some deeper political threat from Joab through his entanglement with Uriah's wife.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: The prophet Nathan soon after confronted David about this murder, by first telling him a parable of a rich man and a poor man: The rich man had many sheep, while the poor man had only one little ewe, whom he cared for greatly. A traveler approached the rich man for food, whereby the man took the poor man's ewe and dressed it to give to the traveler.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Hearing this story, David grew angry and replied: "As surely as the Lord lives, the man who did this deserves to die! He must pay for that lamb four times over, because he did such a thing and had no pity."


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Nathan replied, "You are the man! This is what the Lord, the God of Israel, says: 'I anointed you king over Israel, and I delivered you from the hand of Saul. I gave your master's house to you, and your master's wives into your arms. I gave you the house of Israel and Judah.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: "And if all this had been too little, I would have given you even more. Why did you despise the word of the Lord by doing what is evil in His eyes? You struck down Uriah the Hittite with the sword and took his wife to be your own.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: "You killed him with the sword of the Ammonites. Now, therefore, the sword will never depart from your house, because you despised Me and took the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your own.'" NIV


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Nathan then informs David that his child with Bathsheba must die. Indeed, their first child dies after seven days. David and Bathsheba later had a second son, the future King Solomon.


title: Uriah the Hittite

text: Uriah is portrayed in the American films "David and Bathsheba" (1951) by Kieron Moore, "King David" (1985) by James Lister and Mark Burnett's and Roma Downey's "The Bible: The Epic Miniseries" (2013) by Dhaffer L'Abidine.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Ozcar "Ozzy" Lusth (born August 23, 1981, in Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico) is an American reality show veteran contestant who has appeared on several shows, including ""; ";" and "". He also competed in the 34th edition of "" and the second season of "American Ninja Warrior". He also appeared on the Playboy reality series, "Foursome".


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth was born on August 23, 1981 in Guanajuato, Mexico. When he was only a couple of years old, his parents divorced and he moved with his mom to Durham, North Carolina, to be closer to his relatives. After a few more moves, his mother, with Ozzy and his two siblings, Katrina and Zoe, settled in Mountain View, California. He went to high school in Mountain View. After graduating, he attended Santa Barbara City College for two years, where he worked as a stripper on the side, until he moved to the Los Angeles area. He is of Mestizo descent.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth was originally recruited to play "Survivor" after his friend met a casting agent for the show, and they wanted a "non-stereotypical Latino." On "", Lusth was originally a member of the Aitutaki (Aitu) tribe, which represented Latinos. Having no particular alliance with any members, he was seen as a threat. In , he suggested the tribe throw the immunity challenge so they could vote out the weak link, Billy Garcia. Lusth's plan was met with skepticism, particularly by Cristina Coria. However, Garcia was voted out at Tribal Council. Following a tribe switch, Lusth remained in Aitu with only one of his original tribemates, Cecelia Mansilla. Lusth was perceived a threat but he led his tribes to numerous immunities. Yet he was not part of the dominating alliance of Yul Kwon, Candice Woodcock, Becky Lee, and Jonathan Penner, and Lusth lost his original tribemate, Mansilla. Following the third tribal council, Lusth was angry that his tribe had voted for Mansilla, but was comforted by his tribemates. After two straight wins, Probst announced both tribes would go to Tribal Council. Lusth, along with the rest of the tribe except Jessica "Flicka" Smith, denounced "Plan Voodoo" and voted out Cao Boi Bui. The tribe lost immunity at the next challenge and Smith was unanimously voted out.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth played a large part in the next three straight wins and the Rarotonga (Raro) tribe saw their numbers dwindle. However, when Probst announced an offer of mutiny, the Aitu tribe was left shocked and decimated as original Raro members Woodcock and Penner returned, thus making Raro eight members strong. The challenge following the mutiny was dominated by the Aitu Four: Sundra Oakley, Lusth, Kwon and Lee. Lusth and the Aitu Four sent Woodcock to Exile Island several times, eventually sealing her fate and Penner's. The mutiny sealed Lusth in his alliance with Oakley, Kwon, and Lee, and the Aitu Four dominated subsequent challenges. Following the tribe merge, Lusth remained loyal to the Aitu Four and voted with his allies to send Nate Gonzalez, Woodcock, Penner, Parvati Shallow, and Adam Gentry off, despite times when he considered aligning with Shallow. Lusth was seen as a threat by allies Lee and Oakley, who went to Kwon in an attempt to vote Lusth out. But Lusth won immunity once again, forcing the expulsion of former Raro members.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth won the final immunity challenge and scored a spot in the Final Three with Kwon, who had the hidden immunity idol. Forced to vote one of their own out, Lee and Oakley tied with two votes against each. Lee won the fire-making tiebreaker, securing a spot with Kwon and Lusth. At the final Tribal Council, Lusth was praised for his athletic skills but criticized for being a loner. He finished in second place in a 5–4–0 vote and was the first male runner-up in two years since the eighth season. Probst stated at the reunion show that he had dominated. Prior to the million dollar vote, Adam Gentry had promised he would give Kwon his vote if he survived longer than Penner. Kwon did and Gentry followed suit. Lusth gained the votes of Raro members Shallow, Gonzalez, Jenny Guzon-Bae and Rebecca Borman.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth was the longest-lasting contestant from the original Aitu tribe, and stayed so after the tribe switch. Dominant in swimming, agility and balance, he won five out of six individual immunity challenges. He won a Mercury Mariner for being voted favorite player of the season.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: With five immunity challenge wins in "Cook Islands", Lusth became the fourth player, after Colby Donaldson, Tom Westman and Terry Deitz, to win a record five immunity challenges in a single season. Since then, Mike Holloway on "", and Brad Culpepper on "" have also accomplished this feat.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: "" was Lusth's second appearance on "Survivor". With regard to his prior appearance, Lusth commented, "My mistakes last time were basically being too much of a loner. I'm never going to go anywhere by myself except to use the bathroom".


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Originally part of the Malakal tribe representing the Favorites, Lusth decided to establish alliances. He allied himself with Amanda Kimmel, a "" contestant. The two went on to join forces with James Clement, Kimmel's ally from "China", and Parvati Shallow, Lusth's fellow contestant on "Cook Islands". The four became known for the romantic relationships between Lusth and Kimmel and between Clement and Shallow, with Cirie Fields joking that Kimmel would be giving birth to "little Ozzlets." The tribe faced an early defeat and the alliance of four found themselves against another dominating alliance of Ami Cusack, Jonathan Penner, Eliza Orlins and Yau-Man Chan. Both alliances attempted to recruit Jonny Fairplay, whose vote would become the swing vote. However, things changed when Fairplay asked to be sent home to be with his pregnant girlfriend, and the tribe honored his wish and voted him out 9–1, with Fairplay voting for Lusth. Faced with a loss in , the four recruited Fields as their fifth member and voted out Chan, who was perceived as a threat by her. In , Lusth was banished to Exile Island where he found the immunity idol and put a fake one in the place where he found the real one.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Following a tribal switch in , he remained with two of his alliance members, Kimmel and Fields. The tribe began to lose in immunity challenges and subsequently voted off the Fans: Joel Anderson, Chet Welch, and Tracy Hughes-Wolf; during this time, Penner, now a member of Airai, was evacuated and Kathy Sleckman quit. With the tribe numbers becoming even, Malakal lost the challenge before the merge and voted off Cusack. When Lusth reunited with his alliance at the merge, the five of them took control of the game, voting off Orlins, whom Shallow disliked. He became comfortable with his position in the game, trusting Kimmel, Clement, and Shallow completely. He also found an ally in Fan Erik Reichenbach, who admired Lusth's abilities. However, Shallow had plans of her own. Having aligned herself with Fans Natalie Bolton and Alexis Jones while on Airai, she found herself in trouble when Fields approached her with a plan to blindside Lusth. Shallow's vote became the swing vote and she was confused, debating whether or not to vote her ally out. But Shallow stuck with Fields and convinced Lusth to leave his idol back at camp. At Tribal Council, Lusth was blindsided and this became the start of the women's alliance's domination, led by Shallow.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: At the Final Tribal Council, he berated Shallow for selling away their friendship and refused to let her talk. He also confessed his love for Kimmel, for whom he cast his vote to win, saying she deserved the money a million times more than Shallow. He and Kimmel were still together as of the reunion show, but he revealed in an interview that they had separated before he returned for Season 23, "". He also revealed at the reunion show that he and Shallow have healed their friendship.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth returned, along with Benjamin "Coach" Wade, for a third shot at the game in "". He revealed that he wanted to play a strategic game this time, feeling that everyone only saw him as a physical threat in previous games. He was randomly assigned to the Savaii tribe, where he quickly formed a core alliance with Keith Tollefson and Jim Rice, with Whitney Duncan and Elyse Umemoto being the extra members. His increasing closeness with Umemoto prompted Rice to undercut his power in by convincing the tribe to vote out Umemoto instead of John Cochran. This initially angered Lusth, but he later forgave his tribe.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: As the tribe approached what they suspected was the last Tribal Council before the merge and the return of the Redemption Island victor, Lusth made an unprecedented, bold, and strategic move by requesting that his tribe vote him out to Redemption Island, in the hope that he would beat long-running Redemption Island resident Christine Shields-Markoski and return to the merged tribe, making the former Savaii numbers equal to the former Upolu members. Jeff Probst has called this one of the greatest moves in "Survivor" history.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: The plan worked, but at the first post-merge Tribal Council Cochran betrayed his own tribe and joined with Upolu in voting out Tollefson, followed by Lusth and his other former tribemates, one by one. Back on Redemption Island, Lusth defeated Tollefson, Rice, Dawn Meehan, Duncan, Cochran, Edna Ma, and Brandon Hantz to stay in the game. Ozzy won immunity when he got back into the game and Rick Nelson was voted off. However, in the next challenge Lusth was defeated by Sophie Clarke at a puzzle game and became the last person voted off to become the final member of the jury. He later cast his vote for Clarke to win. He did, however, win the $100,000 Sprint Player of the Season prize over Cochran, who came in a distant second. Lusth was also the last member of the original Savaii tribe and set a "Survivor" record in being voted out three times in one season.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Lusth returned for a fourth time in the 34th season, "Survivor: Game Changers". This made him one of only four contestants at the time to ever compete on "Survivor" four times—the others being "Boston Rob" Mariano, Rupert Boneham, and fellow "Game Changers" contestant Cirie Fields. On Day 16, Lusth attended his first Tribal Council, where he joined the majority in voting out two-time winner Sandra Diaz-Twine. He had to go to Tribal Council again on Day 18, when he joined the majority in eliminating Jeff Varner. He was ultimately blindsided on Day 24 for being too big of a physical threat. He placed 12th and was the second member of the jury. At Final Tribal Council, he praised finalist Brad Culpepper for his gameplay and voted for Culpepper to win, although Sarah Lacina would ultimately win the title of "Sole Survivor."


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Shortly after "Survivor: South Pacific" ended, Ozzy was inducted into Xfinity's "Survivor" "Hall of Fame" in the class of 2011, alongside Cirie Fields and Tom Westman. Several years later, in the official issue of "CBS Watch" magazine commemorating the 15th anniversary of "Survivor", Lusth performed well in two major viewer polls that were released in the magazine. He came in fifth in the poll for "Greatest Castaway of All Time," and he came in third in the "Hottest Male Castaway" poll, behind Colby Donaldson and Malcolm Freberg. He was also the only male contestant to appear in both polls, and one of only two contestants overall to appear in both the "greatest players" poll and one of the "most attractive" polls, the other being fellow "Cook Islands" and "Micronesia" contestant Parvati Shallow. Lastly, his elimination in Episode Ten of "Micronesia" was voted by viewers in the same magazine as the #2 most memorable moment in the series, only behind Sandra Diaz-Twine burning Russell Hantz's hat in Episode 14 of "".


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: By making the merge in "", Lusth became the first and only player in "Survivor" history to make the merge four times, and Lusth also holds the record for the most times eliminated from the game, by being voted out on five separate occasions (one in "Micronesia", three in "South Pacific", and one in "Game Changers"). At the time of his participation, he holds the record for the most time spent playing Survivor, with 128 days spent in the game as an active contestant followed by Fields who played 121 days, Rob Mariano who played 117 days, Shallow who played 114 days, Amanda Kimmel who played 108 days, Rupert Boneham who played 104 days, and Andrea Boehlke who played 103 days;. This record lasted for nearly three years, to be surpassed later by Mariano, who eventually played 152 days (excluding the 37 days in "", for which he was not directly involved in the gameplay), and Shallow's 149, both for their participation in "".


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: In 2016, he also appeared in a special episode of "The Price Is Right" which featured multiple former "Survivor" contestants competing on the show.


title: Ozzy Lusth

text: Los Angeles, which has since closed. He currently works in adult film promoting OnlyFans. Lusth came out as bisexual in 2022.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The Siliguri Corridor, also known as the Chicken's Neck, is a stretch of land around the city of Siliguri in West Bengal, India. at the narrowest section, this geo-political and geo-economical corridor connects the eight states of northeast India to the rest of India. The countries of Nepal and Bangladesh lie on each side of the corridor and the Kingdom of Bhutan lies at the northern end of the corridor. The Kingdom of Sikkim formerly lay on the northern side of the corridor, until its merging with India in 1975.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The city of Siliguri, in the state of West Bengal, is the major city in this area and the central transfer point that connects Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Northeast India to one another.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The partition of India led to the formation of the Siliguri Corridor through the creation of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) after the partition of Bengal (into East Bengal) in 1947–1948.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The kingdom of Sikkim formerly lay on the northern side of the corridor, until its union with India in 1975 via a publicly held referendum. This gave India a buffer to the north of the Siliguri Corridor and consolidated India's control over the western side of the Chumbi Valley.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The dimensions of the corridor are a matter of interpretation. Descriptions give it an area of with the narrowest section being . Kamal Jit Singh places the width at with a width of , giving it an area of approximately . Another description places its dimensions as approximately in length and wide, also giving it an area of approximately .


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The corridor is located between Bangladesh to the south-west, Nepal on the east, and proximate to Bhutan in the north. Between Sikkim and Bhutan lies the Chumbi Valley, a dagger-like slice of Tibetan territory. The southern end of the Dolam plateau or Doklam triboundary area slopes into the corridor. At the narrowest stretch, the corridor is generally formed by the Mechi River in the east; Nepal's Bhadrapur lies on the banks of the river. Further north the Mechi Bridge connects Mechinagar.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: India has embarked on a slew of projects, such as construction of India-China Border Roads and Advance Landing Ground (AGLs), Northeastern India connectivity and Look-East transnational connectivity projects including BIMSTEC and BBIN to create multiple alternatives to Silliguri corridor, including through Bangladesh and the sea.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: All land transportation between the rest of India and its far northeastern states uses this corridor. The route has a major broad gauge railway line. Electrification of this double-track corridor is in progress with assistance from Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE). Additionally, the old metre gauge line (recently converted to a broad-gauge line) connects Siliguri Junction with Islampur in North Dinajpur district of West Bengal, via Bagdogra (the only airport of national interest in the corridor) and the bordering towns of Adhikari, Galgalia, Thakurganj, Naxalbari and Taiabpur with Nepal. National Highway 10 connects Siliguri to Guwahati in Assam.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: There is no free-trade agreement between Bangladesh and India. The Tetulia Corridor, an alternative to the Siliguri Corridor, is proposed under Article VIII of the India–Bangladesh Trade Agreement 1980, which states that "The two governments agree to make mutually beneficial arrangements for the use of their waterways, railways and roadways for commerce between the two countries and for passage of goods between two places in one country through the territory of the other". However, the proposal is still in the initial stages of negotiation.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: India has a number of forces stationed on the borders, the Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police man the border with China; Sashastra Seema Bal are deployed along the border with Nepal and Bhutan and Border Security Force for Bangladesh. The strip is also patrolled by the Indian Army, the Assam Rifles, and state police forces including the West Bengal Police. The security threat posed by the corridor decreased following the creation of Bangladesh. Internal threats to the corridor are numerous. Militant groups known to have used the corridor include United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) and National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN).


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: The threat of a Chinese advance is still considered by Indian planners. A Chinese military advance of less than would cut off Bhutan, part of West Bengal and all of North-East India, an area containing almost 50 million people. This situation arose during the war between India and China in 1962. The security threat to this corridor was heightened during the 2017 Doklam incident. The probability of China cutting off seven states in northeast India has been questioned.


title: Siliguri Corridor

text: Humphrey Hawksley, in his 2000 novel "Dragon Fire," briefly authors a situation where China cuts off India's land route to its northeastern territories. "Assassin's Mace" (2011) by Brigadier Bob Butalia also involves such a situation involving Doklam and Jaldhaka River.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: Jeordie Osbourne White (born June 20, 1971), better known Twiggy Ramirez or simply Twiggy, is an American musician, mostly known as the former bassist and guitarist of the rock band Marilyn Manson. Previously, he was the bassist for A Perfect Circle and a touring member of Nine Inch Nails, and is currently the vocalist for Goon Moon. He left Marilyn Manson in 2002, later rejoined the band in 2008, and was dismissed in 2017. He has been a principal songwriter for the band and has also contributed to some of the Desert Sessions recordings. He also hosted the Hour of Goon podcast with fellow musician Fred Sablan, on the Starburns Audio network.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White was raised in Pompton Lakes, New Jersey, before moving to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, during his childhood. Influenced by the likes of Mötley Crüe, Van Halen and Iron Maiden, he first picked up a guitar at age thirteen. White spent most of his youth in the Fort Lauderdale area, and by age 15, had joined his first band, The Ethiopians. He graduated from J.P. Taravella High School in Coral Springs, Florida.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: Early in his career, White was in a speed metal cover band called The Ethiopians covering songs such as Metallica's "Trapped Under Ice". Between 1989 and 1993, White played rhythm guitar and provided backing vocals for Amboog-a-Lard.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White met Brian Warner on numerous occasions in the late 1980s. After an unexpected meeting at a used records store in the Coral Springs Mall where White was working, the two realized they had much in common, but had yet to work on a musical endeavor. White actively attempted to join Manson's band while playing in another project. He became an honorary spooky kid, and went by the groupie name Gordy White. In March 1993, White took part in Manson's side project Mrs. Scabtree and shared vocal duties with then girlfriend Jessicka. Jeordie did not join Marilyn Manson and the Spooky Kids until Gidget Gein was ejected from the band by the manager in December 1993. White was given the Manson band member name "Twiggy Ramirez", which was derived by taking the first name from English supermodel Twiggy and the surname from American serial killer Richard Ramirez. White never played bass until Manson bought him his first instrument right after he joined Manson's band. In 1998, White made a cameo in Monster Magnet's music video for "Space Lord". In 2001, White appeared on an MTV Cribs episode: the "Ozzfest Edition".


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: As a result of many lineup changes (specifically guitarists), White was largely responsible for most of the songwriting on the albums "Antichrist Superstar", "Mechanical Animals" and "Holy Wood"; for the latter album, he shared credits with John 5. In 2007, White said that he is proud of the work that he did in the band.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: On January 9, 2008 Marilyn Manson posted a bulletin on MySpace confirming that Tim Skold was leaving Marilyn Manson and that White had rejoined the band in his place. He toured with Manson as the band's new guitarist in support of their seventh studio album. However, he stayed with Goon Moon after the touring of "The High End of Low" finished.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White also mentioned in an interview that he would keep working with Manson for their next album, "Born Villain", which was released on May 1, 2012. While he didn't participate in the writing or recording of Marilyn Manson's 2015 album, "The Pale Emperor", he continued to tour with the band. Manson confirmed on Reddit that he intends on collaborating with White for the follow-up to "The Pale Emperor". Despite this, the band's latest album, "Heaven Upside Down", features no contributions from White.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: On October 24, 2017 Marilyn Manson posted on Facebook that the band parted ways with White following allegations of sexual misconduct made against him, and announced that there will be a replacement for the upcoming tour.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: After departing Marilyn Manson, White played two live shows with California punk metal band Mondo Generator, and auditioned for the role of second guitar in Queens of the Stone Age, which he lost to Troy Van Leeuwen of A Perfect Circle. He also auditioned for a spot as bass player (after Jason Newsted's departure) in Metallica, but lost out to former Suicidal Tendencies/Ozzy Osbourne bassist Robert Trujillo, which is documented briefly in their film, "".


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: Several months later, White replaced Paz Lenchantin in A Perfect Circle, the project of Tool frontman Maynard James Keenan and former Tool guitar tech Billy Howerdel as a full member of the band on bass guitar. White later joined Queens of the Stone Age frontman Josh Homme on the ninth and tenth volumes of Homme's music project The Desert Sessions. He contributed to Melissa Auf der Maur's solo debut and second solo album "Out of Our Minds". He toured with Nine Inch Nails in support of their album "With Teeth", from 2005–06 and then again in 2007 for "Year Zero".


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White has composed for a range of artists from fictional band Steel Dragon to Bif Naked to his namesake, model Twiggy Lawson with whom he recorded and produced a duet of Dusty Springfield's "I Only Want To Be With You" for the soundtrack of the MTV film "Dead Man on Campus". In 2005, White worked with Goon Moon and with them released the EP "I Got a Brand New Egg Layin' Machine", recorded at Rancho De La Luna, Prescription and Regime Studios. The band released their first full-length album "Licker's Last Leg" in May 2007. White appeared on the UNKLE album "War Stories" playing bass and synths on the track "Burn My Shadow".


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White was invited to return to play with A Perfect Circle for their Fall and Winter 2010 Tour in North America, but ultimately did not participate in the reunion and was permanently replaced by Matt McJunkins.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White has a "Don't Believe the Truth" tattoo as a tribute to Oasis on his left arm. Due to his friendship with Oasis producer Dave Sardy, White got to play bass on a new version of Oasis' "Cast No Shadow" that was submitted to the soundtrack for the 2005 movie "Goal!", and contributed remixes of "I'm Outta Time" and "Falling Down" that the band used as b-sides.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: It has been emphasized by White personally that if there was one single piece of information the public should know about him it would be that he smells like baby powder.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: White married model and makeup artist Alaina “Laney Chantal” Parkhurst on July 26, 2014. The couple later separated. Laney Chantal died on October 31, 2022.


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: On October 21, 2017, White's ex-girlfriend Jessicka Addams, lead singer of the band Jack Off Jill, published a Facebook post accusing White of rape, as well as physical and emotional abuse throughout their five year relationship, from 1992 to 1997. White issued a statement following the allegations: "I have only recently been made aware of these allegations from over 20 years ago. I do not condone non-consensual sex of any kind. I will be taking some time to spend with my family and focus on maintaining my several years of sobriety. If I have caused anyone pain I apologize and truly regret it."


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: While in Marilyn Manson, White used the following bass guitars, among many things, showing a strong preference for Gibson instruments, and bass guitars used by his classic rock mentors:


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: During his parting of ways with Manson from 2002–2008, he took up the following models as his preferred instruments:


title: Twiggy Ramirez

text: In addition to the aforementioned bass guitars, White has used numerous other brands and models of electric and acoustic guitar in writing and recording for each band he has been involved with, and he plays following guitars in live performances.


title: Tiki

text: In Māori mythology, Tiki is the first man created by either Tūmatauenga or Tāne. He found the first woman, Marikoriko, in a pond; she seduced him and he became the father of Hine-kau-ataata. By extension, a tiki is a large or small wooden, pounamu or stone carving in humanoid form, notably worn on the neck as a hei-tiki, although this is a somewhat archaic usage in the Māori language. Hei-tiki are often considered taonga, especially if they are older and have been passed down throughout multiple generations. Carvings similar to ngā tiki and coming to represent deified ancestors are found in most Polynesian cultures. They often serve to mark the boundaries of sacred or significant sites. In the Western world, Tiki culture, a movement inspired by various Pacific cultures, has become popular in the 20th and 21st centuries; this has proven controversial, however, as the movement is regarded by many Polynesians as cultural appropriation.


title: Tiki

text: In traditions from the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand, the first human is a woman created by Tāne, god of forests and of birds. Usually her name is Hine-ahu-one. In other legends, Tāne makes the first man, Tiki, then makes a wife for him. In some West Coast versions, Tiki himself, as a son of Rangi and Papa, creates the first human by mixing his own blood with clay, and Tāne then makes the first woman. Sometimes Tūmatauenga, the war god, creates Tiki. In another story the first woman is Mārikoriko. Tiki marries her and their daughter is Hine-kau-ataata. In some traditions, Tiki is the penis of Tāne. In fact, Tiki is strongly associated with the origin of the reproductive act.


title: Tiki

text: In one story of Tiki among the many variants, Tiki was lonely and craved company. One day, seeing his reflection in a pool, he thought he had found a companion, and dived into the pool to seize it. The image shattered and Tiki was disappointed. He fell asleep and when he awoke he saw the reflection again. He covered the pool with earth and it gave birth to a woman. Tiki lived with her in serenity, until one day the woman was excited by an eel. Her excitement passed to Tiki and the first reproductive act resulted.


title: Tiki

text: The word appears as "tiki" in New Zealand Māori, Cook Islands Māori, Tuamotuan, and Marquesan; as "tii" in Tahitian, and as "kii" in Hawaiian. The word has not been recorded from the languages of Western Polynesia or in the Rapa Nui language.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Horatio Walpole (), 4th Earl of Orford (24 September 1717 – 2 March 1797), better known as Horace Walpole, was an English writer, art historian, man of letters, antiquarian, and Whig politician.


title: Horace Walpole

text: He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, southwest London, reviving the Gothic style some decades before his Victorian successors. His literary reputation rests on the first Gothic novel, "The Castle of Otranto" (1764), and his "Letters", which are of significant social and political interest. They have been published by Yale University Press in 48 volumes. In 2017, a volume of Walpole's selected letters was published.


title: Horace Walpole

text: The youngest son of the first British Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, he became the 4th and last Earl of Orford of the second creation on his nephew's death in 1791.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole and his wife Catherine. Like his father, he received early education in Bexley; in part under Edward Weston. He was also educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole's first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom he became strongly attached, especially Henry. At Eton he formed a schoolboy confederacy, the "Triumvirate", with Charles Lyttelton (later an antiquary and bishop) and George Montagu (later a member of parliament and Private Secretary to Lord North). More important were another group of friends dubbed the "Quadruple Alliance": Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, and Thomas Ashton.


title: Horace Walpole

text: At Cambridge Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian. Walpole came to accept the sceptical nature of Middleton's attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition and bigotry even though he was a nominal Anglican. Ceasing to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, Walpole left without taking a degree.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In 1737 Walpole's mother died. According to one biographer, his love for his mother "was the most powerful emotion of his entire life ... the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it". Walpole did not have any serious relationships with women; he has been called "a natural celibate". His sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation. He never married, engaging in a succession of unconsummated flirtations with unmarriageable women, and counted among his close friends a number of women such as Anne Seymour Damer and Mary Berry named by a number of sources as lesbian. Many contemporaries described him as effeminate (one political opponent called him "a hermaphrodite horse"). Biographers such as Timothy Mowl explore his homosexuality, including a passionate but ultimately unhappy love affair with the 9th Earl of Lincoln. Earlier biographers, such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, interpreted Walpole as asexual. Walpole's father secured for him three sinecures which afforded him an income: in 1737 he was appointed Inspector of the Imports and Exports in the Custom House, which he resigned to become Usher of the Exchequer, which gave him at first £3900 per annum but this increased over the years. Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum. Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will in which he left Gray all his belongings. In 1744 he wrote in a letter to Conway that these offices gave him nearly £2,000 per annum; after 1745 when he was appointed Collectorship of Customs, his total income from these offices was around £3,400 per annum.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole went on the Grand Tour with Gray, but as Walpole recalled in later life: "We had not got to Calais before Gray was dissatisfied, for I was a boy, and he, though infinitely more a man, was not enough to make allowances". They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day. They then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April. Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen. In early June they left Paris for Reims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyon, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence. Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany. In Florence he also wrote "Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, Esq., Tutor to the Earl of Plymouth", a mixture of Whig history and Middleton's teachings. In February 1740 Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII, they never saw. Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit all the antiquities. At social occasions in Rome, he saw the Old Pretender James Francis Edward Stuart and his two sons, Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Stuart, although there is no record of them conversing.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July. However, Gray disliked the idleness of Florence as compared to the educational pursuits in Rome, and animosity grew between them, eventually leading to an end to their friendship. On their way back to England they had a furious argument, although it is unknown what it was about. Gray went to Venice, leaving Walpole at Reggio. In later life Walpole admitted that the fault lay primarily with himself:


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole then visited Venice, Genoa, Antibes, Toulon, Marseille, Aix, Montpellier, Toulouse, Orléans and Paris. He returned to England on 12 September 1741, reaching London on the 14th.


title: Horace Walpole

text: At the 1741 general election Walpole was elected Whig Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Callington, Cornwall. He held this seat for thirteen years although he never visited Callington. Walpole entered Parliament shortly before his father's fall from power. In December 1741 the Opposition won its first majority vote in the Commons for twenty years. In January 1742 Walpole's government was still struggling in Parliament although by the end of the month Horace and other family members had successfully urged the Prime Minister to resign after a parliamentary defeat. Walpole's philosophy mirrored that of Edmund Burke, who was his contemporary. He was a classical liberal on issues such as abolitionism and the agitations of the American colonists.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole delivered his maiden speech on 19 March against the successful motion that a Secret Committee be set up to enquire into Sir Robert Walpole's last ten years as Prime Minister. For the next three years, Walpole spent most of his time with his father at his country house Houghton Hall in Norfolk. His father died in 1745 and left Walpole the remainder of the lease of his house in Arlington Street, London; £5,000 in cash; and the office of Collector of the Customs (worth £1,000 per annum). However, he had died in debt, the total of which was in between £40,000 and £50,000.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In late 1745 Walpole and Gray resumed their friendship. Also that year the Jacobite Rising began. The position of Walpole was the fruit of his father's support for the Hanoverian dynasty and he knew that he was in danger:


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole's lasting architectural creation is Strawberry Hill, the home he built from 1749 onward in Twickenham, southwest of London, which at the time overlooked the Thames. Here he revived the Gothic style many decades before his Victorian successors. This fanciful neo-Gothic concoction began a new architectural trend.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In the House of Commons, Walpole represented one of the many rotten boroughs, Castle Rising, which consisted of underlying freeholds in four villages near Kings Lynn, Norfolk, from 1754 until 1757. At his home, he hung a copy of the warrant for the execution of King Charles I with the inscription "Major Charta" and wrote of "the least bad of all murders, that of a King". In 1756 he wrote:


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole worried that while his fellow Whigs fought amongst themselves, the Tories were gaining power, the result of which would be England delivered to an unlimited, absolute monarchy, "that authority, that torrent which I should in vain extend a feeble arm to stem".


title: Horace Walpole

text: In 1757 he wrote the anonymous pamphlet "A Letter from Xo Ho, a Chinese Philosopher at London, to his Friend Lien Chi at Peking", the first of his works to be widely reviewed.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In early 1757 old Horace Walpole of Wolterton died and was succeeded in the peerage by his son, who was then an MP for King's Lynn, thereby creating a vacancy. The electors of King's Lynn did not wish to be represented by a stranger and instead wanted someone with a connection to the Walpole family. The new Lord Walpole, therefore, wrote to his cousin requesting that he stand for the seat, saying his friends "were all unanimously of opinion that you were the only person who from your near affinity to my grandfather, whose name is still in the greatest veneration, and your own known personal abilities and qualifications, could stand in the gap on this occasion and prevent opposition and expense and perhaps disgrace to the family". In early 1757 Walpole was out of Parliament after vacating Castle Rising until his election that year to King's Lynn, a seat he would hold until his retirement from the Commons in 1768.


title: Horace Walpole

text: He opposed the recent Catholic accommodative measures, writing to Mann in 1784: "You know I have ever been averse to toleration of an intolerant religion". He wrote to the same correspondent in 1785 that "as there are continually allusions to parliamentary speeches and events, they are often obscure to me till I get them explained; and besides, I do not know several of the satirized heroes even by sight". His political sympathies were with the Foxite Whigs, the successors of the Rockingham Whigs, who were themselves the successors of the Whig Party as revived by Walpole's father. He wrote to William Mason, expounding his political philosophy:


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole was horrified by the French Revolution and commended Edmund Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France": "Every page shows how sincerely he is in earnest—a wondrous merit in a political pamphlet—All other party writers "act" zeal for the public, but it never seems to flow from the heart". He admired the purple passage in the book on Marie Antoinette: "I know the tirade on the Queen of France is condemned and yet I must avow I admire it much. It paints her exactly as she appeared to me the first time I saw her when Dauphiness. She...shot through the room like an aerial being, all brightness and grace and without seeming to touch earth".


title: Horace Walpole

text: He was not impressed with Thomas Paine's reply to Burke, "Rights of Man", writing that it was "so coarse, that you would think he means to degrade the language as much as the government".


title: Horace Walpole

text: His father was created Earl of Orford in 1742. Horace's elder brother, the 2nd Earl of Orford (), passed the title on to his son, the 3rd Earl of Orford (1730–1791). When the 3rd Earl died unmarried, Horace Walpole became, at the age of 74, the 4th Earl of Orford, and the title died with him in 1797. The massive amount of correspondence he left behind has been published in many volumes, starting in 1798. Likewise, a large collection of his works, including historical writings, was published immediately after his death.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Horace Walpole was buried in the same location as his father Sir Robert Walpole, at the Church of St Martin at Tours on the Houghton Hall estate.


title: Horace Walpole

text: After Walpole's death, Lady Louisa Stuart, in the introduction to the letters of her grandmother, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1837), wrote of rumours that Horace's biological father was not Sir Robert Walpole but Carr, Lord Hervey (1691–1723), elder half-brother of the more famous John Hervey. T. H. White writes: "Catherine Shorter, Sir Robert Walpole's first wife, had five children. Four of them were born in a sequence after the marriage; the fifth, Horace, was born eleven years later, at a time when she was known to be on bad terms with Sir Robert, and known to be on romantic terms with Carr, Lord Hervey." The lack of physical resemblance between Horace and Sir Robert, and his close resemblance to members of the Hervey family, encouraged these rumours. Peter Cunningham, in his introduction to the letters of Horace Walpole (1857), vol. 1, p. x, wrote:


title: Horace Walpole

text: In his old age, according to G. G. Cunningham, he "was afflicted with fits of an hereditary gout which a rigid temperance failed to remove".


title: Horace Walpole

text: Strawberry Hill had its own printing press, the Strawberry Hill Press, which supported Horace Walpole's intensive literary activity.


title: Horace Walpole

text: In 1764, not using his own press, he anonymously published his Gothic novel, "The Castle of Otranto", claiming on its title page that it was a translation "from the Original Italian of Onuphrio Muralto". The second edition's preface, according to James Watt, "has often been regarded as a manifesto for the modern Gothic romance, stating that his work, now subtitled 'A Gothic Story', sought to restore the qualities of imagination and invention to contemporary fiction". However, there is a playfulness in the prefaces to both editions and in the narration within the text itself. The novel opens with the son of Manfred (the Prince of Otranto) being crushed under a massive helmet that appears as a result of supernatural causes. However, that moment, along with the rest of the unfolding plot, includes a mixture of both ridiculous and sublime supernatural elements. The plot finally reveals how Manfred's family is tainted in a way that served as a model for successive Gothic plots.


title: Horace Walpole

text: From 1762 on, Walpole published his "Anecdotes of Painting in England", based on George Vertue's manuscript notes. His memoirs of the Georgian social and political scene, though heavily biased, are a useful primary source for historians.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Smith, noting that Walpole never did any work for his well-paid government sinecures, turns to the letters and argues that:


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole served his country, not by drudgery in the Exchequer and Customs, which paid him, but by transmitting to posterity an incomparable vision of England as it was in his day – London and Westminster with all their festivities and riots, the machinations of politicians and the turmoil of elections.


title: Horace Walpole

text: Walpole's numerous letters are often used as a historical resource. In one, dating from 28 January 1754, he coined the word serendipity which he said was derived from a "silly fairy tale" he had read, "The Three Princes of Serendip". The oft-quoted epigram, "This world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel", is from a letter of Walpole's to Anne, Countess of Upper Ossory, on 16 August 1776. The original, fuller version appeared in a letter to Sir Horace Mann on 31 December 1769: "I have often said, and oftener think, that this world is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel – a solution of why Democritus laughed and Heraclitus wept."


title: Horace Walpole

text: In "Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III" (1768), Walpole defended Richard III against the common belief that he murdered the Princes in the Tower. In this he has been followed by other writers, such as Josephine Tey and Valerie Anand. This work, according to Emile Legouis, shows that Walpole was "capable of critical initiative". However, Walpole later changed his views following The Terror and declared that Richard could have committed the crimes he was accused of.


title: Horace Walpole

text: The Walpole Society was formed in 1911 to promote the study of the history of British art. Its headquarters is located in the Department of Prints and Drawings at The British Museum and its director is Simon Swynfen Jervis.


title: Your Highness

text: Your Highness is a 2011 American stoner comic fantasy film directed by David Gordon Green. It stars Danny McBride, James Franco, Natalie Portman, Zooey Deschanel and Justin Theroux. Written by McBride and Ben Best, the film was released on April 8, 2011. It follows an arrogant prince and his brother on a quest to kill the sorcerer and save the bride and their father's kingdom. The film received negative reviews from critics and was a box office bomb, grossing $28 million worldwide against a $50 million budget.


title: Your Highness

text: Thadeous and Fabious are sons of King Tallious in the Kingdom of Mourne. Fabious is dashing and skilled and Thadeous is lazy and ineffectual. While celebrating victory over the evil sorcerer, Leezar, who has been ravaging Tallious's kingdom, Fabious presents the virgin Belladonna whom he has freed from a tower and wishes to marry.


title: Your Highness

text: Though his brother makes him best man, Thadeous skips the wedding after overhearing Fabious' Knights Elite, led by Boremont, talk about him negatively. The wedding is then crashed by Leezar, who admits being the one who placed Belladonna in the tower. Leezar re-kidnaps her and flees. Returning to the castle with his servant and best friend Courtney, Thadeous is given an ultimatum: join Fabious on his quest to rescue Belladonna or be banished.


title: Your Highness

text: Visiting the Great Wize Wizard, Thadeous and Fabious learn that Leezar's goal is to fulfill a prophecy: a warlock having sex with a virgin when the two moons converge, will impregnate her with a dragon that will allow him to take over King Tallious' kingdom. To destroy Leezar, they are given a magic compass that will lead them to the Blade of Unicorn, located within a labyrinth. On the way there, they learn Fabious's eunuch slave, Julie, has been informing Leezar of their progress and the Knights Elite are serving the warlock.


title: Your Highness

text: After the knights are killed and he escapes, Fabious sends his mechanical bird Simon to warn the king of the betrayal by the Knights Elite, requesting reinforcements. Thadeous, Fabious and Courtney are captured by wild women led by the savage warlord Marteetee, who imprisons them in an arena, where Fabious kills off Marteetee's finest warrior. In retaliation, Marteetee summons a hydra-like monster to kill them. The brothers are rescued by Isabel, a warrior seeking revenge for her father's murder at Marteetee's hands.


title: Your Highness

text: Later that night, Thadeous learns Isabel is also after Leezar to avenge the slaughter of her brothers. The next day, the party learns too late that Isabel stole the compass from Thadeous. Fabious, finally angered by his brother's selfishness, decides to find the Blade of Unicorn alone. Thadeous and Courtney go to a tavern, where they find Isabel and retrieve the compass. Finding that his brother has been captured by Leezar's men, Thadeous wins Isabel over as they join forces, entering the labyrinth where they encounter a Minotaur.


title: Your Highness

text: After becoming separated from the others, Thadeous retrieves the Blade of Unicorn and slays the Minotaur. Thadeous and his group make their way to Leezar's castle and free Fabious, giving him the Blade. As the others kill off Julie, Boremont and his men and Leezar's three witches, Fabious impales Leezar with the Blade of Unicorn, preventing him from raping Belladonna.


title: Your Highness

text: After their victory, Isabel leaves for another quest and the heroes return home. Some time later, Fabious and Belladonna marry, while Thadeous is approached by a returning Isabel, who reveals that she has fallen in love with him. However, for them to have sex, he must first slay the witch who has cast a spell on her, locking her in a chastity belt. Though not in the mood to go out, Isabel's suggestion convinces him to go on a new adventure.


title: Your Highness

text: The film had been a passion project of Green's for a long time, with him later calling it, "an entirely self-indulgent dream project for the 11-year-old in me." Although marketed as a spoof of '80s fantasy movies, Green has said that this was not his intent. Instead he hoped to, with star Danny McBride, "put our stamp on it and bring our sensibility to it, but work within the genre." Early on, according to Green, Universal was nervous about the prospects of the film, believing it to be a parody. However, their minds were eased when discussing the casting, "and that we weren't filling it with comedian cameos."


title: Your Highness

text: Filming began in the summer of 2009 in Northern Ireland, at historic locations such as Dunluce Castle, Cairncastle and Shane's Castle, and it concluded in October 2009. Although Green wanted to make the film epic in scale, they were hampered by a limited budget. Ad libbing and improv were encouraged on set, although Green has implied that the extent of this has been exaggerated, adding, "There was definitely more of a script here than anything I’ve ever worked on". Still, at least one notable part of the backstory was improvised, which was the idea that the Wizard molested James Franco's character as a youth. McBride has said that he was certain that the scene where this was revealed would be cut, and he was shocked when it appeared in the final film.


title: Your Highness

text: A red-band trailer was released on IGN and Funny or Die. On December 21, 2010, a green-band trailer was released online, and shown before screenings of "Little Fockers" and "The Dilemma".


title: Your Highness

text: "Your Highness" opened on April 8, 2011 in 2,772 theaters nationwide and made $9,360,020 in its opening weekend, ranking number six in the domestic box office. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $21,596,445 in the United States and Canada and $6,417,288 overseas for a worldwide total of $28,013,733.


title: Your Highness

text: "Your Highness" received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 28%, based on 179 reviews, with an average rating of 4.27/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Big budgets and costumes in service of scatalogical jokes may seem funny on paper, but in execution this is a highly monotonous romp that registers only occasional laughs." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 32 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Your Highness

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four, calling it "juvenile excrescence that feels like the work of 11-year-old boys in love with dungeons, dragons, warrior women, pot, boobs and four-letter words." "Entertainment Weekly" gave it a C+, with Natalie Portman favorably reviewed as "fierce and funny as a babe warrior...good with dirty words". The "L.A. Times" noted the "even but fun sword-and-sandals sendup...is at its best when it's at its silliest", while the lowbrow humor is "sometimes witless and sometimes winning comedy...begins with grade-school-level graffiti being scrawled across storybook pages and goes up and down from there. Still, the fun can be infectious...a farce within a farce...tawdry tale of the bothered and bewildered Kingdom of Mourne".


title: Your Highness

text: David Edelstein of "New York" magazine gave a favorable review, describing the film as "a cunning weave of low and high". Yahoo! described the "Raunchy Sex Comedy Wrapped Up in a Noble Quest" as "overall, sets and scenery were fantastic and photography was incredible...a awesome, piece of foolishness wrapped up as a Period Piece...more in common with "American Pie" than it did to "Lord of the Rings". Richard Corliss, who admired McBride's and Green's earlier work, said he felt a "kind of head-swiveling awe in "Your Highness"‘s concentration of aimless inanity, in the purity of its devotion to its own louche principles. Like members of some post-Dadaist collective, the filmmakers have dedicated themselves to memorializing every first, wrong impulse that popped into their heads, while ruthlessly excising any vestige of wit or narrative niceties as being too linear, dude."


title: Your Highness

text: James Franco received a Razzie nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for the film, but lost to Al Pacino in "Jack and Jill".


title: Your Highness

text: James Franco would later poke fun at the film's poor reception during his Comedy Central Roast, saying "I agreed to do this roast because I wanted to do something I've never done before — something that has zero artistic value, something nobody will remember three months from now, something that's offensive, homophobic, and stars horrifically untalented people and something that's only a big deal to a handful of teenage stoners on Twitter. You might say, 'James, didn't you just describe "Your Highness"?' I wouldn't know, I didn't see "Your Highness"." On his first-ever interview on "The Howard Stern Show" to promote the film "Spring Breakers", Franco was surprised to hear Stern compliment "Your Highness", asking incredulously, "you liked that?" He attributed the film's lackluster performance to its "tricky" blend of lowbrow humor and medieval swords and sorcerers, a combination that hadn't worked well since "Monty Python and the Holy Grail".


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The BMW E32 is the second generation of the BMW 7 Series luxury cars and was produced from 1986 until 1994. It replaced the E23 and was initially available with straight-six or V12 powerplants. In 1992, V8 engines became available. From its inception, the E32 was among the most technologically advanced series of cars in its day.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The E32 introduced numerous features including adaptive suspension (EDC), traction control, two available wheelbases (i and iL), and dual-zone climate control. The E32 750i was the first car adhering to "gentlemen's agreement" amongst the German manufacturers limiting maximum speed to .


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: Other automotive passenger vehicles features introduced with the E32 included: projector lens headlamps (1986); double glazing windows (1991); HID (Xenon) headlamps (1991).


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: E32 also introduced BMW's first V8 engine since the BMW 501/502, last produced in 1962, and their first V12 engine, which was also Germany's first post-war V12 engine for a passenger vehicle.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: Styling was by chief stylist Ercole Spada and Hans Kerschbaum working under chief designer Claus Luthe. Design work began in late 1979. By 1983, 1:1 scale models were presented and frozen in October 1984 for production which was scheduled in June 1986.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: Production of the E32 7 series started with the 735i in June 1986 and the 730i in December 1986, concluding in April 1994 with a total of 311,068 units built.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: Some luxury options featured on the E32 include integrated telephone and fax machines, a wine cooler, electronically adjustable rear seats and radio controls for rear passengers (exclusive to the 750iL).


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: In 1991, first series-production low beam Xenon high-intensity discharge headlamps (Litronic, only low beam) were introduced on the 750iL. Other safety features include a system that automatically increased spring pressure on the windscreen wipers to keep them firmly pressed on the glass at Motorway speeds.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The E32 was the first BMW available with traction control (marketed as Automatic Stability Control, though not considered stability control by more modern standards). Initial versions of ASC reduced wheelspin by reducing engine power, while later versions (ASC+T) also applied the rear brakes.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The E32 was also available in a long-wheelbase version (indicated by an 'L' from German "Lang", after the model number) with an extra of rear leg room..


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The launch models consisted of the 730i/iL and 735i/iL, which were powered by the M30 straight-6 engine. Also available at the E32 launch was the 750i/iL, which was the first BMW ever sold with a V12 engine. The rated power output of the M70 V12 is .


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: In 1991, BMW began production of its first V8 engine since the end of BMW 501/502 production in 1962. This M60 V8 was introduced in the E32, along with the E34 5 Series. The 4.0 litre version powered the new 740i/iL models, and the 3.0 litre version was sold in parallel with the M30 straight-six in the 730i/iL models. The top speed of the 740i was electronically limited to . Both V8 engines were coupled to a new, 5-speed automatic transmission made by ZF. The Nikasil bore lining used in the M60 engine was prone to damage when used with high-sulfur fuels.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The E32 was the first BMW to use L-shaped tail-lights, which were designed with safety of following traffic in mind. Other styling features include a Hofmeister kink in the rear window line and circular headlights.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: A narrow 'kidney' grille correlated with 6-cylinder models, and a wider grille was standard for V8 and V12 models. The narrow grille was available as an option on the 8- and 12-cylinder E32 models.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The "Alpina B11 3.5" is based on the E32 735i and introduced in 1987 with a inline-six engine. Between 1987 and 1993 a total of 332 cars were produced.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The "Alpina B11 4.0" is based on the E32 740i with a modified engine producing (compared with for the 740i) and of torque. Just 7 cars were made in 1993 and 1994.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The "Alpina B12 5.0" is based on the E32 750i/750iL and used a modified V12 engine producing (compared with for the 750i/750iL) and of torque. A total of 305 cars were made.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The BMW 750iL "Highline" was the top-of-the-line model of the E32, with lots of added luxury for the rear passengers like full leather seats, dual radio controls, dual climate control with coolbox mounted in the center console, electrically heated and adjustable rear seats, walnut veneer folding tables, two crystal glasses neatly placed in the coolbox, legrests, and sun shade all around the rear/side windows. Complete with independent heating and ventilation, it also added a second battery in the trunk and a second alternator to provide power for all these luxuries. The 'Highline' option package cost more than 20,000 DM, and was only available on the 750iL, bringing the total price to well over twice that of a base model 730i.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The Goldfisch, also called the 767 or the "Secret Seven" internally, is a concept full size luxury car based on the E32 750i. Conceived by Dr. Karlheinz Lange in the late 1980s, it was meant to be the top-of-the line variant of the 7 Series also designed to compete with offerings from rival Mercedes-Benz. Dr. Lange also involved two other employees in the project, namely Adolf Fischer and Hanns-Peter Weisbarth both being senior employees. The concept car was completed in just six months. The main notable feature is the V16 engine designed by Adolf Fischer, which is essentially a modified M70 V12 enlarged to have four extra cylinders, capacity enlarged to 6.7-litres, etched iron pistons, nine-bearing crankshaft and having silicone-aluminium casting. The engine was fitted with Bosch DME 3.3 engine management system for better performance. Desired level of performance was achieved when the system treated the engine as two inline-8 engines bolted together. The resulting engine had a power output of and of torque. Power was sent to the rear wheels via a 6-speed manual transmission shared with the E31 8 Series. The car had the engine cooling system located in the boot along with fabricated fibre glass gills and air scoops at the rear to aid in cooling as there was no space to accommodate them at the front as the resulting engine was longer than the V12 engine. Air was expelled through a custom made valence panel at the rear of the car which led to the use of small tail lights with no fog and reverse lights. Despite the usage of a large V16 engine, the car was only heavier than the 750i. The Goldfisch could accelerate to in a claimed 6 seconds and could attain a top speed of . The car remained a technology demonstrator only and was never put into production due to the V16 engine being incompliant to the environmental regulations.


title: BMW 7 Series (E32)

text: The E34 5 Series, introduced in 1988, has exterior design almost identical to the E32. It also uses the same M30 straight-6 and M60 V8 engines, and several other parts.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In a human adult, the ureters are usually long and around in diameter. The ureter is lined by urothelial cells, a type of transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer that assists with peristalsis in its lowest third.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters can be affected by a number of diseases, including urinary tract infections and kidney stone. is when a ureter is narrowed, due to for example chronic inflammation. Congenital abnormalities that affect the ureters can include the development of two ureters on the same side or abnormally placed ureters. Additionally, reflux of urine from the bladder back up the ureters is a condition commonly seen in children.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters have been identified for at least two thousand years, with the word "ureter" stemming from the stem relating to urinating and seen in written records since at least the time of Hippocrates. It is, however, only since the 1500s that the term "ureter" has been consistently used to refer to the modern structure, and only since the development of medical imaging in the 1900s that techniques such as X-ray, CT, and ultrasound have been able to view the ureters. The ureters are also seen from the inside using a flexible camera, called ureteroscopy, which was first described in 1964.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters are tubular structures, approximately in adults, that pass from the pelvis of each kidney into the bladder. From the renal pelvis, they descend on top of the psoas major muscle to reach the brim of the pelvis. Here, they cross in front of the common iliac arteries. They then pass down along the sides of the pelvis and finally curve forward and enter the bladder from its left and right sides at the back of the bladder. The ureters are in diameter and surrounded by a layer of smooth muscle for near their ends just before they enter the bladder.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters enter the bladder from its back surface, traveling before opening into the bladder at an angle on its outer back surface at the slit-like "ureteric orifices". This location is also called the vesicoureteric junction. In the contracted bladder, they are about apart and about the same distance from the internal urethral orifice; in the distended bladder, these measurements may be increased to about .


title: Ureter

text: A number of structures pass by, above, and around the ureters on their path down from the kidneys to the bladder. In its upper part, the ureter travels on the psoas major muscle and sits just behind the peritoneum. As it passes down the muscle, it travels over the genitofemoral nerve. The inferior vena cava and the abdominal aorta sit to the midline of the right and left ureters, respectively. In the lower part of the abdomen, the right ureter sits behind the lower mesentery and the terminal ileum, and the left ureter sits behind the jejunum and the sigmoid colon. As the ureters enter the pelvis, they are surrounded by connective tissue, and travel backward and outward, passing in front of the internal iliac arteries and internal iliac veins. They then travel inward and forward, crossing the umbilical, inferior vesical, and middle rectal arteries. From here, in males, they cross under the vas deferens and in front of the seminal vesicles to enter the bladder near the trigone. In females, the ureters pass behind the ovaries and then travel in the lower midline section of the broad ligament of the uterus. For a short part, the uterine arteries travel on top for a short () period. They then pass by the cervix, traveling inward towards the bladder.


title: Ureter

text: The arteries which supply the ureter vary along its course. The upper third of the ureter, closest to the kidney, is supplied by the renal arteries. The middle part of the ureter is supplied by the common iliac arteries, direct branches from the abdominal aorta, and gonadal arteries; the gonadal arteries being the testicular artery in men and the ovarian artery in women. The lower third of the ureter, closest to the bladder, is supplied by branches from the internal iliac arteries, mainly the superior and inferior vesical arteries. The arterial supply can be variable, with arteries that contribute include the middle rectal artery, branches directly from the aorta, and, in women, the uterine and vaginal arteries.


title: Ureter

text: The arteries that supply the ureters end in a network of vessels within the adventitia of the ureters. There are many connections () between the arteries of the ureter, particularly in the adventitia, which means damage to a single vessel does not compromise the blood supply of the ureter. Venous drainage mostly parallels that of the arterial supply; that is, it begins as a network of smaller veins in the adventitia; with the renal veins draining the upper ureters, and the vesicular and gonadal veins draining the lower ureters.


title: Ureter

text: Lymphatic drainage depends on the position of lymphatic vessels in the ureter. Lymph collects in submucosal, intramuscular and adventitial lymphatic vessels. Those vessels closer to the kidney drain into renal collecting vessels, and from here into the lateral aortic nodes near the gonadal vessels. The middle part of the ureter drains into the right paracaval and interaortocaval nodes on the right, and the left paraaortic nodes on the left. In the lower ureter, lymph may drain into the common iliac lymph nodes, or lower down in the pelvis to the common, external, or internal iliac lymph nodes.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters are richly supplied by nerves that form a network () of nerves, the ureteric plexus that lies in the adventitia of the ureters. This plexus is formed from a number of nerve roots directly (T9-12, L1, and S2-4), as well as branches from other nerve plexuses and nerves; specifically, the upper third of the ureter receives nerve branches from the renal plexus and aortic plexus, the middle part receives branches from the upper hypogastric plexus and nerve, and the lower ureter receives branches from the lower hypogastric plexus and nerve. The plexus is in the adventitia. These nerves travel in individual bundles and along small blood vessels to form the ureteric plexus. Sensation supplied is sparse close to the kidneys and increases closer to the bladder.


title: Ureter

text: Sensation to the ureters is provided by nerves that come from T11 - L2 segments of the spinal cord. When pain is caused, for example by spasm of the ureters or by a stone, the pain may be referred to the dermatomes of T11 - L2, namely the back and sides of the abdomen, the scrotum (males) or labia majora (females) and upper part of the front of the thigh.


title: Ureter

text: The ureter is lined by urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium that is capable of responding to stretches in the ureters. The transitional epithelium may appear as a layer of column-shaped cells when relaxed, and of flatter cells when distended. Below the epithelium sits the lamina propria. The lamina propria is made up of loose connective tissue with many elastic fibers interspersed with blood vessels, veins and lymphatics. The ureter is surrounded by two muscular layers, an inner longitudinal layer of muscle, and an outer circular or spiral layer of muscle. The lower third of the ureter has a third muscular layer. Beyond these layers sits an adventitia containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and veins.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters develop from the ureteric buds, which are outpouchings from the mesonephric duct. This is a duct, derived from mesoderm, found in the early embryo. Over time, the buds elongate, moving into surrounding mesodermal tissue, dilate, and divide into left and right ureters. Eventually, successive divisions from these buds form not only the ureters, but also the pelvis, major and minor calyces, and collecting ducts of the kidneys.


title: Ureter

text: The mesonephric duct is connected with the cloaca, which over the course of development splits into a urogenital sinus and the anorectal canal. The urinary bladder forms from the urogenital sinus. Over time, as the bladder enlarges, it absorbs the surrounding parts of the primitive ureters. Finally, the entry points of the ureters into the bladder move upwards, owing to the upward migration of the kidneys in the developing embryo.


title: Ureter

text: The ureters are a component of the urinary system. Urine, produced by the kidneys, travels along the ureters to the bladder. It does this through regular contractions called peristalsis.


title: Ureter

text: A kidney stone can move from the kidney and become lodged inside the ureter, which can block the flow of urine, as well as cause a sharp cramp in the back, side, or lower abdomen. Pain often comes in waves lasting up to two hours, then subsides, called renal colic. The affected kidney could then develop hydronephrosis, should a part of the kidney become swollen due to blocked flow of urine. It is classically described that there are three sites in the ureter where a kidney stone will commonly become stuck:


title: Ureter

text: where the ureter meets the renal pelvis; where the iliac blood vessels cross the ureters; and where the ureters enter the urinary bladder, however a retrospective case study, which is a primary source, of where stones lodged based on medical imaging did not show many stones at the place where the iliac blood vessels cross.


title: Ureter

text: Most stones are compounds containing calcium such as calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate. The first recommended investigation is a CT scan of the abdomen because it can detect almost all stones. Management includes analgesia, often with nonsteroidal antiinflammatories. Small stones (< 4mm) may pass themselves; larger stones may require lithotripsy, and those with complications such as hydronephrosis or infection may require surgery to remove.


title: Ureter

text: Vesicoureteral reflux refers to the reflux of fluid from the bladder into the ureters. This condition can be associated with urinary tract infections, particularly in children, and is present in up to 28–36% of children to some degree. A number of forms of medical imaging are available for diagnosis of the condition, with modalities including doppler urinary tract ultrasound, MAG 3 nuclear medicine scaning, and a micturition urethrocystogram. Factors that affect which of these are selected depends if a child is able to receive a urinary catheter, and whether a child is toilet trained. Whether these investigations are performed at the first time a child has an illness, or later and depending on other factors (such as if the causal bacteria is "E. coli") differ between US, EU and UK guidelines.


title: Ureter

text: Management is also variable, with differences between international guidelines on issues such as whether prophylactic antibiotics should be used, and whether surgery is recommended. One reason is most instances of vesicoureteral reflux improve by themselves. If surgery is considered, it generally involves reattaching the ureters to a different spot on the bladder, and extending the part of the ureter that it is within the wall of the bladder, with the most common surgical option being Cohen's cross-trigonal reimplantation.


title: Ureter

text: Blockage, or obstruction of the ureter can occur, as a result of narrowing within the ureter, or compression or fibrosis of structures around the ureter. Narrowing can result of ureteric stones, masses associated with cancer, and other lesions such as endometriosis tuberculosis and schistosomiasis. Things outside the ureters such as constipation and retroperitoneal fibrosis can also compress them. Some congenital abnormalities can also result in narrowing or the ureters. Congenital disorders of the ureter and urinary tract affect 10% of infants. These include partial or total duplication of the ureter (a duplex ureter), or the formation of a second irregularly placed () ureter; or where the junction with the bladder is malformed or a ureterocoele develops (usually in that location). If the ureters have been resited as a result of surgery, for example due to a kidney transplant or due to past surgery for vesicoureteric reflux, that site may also become narrowed.