title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: In 1498, Gim Il-son, a disciple of Gim Jong-jik, included a paragraph in the royal records that was critical of King Sejo's coup d'état (1455). Gim Il-son and other followers of Gim Jong-jik were accused of treason by a rival faction, giving the king cause enough to order the execution of many Sarim officials and the mutilation of Gim Jong-jik's remains. This came to be known as the First Literati Purge ("Muo Sahwa"; 무오사화, 戊午士禍).


title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: In 1504, Im Sa-hong revealed to Yeonsangun the details of his mother's death and showed him a blood-stained piece of clothing, the blood allegedly vomited by her after taking poison. Subsequently, Yeonsangun beat to death two of his father's concubines, Lady Jeong and Lady Eom, for their part in his mother's death. His grandmother, Grand Royal Queen Dowager Insu, also passed away soon after he pushed her during an altercation. He sentenced to death many government officials who had supported the execution of his mother, now posthumously honored as "Queen Jeheon" (제헌왕후, 齊獻王后), and ordered the grave of Han Myeong-hoe to be opened and the head to be cut off the corpse. Yeonsangun went as far punishing officials who were simply present at the royal court at that time, for the crime of not preventing the actions of those who abused his mother. Meanwhile, Im Sa-hong and his allies were promoted and they received many important offices and other rewards. This came to be known as the Second Literati Purge ("Gapja Sahwa"; 갑자사화, 甲子士禍).


title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: Yeonsangun closed Sungkyunkwan, the royal university, as well as the Wongaksa Temple, and converted them into personal pleasure grounds, for which young girls were gathered from the eight provinces. He also demolished a large residential area in the capital and evicted 20,000 residents to build hunting grounds. People were forced into involuntary labor to work on these projects. Many commoners mocked and insulted him with posters written in hangul, and in retaliation, Yeonsangun banned the use of the script.


title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: When court officials protested against his actions, he abolished the Office of Censors (whose function was to criticize any inappropriate actions or policies of the king) and the Office of Special Advisors (a library and research institute that advised the king with Confucian teachings). He ordered his ministers to wear a sign that read: "A mouth is a door that brings in disaster; a tongue is a sword that cuts off a head. A body will be in peace as long as its mouth is closed and its tongue is deep within" (口是禍之門 舌是斬身刀 閉口深藏舌 安身處處牢).


title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: Chief Eunuch Gim Cheo-sun, who had served three kings, tried to convince him to change his ways, but Yeonsangun killed him by shooting arrows and personally cutting off his limbs. In addition, he also punished the eunuch's relatives down to the 7th degree, and when he asked the royal secretaries whether such punishment was appropriate, they did not dare to say otherwise.


title: Yeonsangun of Joseon

text: In 1506, the 12th year of Yeonsangun's reign, a group of officials — notably Park Won-jong, Seong Hui-an, Yu Sun-jeong, and Hong Gyeong-ju — plotted against the despotic ruler. They launched their coup in September 1506, deposing the king and replacing him with his younger half-brother, Grand Prince Jinseong. The king was demoted to "Prince Yeonsan" ("Yeonsangun"; 燕山君, 연산군) and sent into exile on Ganghwa Island, where he died after two months. His concubine, Jang Nok-su, who had encouraged and supported his misrule, was beheaded. In addition, despite the new king's reluctance, Yeonsangun's four young sons were also forced to commit suicide only a few weeks later.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: A voiceless postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The International Phonetic Association uses the term "voiceless postalveolar fricative" only for the sound , but it also describes the voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative , for which there are significant perceptual differences.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: A voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or voiceless domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in many languages, including English. In English, it is usually spelled , as in "ship".


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the letter esh introduced by Isaac Pitman (not to be confused with the integral symbol ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: An alternative symbol is , an "s" with a caron or "háček", which is used in the Americanist phonetic notation and the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet, as well as in the scientific and ISO 9 transliterations of Cyrillic. It originated with the Czech orthography of Jan Hus and was adopted in Gaj's Latin alphabet and other Latin alphabets of Slavic languages. It also features in the orthographies of many Baltic, Finno-Samic, North American and African languages.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: In various languages, including English and French, it may have simultaneous labialization, i.e. , although this is usually not transcribed.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: Classical Latin did not have , though it does occur in most Romance languages. For example, in French "singer" is pronounced . is descended from Latin , where was pronounced . The in Latin "science" was pronounced , but has shifted to in Italian .


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: Similarly, Proto-Germanic had neither nor , yet many of its descendants do. In most cases, this or descends from a Proto-Germanic . For instance, Proto-Germanic *skipą ("hollow object, water-borne vessel larger than a boat") was pronounced . The English word "ship" has been pronounced without the the longest, the word being descended from Old English "" , which already also had the , though the Old English spelling etymologically indicated that the old had once been present.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: This change took longer to catch on in West Germanic languages other than Old English, though it eventually did. The second West Germanic language to undergo this sound shift was Old High German. In fact, it has been argued that Old High German's was actually already , because a single had already shifted to . Furthermore, by Middle High German, that had shifted to . After High German, the shift most likely then occurred in Low Saxon. After Low Saxon, Middle Dutch began the shift, but it stopped shifting once it reached , and has kept that pronunciation since. Then, most likely through influence from German and Low Saxon, North Frisian experienced the shift.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: Then, Swedish quite swiftly underwent the shift, which resulted in the very uncommon phoneme, which, aside from Swedish, is only used in Colognian, a variety of High German, though not as a replacement for the standard High German but a coronalized . However, the exact realization of Swedish varies considerably among dialects; for instance, in Northern dialects it tends to be realized as . See sj-sound for more details. Finally, the last to undergo the shift was Norwegian, in which the result of the shift was .


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: The sound in Russian denoted by is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually an apical retroflex fricative.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: The voiceless postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed (retracted constricted voiceless ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_2.


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: Some scholars also posit the voiceless postalveolar approximant distinct from the fricative. The approximant may be represented in the IPA as .


title: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

text: However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.


title: Religious habit

text: A religious habit is a distinctive set of religious clothing worn by members of a religious order. Traditionally some plain garb recognizable as a religious habit has also been worn by those leading the religious eremitic and anchoritic life, although in their case without conformity to a particular uniform style.


title: Religious habit

text: Uniformity and distinctiveness by order often evolved and changed over time. Interpretation of terms for clothes in religious rules could change over centuries. Furthermore, every time new communities gained importance in a cultural area the need for visual separation increased for new as well as old communities. Thus, modern habits are rooted in historic forms, but do not necessarily resemble them in cut, colour, material, detail or use.


title: Religious habit

text: In Christian monastic orders of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Churches, the habit often consists of a tunic covered by a scapular and cowl, with a hood for monks or friars and a veil for nuns; in apostolic orders it may be a distinctive form of cassock for men, or a distinctive habit and veil for women. Catholic Canon Law requires only that the garb of their members be in some way identifiable so that the person may serve as a witness of the Evangelical counsels.


title: Religious habit

text: In many orders, the conclusion of postulancy and the beginning of the novitiate is marked by a ceremony, in which the new novice is accepted as a novice and then clothed in the community's habit by the superior. In some cases the novice's habit will be somewhat different from the customary habit: for instance, in certain orders of women that use the veil, it is common for novices to wear a white veil while professed members wear black, or if the order generally wears white, the novice wears a grey veil. Among some Franciscan communities of men, novices wear a sort of overshirt over their tunic; Carthusian novices wear a black cloak over their white habit.


title: Religious habit

text: Kāṣāya (Sanskrit: काषाय kāṣāya; Pali: kasāva; ), "chougu" (Tibetan) are the robes of Buddhist monks and nuns, named after a brown or saffron dye. In Sanskrit and Pali, these robes are also given the more general term "cīvara", which references the robes without regard to color.


title: Religious habit

text: Buddhist kāṣāya are said to have originated in India as set of robes for the devotees of Gautama Buddha. A notable variant has a pattern reminiscent of an Asian rice field. Original kāṣāya were constructed of discarded fabric. These were stitched together to form three rectangular pieces of cloth, which were then fitted over the body in a specific manner. The three main pieces of cloth are the "antarvāsa", the "uttarāsaṅga", and the "". Together they form the "triple robe," or "tricīvara". The tricīvara is described more fully in the Theravāda Vinaya (Vin 1:94 289).


title: Religious habit

text: A robe covering the upper body. It is worn over the undergarment, or antarvāsa. In representations of the Buddha, the uttarāsaṅga rarely appears as the uppermost garment, since it is often covered by the outer robe, or saṃghāti.


title: Religious habit

text: The saṃghāti is an outer robe used for various occasions. It comes over the upper robe (""), and the undergarment ("antarvāsa"). In representations of the Buddha, the saṃghāti is usually the most visible garment, with the undergarment or uttarāsaṅga protruding at the bottom. It is quite similar in shape to the Greek himation, and its shape and folds have been treated in Greek style in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra.


title: Religious habit

text: In India, variations of the kāṣāya robe distinguished different types of monastics. These represented the different schools that they belonged to, and their robes ranged widely from red and ochre, to blue and black.


title: Religious habit

text: Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which describes the color of monastic robes utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called "Dà Bǐqiū Sānqiān Wēiyí" (Ch. 大比丘三千威儀). Another text translated at a later date, the "Śariputraparipṛcchā", contains a very similar passage corroborating this information, but the colors for the Sarvāstivāda and Dharmaguptaka sects are reversed.


title: Religious habit

text: In traditions of Tibetan Buddhism, which follow the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, red robes are regarded as characteristic of the Mūlasarvāstivādins.


title: Religious habit

text: According to Dudjom Rinpoche from the tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, the robes of fully ordained Mahāsāṃghika monastics were to be sewn out of more than seven sections, but no more than twenty-three sections. The symbols sewn on the robes were the endless knot (Skt. "śrīvatsa") and the conch shell (Skt. "śaṅkha"), two of the Eight Auspicious Signs in Buddhism.


title: Religious habit

text: In Chinese Buddhism, the kāṣāya is called "gāsā" (Ch. 袈裟). During the early period of Chinese Buddhism, the most common color was red. Later, the color of the robes came to serve as a way to distinguish monastics, just as they did in India. However, the colors of a Chinese Buddhist monastic's robes often corresponded to their geographical region rather than to any specific schools. By the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, only the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage was still in use, and therefore the color of robes served no useful purpose as a designation for sects, the way that it had in India.


title: Religious habit

text: In Japanese Buddhism, the is known as the . In Japan, during the Edo and Meiji periods, were sometimes pieced together from the theatrical kimono used in Noh theatre.


title: Religious habit

text: Pope John Paul II in his post-apostolic Exhortation "Vita consecrata" (1996) says concerning the religious habit of consecrated persons:


title: Religious habit

text: §25 … The Church must always seek to make her presence visible in everyday life, especially in contemporary culture, which is often very secularized and yet sensitive to the language of signs. In this regard the Church has a right to expect a significant contribution from consecrated persons, called as they are in every situation to bear clear witness that they belong to Christ.<br>


title: Religious habit

text: Since the habit is a sign of consecration, poverty and membership in a particular Religious family, I join the Fathers of the Synod in strongly recommending to men and women religious that they wear their proper habit, suitably adapted to the conditions of time and place.<br>


title: Religious habit

text: Where valid reasons of their apostolate call for it, Religious, in conformity with the norms of their Institute, may also dress in a simple and modest manner, with an appropriate symbol, in such a way that their consecration is recognizable.<br>


title: Religious habit

text: Institutes which from their origin or by provision of their Constitutions do not have a specific habit should ensure that the dress of their members corresponds in dignity and simplicity to the nature of their vocation.


title: Religious habit

text: The religious habit of Roman Catholic sisters sometimes consists of a plain dress and a veil. Different orders adhere to different styles of dress; these styles have changed over time. For example, in former times, the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul wore a cornette instead of a veil. Some congregations decided in the course of changes due the ecclesiastical document "Perfectae caritatis" to simplify their habits, to conform to the attire of the culture they are working in, or to even drop their use at all.


title: Religious habit

text: The Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart wear a habit including cincture, rosary, scapular, and veil. The Dominican Sisters of Mary Immaculate Province wear a habit consisting of tunic, belt, rosary, scapular, veil, and cappa or mantle.


title: Religious habit

text: Monks in the Roman Catholic church wear a tunic, a cincture, a hooded scapular, and, for the Liturgy of the Hours, a mantle (novices) or a cowl (professed monks).


title: Religious habit

text: Owing to the different traditions and origins that exist, there is no singular common habit worn by the Canons Regular. Historically the common habit was the distinctive white cassock, with white fascia, over time some communities of Canons have changed to wearing the black cassock with black fascia. The only item of the habit that is common to all Canons is the linen rochet a mark of the canonical status. Some communities of canons, notably in Austria and Switzerland wear a sarotium, coming from the Latin "sacrum rochettum", "the sacred rochet". It is a thin band of linen worn over the cassock when not in choir. As part of their choir dress, some communities of Canons wear a "mozzetta", either black or purple over the rochet. Outdoors Canons wear a black cloak and hood, but again adaptations have been made to this in some of the communities. Canons also traditionally wore a biretta.


title: Religious habit

text: Usually, secular priests wear either a black cassock or an ordinary men's garb in black or another dark color along with a white clerical collar. White cassocks or clothes may be worn in hot climates. Also, a ferraiolo (a kind of cope) could be worn along with the cassock. Priests also traditionally wore a biretta along with the cassock.


title: Religious habit

text: Latin Rite clergy other than bishops, in particular any who are abbots or apostolic prefects or ordinary of a personal ordinariate, may wear pontifical items. Mitre, crosier and ring are bestowed on an abbot at his blessing and the pectoral cross is a customary part of an abbatial habit.


title: Religious habit

text: In Lutheranism, various religious orders have a habit of a different colour. The Daughters of Mary wear a blue habit.


title: Religious habit

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church does not have distinct religious orders such as those in the Catholic Church. The habit (Greek: Σχήμα, "Schēma") is essentially the same throughout the world. The normal monastic color is black, symbolic of repentance and simplicity. The habits of monks and nuns are identical; additionally, nuns wear a scarf, called an apostolnik. The habit is bestowed in degrees, as the monk or nun advances in the spiritual life. There are three degrees: (1) the beginner, known as the Rassaphore ("robe bearer") (2) the intermediate, known as the Stavrophore ("cross bearer"), and (3) the Great Schema worn by Great Schema Monks or Nuns. Only the last, the Schemamonk or Schemanun, the monastic of the highest degree, wears the full habit.


title: Religious habit

text: The habit is formally bestowed upon monks and nuns at the ceremony known as the tonsure (Gr. κουρά). The parts of the Eastern Orthodox habit are:


title: Religious habit

text: Female ascetics and Svetambara male monks always wear un-stitched or minimally stitched white clothes. Digambara Jain monks do not wear clothes. A loin cloth which reaches up to the shins is called a Cholapattak. Another cloth to cover the upper part of the body is called Pangarani (Uttariya Vastra). A cloth that passes over the left shoulder and covers the body up to a little above the ankle is called a Kïmli. Kïmli is a woolen shawl. They also carry a woolen bed sheet and a woolen mat to sit on. Those who wear clothes have a muhapati, which is a square or rectangular piece of cloth of a prescribed measurement, either in their hand or tied on their face covering the mouth. Svetambara ascetics have an Ogho or Rajoharan (a broom of woolen threads) to clean insects around their sitting place or while they are walking. Digambara ascetics have a Morpichhi and a Kamandal in their hands. This practice may vary among different sects of Jains but essential principle remains the same to limit needs.


title: Religious habit

text: In Japan, various types of very traditional dress are worn by Shinto priests, often dating to styles worn by nobles during the Nara period or Heian period.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In computer programming, a naming convention is a set of rules for choosing the character sequence to be used for identifiers which denote variables, types, functions, and other entities in source code and documentation.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Reasons for using a naming convention (as opposed to allowing programmers to choose any character sequence) include the following:


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The choice of naming conventions can be an enormously controversial issue, with partisans of each holding theirs to be the best and others to be inferior. Colloquially, this is said to be a matter of dogma. Many companies have also established their own set of conventions.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Some of the potential benefits that can be obtained by adopting a naming convention include the following:


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The choice of naming conventions (and the extent to which they are enforced) is often a contentious issue, with partisans holding their viewpoint to be the best and others to be inferior. Moreover, even with known and well-defined naming conventions in place, some organizations may fail to consistently adhere to them, causing inconsistency and confusion. These challenges may be exacerbated if the naming convention rules are internally inconsistent, arbitrary, difficult to remember, or otherwise perceived as more burdensome than beneficial.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Well-chosen identifiers make it significantly easier for developers and analysts to understand what the system is doing and how to fix or extend the source code to apply for new needs.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: which implies the intent and meaning of the source code, at least to those familiar with the context of the statement.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Experiments suggest that identifier style affects recall and precision and that familiarity with a style speeds recall.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The exact rules of a naming convention depend on the context in which they are employed. Nevertheless, there are several common elements that influence most if not all naming conventions in common use today.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Fundamental elements of all naming conventions are the rules related to identifier length (i.e., the finite number of individual characters allowed in an identifier). Some rules dictate a fixed numerical bound, while others specify less precise heuristics or guidelines.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Identifier length rules are routinely contested in practice, and subject to much debate academically.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: It is an open research issue whether some programmers prefer shorter identifiers because they are easier to type, or think up, than longer identifiers, or because in many situations a longer identifier simply clutters the visible code and provides no perceived additional benefit.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: A common recommendation is "Use meaningful identifiers." A single word may not be as meaningful, or specific, as multiple words. Consequently, some naming conventions specify rules for the treatment of "compound" identifiers containing more than one word.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: As most programming languages do not allow whitespace in identifiers, a method of delimiting each word is needed (to make it easier for subsequent readers to interpret which characters belong to which word). Historically some early languages, notably FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), allowed spaces within identifiers, determining the end of identifiers by context. This was abandoned in later languages due to the difficulty of tokenization. It is possible to write names by simply concatenating words, and this is sometimes used, as in codice_1 for Java package names, though legibility suffers for longer terms, so usually some form of separation is used.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: One approach is to delimit separate words with a nonalphanumeric character. The two characters commonly used for this purpose are the hyphen ("-") and the underscore ("_"); e.g., the two-word name "codice_2" would be represented as "codice_3" or "codice_4". The hyphen is used by nearly all programmers writing COBOL (1959), Forth (1970), and Lisp (1958); it is also common in Unix for commands and packages, and is used in CSS. This convention has no standard name, though it may be referred to as "lisp-case" or "COBOL-CASE" (compare "Pascal case"), "kebab-case", "brochette-case", or other variants. Of these, "kebab-case", dating at least to 2012, has achieved some currency since.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: By contrast, languages in the FORTRAN/ALGOL tradition, notably languages in the C and Pascal families, used the hyphen for the subtraction infix operator, and did not wish to require spaces around it (as free-form languages), preventing its use in identifiers. An alternative is to use underscores; this is common in the C family (including Python), with lowercase words, being found for example in "The C Programming Language" (1978), and has come to be known as snake case. Underscores with uppercase, as in UPPER_CASE, are commonly used for C preprocessor macros, hence known as MACRO_CASE, and for environment variables in Unix, such as BASH_VERSION in bash. Sometimes this is humorously referred to as SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Another approach is to indicate word boundaries using medial capitalization, called "camelCase", "PascalCase", and many other names, thus respectively rendering "codice_2" as "codice_6" or "codice_7". This convention is commonly used in Pascal, Java, C#, and Visual Basic. Treatment of initialisms in identifiers (e.g. the "XML" and "HTTP" in codice_8) varies. Some dictate that they be lowercased (e.g. codice_9) to ease typing, readability and ease of segmentation, whereas others leave them uppercased (e.g. codice_10) for accuracy.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: overarching set of principles defined by the software architecture, underlying programming language or other kind of cross-project methodology.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Perhaps the most well-known is Hungarian notation, which encodes either the purpose ("Apps Hungarian") or the type ("Systems Hungarian") of a variable in its name. For example, the prefix "sz" for the variable szName indicates that the variable is a null-terminated string.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: A style used for very short (eight characters and less) could be: LCCIIL01, where LC would be the application (Letters of Credit), C for COBOL, IIL for the particular process subset, and the 01 a sequence number.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: This sort of convention is still in active use in mainframes dependent upon JCL and is also seen in the 8.3 (maximum eight characters with period separator followed by three character file type) MS-DOS style.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: It detailed the PRIME-MODIFIER-CLASS word scheme, which consisted of names like "CUST-ACT-NO" to indicate "customer account number".


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: CLASS words ideally would be a very short list of data types relevant to a particular application. Common CLASS words might be: NO (number), ID (identifier), TXT (text), AMT (amount), QTY (quantity), FL (flag), CD (code), W (work) and so forth. In practice, the available CLASS words would be a list of less than two dozen terms.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: CLASS words, typically positioned on the right (suffix), served much the same purpose as Hungarian notation prefixes.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The purpose of CLASS words, in addition to consistency, was to specify to the programmer the data type of a particular data field. Prior to the acceptance of BOOLEAN (two values only) fields, FL (flag) would indicate a field with only two possible values.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Adobe's Coding Conventions and Best Practices suggests naming standards for ActionScript that are mostly consistent with those of ECMAScript. The style of identifiers is similar to that of Java.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In APL dialects, the delta (Δ) is used between words, e.g. PERFΔSQUARE (no lowercase traditionally existed in older APL versions). If the name used underscored letters, then the delta underbar (⍙) would be used instead.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In C and C++, keywords and standard library identifiers are mostly lowercase. In the C standard library, abbreviated names are the most common (e.g. codice_12 for a function testing whether a character is alphanumeric), while the C++ standard library often uses an underscore as a word separator (e.g. codice_13). Identifiers representing macros are, by convention, written using only uppercase letters and underscores (this is related to the convention in many programming languages of using all-upper-case identifiers for constants). Names containing double underscore or beginning with an underscore and a capital letter are reserved for implementation (compiler, standard library) and should not be used (e.g. codice_14 or codice_15). This is superficially similar to stropping, but the semantics differ: the underscores are part of the value of the identifier, rather than being quoting characters (as is stropping): the value of codice_16 is codice_16 (which is reserved), not codice_18 (but in a different namespace).


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: C# naming conventions generally follow the guidelines published by Microsoft for all .NET languages (see the .NET section, below), but no conventions are enforced by the C# compiler.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The Microsoft guidelines recommend the exclusive use of only codice_19 and codice_20, with the latter used only for method parameter names and method-local variable names (including method-local codice_21 values). A special exception to PascalCase is made for two-letter acronyms that begin an identifier; in these cases, both letters are capitalized (for example, codice_22); this is not the case for longer acronyms (for example, codice_23). The guidelines further recommend that the name given to an codice_24 be codice_19 preceded by the capital letter codice_26, as in codice_27.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The Microsoft guidelines for naming fields are specific to codice_28, codice_29, and codice_30 fields; fields that are not codice_28 and that have other accessibility levels (such as codice_32 and codice_33) are explicitly not covered by the guidelines. The most common practice is to use codice_19 for the names of all fields, except for those which are codice_33 (and neither codice_21 nor codice_28), which are given names that use codice_20 preceded by a single underscore; for example, codice_39.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Any identifier name may be prefixed by the commercial-at symbol (codice_40), without any change in meaning. That is, both codice_41 and codice_42 refer to the same object. By convention, this prefix is only used in cases when the identifier would otherwise be either a reserved keyword (such as codice_43 and codice_44), which may not be used as an identifier without the prefix, or a contextual keyword (such as codice_45 and codice_46), in which cases the prefix is not strictly required (at least not at its declaration; for example, although the declaration codice_47 is valid, this would typically be seen as codice_48 to indicate to the reader immediately that the latter is a variable name).


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In Go, the convention is to use codice_49 or codice_50 rather than underscores to write multiword names. When referring to structs or functions, the first letter specifies the visibility for external packages. Making the first letter uppercase exports that piece of code, while lowercase makes it only usable within the current scope.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In Java, naming conventions for identifiers have been established and suggested by various Java communities such as Sun Microsystems, Netscape, AmbySoft, etc. A sample of naming conventions set by Sun Microsystems are listed below,


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: where a name in "CamelCase" is one composed of a number of words joined without spaces, with each word's -- excluding the first word's -- initial letter in capitals – for example "camelCase".


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Java compilers do not enforce these rules, but failing to follow them may result in confusion and erroneous code. For example, codice_51 and codice_52 imply significantly different behaviours: codice_51 implies an invocation to method codice_54 in an instance named codice_55, whereas codice_52 implies an invocation to static method codice_54 in class codice_58.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: One widely used Java coding style dictates that codice_59 be used for classes and codice_60 be used for instances and methods.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Recognising this usage, some IDEs, such as Eclipse, implement shortcuts based on CamelCase. For instance, in Eclipse's content assist feature, typing just the upper-case letters of a CamelCase word will suggest any matching class or method name (for example, typing "NPE" and activating content assist could suggest codice_61).


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Initialisms of three or more letters are CamelCase instead of uppercase (e.g., codice_62 instead of codice_63). One may also set the boundary at two or more letters (e.g. codice_64).


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: The built-in JavaScript libraries use the same naming conventions as Java. Data types and constructor functions use upper camel case (codice_65, codice_66, codice_8, codice_68) and methods use lower camel case (codice_69, codice_70, codice_71). In order to be consistent most JavaScript developers follow these conventions.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Common practice in most Lisp dialects is to use dashes to separate words in identifiers, as in codice_72 and codice_73. Dynamic variable names conventionally start and end with asterisks: codice_74. Constants names are marked by plus signs: codice_75.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Microsoft .NET recommends codice_59, also known as "PascalCase", for most identifiers. (codice_60 is recommended for parameters and variables) and is a shared convention for the .NET languages. Microsoft further recommends that no type prefix hints (also known as Hungarian notation) are used. Instead of using Hungarian notation it is recommended to end the name with the base class' name; codice_78 instead of codice_79.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Top-level entities, including classes, protocols, categories, as well as C constructs that are used in Objective-C programs like global variables and functions, are in UpperCamelCase with a short all-uppercase prefix denoting namespace, like codice_80, codice_81, codice_82 or codice_83. Constants may optionally be prefixed with a lowercase letter "k" like codice_84.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Instance variables of an object use lowerCamelCase prefixed with an underscore, like codice_85 and codice_86.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Method names use multiple lowerCamelCase parts separated by colons that delimit arguments, like: codice_87, codice_88 and codice_89.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Wirthian languages Pascal, Modula-2 and Oberon generally use codice_90 or codice_59 identifiers for programs, modules, constants, types and procedures, and codice_92 or codice_60 identifiers for math constants, variables, formal parameters and functions. While some dialects support underscore and dollar signs in identifiers, snake case and macro case is more likely confined to use within foreign API interfaces.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Perl takes some cues from its C heritage for conventions. Locally scoped variables and subroutine names are lowercase with infix underscores. Subroutines and variables meant to be treated as private are prefixed with an underscore. Package variables are title cased. Declared constants are all caps. Package names are camel case excepting pragmata—e.g., codice_94 and codice_95—which are lowercase.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: PHP recommendations are contained in PSR-1 (PHP Standard Recommendation 1) and PSR-12. According to PSR-1, class names should be in PascalCase, class constants should be in MACRO_CASE, and function and method names should be in camelCase.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Python and Ruby both recommend codice_59 for class names, codice_97 for constants, and codice_98 for other names.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: In Python, if a name is intended to be "private", it is prefixed by one or two underscores (in Python it's more or less a hack). Private variables are enforced in Python only by convention. Names can also be suffixed with an underscore to prevent conflict with Python keywords. Prefixing with double underscores changes behaviour in classes with regard to name mangling. Prefixing "and" suffixing with double underscores - the so-called "dunder" ("double under") methods in Python - are reserved for "magic names" which fulfill special behaviour in Python objects.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: While there is no official style guide for R, the tidyverse style guide from R-guru Hadley Wickham sets the standard for most users. This guide recommends avoiding special characters in file names and using only numbers, letters and underscores for variable and function names e.g. fit_models.R.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Raku follows more or less the same conventions as Perl, except that it allows an infix hyphen codice_99 or an apostrophe codice_100 (or single quote) within an identifier (but not two in a row), provided that it is followed by an alphabetic character. Raku programmers thus often use "kebab case" in their identifiers; for example,


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Rust recommends codice_59 for type aliases and struct, trait, enum, and enum variant names, codice_104 for constants or statics and codice_98 for variable, function and struct member names.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: Swift has shifted its naming conventions with each individual release. However a major update with Swift 3.0 stabilised the naming conventions for codice_60 across variables and function declarations. Constants are usually defined by enum types or constant parameters that are also written this way. Class and other object type declarations are codice_59.


title: Naming convention (programming)

text: As of Swift 3.0 there have been made clear naming guidelines for the language in an effort to standardise the API naming and declaration conventions across all third party APIs.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow (codenamed Android M during development) is the sixth major version of the Android operating system developed by Google, being the successor to Android Lollipop. It was announced at Google I/O on May 28, 2015, and released the same day as a beta, before being officially released on September 29, 2015. It was succeeded by Android Nougat on August 22, 2016.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow primarily focuses on improving the overall user experience of its predecessor. It introduced a new opt-in permissions architecture, new APIs for contextual assistants (first used by a new feature "Now on Tap" to provide context-sensitive search results), a new power management system that reduces background activity when a device is not being physically handled, native support for fingerprint recognition and USB-C connectors, the ability to migrate data and applications to a microSD card, and other internal changes.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow was met by low adoption numbers, with 13.3% of Android devices running Marshmallow by July 2016. Usage of Marshmallow steadily increased since then, and by August 2017, 35.21% of Android devices ran Marshmallow, before receding. , 1.98% of Android devices run Marshmallow. Security updates for Marshmallow ended in October 2017.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow internally codenamed "Macadamia Nut Cookie". The first developer preview build for Marshmallow, codenamed Android "M", was unveiled and released at Google I/O on May 28, 2015, for the Nexus 5 and Nexus 6 smartphones, the Nexus 9 tablet, and the Nexus Player set-top box. The second developer preview was released on July 9, 2015, and the third and final preview was released on August 17, 2015, along with announcing that Android M would be titled Android "Marshmallow".


title: Android Marshmallow

text: On September 29, 2015, Google unveiled launch devices for Marshmallow: the LG-produced Nexus 5X, the Huawei-produced Nexus 6P, alongside Google's own Pixel C tablet.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android 6.0 updates and factory images for Nexus 5, 6, 7 (2013), 9, and Player were released on October 5, 2015. Older Nexus devices, including the Nexus 4, Nexus 7 (2012) and Nexus 10, did not receive an official update. On October 14, 2015, LG announced that it planned to release Marshmallow for its flagship LG G4 smartphone in Poland the following week, marking the first third-party device to receive an update to Marshmallow.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android 6.0.1, a software patch featuring security fixes, support for Unicode 8.0 emoji (although without supporting skin tone extensions for human emoji), and the return of the "until next alarm" feature in Do Not Disturb mode, was released on December 7, 2015.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: A new "Assist" API allows information from a currently opened app, including text and a screenshot of the current screen, to be sent to a designated "assistant" application for analysis and processing. This system is used by the Google Search app feature "Google Now on Tap", which allows users to perform searches within the context of information currently being displayed on-screen. While the "Home" button was used in Android 5 to show available apps, the "Home" button is used now (together with a voice command) to generate on-screen cards which display information, suggestions, and actions related to the content. "Direct Share" allows Share menus to display recently used combinations of contacts and an associated app as direct targets.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: The new "Adoptable storage" feature allows a newly-inserted SD card to be optionally designated as "internal" rather than "portable" storage.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: "Portable" storage is the default behavior used in previous Android versions, treating the media as a secondary storage device for storage of user files, and the storage media can be removed or replaced without repercussions, but user-installed apps are restricted to writing to their respective package name directories located inside codice_1. This restriction was introduced in Android 4.4 KitKat. The Storage Access Framework, through which shared writing access to memory cards has been reinstated in Android 5.0 Lollipop, is backwards-incompatible and slower due to latencies.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: When designated as "Internal" storage, the storage media is reformatted with an encrypted ext4 file system, and is "adopted" by the operating system as an extension of the primary storage partition. Existing data (including applications and "private" data folders) are migrated to the external storage, and normal operation of the device becomes dependent on the presence of the media. Apps and operating system functions will not function properly if the adopted storage device is removed, and the card can not be reused in other devices until reformatted. If the user loses access to the storage media, the adopted storage can be "forgotten", which makes the data permanently inaccessible. Samsung and LG have, however, removed the ability to use an SD card as "internal" storage on their Galaxy S7 and G5 devices, with Samsung arguing that the feature could result in unexpected losses of data, and prevents users from being able to transfer data using the card.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow introduces a redesigned application permissions model; apps are no longer automatically granted all of their specified permissions at installation time. An opt-in system is now used, in which users are prompted to grant or deny individual permissions (such as the ability to access the camera or microphone) to an application when they are needed for the first time. Applications remember the grants, which can be revoked by the user at any time. The new permissions model is used only by applications developed for Marshmallow using its software development kit (SDK), and older apps will continue to use the previous all-or-nothing approach. Permissions can still be revoked for those apps, though this might prevent them from working properly, and a warning is displayed to that effect.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Marshmallow introduces new power management schemes known as "Doze" and "App Standby"; when running on battery power, a device will enter a low-power state if it is inactive and not being physically handled. In this state, network connectivity and background processing are restricted, and only "high-priority" notifications are processed. Additionally, network access by apps is deferred if the user has not recently interacted with the app. Apps may request a permission to exempt themselves from these policies, but will be rejected from Google Play Store as a violation of its "Dangerous Products" policy if their core functionality is not "adversely affected" by them.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: Android Marshmallow provides native support for fingerprint recognition on supported devices via a standard API, allowing third-party applications to implement fingerprint-based authentication. Fingerprints can be used for unlocking devices and authenticating Play Store and Google Pay purchases. Android Marshmallow supports USB-C, including the ability to instruct devices to charge another device over USB. Marshmallow also introduces "verified links" that can be configured to open directly in their specified application without further user prompts. User data for apps targeting Marshmallow can be automatically backed up to Google Drive over Wi-Fi. Each application receives up to 25 MB of storage, which is separate from a user's Google Drive storage allotment.


title: Android Marshmallow

text: As of Marshmallow, the Android Compatibility Definition Document contains new security mandates for devices, dictating that those that are capable of accessing encrypted data without affecting performance must enable secure boot and device encryption by default. These conditions comprise part of a specification that must be met in order to be certified for the operating system, and be able to license Google Mobile Services software. The requirement for mandatory device encryption was originally intended to take effect on Lollipop, but was delayed due to performance issues.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: Orville Clarence Redenbacher (July 16, 1907 – September 19, 1995) was an American food scientist and businessman most often associated with the brand of popcorn that bears his name which is now owned by ConAgra. "The New York Times" described him as "the agricultural visionary who all but single-handedly revolutionized the American popcorn industry".


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: Orville Clarence Redenbacher was born in Brazil, Indiana, on July 16, 1907, the son of Julia Magdalena Dierdorff (1874–1944) and farmer William Joseph Redenbacher (1872–1939). He grew up on his family's farm, where he sometimes sold popcorn from the back of his car. He graduated from Brazil High School in 1924 in the top 5% of his class. He attended Purdue University, where he joined the agriculture-oriented Alpha Gamma Rho fraternity, marched tuba in the Purdue All-American Marching Band, joined the Purdue University track team, and worked at the "Purdue Exponent". He graduated in 1928 with a degree in agronomy. He spent most of his life in the agriculture industry, serving as a Vigo County Farm Bureau extension agent in Terre Haute, Indiana, and at Princeton Farms in Princeton, Indiana.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: "The New York Times" described Redenbacher: "But for all his bumpkin appearance, the man with the signature white wavy hair and oversized bow tie was a shrewd agricultural scientist who experimented with hybrids." He began his career selling fertilizer, but spent his spare time working with popcorn.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: In 1951, Redenbacher and partner Charlie Bowman bought the George F. Chester and Son seed corn plant in Boone Grove, Indiana. Naming the company "Chester Hybrids", they tried tens of thousands of hybrid strains of popcorn before settling on a hybrid they named "RedBow".


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: An advertising agency advised them to use Orville Redenbacher's own name as the brand name. They launched their popping corn in 1970.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: In 1976, Redenbacher sold the company to Hunt-Wesson Foods, a division of Norton Simon, Inc. In 1983, Esmark purchased Norton Simon, which in turn was acquired by Beatrice Foods in 1984. In 1985, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts acquired Beatrice with the goal of selling off businesses. In 1990, they sold the popcorn business and other old Hunt-Wesson businesses to agribusiness giant ConAgra.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: By the mid-1970s, Redenbacher and Bowman had captured a third of the unpopped-popcorn market. Redenbacher then moved to Coronado, California, where he lived for the remainder of his life.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: He appeared as the company's official spokesman, wearing a trademark outfit in public that included horn-rimmed glasses and a bow tie. Sometimes Redenbacher appeared in commercials with his grandson, Gary Redenbacher. Some customers wrote letters asking if Redenbacher was a real person, and not an actor (see, e.g., Bartles & Jaymes). He responded to this by appearing on various talk shows, professing his identity. Redenbacher, in his book, states, "I want to make it clear that I am real."


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: Redenbacher married Corinne Rosemund Strate in 1928, and they remained married until her death at the age of 62 in 1971. Later that year, he married Nina Reder, and they remained married until her death at the age of 91 in May 1991. The "New York Times" noted upon his death that he had two daughters named Billie Ann Atwood and Gail Tuminello, through whom he had 12 grandchildren and 10 great-grandchildren.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: On September 19, 1995, Redenbacher died in the Jacuzzi of his condominium in Coronado, California. He suffered a heart attack and drowned. He was cremated and his ashes scattered at sea.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: On the September 23, 1995, edition of "Siskel & Ebert", Roger Ebert eulogized Redenbacher by calling him "a man who took popcorn seriously, as seriously as we take the movies." His co-host, Gene Siskel, added that "he actually was more than just a cute, cuddly advertising figure. He actually was a scientist who came up with a new strain of popcorn that really kept that whole industry alive [...] that's a real contribution."


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: Aside from his popcorn contribution, the entertainment provided by the TV commercials in which he starred was noteworthy.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: Since 2006, several of Orville's commercials from the 1970s and 1980s have aired on many channels across the United States. The advertisements for the brand's "natural" popcorn snacks were introduced in 2008, 13 years after Redenbacher's death, and feature a clip of him at the end.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: In January 2007, a television commercial featuring a digital recreation of Redenbacher appeared. Redenbacher's grandson, Gary Redenbacher, responded to questions about how he felt about the advertisement by saying: "Grandpa would go for it. He was a cutting-edge guy. This was a way to honor his legacy." Redenbacher's business partner, Charles F. Bowman, died in 2009.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: On September 4, 2012, Valparaiso, Indiana, unveiled a statue of Redenbacher at the city's annual popcorn festival.


title: Orville Redenbacher

text: In 2022, Redenbacher was mentioned by American musical comedian Bo Burnham in the song "Microwave Popcorn" from the deluxe edition of his soundtrack album "Inside (The Songs)".


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: Emerald City is an American fantasy drama television series developed for NBC by Matthew Arnold and Josh Friedman based on the early 20th century "Oz" book series written by L. Frank Baum, set in the fictional Land of Oz. Directed by Tarsem Singh and starring Adria Arjona, Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Ana Ularu and Vincent D'Onofrio, "Emerald City" received a 10-episode order by NBC in April 2015, which premiered on January 6, 2017, with a two-episode debut, and concluded on March 3, 2017. The series received mostly negative critical reviews, and was the lowest rated series on NBC. On May 5, 2017, NBC canceled the series after one season.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: After being transported from Lucas, Kansas, to the Land of Oz by a tornado, 20-year-old Dorothy Gale sets out to find the Wizard, unaware that she is about to fulfill a prophecy that will change everyone's lives forever.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: The series was created by Matthew Arnold who pitched an alternative telling, a dark, edgy version of "The Wizard of Oz" to Universal Television. Arnold wrote the pilot script, which then received a 10 episode direct-to-series order on NBC. Josh Friedman was brought on as showrunner.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: The series was originally slated to air in 2015, with filming scheduled to begin in 2014. However, it was cancelled before entering production due to creative differences between Friedman and the studio.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: On April 15, 2015, NBC reversed course and decided to go ahead with the series. On July 14, 2015, it was announced that Tarsem Singh would direct all ten episodes, with David Schulner as new showrunner, replacing Josh Friedman, and Shaun Cassidy coming on board as executive producer.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: A special episode, titled "Oz Reimagined: The Making of "Emerald City"", originally aired on December 16, 2016, and detailed the behind the scenes of the series including locations, effects, costumes and interviews.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: The series premiered on January 6, 2017 in the U.S. on NBC. The series launched on 5Star in the UK on February 8, 2017 to 670,000 viewers, the TV station's largest audience to date.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: The series premiered to low ratings among the demographic of adults aged 18-49, which continued to decline throughout its first season. The series finale drew in 2.9 million viewers. It ended as one of the lowest rated NBC series of 2017.


title: Emerald City (TV series)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 38% approval rating based on 42 reviews, with an average score of 5.2/10. The website's consensus reads, "Dark and brooding, but also confusing and contrived, "Emerald City" is the "Game of Thrones/Wizard of Oz" mashup nobody asked for." Metacritic reported a score of 47 out of 100 based on 31 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Osaka Castle

text: The main tower of Osaka Castle is situated on a plot of land roughly one square kilometre. It is built on two raised platforms of landfill supported by sheer walls of cut rock, using a technique called burdock piling, each overlooking a moat. The central castle building is five stories on the outside and eight stories on the inside, and built atop a tall stone foundation to protect its occupants from attackers.


title: Osaka Castle

text: The Main Tower is surrounded by a series of moats and defensive fortifications. The castle has 2 moats (an inner & outer). The inner castle moat lies within the castle grounds, and consists of 2 types: a wet (northern-easterly) and dry (south-westerly). Outer moat meanwhile surrounds the entire castle premise, denotes the castle's outer limits, and consists of 4 individual water-filled sections, each representing a cardinal direction (North, East, South, West).


title: Osaka Castle

text: The castle grounds, which cover approximately 61,000 square metres (15 acres), contain the following thirteen structures that were denoted as “important cultural assets” by the Japanese government:


title: Osaka Castle

text: The outer moat has two main sentry checkpoints: the Aoyamon Gate (in the north-east) and the Otemon Gate (in the opposing south-west).


title: Osaka Castle

text: Between the outer and inner moat are the following: Fushimi-yagura Turret Remains, Ensho-gura Gunpowder Storehouse, Osaka Geihinkan, Hoshoan Tea House, Osaka Castle Nishinomaru Garden, Sengan-yagura Turret, Tamon-yagura Turret, Remains of Taiko-yagura Turret, Osaka Shudokan Martial Arts Hall, Hokoku Shrine (Osaka), Ichiban-yagura Turret (The first turret), and Plum Grove.


title: Osaka Castle

text: There are two places to cross the inner moat, Gokuraku-bashi Bridge (located in the North) and Sakuramon Gate (main sentry point in the South).


title: Osaka Castle

text: Within the inner moat, the castle was divided into two major areas: the Hommaru (Inner Bailey) and the Yamazato-Maru Bailey. Located within the Hommaru is the Main Tower, the Kimmeisui Well, the Japanese Garden, the Takoishi (Octopus Stone), the Gimmeisui Well, the Miraiza Osakajo Complex, the Kinzo Treasure House, and the "Timecapsule Expo'70". While within the Yamazato-Maru Bailey consists of the Marked-Stones Square, and the Monument commemorating 'Hideyori and Yodo-dono committing suicide'.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1583 Toyotomi Hideyoshi commenced construction on the site of the Ikkō-ikki temple of Ishiyama Hongan-ji. The basic plan was modeled after Azuchi Castle, the headquarters of Oda Nobunaga. Hideyoshi wanted to build a castle that mirrored Nobunaga's, but surpassed it in every way: the plan featured a five-story main tower, with three extra stories underground, and gold leaf on the sides of the tower to impress visitors. In 1585 the Inner donjon was completed. Hideyoshi continued to extend and expand the castle, making it more and more formidable to attackers. In 1597 construction was completed and Hideyoshi died the year after. Osaka Castle passed to his son, Toyotomi Hideyori.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated his opponents at the Battle of Sekigahara, and started his own bakufu (i.e., shogunate) in Edo. In 1614 Tokugawa attacked Hideyori in the winter, starting the Siege of Osaka. Although the Toyotomi forces were outnumbered approximately two to one, they managed to fight off Tokugawa's 200,000-man army and protect the castle's outer walls. Ieyasu had the castle's outer moat filled, negating one of the castle's main outer defenses.


title: Osaka Castle

text: During the summer of 1615, Hideyori began to restore the outer moat. Ieyasu, in outrage, sent his armies to Osaka Castle again, and routed the Toyotomi men inside the outer walls on June 4.


title: Osaka Castle

text: Osaka Castle fell to the Tokugawa clan, the Toyotomi clan perished, Hideyori and Yodo-dono committed seppuku and the castle buildings burned to the ground.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1620, the new heir to the shogunate, Tokugawa Hidetada, began to reconstruct and re-arm Osaka Castle. He built a new elevated main tower, five stories on the outside and eight stories on the inside, and assigned the task of constructing new walls to individual samurai clans. The walls built in the 1620s still stand today, and are made out of interlocked granite boulders without mortar. Many of the stones were brought from rock quarries near the Seto Inland Sea, and bear inscribed crests of the various families who contributed them.


title: Osaka Castle

text: Construction of the 5 story "tenshu" started in 1628 and was completed 2 years later, about the same time the rest of the reconstruction, and followed the general layout of the original Toyotomi structure.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1660, lightning ignited the gunpowder warehouse and the resulting explosion set the castle on fire.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1665, lightning struck and burnt down the "tenshu". In 1843, after decades of neglect, the castle got much-needed repairs when the bakufu collected money from the people of the region to rebuild several of the turrets.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1868, Osaka Castle fell and was surrendered to anti-bakufu imperial loyalists. Much of the castle was burned in the civil conflicts surrounding the Meiji Restoration.


title: Osaka Castle

text: Under the Meiji government, Osaka Castle became part of the Osaka Army Arsenal ("Osaka Hohei Kosho") manufacturing guns, ammunition, and explosives for Japan's rapidly expanding Western-style military.


title: Osaka Castle

text: During World War II, the arsenal became one of the largest military armories, employing 60,000 workers. American bombing raids targeting the arsenal damaged the reconstructed main castle tower and, on August 14, 1945, destroyed 90% of the arsenal and killed 382 people working there.


title: Osaka Castle

text: In 1995, Osaka's government approved yet another restoration project, with the intent of restoring the main tower to its Edo-era splendor. In 1997, restoration was completed. The castle is a concrete reproduction (including elevators) of the original and the interior is intended as a modern, functioning museum.


title: Osaka Castle

text: The castle is open to the public and is easily accessible from Osakajōkōen Station on the JR West Osaka Loop Line. It is a popular spot during festival seasons, and especially during the cherry blossom bloom (hanami), when the sprawling castle grounds are covered with food vendors and taiko drummers. The large indoor arena, Osaka-jō Hall, also is located within the grounds of the castle park.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The First Great Awakening (sometimes Great Awakening) or the Evangelical Revival was a series of Christian revivals that swept Britain and its thirteen North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The revival movement permanently affected Protestantism as adherents strove to renew individual piety and religious devotion. The Great Awakening marked the emergence of Anglo-American evangelicalism as a trans-denominational movement within the Protestant churches. In the United States, the term "Great Awakening" is most often used, while in the United Kingdom the movement is referred to as the "Evangelical Revival".


title: First Great Awakening

text: Building on the foundations of older traditions—Puritanism, Pietism and Presbyterianism—major leaders of the revival such as George Whitefield, John Wesley and Jonathan Edwards articulated a theology of revival and salvation that transcended denominational boundaries and helped forge a common evangelical identity. Revivalists added to the doctrinal imperatives of Reformation Protestantism an emphasis on providential outpourings of the Holy Spirit. Extemporaneous preaching gave listeners a sense of deep personal conviction of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ and fostered introspection and commitment to a new standard of personal morality. Revival theology stressed that religious conversion was not only intellectual assent to correct Christian doctrine but had to be a "new birth" experienced in the heart. Revivalists also taught that receiving assurance of salvation was a normal expectation in the Christian life.


title: First Great Awakening

text: While the Evangelical Revival united evangelicals across various denominations around shared beliefs, it also led to division in existing churches between those who supported the revivals and those who did not. Opponents accused the revivals of fostering disorder and fanaticism within the churches by enabling uneducated, itinerant preachers and encouraging religious enthusiasm. In England, evangelical Anglicans would grow into an important constituency within the Church of England, and Methodism would develop out of the ministries of Whitefield and Wesley. In the American colonies the Awakening caused the Congregational and Presbyterian churches to split, while it strengthened both the Methodist and Baptist denominations. It had little immediate impact on most Lutherans, Quakers, and non-Protestants, but later gave rise to a schism among Quakers which persists to this day.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Evangelical preachers "sought to include every person in conversion, regardless of gender, race, and status". Throughout the North American colonies, especially in the South, the revival movement increased the number of African slaves and free blacks who were exposed to and subsequently converted to Christianity. It also inspired the founding of new missionary societies, such as the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom sees the Great Awakening as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval" that also created pietism in the Lutheran and Reformed churches of continental Europe. Pietism emphasized heartfelt religious faith in reaction to an overly intellectual Protestant scholasticism perceived as spiritually dry. Significantly, the pietists placed less emphasis on traditional doctrinal divisions between Protestant churches, focusing rather on religious experience and affections.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Pietism prepared Europe for revival, and it usually occurred in areas where pietism was strong. The most important leader of the Awakening in central Europe was Nicolaus Zinzendorf, a Saxon noble who studied under pietist leader August Hermann Francke at Halle University. In 1722, Zinzendorf invited members of the Moravian Church to live and worship on his estates, establishing a community at Herrnhut. The Moravians came to Herrnhut as refugees, but under Zinzendorf's guidance, the group enjoyed a religious revival. Soon, the community became a refuge for other Protestants as well, including German Lutherans, Reformed Christians and Anabaptists. The church began to grow, and Moravian societies would be established in England where they would help foster the Evangelical Revival as well.


title: First Great Awakening

text: While known as the "Great Awakening" in the United States, the movement is referred to as the "Evangelical Revival" in Britain. In England, the major leaders of the Evangelical Revival were three Anglican priests, the brothers John and Charles Wesley and their friend George Whitefield. Together, they founded what would become Methodism. They had been members of a religious society at Oxford University called the Holy Club and "Methodists" due to their methodical piety and rigorous asceticism. This society was modeled on the "collegia pietatis" (cell groups) used by pietists for Bible study, prayer and accountability. All three men experienced a spiritual crisis in which they sought true conversion and assurance of faith.


title: First Great Awakening

text: George Whitefield joined the Holy Club in 1733 and, under the influence of Charles Wesley, read German pietist August Hermann Francke's "Against the Fear of Man" and Scottish theologian Henry Scougal's "The Life of God in the Soul of Man" (the latter work was a favorite of Puritans). Scougal wrote that many people mistakenly understood Christianity to be "Orthodox Notions and Opinions" or "external Duties" or "rapturous Heats and extatic Devotion". Rather, Scougal wrote, "True Religion is an Union of the Soul with God . . . "It is Christ formed within us"." Whitefield wrote that "though I had fasted, watched and prayed, and received the Sacrament long, yet I never knew what true religion was" until he read Scougal. From that point on, Whitefield sought the new birth. After a period of spiritual struggle, Whitefield experienced conversion during Lent in 1735. In 1736, he began preaching in Bristol and London. His preaching attracted large crowds who were drawn to his simple message of the necessity of the new birth as well as by his manner of delivery. His style was dramatic and his preaching appealed to his audience's emotions. At times, he wept or impersonated Bible characters. By the time he left England for the colony of Georgia in December 1737, Whitefield had become a celebrity.


title: First Great Awakening

text: John Wesley left for Georgia in October 1735 to become a missionary for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Wesley made contact with members of the Moravian Church led by August Gottlieb Spangenberg. Wesley was impressed by their faith and piety, especially their belief that it was normal for a Christian to have assurance of faith. The failure of his mission and encounters with the Moravians led Wesley to question his own faith. He wrote in his journal, "I who went to America to convert others was never myself converted to God."


title: First Great Awakening

text: Back in London, Wesley became friends with Moravian minister Peter Boehler and joined a Moravian small group called the Fetter Lane Society. In May 1738, Wesley attended a Moravian meeting on Aldersgate Street where he felt spiritually transformed during a reading of Martin Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. Wesley recounted that "I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken away "my" sins, even "mine", and saved "me" from the law of sin and death." Wesley understood his Aldersgate experience to be an evangelical conversion, and it provided him with the assurance he had been seeking. Afterwards, he traveled to Herrnhut and met Zinzendorf in person.


title: First Great Awakening

text: John Wesley returned to England in September 1738. Both John and Charles were preaching in London churches. Whitefield stayed in Georgia for three months to establish Bethesda Orphanage before returning to England in December. While enjoying success, Whitefield's itinerant preaching was controversial. Many pulpits were closed to him, and he had to struggle against Anglicans who opposed the Methodists and the "doctrine of the New Birth". Whitefield wrote of his opponents, "I am fully convinced there is a fundamental difference between us and them. They believe only an outward Christ, we further believe that He must be inwardly formed in our hearts also."


title: First Great Awakening

text: In February 1739, parish priests in Bath and Bristol refused to allow Whitefield to preach in their churches on the grounds that he was a religious enthusiast. In response, he began open-air field preaching in the mining community of Kingswood, near Bristol. Open-air preaching was common in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, but it was unheard of in England. Further, Whitefield violated protocol by preaching in another priest's parish without permission. Within a week, he was preaching to crowds of 10,000. By March, Whitefield had moved on to preach elsewhere. By May, he was preaching to London crowds of 50,000. He left his followers in Bristol in the care of John Wesley. Whitefield's notoriety was increased through the use of newspaper advertisements to promote his revivals. Wesley was at first uneasy about preaching outdoors, as it was contrary to his high-church sense of decency. Eventually, however, Wesley changed his mind, claiming that "all the world [is] my parish". On April 2, 1739, Wesley first preached to about 3,000 people near Bristol. From then on he continued to preach wherever he could gather an assembly, taking the opportunity to recruit followers to the movement.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Faced with growing evangelistic and pastoral responsibilities, Wesley and Whitefield appointed lay preachers and leaders. Methodist preachers focused particularly on evangelising people who had been "neglected" by the established Church of England. Wesley and his assistant preachers organised the new converts into Methodist societies. These societies were divided into groups called "classes"—intimate meetings where individuals were encouraged to confess their sins to one another and to build each other up. They also took part in love feasts which allowed for the sharing of testimony, a key feature of early Methodism. Growth in numbers and increasing hostility impressed upon the revival converts a deep sense of their corporate identity. Three teachings that Methodists saw as the foundation of Christian faith were:


title: First Great Awakening

text: The evangelicals responded vigorously to opposition—both literary criticism and even mob violence—and thrived despite the attacks against them. John Wesley's organisational skills during and after the peak of revivalism established him as the primary founder of the Methodist movement. By the time of Wesley's death in 1791, there were an estimated 71,668 Methodists in England and 43,265 in America.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Evangelical Revival first broke out in Wales. In 1735, Howell Harris and Daniel Rowland experienced a religious conversion and began preaching to large crowds throughout South Wales. Their preaching initiated the Welsh Methodist revival.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The origins of revivalism in Scotland stretch back to the 1620s. The attempts by the Stuart Kings to impose bishops on the Church of Scotland led to national protests in the form of the Covenanters. In addition, radical Presbyterian clergy held outdoor conventicles throughout southern and western Scotland centering on the communion season. These revivals would also spread to Ulster and featured "marathon extemporaneous preaching and excessive popular enthusiasm." In the 18th century, the Evangelical Revival was led by ministers such as Ebenezer Erskine, William M'Culloch (the minister who presided over the Cambuslang Work of 1742), and James Robe (minister at Kilsyth). A substantial number of Church of Scotland ministers held evangelical views.


title: First Great Awakening

text: In the early 18th century, the 13 Colonies were religiously diverse. In New England, the Congregational churches were the established religion; whereas in the religiously tolerant Middle Colonies, the Quakers, Dutch Reformed, Anglican, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Congregational, and Baptist churches all competed with each other on equal terms. In the Southern colonies, the Anglican church was officially established, though there were significant numbers of Baptists, Quakers and Presbyterians. At the same time, church membership was low from having failed to keep up with population growth, and the influence of Enlightenment rationalism was leading many people to turn to atheism, Deism, Unitarianism and Universalism. The churches in New England had fallen into a "staid and routine formalism in which experiential faith had been a reality to only a scattered few."


title: First Great Awakening

text: In response to these trends, ministers influenced by New England Puritanism, Scots-Irish Presbyterianism, and European Pietism began calling for a revival of religion and piety. The blending of these three traditions would produce an evangelical Protestantism that placed greater importance "on seasons of revival, or outpourings of the Holy Spirit, and on converted sinners experiencing God's love personally." In the 1710s and 1720s, revivals became more frequent among New England Congregationalists. These early revivals remained local affairs due to the lack of coverage in print media. The first revival to receive widespread publicity was that precipitated by an earthquake in 1727. As they began to be publicized more widely, revivals transformed from merely local to regional and transatlantic events.


title: First Great Awakening

text: In the 1720s and 1730s, an evangelical party took shape in the Presbyterian churches of the Middle Colonies led by William Tennent, Sr. He established a seminary called the Log College where he trained nearly 20 Presbyterian revivalists for the ministry, including his three sons and Samuel Blair. While pastoring a church in New Jersey, Gilbert Tennent became acquainted with Dutch Reformed minister Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen. Historian Sydney Ahlstrom described Frelinghuysen as "an important herald, if not the father of the Great Awakening". A pietist, Frelinghuysen believed in the necessity of personal conversion and living a holy life. The revivals he led in the Raritan Valley were "forerunners" of the Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies. Under Frelinghuysen's influence, Tennent came to believe that a definite conversion experience followed by assurance of salvation was the key mark of a Christian. By 1729, Tennent was seeing signs of revival in the Presbyterian churches of New Brunswick and Staten Island. At the same time, Gilbert's brothers, William and John, oversaw a revival at Freehold, New Jersey.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The most influential evangelical revival was the Northampton revival of 1734–1735 under the leadership of Congregational minister Jonathan Edwards. In the fall of 1734, Edwards preached a sermon series on justification by faith alone, and the community's response was extraordinary. Signs of religious commitment among the laity increased, especially among the town's young people. Edwards wrote to Boston minister Benjamin Colman that the town "never was so full of Love, nor so full of Joy, nor so full of distress as it has lately been. ... I never saw the Christian spirit in Love to Enemies so exemplified, in all my Life as I have seen it within this half-year." The revival ultimately spread to 25 communities in western Massachusetts and central Connecticut until it began to wane in 1737.


title: First Great Awakening

text: At a time when Enlightenment rationalism and Arminian theology was popular among some Congregational clergy, Edwards held to traditional Calvinist doctrine. He understood conversion to be the experience of moving from spiritual deadness to in the knowledge of one's election (that one had been chosen by God for salvation). While a Christian might have several conversion moments as part of this process, Edwards believed there was a single point in time when God regenerated an individual, even if the exact moment could not be pinpointed.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Northampton revival featured instances of what critics called enthusiasm but what supporters believed were signs of the Holy Spirit. Services became more emotional and some people had visions and mystical experiences. Edwards cautiously defended these experiences as long as they led individuals to a greater belief in God's glory rather than in self-glorification. Similar experiences would appear in most of the major revivals of the 18th century.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Edwards wrote an account of the Northampton revival, "A Faithful Narrative", which was published in England through the efforts of prominent evangelicals John Guyse and Isaac Watts. The publication of his account made Edwards a celebrity in Britain and influenced the growing revival movement in that nation. "A Faithful Narrative" would become a model on which other revivals would be conducted.


title: First Great Awakening

text: George Whitefield first came to America in 1738 to preach in Georgia and found Bethesda Orphanage. Whitefield returned to the Colonies in November 1739. His first stop was in Philadelphia where he initially preached at Christ Church, Philadelphia's Anglican church, and then preached to a large outdoor crowd from the courthouse steps. He then preached in many Presbyterian churches. From Philadelphia, Whitefield traveled to New York and then to the South. In the Middle Colonies, he was popular in the Dutch and German communities as well as among the British. Lutheran pastor Henry Muhlenberg told of a German woman who heard Whitefield preach and, though she spoke no English, later said she had never before been so edified.


title: First Great Awakening

text: In 1740, Whitefield began touring New England. He landed in Newport, Rhode Island, on September 14, 1740, and preached several times in the Anglican church. He then moved on to Boston, Massachusetts, where he spent a week. There were prayers at King's Chapel (at the time an Anglican church) and preaching at Brattle Street Church and South Church. On September 20, Whitefield preached in First Church and then outside of it to about 8,000 people who could not gain entrance. The next day, he preached outdoors again to about 15,000 people. On Tuesday, he preached at Second Church and on Wednesday at Harvard University. After traveling as far as Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he returned to Boston on October 12 to preach to 30,000 people before continuing his tour.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Whitefield then traveled to Northampton at the invitation of Jonathan Edwards. He preached twice in the parish church while Edwards was so moved that he wept. He then spent time in New Haven, Connecticut, where he preached at Yale University. From there he traveled down the coast, reaching New York on October 29. Whitefield's assessment of New England's churches and clergy prior to his intervention was negative. "I am verily persuaded," he wrote, "the Generality of Preachers talk of an unknown, unfelt Christ. And the Reason why Congregations have been so dead, is because dead Men preach to them."


title: First Great Awakening

text: Whitefield met Gilbert Tennent on Staten Island and asked him to preach in Boston to continue the revival there. Tennent accepted and in December began a three-month long preaching tour throughout New England. Besides Boston, Tennent preached in towns throughout Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Like Whitefield's, Tennent's preaching produced large crowds, many conversions and much controversy. While antirevivalists such as Timothy Cutler heavily criticized Tennent's preaching, most of Boston's ministers were supportive.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Tennent was followed in the summer of 1741 by itinerant minister James Davenport, who proved to be more controversial than either Tennent or Whitefield. His rants and attacks against "unconverted" ministers inspired much opposition, and he was arrested in Connecticut for violating a law against itinerant preaching. At his trial, he was found mentally ill and deported to Long Island. Soon after, he arrived in Boston and resumed his fanatical preaching only to once again be declared insane and expelled. The last of Davenport's radical episodes took place in March 1743 in New London when he ordered his followers to burn wigs, cloaks, rings and other vanities. He also ordered the burning of books by religious authors such as John Flavel and Increase Mather. Following the intervention of two pro-revival "New Light" ministers, Davenport's mental state apparently improved, and he published a retraction of his earlier excesses.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Whitefield, Tennent and Davenport would be followed by a number of both clerical and lay itinerants. However, the Awakening in New England was primarily sustained by the efforts of parish ministers. Sometimes revival would be initiated by regular preaching or the customary pulpit exchanges between two ministers. Through their efforts, New England experienced a "great and general Awakening" between 1740 and 1743 characterized by a greater interest in religious experience, widespread emotional preaching, and intense emotional reactions accompanying conversion, including fainting and weeping. There was a greater emphasis on prayer and devotional reading, and the Puritan ideal of a converted church membership was revived. It is estimated that between 20,000 and 50,000 new members were admitted to New England's Congregational churches even as expectations for members increased.


title: First Great Awakening

text: By 1745, the Awakening had begun to wane. Revivals would continue to spread to the southern backcountry and slave communities in the 1750s and 1760s.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Great Awakening aggravated existing conflicts within the Protestant churches, often leading to schisms between supporters of revival, known as "New Lights", and opponents of revival, known as "Old Lights". Old Lights saw the religious enthusiasm and itinerant preaching unleashed by the Awakening as disruptive to church order, preferring formal worship and a settled, university-educated ministry. They mocked revivalists as being ignorant, heterodox or con artists. New Lights accused Old Lights of being more concerned with social status than with saving souls and even questioned whether some Old Light ministers were even converted. They also supported itinerant ministers who disregarded parish boundaries.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Congregationalists in New England experienced 98 schisms, which in Connecticut also affected which group would be considered "official" for tax purposes. It is estimated in New England that in the churches there were about one-third each of New Lights, Old Lights, and those who saw both sides as valid. The Awakening aroused a wave of separatist feeling within the Congregational churches of New England. Around 100 Separatist congregations were organized throughout the region by Strict Congregationalists. Objecting to the Halfway Covenant, Strict Congregationalists required evidence of conversion for church membership and also objected to the semi–presbyterian Saybrook Platform, which they felt infringed on congregational autonomy. Because they threatened Congregationalist uniformity, the Separatists were persecuted and in Connecticut they were denied the same legal toleration enjoyed by Baptists, Quakers and Anglicans.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Baptists benefited the most from the Great Awakening. Numerically small before the outbreak of revival, Baptist churches experienced growth during the last half of the 18th century. By 1804, there were over 300 Baptist churches in New England. This growth was primarily due to an influx of former New Light Congregationalists who became convinced of Baptist doctrines, such as believer's baptism. In some cases, entire Separatist congregations accepted Baptist beliefs.


title: First Great Awakening

text: As revivalism spread through the Presbyterian churches, the Old Side–New Side Controversy broke out between the anti-revival "Old Side" and pro-revival "New Side". At issue was the place of revivalism in American Presbyterianism, specifically the "relation between doctrinal orthodoxy and experimental knowledge of Christ." The New Side, led by Gilbert Tennent and Jonathan Dickinson, believed that strict adherence to orthodoxy was meaningless if one lacked a personal religious experience, a sentiment expressed in Tennent's 1739 sermon "The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry". Whitefield's tour had helped the revival party grow and only worsened the controversy. When the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia met in May 1741, the Old Side expelled the New Side, which then reorganized itself into the Synod of New York.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Historian John Howard Smith noted that the Great Awakening made sectarianism an essential characteristic of American Christianity. While the Awakening divided many Protestant churches between Old and New Lights, it also unleashed a strong impulse towards interdenominational unity among the various Protestant denominations. Evangelicals considered the new birth to be "a bond of fellowship that transcended disagreements on fine points of doctrine and polity", allowing Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and others to cooperate across denominational lines.


title: First Great Awakening

text: While divisions between Old and New Lights remained, New Lights became less radical over time and evangelicalism became more mainstream. By 1758, the Old Side–New Side split in the Presbyterian Church had been healed and the two factions reunited. In part, this was due to the growth of the New Side and the numerical decline of the Old Side. In 1741, the pro-revival party had around 22 ministers, but this number had increased to 73 by 1758. While the fervor of the Awakening would fade, the acceptance of revivalism and insistence on personal conversion would remain recurring features in 18th- and 19th-century Presbyterianism.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Great Awakening inspired the creation of evangelical educational institutions. In 1746, New Side Presbyterians founded what would become Princeton University. In 1754, the efforts of Eleazar Wheelock led to what would become Dartmouth College, originally established to train Native American boys for missionary work among their own people. While initially resistant, well-established Yale University came to embrace revivalism and played a leading role in American evangelicalism for the next century.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Great Awakening was not the first time that Protestant churches had experienced revival; however, it was the first time a common evangelical identity had emerged based on a fairly uniform understanding of salvation, preaching the gospel and conversion. Revival theology focused on the way of salvation, the stages by which a person receives Christian faith and then expresses that faith in the way they live.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The major figures of the Great Awakening, such as George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Gilbert Tennent, Jonathan Dickinson and Samuel Davies, were moderate evangelicals who preached a pietistic form of Calvinism heavily influenced by the Puritan tradition, which held that religion was not only an intellectual exercise but also had to be felt and experienced in the heart. This moderate revival theology consisted of a three-stage process. The first stage was conviction of sin, which was spiritual preparation for faith by God's law and the means of grace. The second stage was conversion, in which a person experienced spiritual illumination, repentance and faith. The third stage was consolation, which was searching and receiving assurance of salvation. This process generally took place over an extended time.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Conviction of sin was the stage that prepared someone to receive salvation, and this stage often lasted weeks or months. When under conviction, nonbelievers realized they were guilty of sin and under divine condemnation and subsequently faced feelings of sorrow and anguish. When revivalists preached, they emphasized God's moral law to highlight the holiness of God and to spark conviction in the unconverted. Jonathan Edwards' sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" is an example of such preaching.


title: First Great Awakening

text: As Calvinists, revivalists also preached the doctrines of original sin and unconditional election. Due to the fall of man, humans are naturally inclined to rebel against God and unable to initiate or merit salvation, according to the doctrine of original sin. Unconditional election relates to the doctrine of predestination—that before the creation of the world God determined who would be saved (the elect) on the basis of his own choosing. The preaching of these doctrines resulted in the convicted feeling both guilty and totally helpless, since God was in complete control over whether they would be saved or not.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Revivalists counseled those under conviction to apply the means of grace to their lives. These were spiritual disciplines such as prayer, Bible study, church attendance and personal moral improvement. While no human action could produce saving faith, revivalists taught that the means of grace "might" make conversion more likely.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Revival preaching was controversial among Calvinists. Because Calvinists believed in election and predestination, some thought it inappropriate to preach to strangers that they could repent and receive salvation. For some, such preaching was only acceptable within their own churches and communities. The revivalists use of "indiscriminate" evangelism—the "practice of extending the gospel promises to everyone in their audiences, without stressing that God redeems only those elected for salvation"—was contrary to these notions. While they preached indiscriminately, however, revivalists continued to affirm Calvinist doctrines of election and predestination.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Another issue that had to be addressed were the intense physical and emotional reactions to conviction experienced during the Awakening. Samuel Blair described such responses to his preaching in 1740, "Several would be overcome and fainting; others deeply sobbing, hardly able to contain, others crying in a most dolorous manner, many others more silently weeping. ... And sometimes the soul exercises of some, thought comparatively but very few, would so far affect their bodies, as to occasion some strange, unusual bodily motions." Moderate evangelicals took a cautious approach to this issue, neither encouraging or discouraging these responses, but they recognized that people might express their conviction in different ways.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The conviction stage lasted so long because potential converts were waiting to find evidence of regeneration within their lives. The revivalists believed regeneration or the new birth was not simply an outward profession of faith or conformity to Christianity. They believed it was an instantaneous, supernatural work of the Holy Spirit providing someone with "a new awareness of the beauty of Christ, new desires to love God, and a firm commitment to follow God's holy law." The reality of regeneration was discerned through self-examination, and while it occurred instantaneously, a convert might only gradually realize it had occurred.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Regeneration was always accompanied by saving faith, repentance and love for God—all aspects of the conversion experience, which typically lasted several days or weeks under the guidance of a trained pastor. True conversion began when the mind opened to a new awareness and love of the gospel message. Following this illumination, converts placed their faith in Christ, depending on him alone for salvation. At the same time, a hatred of sin and a commitment to eliminate it from the heart would take hold, setting the foundation for a life of repentance or turning away from sin. Revivalists distinguished true conversion (which was motivated by love of God and hatred of sin) from false conversion (which was motivated by fear of hell).


title: First Great Awakening

text: True conversion meant that a person was among the elect, but even a person with saving faith might doubt his election and salvation. Revivalists taught that assurance of salvation was the product of Christian maturity and sanctification. Converts were encouraged to seek assurance through self-examination of their own spiritual progress. The treatise "Religious Affections" by Jonathan Edwards was written to help converts examine themselves for the presence of genuine "religious affections" or spiritual desires, such as selfless love of God, certitude in the divine inspiration of the gospel, and other Christian virtues.


title: First Great Awakening

text: It was not enough, however, to simply reflect on past experiences. Revivalists taught that assurance could only be gained through actively seeking to grow in grace and holiness through mortification of sin and utilizing the means of grace. In "Religious Affections", the last sign addressed by Edwards was "Christian practice", and it was this sign to which he gave the most space in his treatise. The search for assurance required conscious effort on the part of a convert and took months or even years to achieve.


title: First Great Awakening

text: The Awakening played a major role in the lives of women, though they were rarely allowed to preach or take leadership roles. A deep sense of religious enthusiasm encouraged women, especially to analyze their feelings, share them with other women, and write about them. They became more independent in their decisions, as in the choice of a husband. This introspection led many women to keep diaries or write memoirs. The autobiography of Hannah Heaton (1721–94), a farm wife of North Haven, Connecticut, tells of her experiences in the Great Awakening, her encounters with Satan, her intellectual and spiritual development, and daily life on the farm.


title: First Great Awakening

text: Phillis Wheatley was the first published black female poet, and she was converted to Christianity as a child after she was brought to America. Her beliefs were overt in her works; she describes the journey of being taken from a Pagan land to be exposed to Christianity in the colonies in a poem entitled "On Being Brought from Africa to America." Wheatley became so influenced by the revivals and especially George Whitefield that she dedicated a poem to him after his death in which she referred to him as an "Impartial Saviour". Sarah Osborn adds another layer to the role of women during the Awakening. She was a Rhode Island schoolteacher, and her writings offer a fascinating glimpse into the spiritual and cultural upheaval of the time period, including a 1743 memoir, various diaries and letters, and her anonymously published "The Nature, Certainty and Evidence of True Christianity" (1753).