title: The Suffering (video game)

text: The game was unofficially revealed on March 17, 2003, when Midway Games sent a list of upcoming games out to retailers. The list included "The Suffering", which was described as "action-horror game set inside a prison". The game was slated for an October 2003 release for PlayStation 2, GameCube and Xbox. Midway officially announced the game on April 15, calling it an "action-packed survival horror game set in a maximum security prison". Helene Sheeler, vice president of marketing for Midway stated, ""The Suffering" redefines terror with a chilling look into a penitentiary haunted by apparitions of executed prisoners grotesquely reincarnated as the methods of executions that befell them." It was also revealed the creatures in the game were designed by Stan Winston Studios.


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: Several days later, Midway revealed the game's fictional prison, Abbot State Penitentiary, located on Carnate Island, off the coast of Maryland was partially based on Alcatraz, located on Alcatraz Island off the coast of San Francisco. In the game, Abbot had been built from the remains of a World War II army base, whereas Alcatraz was originally a military prison. They also revealed the game would be M-rated, and the 3D game engine would draw the locations in real-time (as opposed to the 2D pre-rendered backgrounds found in the "Resident Evil" games). The game was first previewed at the E3 event in May.


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: In September, Midway announced the game was being pushed back from October 2003 to early 2004. Of the delay, Richard Rouse III wrote,


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: In October, Midway ran a promotional event in West Virginia State Penitentiary. A defunct gothic prison that is supposedly haunted, game journalists spent the night in the facility with representatives from Midway and Surreal Software. A demo of the game was available in the cafeteria of the building. On October 28, Midway announced the GameCube version had been cancelled, explaining "we want to concentrate on the leading platforms in the marketplace when it comes to launching original product. We are still publishing titles like "" and "Hitz" for the Nintendo GameCube, but for "The Suffering" we are concentrating on the Sony PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Xbox."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: The game went gold on February 23, 2004, with a North American release date set for March 8. David Zucker, Midway's CEO, projected revenues of $140 million for the fiscal year of 2004, an increase of over 50% from that of 2003. CFO Thomas Powell stated the targets were based primarily on the company's high hopes for "The Suffering", and their "second tier of titles", including "NBA Ballers", "MLB Slugfest", and "", as well as titles coming later in 2004 such as "", "Area 51", and "NARC".


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: The music for "The Suffering" was composed by Erik Aho, who had previously worked with Surreal Software on "". The original concept for the music and sound design was proposed by lead sound designer Boyd Post. The concept entailed creating "instruments" out of objects found in the environments depicted in the game, and using them to create both the sound design and the music, which would organically intertwine with one another. According to Post,


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: Instruments were also created by Seattle musician/instrument designer Ela Lamblin. These included a Stamenphone ("a sort of cross between a waterphone and a tambura that can be bowed to create droning tonal melodies or struck for a percussive metallic resonating sound") and Orbacles ("hollow metal pods large enough to fit a person inside. These could be struck to create percussive impacts, bowed with superballs to create moaning ambiences and played like congas to create rhythms"). These were combined with other objects such as hubcaps, railroad spikes, hammers and glass jars. Metal rods "were about 8-10 feet long and were played by rubbing rosin-coated gloves lengthwise along the rods. These created otherworldly drones that were later put into a sampler, pitched up and down and layered to create ambiences. The rods were also struck to create violent shrieks and metallic percussive sounds." A mounted bicycle wheel "was played by cranking the wheel and scraping different objects across the spokes."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: Even strange events from the recording sessions at Robert Lange Studios made it onto the track. For example, according to Aho;


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: In October 2008, the PC version of the game was released as freeware by the United States Air Force on FileFront (no longer available). On September 8, 2017, both "The Suffering" and "The Suffering: Ties That Bind" were released on GOG.com as DRM-free titles.


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: "The Suffering" received "generally favorable reviews"; the PC version holds an aggregate score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on twenty-six reviews; the PlayStation 2 version 77 out of 100, based on forty-seven reviews; the Xbox version 77 out of 100, based on forty-four reviews.


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: "Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine"s Joe Rybicki scored the PlayStation 2 version 3 out of 5, arguing it was not scary due to it being an action game, as opposed to a survival-horror. He wrote "if "Fatal Frame" is the gaming equivalent of "The Shining", "The Suffering" is "Friday the 13th"." Although he praised the morality system and the general gameplay, he concluded "I felt the psychological elements and the morality-play overtones were largely wasted on what is at its most fundamental level a fairly run-of-the-mill shooter."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: Eurogamer's Tom Bramwell scored the PlayStation 2 version 7 out of 10. As with Rybicki, he felt the blend of action and horror elements didn't really work; "in trying to mix horror and action, "The Suffering" sets itself up for failure [...] once you shake off the anxiety you've been trained to associate with survival horror and just get on with it, it becomes something of a slog." However, he felt the game did feature "some genuinely disconcerting moments, an interesting story of demonic misadventure, some fairly ghastly sights and sounds, and some genuinely standout frights." He further wrote "Certainly it's been well designed in places." However, he concluded ""The Suffering" has some scary moments, but for the most part they punctuate a fairly regular, albeit twisted, action game, rather than driving it [...] It's a shame, because "The Suffering" could have been great. We're not asking for a carbon copy of "Resident Evil" or "Silent Hill", but with a little more consideration, Surreal could have remoulded the experience a lot more effectively."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann scored the game 7.6 out of 10, writing "it might be a little too straightforward in spots, but it does make for a solid action game." He concluded that "although "The Suffering" tends to rely more on startling you with visual effects and sudden attacks than on actually trying to scare you, it's still a pretty refreshing take on horror-themed games. [But] more monsters, more ways to do them in, and perhaps some slightly more-involving puzzles would have probably made the game feel more in-depth. But even taking this into consideration, "The Suffering" is a fun action game."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: GameSpy's David Hodgson scored the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions 3 out of 5, calling the game ""Oz" meets Clive Barker, drenched in the entrails of Stephen King. It's survival-horror with swears. It's the proof the ESRB is kidding Congress with the non-existent "Adults Only" rating. It's offensive, psyche-damaging, brutal, makes no sense, and is unforgiving and violent. And damn good fun." Scott Osborne scored the PC version 4 out of 5, writing ""The Suffering" offers a smooth blend of survival horror and shooter action." Of the PC port, he wrote "you'll find a few bugs, clipping problems, and occasional clunky moments when a character's important dialogue is interrupted by that of a scripted event, creating an audio muddle. It's a shame "The Suffering" didn't receive a bit more polishing and a major graphics upgrade for the PC. Still, with its well-designed levels, fluid pacing, and hyper-violent combat in eerie locales, "The Suffering" is a fun way to safely tap into your dark side."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: "Game Informer"s Jeremy Zoss scored the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions 8.25 out of 10, writing "if titles like "Fatal Frame" represent the psychological end of horror gaming, then "The Suffering" is the equivalent of a splatter flick." He concluded "while I have many positive things to say about this title, I cannot stress enough that it's not for everyone. Like a "Friday the 13th" movie, I would hardly call this game scary; it lacks the claustrophobia and dread of a survival horror title. It is, however, filled with tons of gore, vulgarity, and offensive material [...] If you think Peter Jackson's true masterpiece is "Dead Alive", you'll be right at home with "The Suffering"."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: IGN's Aaron Boulding scored the game 8.5 out of 10, giving the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions an "Editor's Choice" award. He called it "a great game, not just a great horror game", writing "it succeeds as both a horrific thrill ride and fun action experience." He concluded "In a genre that's overrun with sequels and lame attempts at horror, "The Suffering" is a breath of fresh death rattle. The action is intense, the creatures are actually creepy, and the story does not shy away from truly macabre elements. One cannot say enough about the horrific world that's been created here. Everywhere you look, every little thing you do, has been placed there to ratchet up the suspense and put you in an eerie state of mind."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: "The Suffering" was a commercial success, selling over 1.5 million units worldwide across all platforms. The game was also credited with putting Midway "back on the map" as a major video game publisher after several years of games underperfoming.


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: In April, Midway announced their projected revenue for the first quarter of 2004 was $18 million, primarily due to the success of "The Suffering". On April 6, Midway purchased Surreal Software. Midway CEO David Zucker stated "The positive market reception to "The Suffering" illustrates our ability to successfully develop and release entirely new properties that resonate strongly with the growing audience of sophisticated, mature gamers. The acquisition of Surreal Software Inc., the visionary developer behind "The Suffering", strengthens our internal product development team and reinforces our ability to create high quality games." Surreal's co-founder, and "The Suffering"s director Alan Patmore stated "We developed a great working relationship with Midway during the development of "The Suffering" and feel that partnering with them will allow us to increase the quality of our titles by providing us with additional resources--and by allowing us to leverage their resources and expertise. It's that simple. We just want to make great games and feel that the acquisition will help us accomplish this goal."


title: The Suffering (video game)

text: On September 8, 2005, Midway and MTV Films announced a film adaptation based on both "The Suffering" and "" was in development. Stan Winston had signed on to work on the project, with producers Jason Lust and Rick Jacobs. No writers, actors or directors had yet been approached. However, there have since been no further developments, with the project presumably cancelled.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The 1992 NBA Finals was the championship round of the 1991–92 NBA season, and the conclusion of the season's playoffs. The defending NBA champion and Eastern Conference champion Chicago Bulls took on the Western Conference champion Portland Trail Blazers for the title, with Chicago having home court advantage, as they had the best record in the NBA that season.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The two teams appeared headed to face each other for most of the season and comparisons were made between Clyde Drexler and Michael Jordan throughout the season. A month earlier "Sports Illustrated" had even listed Drexler as Jordan's "No. 1 rival" on a cover the two appeared on together before the playoffs. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic Johnson–Larry Bird type rivalry in Jordan-Drexler, compared the two throughout the pre-Finals hype.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls went on to win the series in six games, becoming the fourth NBA team to win back-to-back championships after the Boston Celtics, Los Angeles Lakers, and Detroit Pistons. Michael Jordan was named Finals Most Valuable Player for the second year in a row, to go with his sixth straight regular season scoring title.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls won their first NBA championship the previous season, ushering in a new era in the league. Proving that their maiden championship was no fluke, the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991–92 season, finishing with a 67–15 record, surpassing last season's record by six games. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with a 30.1 points/6.4 assists/6.1 rebounds season.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: After easily sweeping the Miami Heat in the opening round, they encountered the New York Knicks, who were now coached by Pat Riley. The Knicks' hard-nosed style of play soon took its toll on the Bulls, but led by Jordan, they escaped in seven games. Up next were the Cleveland Cavaliers in the conference finals, whom the Bulls had beaten in two prior postseason meetings. Despite facing a much-improved Cavaliers team, the Bulls were still too much to handle, and they won in six games.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: With their co-tenants at Chicago Stadium, the Blackhawks, coached by Mike Keenan and captained by Dirk Graham, playing in the Stanley Cup Finals, it was an opportunity for both the Bulls and the Blackhawks to help the city of Chicago become the first city to have both NBA and NHL championships in the same year; unfortunately it was not to be, as the Blackhawks were swept at the hands of the Pittsburgh Penguins.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The Trail Blazers were destined to meet the Bulls the previous year, having won a franchise record 63 games. The Los Angeles Lakers had other ideas, defeating Portland in six games of the conference finals.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Retaining the same core that led the Blazers to the finals in , the team won the Pacific Division title with a 57–25 record. They took advantage of a weakened Lakers team that lost Magic Johnson to retirement earlier in the season, winning 3–1 in the first round. They followed that up with a five-game defeat of the Phoenix Suns in the second round, before booking another trip to the finals with a six-game elimination of the Utah Jazz in the conference finals.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The 1992 NBA Finals cemented the reputations of both Michael Jordan and Clyde Drexler (placing the latter firmly in the former's shadow).


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Michael Jordan dominated from the beginning, breaking the record for most points in a first half in the playoffs once held by Elgin Baylor (Michael had 35, Baylor had 33). This included six first-half threes (also a record). It was after the sixth three-pointer that Jordan turned towards the broadcast table and famously shrugged to indicate his surprise. Jordan's shrug became a highlight reel mainstay. Portland held their final lead at 45–44 in the second quarter before Chicago went on a 22–6 run to grab a 66–51 halftime lead and take control. The Bulls finished with a 122–89 win over the Portland Trail Blazers.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: With the Blackhawks playing for the Stanley Cup when the Bulls reached the Finals, Game 2 would have had conflict with Game 6 of the Blackhawks' series, as both teams would have played on the same day at Chicago Stadium. However, the Blackhawks series ended in 4 games, so no rescheduling was needed.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Portland built an eight-point lead in the first quarter, and held a nine-point lead at the half. However, as in Game 1, their lead started to disappear as the Bulls made their run – Jordan scored 14 points while Paxson scored 9, taking a seven-point lead by the end of the third quarter. Chicago was looking to take a commanding 2–0 lead in the series when Clyde Drexler fouled out with 4:36 remaining. With the Bulls up by 10, Jordan started to lose his poise, committing a foul and then a technical foul. This helped Portland build a 15–5 run, pushing the game into overtime after Jordan narrowly missed at the buzzer. In overtime, Portland dominated, especially Ainge, who scored six points with one minute remaining as the Blazers won 115–104 – the Bulls' worst home defeat in an NBA Finals game.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Chicago had lost home court advantage, but dominated Portland, holding them to numerous franchise playoff lows: 84 points in a game, 39 second-half points and 28 field goals. Chicago would go on a 30–13 run in the first half to gain a 44–30 lead which Portland would cut to three with 7:09 left in the third before the Bulls went to another 12–3 run. Portland would then go on a field goal drought, not scoring from the 4:33 mark in the third quarter until the 9:36 mark of the fourth, a 6:57 stretch.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Portland was still playing as they were during Game 3, not scoring for four minutes and finding themselves down 10–0. The Bulls were up 22–9 before the Blazers rallied and cut the deficit to three at the half, but found themselves down again in the third quarter. While Jordan scored 13 points in the third quarter, he would not score in the game's final 10:26. Portland went on a 15–6 run to even the series at two games apiece.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls jumped out to a 10–2 lead and never looked back, answering every Blazers comeback attempt with a run of their own. Chicago opened the second half on a 16–8 run to give the Bulls a 20-point lead. Portland didn't pull back within single digits until less than four minutes were left in the game, and ended up losing 119–106.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Michael Jordan, who briefly sat with a bad ankle, finished with 46 points on 14-of-23 from the field and 16-of-19 from the line. Scottie Pippen fell just short of a triple-double, with 24 points, 11 rebounds and nine assists. Clyde Drexler scored 30 points to lead six Portland players in double figures. However, Portland had 18 turnovers and shot just 43.8 percent from the field, compared to 54.8 percent for the Bulls.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Portland started strongly as they held Michael Jordan scoreless for the game's first 11 minutes, and took a 43–28 lead midway through the second quarter before Chicago went on a 16–7 run and cut the deficit to only six points. Portland also dominated the third quarter, building a 79–64 lead. Phil Jackson went with four reserves and Scottie Pippen to start the fourth quarter, cutting Portland's lead to three after only three minutes. Jordan returned and had two steals and converted them to hoops to give Chicago a permanent lead. The Bulls' defense held Portland to only six points in the final four minutes, leading the Bulls to their second straight championship. Jordan finished with 33 points and was named Finals MVP for the second consecutive year.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: NBC Sports used commentator Marv Albert, analysts Mike Fratello and Magic Johnson, and sideline reporter Ahmad Rashad (both teams' sidelines). Bob Costas and Quinn Buckner hosted the pre-game, halftime and postgame reports.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: Just months later, the 1991–92 NBA season documentary "Untouchabulls" was released. Narrated by Hal Douglas, it recaps the Bulls' championship season. "Jam" by Michael Jackson was used as the theme song for the documentary. That same year, Jordan was featured in Jackson's music video for "Jam".


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The Bulls won their third straight championship in the season, winning 57 games and defeating the Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. In the offseason that preceded Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen played for the Dream Team that won the gold medal in the Barcelona Olympics, making them the first players to win NBA championship and Olympic gold medal in the same year (Pippen would achieve this feat again in 1996). That team also included Blazers guard Clyde Drexler. This made Jordan, Patrick Ewing of the New York Knicks and Chris Mullin of the Golden State Warriors the only players to have won Olympic gold medals as both amateurs and professionals, having played for Team USA in Los Angeles.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The 1992 Finals would prove the Blazers' last Finals appearance . In the next three seasons, the Blazers rebuilt the team, hiring general manager Bob Whitsitt in 1994 and lost the core of their 1992 Finals team to free agency and trades, beginning with Kevin Duckworth's departure to the Bullets in the 1993 offseason. The last remaining piece of the team, Clyde Drexler, was traded and went on to win the NBA championship with the Houston Rockets in .


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The 1991–92 Bulls, along with the 1995–96 Bulls, were named one of the 10 greatest teams in NBA history during the league's golden anniversary.


title: 1992 NBA Finals

text: The 1992 championship marked the only time the Bulls celebrated their title at the Chicago Stadium. Following the awarding ceremony by commissioner David Stern, they returned to the court to show their newly-won title in front of Bulls fans. This act eventually led to Stern's decision to present the NBA championship to the winning team at center court in front of the fans, starting in ; the only exception was when the Lakers won in at Philadelphia's First Union Center, but decided to hold the ceremony in their locker room. Two other home championship celebrations followed in the and Finals, this time at the similarly-constructed but bigger United Center.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Maria Gemma Umberta Galgani (12 March 1878 – 11 April 1903), also known as Saint Gemma of Lucca, was an Italian mystic, venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church since 1940. She has been called the "Daughter of the Passion" because of her profound imitation of the Passion of Christ. She is especially venerated in the Congregation of the Passion (Passionists).


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Gemma Umberta Maria Galgani was born on 12 March 1878, in the hamlet of Camigliano in the provincial town of Capannori. Gemma was the fifth of eight children; her father, Enrico Galgani, was a prosperous pharmacist.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Soon after Galgani's birth, the family relocated north from Camigliano to a large new home in the Tuscan city of Lucca in a move which was undertaken to facilitate an improvement in the children's education. Gemma's mother, Aurelia Galgani, contracted tuberculosis. Because of this hardship, Gemma was placed in a private nursery school run by Elena and Ersilia Vallini when she was two-and-a-half years old.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Several members of the Galgani family died during this period. Their firstborn child, Carlo, and Gemma's little sister Giulia died at an early age. On 17 September 1885 Aurelia Galgani died from tuberculosis, which she had suffered from for five years, and Gemma's beloved brother Gino died from the same disease while studying for the priesthood.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Galgani was sent to a Catholic half-boarding school in Lucca run by the Sisters of St. Zita. She excelled in French, arithmetic, and music. At the age of nine, Galgani was allowed to receive her first communion.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: At age 16, Galgani developed spinal meningitis, but recovered. She attributed her extraordinary cure to the Sacred Heart of Jesus through the intercession of Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows and Marguerite Marie Alacoque.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Shortly after turning 18, Galgani was orphaned, and thereafter she was responsible for the upbringing of her younger siblings, which she did with her aunt Carolina. She declined two marriage proposals and became a housekeeper with the Giannini family.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: According to a biography written by her spiritual director, Germano Ruoppolo, Galgani began to display signs of the stigmata on 8 June 1899, at the age of twenty-one. She stated that she had spoken with her guardian angel, Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and other saints—especially Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows. According to her testimonies, she sometimes received special messages from them about current or future events. With her health in decline, Ruoppolo directed her to pray for the disappearance of her stigmata; she did so and the marks ceased. She said that she resisted the devil's attacks often.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Galgani was frequently found in a state of ecstasy. She has also been reputed to levitate: she claimed that on one occasion, when her arms were around the crucifix in her dining room and she was kissing the wound on the side of the Crucified, she found herself raised from the floor.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Galgani is alleged to have experienced stigmata on 8 June 1899, on the eve of the feast of the Sacred Heart. She writes: "I felt an inward sorrow for my sins, but so intense that I have never felt the like again ... My will made me detest them all, and promise willingly to suffer everything as expiation for them. Then the thoughts crowded thickly within me, and they were thoughts of sorrow, love, fear, hope and comfort." In the subsequent rapture, Gemma saw her guardian angel in the company of the Blessed Virgin Mary:


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Physician Pietro Pfanner who had known Galgani since her childhood examined her claims of stigmata. He observed hysterical behaviour and suspected she may have suffered from a form of neurosis. Pfanner examined Galgani and noted spots of blood on the palms of her hands but when he ordered the blood to be wiped away with a wet towel there was no wound. He concluded the phenomenon was self-inflicted. This was confirmed on another occasion by Galgani's foster mother Cecilia Giannini who observed a sewing needle on the floor next to her.


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Psychologist Donovan Rawcliffe has written in a book published nearly 50 years after her death that her stigmata was caused by "self-inflicted wounds of a major hysteric."


title: Gemma Galgani

text: Galgani was well known in the vicinity of Lucca before her death, especially to those in poverty. Opinions of her were divided. Some people admired her extraordinary virtues and referred to her as "The Virgin of Lucca" out of pious respect and admiration. Others mocked her (including her younger sister, Angelina, who apparently used to make fun of Galgani during such experiences).


title: Gemma Galgani

text: In early 1903, Galgani was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and went into a long and often painful decline accompanied by several mystical phenomena. One of the religious nursing sisters who attended to her stated, "We have cared for a good many sick people, but we have never seen anything like this." At the beginning of Holy Week 1903, her health quickly deteriorated, and by Good Friday she was suffering tremendously, dying in a small room across from the Giannini house on 11 April 1903, Holy Saturday. After a thorough examination of her life by the Church, she was beatified on 14 May 1933 and canonized on 2 May 1940. Galgani's relics are housed at the Sanctuary of Santa Gemma associated with the Passionist monastery in Lucca, Italy. Since 1985, her heart is housed in the Santuario de Santa Gema, in Madrid, Spain. Gemma Galgani's confessor Germano Ruoppolo, who significantly influenced her, wrote a book about her.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abigail "Abby" Anderson is a fictional character in the video game "The Last of Us Part II" (2020) by Naughty Dog. She is portrayed by Laura Bailey through motion capture and voice acting. A soldier of the Washington Liberation Front (WLF), Abby seeks to avenge her father's death by killing Joel Miller. Her alliances later become unsettled when she befriends two ex-members of the Seraphites, a religious cult with which the WLF is locked in a war. Abby is one of two main playable characters in the game, alongside Ellie.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abby was created by Neil Druckmann and Halley Gross, the writers of "The Last of Us Part II". The original switch to playing as Abby was done to demonstrate her personality; Druckmann wanted players to hate Abby early in the game, but later empathize with her through her flaws and redemptive actions. He wanted to avoid casting Bailey due to her proliferation of roles, but was impressed with her audition tape in how she had played into Abby's vulnerability. Bailey worked out in preparation for the role, and gave birth to her first son during production. She also prepared by researching people involved in wars and their coping mechanisms. Abby's face was modeled on Jocelyn Mettler, while her body was based on Colleen Fotsch.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: The character of Abby was well-received by critics, with many noting that her redemption arc was believable and made the character likable by the game's end. Her playable chapters were controversial among players, and Bailey became the target of online death threats; some critics felt that the character had been unfairly maligned, and that criticisms of her muscular physique was a result of the lack of body diversity in video games. Bailey's performance was widely praised and she received accolades at the British Academy Games Awards, The Game Awards, and the NAVGTR Awards.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abby is described as having a "commanding presence", with her physical build reflecting the years of training and combat. Her design underwent several iterations, with the goal to portray her as "capable, utilitarian, and strong". When auditioning actors for Abby, creative director Neil Druckmann specifically wanted to avoid casting Laura Bailey due to her proliferation of roles; he had originally considered Bailey to play Dina. When reviewing her audition tape, however, Druckmann was impressed by how Bailey had played into Abby's vulnerability, whereas other actors emphasized her anger. Bailey considers the game important to her personally, as she gave birth to her first son during production. Prior to her pregnancy, Bailey was working out in preparation for the role. While pregnant, she attempted to conceal her walk during her performance. She prepared for the role by researching people involved in wars and their coping mechanisms. While performing the scene in which Abby kills Joel—portrayed by Bailey's friend Troy Baker—Bailey continually checked in with Baker due to the intensity of the scene. Abby's face is based on Jocelyn Mettler, a visual effects artist who formerly worked at Naughty Dog, while her body was based on athlete Colleen Fotsch.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: An early iteration of the story had a young Abby witnessing an attack on her group by Joel and Tommy, who were hunters at the time (in the unseen 20 years of the first game), and vowing revenge. As the story and its theme of violence developed, the writers found it more interesting for Abby's father to have been killed by the player in the first game and directly tie into Joel's actions. The switch to Abby in the game's first chapter was done to demonstrate her personality and vulnerabilities and avoid her portrayal as a typical antagonist. She was originally set to be the primary playable character for the game's early hours before killing Joel, but the plot was restructured, and Druckmann felt that personalizing the character too early in the game was "too easy"; he wanted players to hate Abby early in the game, but later empathize with her. He avoided writing her as a "perfect" character, instead prompting empathy through her flaws and redemptive actions. Druckmann told Bailey to avoid smiling as Abby, noting that "it should feel like a reward if she's smiling". One of Abby's most notable vulnerabilities is her crippling fear of heights.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Some of the game's flashback scenes with Abby initially depicted her joining the WLF, though it was an unconscious decision on her behalf, as the leader of the WLF was a fellow member of her former group and acted as a father figure for her. Abby's goal to kill Joel was fueled by her desire to return to a world before her father's death, but she discovers it impossible. After witnessing Owen's refusal to give up looking for a "light" in a world of darkness, she finds her own purpose in protecting Yara and Lev, which Druckmann felt mirrored Joel's redemption arc from the first game. Owen represents emotion in contrast to Abby's pessimism. The obstacles she overcomes when gathering medical supplies to save Yara's life demonstrates the lengths to which she will go to help the children and redeem herself. Margenau felt that Abby was inspired to abandon her alliances after witnessing Lev's rebellious nature. Abby's plea to the Santa Barbara Rattlers to leave Lev alone is an intentional parallel with Ellie's plea for Abby to spare Joel earlier in the game. While shooting the final part of Abby and Ellie's climatic fight, in which Ellie tries to drown Abby by grabbing her throat and pinning her down in shallow water before eventually sparing her, Bailey held her breath for the entire section; Ashley Johnson, who plays Ellie, let go when she realized that Bailey's lips were turning blue. Bailey felt that Abby understood Ellie's emotions by the game's end, having dealt with her own father's death.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abby's father, Jerry Anderson, was a Firefly surgeon whom Joel killed at the end of the first game to save Ellie. Four years later, in her early twenties, she tracks Joel down in Jackson, Wyoming, and beats him to death. Some time later, back in Seattle, Abby learns that her ex-boyfriend Owen has gone missing while investigating the Seraphites, a religious cult locked in a war with the Washington Liberation Front (WLF), the militia of which Abby is a member. WLF leader Isaac Dixon believes Owen may have defected, and plans to assault the Seraphites' nearby island settlement. Searching for Owen, Abby is captured and witnesses the Seraphites shatter the arm of a runaway Seraphite named Yara. After being rescued by Yara's younger brother Lev, they arrive at the aquarium, where Abby finds Owen. He plans to sail to Santa Barbara, California, where the Fireflies are supposedly regrouping. Yara's arm requires amputation, so Abby and Lev retrieve medical supplies from the hospital, which is overrun by Infected. Lev runs away to the Seraphite settlement to convince their mother to leave the cult. Abby and Yara pursue him, fending off an attack from Tommy, Joel's vengeful younger brother.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: At the settlement, they discover Lev has killed his devout mother in self-defense. As the WLF attack the settlement, Yara kills Isaac and sacrifices herself to let Abby and Lev escape. Abby and Lev return to the aquarium to find Owen and his pregnant girlfriend Mel killed and a map leading to Ellie's theater hideout. At the theater, Abby kills Jesse and shoots Tommy, crippling him. She overpowers Ellie and Dina but, after learning that Dina is pregnant, spares them at Lev's insistence and warns them to leave. Some time later, Abby and Lev arrive in Santa Barbara searching for the Fireflies, but are captured by the Rattlers, a gang of slave-keeping bandits. After being weakened by weeks of torture, they are rescued by Ellie. Threatening to kill Lev, Ellie forces Abby to fight her. Ellie overpowers her but lets her live. Abby sails away with Lev towards the Firefly base on Catalina Island.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abby's character received generally positive feedback from critics, and Bailey's performance was highly praised. John Saavedra of "Den of Geek" lauded Bailey for bringing Abby to life and making the player empathize with her by the game's end. He lauded the character's camaraderie with her companions, particularly Manny. "VG247"s Caitlin Galiz-Rowe found Abby's redemption arc more believable and important than others in the game. Jason Sheehan of NPR wrote that witnessing the story through Abby's perspective proved that her revenge was "just as earned" as Ellie's. Kat Bailey of "USgamer" appreciated the ambition of the player switch, but felt that it "just barely" pulled it off. "VentureBeat"s Dean Takahashi concluded that Abby redeemed herself by sparing Ellie and praised Naughty Dog's ability to make the character likable by the game's end. Rafael Motamayor of "Observer" found Abby's story as interesting as Ellie's, and felt that its use within the story made Ellie a better character as well. "Mashable"s Jess Joho considered Abby's story to be more nuanced and compelling, but criticized both characters for relying too heavily on their relationships with their fathers; Joho felt that the story was at its best with Abby and Lev.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: Abby's playable chapters were controversial among players, who had expected to control Ellie for the majority of the game. Writing for "Collider", Dave Trumbore felt that Abby had been unfairly maligned by audiences, feeling they had failed to understand the story's message and subtext. Some players criticized Abby's muscular physique, and theories spread online that she was transgender; "Polygon"s Patricia Hernandez and "The Independent"s Amy Coles argued that this perception was a result of the lack of body diversity in games, and that the story showed Abby had the resources to achieve her physique. Bailey became the target of online death threats in response to the character; Naughty Dog released a statement condemning the threats, and Bailey was supported by James Gunn, Ashley Johnson, and Craig Mazin, among others. Bailey spoke to friends like Druckmann and Johnson at the time of the controversy. She said that she continues to "see the remnants of it online" in February 2022.


title: Abby (The Last of Us)

text: For her role, Bailey won Best Performance at The Game Awards 2020 and from "IGN", Performer in a Leading Role at the 17th British Academy Games Awards, and was co-winner of Outstanding Lead Performance in a Drama at the NAVGTR Awards with Johnson. Abby was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Character at the 24th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. Bailey is currently nominated for Best Voice Performance at the 19th Game Audio Network Guild Awards.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Stephen Edward Ambrose (January 10, 1936 – October 13, 2002) was an American historian, most noted for his biographies of U.S. Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon. He was a longtime professor of history at the University of New Orleans and the author of many bestselling volumes of American popular history.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: There have been numerous well documented allegations of plagiarism, inaccuracies, and sloppiness in Ambrose's writings in addition to claims that he has made about his works. However, in a review of "" for "The New York Times", high school teacher William Everdell credited the historian with reaching "an important lay audience without endorsing its every prejudice."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose was born January 10, 1936, in Lovington, Illinois, to Rosepha Trippe Ambrose and Stephen Hedges Ambrose. His father was a physician who served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. Ambrose was raised in Whitewater, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Whitewater High School. His family also owned a farm in Lovington, Illinois, and vacation property in Marinette County, Wisconsin. He attended college at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he was a member of Chi Psi fraternity and played on the University of Wisconsin football team for three years.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose originally wanted to major in pre-medicine, but changed his major to history after hearing the first lecture in a U.S. history class entitled "Representative Americans" in his sophomore year. The course was taught by William B. Hesseltine, whom Ambrose credits with fundamentally shaping his writing and igniting his interest in history. While at Wisconsin, Ambrose was a member of the Navy and Army ROTC. He graduated with a B.A. in 1957. Ambrose received a master's degree in history from Louisiana State University in 1958, studying under T. Harry Williams. Ambrose then went on to earn a PhD from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1963, under William B. Hesseltine.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose was a history professor from 1960 until his retirement in 1995. From 1971 onward, he was on the faculty of the University of New Orleans, where he was named the Boyd Professor of History in 1989, an honor given only to faculty who attain "national or international distinction for outstanding teaching, research, or other creative achievement". During the 1969–1970 academic year, he was the Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History at the Naval War College. While teaching at Kansas State University as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Professor of War and Peace during the 1970–1971 academic year, Ambrose participated in heckling of Richard Nixon during a speech the president gave on the KSU campus. Given pressure from the KSU administration and having job offers elsewhere, upon finishing out the year Ambrose offered to leave and the offer was accepted. His opposition to the Vietnam War stood in contrast to his research on "presidents and the military at a time when such topics were increasingly regarded by his colleagues as old fashioned and conservative." Ambrose also taught at Louisiana State University (assistant professor of history; 1960–1964) and Johns Hopkins University (associate professor of history; 1964–1969). He held visiting posts at Rutgers University, the University of California, Berkeley, and a number of European schools, including University College Dublin, where he taught as the Mary Ball Washington Professor of American History.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: He founded the Eisenhower Center at the University of New Orleans in 1989 serving as its director until 1994. "The mission of the Eisenhower Center is the study of the causes, conduct, and consequences of American national security policy and the use of force as an instrument of policy in the twentieth century." The center's first efforts, which Ambrose initiated, involved the collection of oral histories from World War II veterans about their experiences, particularly any participation in D-Day. By the time of publication of Ambrose's "D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II," in 1994, the center had collected more than 1,200 oral histories. Ambrose donated $150,000 to the Center in 1998 to foster additional efforts to collect oral histories from World War II veterans.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose's earliest works concerned the American Civil War. He wrote biographies of the generals Emory Upton and Henry Halleck, the first of which was based on his dissertation.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Early in his career, Ambrose was mentored by World War II historian Forrest Pogue. In 1964, Ambrose took a position at Johns Hopkins as the Associate Editor of the "Eisenhower Papers", a project aimed at organizing, cataloging and publishing Eisenhower's principal papers. From this work and discussions with Eisenhower emerged an article critical of Cornelius Ryan's "The Last Battle", which had depicted Eisenhower as politically naîve, when at the end of World War II he allowed Soviet forces to take Berlin, thus shaping the Cold War that followed. Ambrose expanded this into a book, "Eisenhower and Berlin, 1945: The Decision to Halt at the Elbe" (1967). Ambrose was aided in the book's writing by comments and notes provided by Eisenhower, who read a draft of the book.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In 1964, Ambrose was commissioned to write the official biography of the former president and five-star general Dwight D. Eisenhower. This resulted in a book on Eisenhower's war years, "The Supreme Commander" (1970) and a two-volume full biography (published 1983 and 1984), which are considered "the standard" on the subject. Regarding the first volume, Gordon Harrison, writing for "The New York Times", proclaimed, "It is Mr. Ambrose's special triumph that he has been able to fight through the memoranda, the directives, plans, reports, and official self-serving pieties of the World War II establishment to uncover the idiosyncratic people at its center." Ambrose also wrote a three-volume biography of Richard Nixon. Although Ambrose was a strong critic of Nixon, the biography was considered fair and just regarding Nixon's presidency.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: A visit to a reunion of Easy Company veterans in 1988 prompted Ambrose to collect their stories, turning them into "Band of Brothers, E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne: From Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest" (1992). "D-Day" (1994), built upon additional oral histories, presented the battle from the view points of individual soldiers and became his first best seller. A reviewer for the "Journal of Military History" commended "D-Day" as the "most comprehensive discussion" of the sea, air, and land operations that coalesced on that day. Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, writing for "The New York Times", proclaimed that "Reading this history, you can understand why for so many of its participants, despite all the death surrounding them, life revealed itself in that moment at that place." Ambrose's "Citizen Soldiers", which describes battles fought in northwest Europe from D-Day through the end of the war in Europe, utilized, again, extensive oral histories. "Citizen Soldiers" became a best seller, appearing on the "New York Times" best sellers lists for both hardcover and paperback editions in the same week. During the same week, in September 1998, "D-Day" and "Undaunted Courage", Ambrose's 1996 book on Meriwether Lewis and the Corps of Discovery, appeared on the best seller list, also. He also wrote "The Victors" (1998), a distillation of material from other books detailing Eisenhower's wartime experiences and connections to the common soldier, and "The Wild Blue", that looks at World War II aviation largely through the experiences of George McGovern, who commanded a B-24 crew that flew numerous missions over Germany. His other major works include "Undaunted Courage" about the Lewis and Clark Expedition and "Nothing Like It in the World" about the construction of the Pacific Railroad. His final book, "This Vast Land", a historical novel about the Lewis & Clark expedition written for young readers, was published posthumously in 2003.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose's most popular single work was "Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West" (1996), which stayed on the "New York Times" best seller list for a combined, hardcover and paperback, 126 weeks. Ambrose consolidated research on the Corps of Discovery's expedition conducted in the previous thirty years and "synthesized it skillfully to enrich our understanding and appreciation of this grand epic," according to Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., who reviewed the book for "The New York Times". Ken Burns, who produced and directed a PBS documentary on Lewis & Clark declared that Ambrose "takes one of the great, but also one of the most superficially considered, stories in American history and breathes fresh life into it."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In addition to twenty-seven self-authored books, Ambrose co-authored, edited, and contributed to many more and was a frequent contributor to magazines such as "American Heritage". He, also, reviewed the works of other historians in the "Journal of Southern History", "Military Affairs", "American Historical Review", "The Journal of American History", and "Foreign Affairs". He served as a contributing editor to "", also.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose featured in the 1973-74 ITV television series, "The World at War", which detailed the history of World War II.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: He served as the historical consultant for the movie "Saving Private Ryan". Tom Hanks, who starred in the movie, said he "pored over "D-Day"" and "Band of Brothers" in researching his role. Hanks also credited Ambrose's books with providing extensive detail, particularly regarding D-Day landings.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: The HBO mini-series, "Band of Brothers" (2001), for which he was an executive producer, helped sustain the fresh interest in World War II that had been stimulated by the 50th anniversary of D-Day in 1994 and the 60th anniversary in 2004. Ambrose served as executive producer for "Price for Peace", a documentary concerning the war in the Pacific theater during World War II, and for "Moments of Truth", a TV documentary containing interviews with World War II veterans.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In addition, Ambrose served as a commentator for "", a documentary by Ken Burns. He provided commentary in twenty made-for TV documentaries, covering diverse topics, such as World War II, Lewis & Clark, and America's prominence in the 20th century. He also appeared as a guest on numerous TV programs or stations, including "The Charlie Rose Show", C-Span programming, CNN programming, NBC's "Today Show", CNBC's "Hardball", and various programming on The History Channel and the National Geographic Channel. Ambrose's association with National Geographic stemmed, in part, from his designation as an Explorer-in-Residence by the Society.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In addition to his academic work and publishing, Ambrose operated a historical tour business, acting as a tour guide to European locales of World War II. Also, he served on the board of directors for American Rivers and was a member of the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial Council.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose's work for the Eisenhower Center, specifically his work with D-Day veterans, inspired him to co-found the National D-Day Museum in New Orleans with another historian and UNO professor Gordon H. "Nick" Mueller. Ambrose initiated fundraising by donating $500,000. "He dreamt of a museum that reflected his deep regard for our nation's citizen soldiers, the workers on the Home Front and the sacrifices and hardships they endured to achieve victory." He secured large contributions from the federal government, state of Louisiana, Tom Hanks, Steven Spielberg, and many smaller donations from former students, who answered a plea made by Ambrose in the "New Orleans Times-Picayune". In 2003, Congress designated the museum as "America's National World War II Museum," acknowledging an expanded scope and mission for the museum. "The Stephen E. Ambrose Memorial Fund continues to support the development of the museum's Center for Study of the American Spirit, its educational programs and oral history and publication initiatives."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In 1997, Ambrose received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1998, he received the National Humanities Medal. In 1998, he was awarded the Samuel Eliot Morison Prize for lifetime achievement given by the Society for Military History. In 1998, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2000, Ambrose received the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service, the highest honorary award the Department of Defense offers to civilians. In 2001, he was awarded the Theodore Roosevelt Medal for Distinguished Service from the Theodore Roosevelt Association. Ambrose won an Emmy as one of the producers for the mini-series "Band of Brothers". Ambrose also received the George Marshall Award, the Abraham Lincoln Literary Award, the Bob Hope Award from the Congressional Medal of Honor Society, and the Will Rogers Memorial Award.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Upon Ambrose's death, U.S. Sen. Mary Landrieu of Louisiana offered a resolution in the Senate, which received unanimous consent, saluting the "excellence of Stephen Ambrose at capturing the greatness of the American spirit in words."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: He married his first wife, Judith Dorlester, in 1957, and they had two children, Stephenie and Barry. Judith died in 1965, when Ambrose was 29. Ambrose married his second wife, Moira Buckley (1939–2009), in 1967 and adopted her three children, Andrew, Grace, and Hugh. Moira was an active assistant in his writing and academic projects. After retiring, he maintained homes in Helena, Montana, and Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. A longtime smoker, he was diagnosed with lung cancer in April 2002. His health deteriorated rapidly, and seven months after the diagnosis he died, at the age of 66. George McGovern, the primary focus of Ambrose's "Wild Blue" said, "He probably reached more readers than any other historian in our national history."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose donated $500,000, half the amount needed, to the University of Wisconsin, to endow a chair in the name of William B. Hesseltine, Ambrose's mentor. The chair's position would focus on the teaching of American military history. When the chair became fully endowed, after Ambrose's death, it was renamed the Ambrose-Hesseltine Chair.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: The Ambrose Professor of History title was established at the University of New Orleans after his death. The position is reserved for a military historian.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Each year the Rutgers University Living History Society awards the Stephen E. Ambrose Oral History Award to "an author or artist who has made significant use of oral history." Past winners include Tom Brokaw, Steven Spielberg, Studs Terkel, Michael Beschloss, and Ken Burns.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In 2002, Ambrose was accused of plagiarizing several passages in his book "The Wild Blue". Fred Barnes reported in "The Weekly Standard" that Ambrose had taken passages from "Wings of Morning: The Story of the Last American Bomber Shot Down over Germany in World War II", by Thomas Childers, a history professor at the University of Pennsylvania. Ambrose had footnoted sources, but had not enclosed in quotation marks numerous passages from Childers's book.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: Ambrose asserted that only a few sentences in all his numerous books were the work of other authors. He offered this defense:


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: A "Forbes" investigation of his work found cases of plagiarism involving passages in at least six books, with a similar pattern going all the way back to his doctoral dissertation. The History News Network lists seven of Ambrose's more than 40 works—"The Wild Blue", "Undaunted Courage", "Nothing Like It In the World", "Nixon: Ruin and Recovery", "Citizen Soldiers", "The Supreme Commander", and "Crazy Horse and Custer"—contained content from twelve authors without appropriate attribution from Ambrose.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: A front-page article published in "The Sacramento Bee" on January 1, 2001, entitled "Area Historians Rail Against Inaccuracies in Book", listed more than sixty instances identified as "significant errors, misstatements, and made-up quotes" in "Nothing Like It in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863–1869," Ambrose's non-academic popular history about the construction of the Pacific Railroad between Council Bluffs, Iowa/Omaha, Nebraska, and the San Francisco Bay at Alameda/Oakland via Sacramento, California, which was published in August 2000. The discrepancies were documented in a detailed "fact-checking" paper compiled in December 2000 by three Western US railroad historians who are also experienced researchers, consultants, and collectors specializing in the Pacific Railroad and related topics.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: On January 11, 2001, "Washington Post" columnist Lloyd Grove reported in his column "The Reliable Source", that a co-worker had found a "serious historical error" in the same book that "a chastened Ambrose" promised to correct in future editions. A number of journal reviews also sharply criticized the research and fact checking in the book. Reviewer Walter Nugent observed that it contained "annoying slips" such as mislabeled maps, inaccurate dates, geographical errors, and misidentified word origins, while railroad historian Don L. Hofsommer agreed that the book "confuses facts" and that "The research might best be characterized as 'once over lightly'."


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: In the introduction to Ambrose's biography of Eisenhower, he claims that the former president approached him after having read his previous biography of the American general Henry Halleck,


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: but Tim Rives, Deputy Director of the Eisenhower Presidential Center, says it was Ambrose who contacted Eisenhower and suggested the project, as shown by a letter from Ambrose found in the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum. In his response, Eisenhower stated that "the confidence I have derived from your work by reading your two books—especially the one on Halleck—give reasons why I should be ready to help out so far as I can." The Halleck biography "still sits on a shelf" at the Eisenhower National Historic Site in Gettysburg.


title: Stephen E. Ambrose

text: After Eisenhower's death in 1969, Ambrose made repeated claims to have had a unique and extraordinarily close relationship with him over the final five years of the former President's life. In an extensive 1998 interview, before a group of high school students, Ambrose stated that he spent "a lot of time with Ike, really a lot, hundreds and hundreds of hours." Ambrose claimed he interviewed Eisenhower on a wide range of subjects, and that he had been with him "on a daily basis for a couple years" before his death "doing interviews and talking about his life." The former president's diary and telephone records show that the pair met only three times, for a total of less than five hours. Rives has stated that interview dates Ambrose cites in his 1970 book, "The Supreme Commander", cannot be reconciled with Eisenhower's personal schedule, but Rives discovered, upon further investigation, a "hidden" relationship between the two men. Eisenhower enlisted Ambrose in his efforts to preserve his legacy and counteract criticisms of his presidency, particularly those charging that Eisenhower's actions at the end of World War II produced the Cold War. Ambrose wrote a review and book supporting the former general, with Eisenhower providing direction and comments during the process. Rives could not square the questionable interview dates cited by Ambrose in later works, but uncovered a relationship with Eisenhower that was "too complicated" to be described by Ambrose's critics.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit are an Indian film music director duo consisting of Jatin Pandit and his brother Lalit Pandit. They have written the widely popular scores for films such as "Yaara Dildara", "Khiladi", "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar", "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa", "Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman", "", "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge", "Fareb", "Yes Boss", "Jab Pyaar Kisise Hota Hai", "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai", "Sarfarosh", "Ghulam", "Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya", "Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha", "Khoobsurat", "Mohabbatein", "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...", "Chalte Chalte", "Hum Tum" and "Fanaa".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit is their professional name and appears on the covers of their music albums, CDs and DVDs.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin and Lalit come from a musical family originating from Pili Mandori Village in Hissar district of Haryana state. Pandit Jasraj was their uncle. They received their musical education primarily from their father, Pandit Pratap Narayan. They were taught guitar and piano by Pyarelal Ramprasad Sharma, of the Laxmikant–Pyarelal duo.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Hindi film actresses Sulakshana Pandit and Vijayta Pandit are their sisters, and late music director Aadesh Shrivastava was their brother-in-law, being married to the younger of the sisters, Vijayta.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: The creation of the pair Jatin–Lalit was by accident. In the early 80s, Jatin teamed up with Mandheer (elder brother) to team up as Jatin-Mandheer. This pair never had any big hits to their name. However, they earned the badge of working with legends - Kishore Kumar-Wafaa (1990) and Mohd Rafi - Dil Hi Dil Main (1982). Lalit, the youngest brother, was discovering his love for music. Since, the Jatin-Mandheer pair didn't really sizzle in the circuit, and Lalit was eager to make a mark as well, it was decided to revisit the music combination, and thus Jatin -Lalit - the duo, was formed. Their first foray as a pair was a private album Rhythmic Love. This album had quite a few songs, which were later recreated by the pair, in successful films like Yaara Dildaara, Yes Boss.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: They began their career in 1991, composing music for the Hindi movie "Yaara Dildara". Although the film was a Romantic Film, its music was the biggest hit. The evergreen famous song of the movie was "Bin Tere Sanam", which topped the charts. They were first noticed for their work on the soundtrack of the movie "Khiladi" and for "Pehla Nasha", a romantic song from "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikander", the film that earned then their first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director. Their other film score of 1992, "Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman" was also very successful. Their compositions are strongly influenced by R. D. Burman's style of music-making. In 1994, they composed the successful soundtrack to the Shahrukh Khan-starrer "Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa". Jatin–Lalit's score for the cult classic "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" was a massive success, and is remembered as one of the all-time best Bollywood soundtracks, earning them another nomination at the Filmfare's. It is the 5th highest selling Bollywood soundtrack of all time. Following this, their successful scores for "" (1996) and "Yes Boss" (1997), which earned them their third and fourth nominations at the Filmfare Awards cemented their place as Bollywood's top music directors.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit's next big success came with Karan Johar's debut directorial, "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai", which sold 8.5 million copies and won a nomination for best music at the Filmfare Awards. "Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha", in the same year, and "Sarfarosh", in 1999 were also appreciated, earning them their fifth and sixth nominations at the Filmfare Awards. "Mohabbatein", (2000) directed by Aditya Chopra won acclaim, and the song "Humko Humise Chura Lo" became a classic. This soundtrack was also nominated at the Filmfare Awards, as was "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (2001), another famous soundtrack that included songs such as "Bole Chudiyaan". Before their split in 2006, some of their successful soundtracks include "Chalte Chalte" (2003), "Hum Tum" (2004) and "Fanaa" (2006), their final collaboration. The three movies won them their tenth, eleventh and twelfth nominations at the Filmfare Awards. Despite being nominated eleven times, Jatin–Lalit never won a Filmfare Award, and hold the record for the most nominations without ever winning.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: They have composed a total of 473 songs in 72 films. The duo has worked with a variety of lyricists; Majrooh Sultanpuri, Gopaldas Neeraj, Anand Bakshi, Sameer, Javed Akhtar and singers including Amit Kumar, Kumar Sanu, Abhijeet Bhattacharya, Udit Narayan, Hariharan, Sonu Nigam,K.S.Chithra, Anuradha Paudwal, Alka Yagnik, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sadhana Sargam, Shaan, Babul Supriyo and many others. Veteran singers Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle and Jagjit Singh have also sung in a few movies for the duo. Abhijeet credits Jatin–Lalit with the success of his career, due to songs such as "Yeh Teri Aankhen Jhunki Jhunki", "Main Koi Aisa Geet Gaon", "Chaand Taare" and "Tauba Tumhare Yeh Ishare".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: During the last few years of their joint career, their music albums contained several songs composed by other musicians. This practice was not liked by Jatin–Lalit; however, the producer and director insisted on it. In Karan Johar's "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." two of the tracks were composed by Sandesh Shandilya. In "Chalte Chalte", Aadesh Shrivastava composed several songs while in "Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya", one song was composed by Himesh Reshammiya and Sajid–Wajid.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: They were among the first composers to write songs performed by Bollywood film stars rather than playback singers. The specially composed "Aati Kya Khandala" in the film "Ghulam" for the lead actor Aamir Khan. Later, they also composed a song for Sanjay Dutt to sing in the movie "Khoobsurat".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit has composed the highest-selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year on four occasions – "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" in 1995, "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" in 1998, "Mohabbatein" in 2000, and "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." in 2001.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin and Lalit appeared in the movie "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar" during the song "Humse Hai Saara Jahaan". Jatin is singing the song, while Lalit is playing the bass guitar (the first shot of the song). Jatin performed the song "Rooth Ke Humse" in the film.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit were appointed as judges in the Zee Television musical show "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa". They were judges on another musical show, "Star Voice of India". Jatin has appeared as a mentor in TV show "Jhoom India". He was judge and mentor in the reality show on Sony TV's "Waar Parriwar".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: After working for almost 16 years together, they announced that they would be parting ways due to personal problems. Reasons for the separation still are unknown.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: In February 2020, the Jatin–Lalit duo came together and organised a concert in Mumbai which was very well received and in which numerous leading Bollywood singers performed.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Lalit scored the 2007 film, "Life Mein Kabhie Kabhiee", "Showbiz", "Horn Ok Pleassss" and "Dulha Mil Gaya".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin composed the score for Saurav Shukla's film, "I Am 24", starring Neha Dhupia and Rajat Kapoor. It is a Planman Motion Films Presentation.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: He composed for Raja Sen's film "Krishnakanter Will". "I am working on the number. I am trying to make it in such a way that it goes along with the novel written by Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay. The song will be melody-based," says Jatin. He recorded an album for the president of the Indian Business and Professional Council, Abbas Ali Mirza. He is doing the Music for Kundan Shah's next. Considering the strong track record Jatin–Lalit had with Kundan Shah, this film could be the next "Kabhi Haa Kabhi Naa" for Jatin. Jatin is working on the maiden venture of Gazebo Entertainment's "Saturday Night".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Lalit composed the song "Munni Badnaam Hui" for "Dabangg" (2010). The song has become hugely popular among the masses. He won the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director with Sajid–Wajid in 2011 for this song, particularly for the quirky lyrics and dancing choreography.


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Their soundtrack of "Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge" was judged the top Hindi soundtrack of all time by on-line voters on the BBC Asian Network. The number two and three positions also went to Jatin–Lalit for their compositions from "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." and "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai".


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" has been rated the 6th best soundtrack ever by "Planet Bollywood" on their "100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks". Other soundtracks included in the list are "Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..." (64), "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (69) and "" (97).


title: Jatin–Lalit

text: Jatin–Lalit is most remembered for their collaboration with Alka Yagnik. They composed 136 songs for her and this pair has become one of the most sought-after singer-composer duos in music history alongside Asha Bhosle–R. D. Burman, Asha Bhosle–O. P. Nayyar, Asha Bhosle–Bappi Lahiri, Lata Mangeshkar–Laxmikant-Pyarelal, Lata Mangeshkar–R. D. Burman, Lata Mangeshkar–Shankar–Jaikishan, Lata Mangeshkar–Madan Mohan, Lata Mangeshkar–S. D. Burman, Lata Mangeshkar–Salil Chowdhury, Lata Mangeshkar–Khayyam etc. Among males, Jatin–Lalit's most favourite were Kumar Sanu and Udit Narayan. They equally propelled their career with hit after hit. Both singers sang over 100 songs for them.


title: Street food

text: Street food is ready-to-eat food or drinks sold by a hawker, or vendor, in a street or at other public places, such as markets or fairs. It is often sold from a portable food booth, food cart, or food truck and is meant for immediate consumption. Some street foods are regional, but many have spread beyond their regions of origin. Most street foods are classified as both finger food and fast food, and are typically cheaper than restaurant meals. The types of street food widely vary between regions and cultures in different countries around the world. According to a 2007 study from the Food and Agriculture Organization, 2.5 billion people eat street food every day. A majority of middle-income consumers rely on the quick access and cheap service of street food for daily nutrition and job opportunities, especially in developing countries.


title: Street food

text: Today, governments and other organizations are increasingly concerned with both the socioeconomic importance of street food, and with its associated risks. These risks include food safety, sanitation issues, illegal use of public or private areas, social problems and traffic congestion.


title: Street food

text: In ancient Greece, small fried fish was a street food, however, the Greek philosopher Theophrastus held the custom of street food in low regard. Evidence of a large number of street food vendors was discovered during the excavation of Pompeii. Street food was widely consumed by poor urban residents of ancient Rome whose tenement homes did not have ovens or hearths. Chickpea soup with bread and grain paste were common meals. In ancient China, street food generally catered to the poor, though wealthy residents would send servants to buy street food and bring it back for them to eat in their homes.


title: Street food

text: A travelling Florentine reported in the late 14th century that in Cairo, people brought picnic cloths made of rawhide to spread on the streets and sit on while they ate their meals of lamb kebabs, rice, and fritters they purchased from street vendors. In Renaissance Turkey, many crossroads had vendors selling "fragrant bites of hot meat," including chicken and lamb that had been spit-roasted. In 1502, Ottoman Turkey became the first country to legislate and standardize street food.


title: Street food

text: In the 19th century, street food vendors in Transylvania sold gingerbread nuts, cream mixed with corn, as well as bacon and other meat fried on top of ceramic vessels with hot coals inside. French fries, consisting of fried strips of potato, probably originated as a street food in Paris in the 1840s. Street foods in Victorian London included tripe, pea soup, pea pods in butter, whelk, prawns and jellied eels.


title: Street food

text: Aztec marketplaces had vendors who sold beverages such as "atolli" ("a gruel made from maize dough"), almost 50 types of tamales (with ingredients that ranged from the meat of turkey, rabbit, gopher, frog and fish to fruits, eggs and maize flowers), as well as insects and stews. Spanish colonization brought European food stocks like wheat, sugarcane and livestock to Peru, but most commoners continued to primarily eat their traditional diets. Imports were only accepted at the margins of their diet, for example, grilled beef hearts sold by street vendors. Some of Lima's 19th-century street vendors such as "Erasmo, the 'negro' sango vendor" and Na Aguedita are still remembered today.


title: Street food

text: During the American Colonial period, "street vendors sold oysters, roasted corn ears, fruit, and sweets at low prices to all classes." Oysters, in particular, were a cheap and popular street food until around 1910 when overfishing and pollution caused prices to rise. Street vendors in New York City faced a lot of opposition. After previous restrictions had limited their operating hours, street food vendors were completely banned in New York City by 1707. Many women of African descent made their living selling street foods in America in the 18th and 19th centuries, with products ranging from fruit, cakes, and nuts in Savannah, to coffee, biscuits, pralines and other sweets in New Orleans. Cracker Jack started as one of many street food exhibits at the Columbian Exposition.


title: Street food

text: The selling of street food in China stretches back millennia and became an integral part of Chinese food culture during the Tang Dynasty. Street food continues to play a major role in Chinese cuisine with regional street food generating a strong interest in culinary tourism. Because of the Chinese diaspora, Chinese street food has had a major influence on other cuisines across Asia and even introduced the concept of a street food culture to other countries. The street food culture of Southeast Asia was established by coolie workers imported from China during the late 19th century.


title: Street food

text: Ramen, originally brought to Japan by Chinese immigrants about 100 years ago, began as a street food for laborers and students. However, it soon became a "national dish" and even acquired regional variations.


title: Street food

text: Street food was commonly sold by the ethnic Chinese population of Thailand and did not become popular among native Thai people until the early 1960s, when the rapid urban population growth stimulated the street food culture, and by the 1970s it had "displaced home-cooking." As a result, many Thai street foods are derived from or heavily influenced by Chinese cuisine. About 76% of urban residents in Thailand regularly visit street food vendors. The rise of the country's tourism industry has also contributed to the popularity of Thai street food. Thailand's 103,000 street food vendors alone generated 270 billion baht in revenues in 2017. Suvit Maesincee, Minister of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, expects the Thai street food segment to grow by six to seven percent annually from 2020 forward. Multiple studies showed that contamination of food that street food vendors sell is at the same level as the contamination at restaurants. An estimated 2% or 160,000 vendors provide street food for Bangkok's 8 million people.


title: Street food

text: In Delhi, India, it is said that ugh kings used to visit the kebab vendors on the street, which you can still visit to this day. During the colonial times, fusion street food was created, which was made with British customers in mind.


title: Street food

text: In Indonesia — especially Java, traveling food and drink vendors have a long history, as they were described in temples bas reliefs dated from 9th century, as well as mentioned in 14th century inscription as a line of work. In Indonesia, street food is sold from carts and bicycles. During colonial Dutch East Indies period circa 19th century, several street food were developed and documented, including satay and "dawet" (cendol) street vendors. The current proliferation of Indonesia's vigorous street food culture is contributed by the massive urbanization in recent decades that has opened opportunities in food service sectors. This took place in the country's rapidly expanding urban agglomerations, especially in Greater Jakarta, Bandung and Surabaya. Some cultures consider rude walking on the street while eating.


title: Street food

text: Dorling Kindersley describes the street food of Vietnam as being "fresh and lighter than many of the cuisines in the area" and "draw[ing] heavily on herbs, chile peppers and lime," while street food of Thailand is "fiery" and "pungent with shrimp paste and fish sauce." Street food in Thailand offers a varied selection of ready-to-eat meals, snacks, fruits and drinks. The capital of Thailand, Bangkok, has been listed as one of the best places for street food. Popular street offerings in Bangkok include pad thai (stir fried rice noodle), green papaya salad, sour tom yum soup, Thai curries and mango sticky rice.


title: Street food

text: Indonesian street food is a diverse mix of local Indonesian, Chinese, and Dutch influences. Indonesian street food is often strongly flavored and spicy. Much of the street food in Indonesia is fried, such as fritters, "nasi goreng" and "ayam goreng". "Bakso" (meatball soup), satay (skewered chicken) and "gado-gado" (vegetable salad served in peanut sauce) are also popular.


title: Street food

text: There is a stigma in Japan against eating on the move. However, during special occasions such as festivals, the streets of Tokyo are filled with vendors that serve food such as "odango", sashimi, oyster, and octopus.


title: Street food

text: Indian street food is as diverse as Indian cuisine. Every place has its own specialities to offer. Some of the more popular street food dishes are vada pav, misal pav, chole bhature, parathas, bhel puri, sev puri, gol gappa, aloo tikki, kebabs, tandoori chicken, samosas, kachori, idli, pohe, egg bhurji, pav bhaji, pulaw, pakora, lassi, kulfi and falooda. In Hindi speaking regions of India, street food is popularly known as "nukkadwala" food ("corner" food). In South India, foods like mirchi bajji, punugulu, and mokkajonna (corn roasted on coal) are common street foods, along with breakfast items like idli, dosa and bonda. While some vendors streamline the recipes of popular dishes to sell them on the street, several restaurants have taken their inspiration from the street food of India.


title: Street food

text: In the Middle East falafel is very popular. Vendors sell it on street corners in Israel, Egypt, and Syria. Another food sold commonly on the street in Egypt is ful, a slow-cooked fava bean dish.


title: Street food

text: In the Caribbean Islands a traditional dish is Jamaican jerk chicken. The original marinade calls for Caribbean ingredients such as scotch bonnet peppers, allspice berries and sometimes wood from laurel trees.


title: Street food

text: Mexican street food is known as "antojitos" (translated as "little cravings") and features several varieties of tacos, such as tacos al pastor, as well as huaraches and other maize based foods.


title: Street food

text: New York City's signature street food is the hot dog, but New York street food also includes everything from spicy Middle Eastern falafel or Jamaican jerk chicken to Belgian waffles


title: Street food

text: In Hawaii, the local street food tradition of "plate lunch" (rice, macaroni salad, and a portion of meat) was inspired by the "bento" of the Japanese who had been brought to Hawaii as plantation workers.


title: Street food

text: Because of differences in culture, social stratification, and history, the ways in which family street vendor enterprises are traditionally created and run vary in different areas of the world. Often, women's success in the street food market depends on trends of gender equality. This is evidenced in Bangladesh, where few women are street vendors. However, in Nigeria and Thailand, women dominate the street food trade. Doreen Fernandez says that Filipino cultural attitudes towards meals is one "cultural factor operating in the street food phenomenon" in the Philippines because eating "food out in the open, in the market or street or field" is "not at odds with the meal indoors or at home" where "there is no special room for dining".


title: Street food

text: Other cultural phenomena that affect the street food market include the cultural implications of eating while walking down the street. In some cultures, this is considered to be rude, such as Japanese or Swahili cultures. Despite not being allowed for adults, it is culturally acceptable for children to do. In India, Henrike Donner wrote about a "marked distinction between food that could be eaten outside, especially by women," and the food prepared and eaten at home, with some non-Indian food being too "strange" or tied too closely to non-vegetarian preparation methods to be made at home.


title: Street food

text: In Tanzania's Dar es Salaam region, street food vendors produce economic benefits beyond their families. Because street food vendors purchase local fresh foods, urban gardens and small-scale farms in the area have expanded. In the United States, street food vendors are credited with supporting New York City's rapid growth by supplying meals for the city's merchants and workers. Proprietors of street food in the United States have had a goal of upward mobility, moving from selling on the street to their own shops. However, in Mexico, an increase in street vendors has been seen as a sign of deteriorating economic conditions in which food vending is the only employment opportunity that unskilled labor who have migrated from rural areas to urban areas are able to find.


title: Street food

text: In 2002, Coca-Cola reported that China, India, and Nigeria were some of its fastest-growing markets: markets where the company's expansion efforts included training and equipping mobile street vendors to sell its products.


title: Street food

text: The libertarian "Reason" magazine states that in US cities, food trucks are subject to regulations designed to prevent them from competing with brick and mortar restaurants. For example, in Chicago, a regulation prevents food trucks "...from selling food within 200 feet of brick-and-mortar restaurants and, hence, prohibit them from operating throughout the city's downtown area," which critics have called an "anti-competitive" rule for food truck operators.


title: Street food

text: Since 1984, Folsom Street Fair in San Francisco is home of one of the most diverse street food fairs. In addition to much leather, and people in various states of dress and undress, the event features an outdoor food court serving a variety of street food. For donations of $10 or more, visitors get a $2 discount on each drink purchased at the fair. In 2018, the street photographer Michael Rababy documented it in his book, "Folsom Street Food Court".


title: Street food

text: Netflix has also featured the street foods of the world through its TV series "Street Food", with the first volume focusing on Asia, and the second on Latin America.


title: Street food

text: As early as the 14th century, government officials oversaw street food vendor activities. With the increasing pace of globalization and tourism, the safety of street food has become one of the major concerns of public health, and a focus for governments and scientists to raise public awareness. However, despite concerns about contamination at street food vendors, the incidence of such is low, with studies showing rates comparable to restaurants.


title: Street food

text: In Singapore, street food vendors known as "hawkers", over half of which were unlicensed, were considered "primarily a nuisance to be removed from the streets". 113 hawker centres were constructed between 1971 and 1986 to remove hawkers from the streets while preserving the food culture.


title: Street food

text: In 2002, a sampling of 511 street foods in Ghana by the World Health Organization showed that most had microbial counts within the accepted limits, and a different sampling of 15 street foods in Calcutta showed that they were "nutritionally well balanced", providing roughly 200 kcal (Cal) of energy per rupee of cost.


title: Street food

text: In the United Kingdom, the Food Standards Agency has provided comprehensive guidance of food safety for the vendors, traders and retailers of the street food sector since 2000. Other effective ways of enhancing the safety of street foods include: mystery shopping programs, training, rewarding programs to vendors, regulatory governing and membership management programs, and technical testing programs.


title: Street food

text: In India, government recognized the fundamental rights of the street food vendors and have imposed reasonable restrictions. And in 2006, India legislature has enacted the food Safety and Standards Act to monitor the quality of food.


title: Street food

text: Despite knowledge of the risk factors, actual harm to consumers’ health is yet to be fully proven and understood. Due to difficulties in tracking cases and the lack of disease-reporting systems, follow-up studies proving actual connections between street food consumption and food-borne diseases are still very few. Little attention has been devoted to consumers and their eating habits, behaviors and awareness. The fact that social and geographical origins largely determine consumers’ physiological adaptation and reaction to foods—whether contaminated or not—is neglected in the literature.


title: Street food

text: In the late 1990s, the United Nations and other organizations began to recognize that street vendors had been an underused method of delivering fortified foods to populations, and in 2007, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization recommended considering methods of adding nutrients and supplements to street foods that are commonly consumed by the particular culture.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The majority of the population of Iran (approximately 67–80%) consists of Iranic peoples. The largest groups in this category include Persians (who form the majority of the Iranian population) and Kurds, with smaller communities including Gilakis, Mazandaranis, Lurs, Tats, Talysh, and Baloch.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Turkic peoples constitute a substantial minority of about 7–24%, the largest group being the Azerbaijani.They are the second largest ethnicity in Iran as well as the largest minority group. Other Turkic groups include the Turkmen and Qashqai peoples.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Arabs account for about 2–3% of the Iranian population. The remainder, amounting to about 1% of Iranian population, consists of a variety of minor groups, mainly comprising Assyrians, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, and Mandaeans.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, Iran had a total population of just below 10 million, with an approximate ethnic composition of: 6 million Persians (60%), 2.5 million Azeris (25%), 0.2 million Mazandaranis and Gilakis each (2% each).


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: A CIA World Factbook estimate from 2007 put Persians at 51% of the population of the country. Another source, the United States Library of Congress states Iran's Persians compose 65% of the country's population. However, other sources mention that Persians only comprise 50.5%, or 55.3%. Some of these numbers include the Mazandaranis and Gilakis as Persian people, though the CIA World Factbook makes a distinction between the Persian language and the Mazandarani and Gilaki language, respectively.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Kurds are an Iranian people, which make up the majority of the population of Kurdistan province, and, together with the Azeris, they are one of the two main ethnic groups in West Azerbaijan province.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Lur people speak the Luri language and inhabit parts of west – south western Iran. Most Lur are Shi’a. They are the fourth largest ethnic group in Iran after the Persians, Azeri, and Kurds. They occupy Lorestan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Khuzestan, Isfahan, Fars, Bushehr and Kuh-Gilu-Boir Ahmed provinces. The authority of tribal elders remains a strong influence among the nomadic population. It is not as dominant among the settled urban population. As is true in Bakhtiari and Kurdish societies, Lur women have much greater freedom than women in other groups within the region. The Luri language is Indo-European. The Lur people may be related to the Kurds from whom they "apparently began to be distinguished from... 1,000 years ago." The Sharafnama of Sharaf Khan Bidlisi "mentioned two Lur dynasties among the five Kurdish dynasties that had in the past enjoyed royalty or the highest form of sovereignty or independence." In the Mu'jam Al-Buldan of Yaqut al-Hamawi mention is made of the Lurs as a Kurdish tribe living in the mountains between Khuzestan and Isfahan. The term Kurd according to Richard Frye was used for all Iranian nomads (including the population of Luristan as well as tribes in Kuhistan and Baluchis in Kerman) for all nomads, whether they were linguistically connected to the Kurds or not.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Mazanderani people or Tabari people are an Iranian people whose homeland is the North of Iran (Tabaristan). Like the closely related Gilaks, the Mazanderanis are a Caspian people who inhabit the south coast of the Caspian Sea, part of the historical region that used to be called Tabaristan and are currently one of the main ethnic groups residing in the northern parts of Iran. They speak the Mazandarani language, a language native to around 4 million people, but all of them can speak Persian. The Alborz mountains mark the southern boundary of Mazanderani settlement. The Mazanderani peoples number differs between three million and four million (2006 estimate) and many of them are farmers and fishermen.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Gilaki people or Gilaks are an Iranian people native to the northern Iran province of Gilan and are one of the main ethnic groups residing in the northern part of Iran. Gilaks, along with the closely related Mazandarani people, comprise part of the Caspian people, who inhabit the southern and southwestern coastal regions of the Caspian Sea. They speak the Gilaki language and their population is estimated to be between 3 to 4 million (4% of the population). Gilaki people live both alongside the Alborz mountains, and in the surrounding plains. Consequentially, those living along the northern side of the Alborz mountains tend to raise livestock, while those living in the plains farm. Gilaks play an important role in provincial and national economy, supplying a large portion of the region's agricultural staples, such as rice, grains, tobacco and tea. Other major industries include fishing and caviar exports, and the production of silk.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Talysh are an Iranian people. The Talysh of Iran are about 430,000 and live mostly in the province of Gilan in north of Iran. They are indigenous to a region shared between Republic of Azerbaijan and Iran which spans the South Caucasus and the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea. Another significant amount of Talysh live therefore also in the Republic of Azerbaijan.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Tats are an Iranian people. The Tats of Iran are centralised near the Alborz Mountains, especially in the south of Qazvin province.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: They speak the Tati language, consisting of a group of northwestern Iranian dialects closely related to the Talysh language. Persian and Azeri are also spoken.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Balochs are an Iranian people. The Balochis of Iran live in southern and central parts of Sistan and Baluchestan province, one of the most remote and isolated areas of Iran, especially from the majority of the people. The northern part of the province is called Sistan and 63% of the population are ethnic Baloch while the rest are Persian Sistani. The Baloch are Sunni Muslims, in contrast to the Sistani Persians who are adherents of Shia Islam. The capital of Sistan and Baluchestan is Zahedan and is inhabited by Baloch people, the next largest city of the province is Zabol in Sistan and is inhabited predominantly by Sistani Persians. The town of Jask in neighbouring Hormozgan Province is also inhabited by Baloch people. They form one of the smallest ethnicities in Iran.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The largest Turkic group in Iran are the Iranian Azerbaijanis, forming the second largest ethnicity in the nation after the majority Persian population.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Smaller Turkic groups account for about 2% of Iranian population between them, about half of this number is accounted for by the


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Iranian Turkmen, the other half comprises various tribal confederacies such as the Qashqai or the Khorasani Turks. According to an estimation presented by the anthropologist Sekandar Amanolahi in peer-reviewed journal "Iran and the Caucasus", the number of Iranian Turkophones "does not exceed 9 millions".


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Many sources assert that Iranian Azerbaijanis are a Turkic-speaking people of Iranian origin. Estimated numbers or percentages vary significantly and many estimates cited appear to be politically motivated. They are often considered the second largest ethnic group in Iran and the largest ethnic minority. The main estimations are stated below:


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: In the historic Azerbaijan region, the population consists mainly of Azerbaijanis. Azeris form the largest ethnic group in Iranian Azerbaijan, while Kurds are the second largest group and a majority in many cities of West Azerbaijan Province. Iranian Azerbaijan is one of the most densely populated regions of Iran. Many of these various linguistic, religious, and tribal minority groups, and Azeris themselves have settled widely outside the region. The majority of Azeris are followers of Shi'a Islam. Iranian Azerbaijanis mainly reside in the northwest provinces, including the Iranian Azerbaijan provinces (East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Ardabil, and Zanjan), as well as regions of the North to Hamadan County and Shara District in the East Hamadan Province, and some regions of Qazvin Province. Some Azerbaijani minorities also live in Markazi, Kordestan, Gilan and Kermanshah provinces. Azerbaijanis also make up significant minorities in various parts of central Iran, especially Tehran, Azerbaijanis have also emigrated and resettled in large numbers in Khorasan and Qom. Immigrant Azerbaijani communities have been represented by people prominent not only among urban and industrial working classes but also in commercial, administrative, political, religious, and intellectual circles.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Iranian Turkmen are primarily concentrated in the provinces of Golestān and North Khorasan. The largest Turkmen city in Iran is Gonbad-e Kavoos, followed by Bandar Torkaman. Iranian Turkmen are mostly Sunni Muslims.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Qashqai people mainly live in the provinces of Fars, Khuzestan and southern Isfahan, especially around the city of Shiraz in Fars. They speak the Qashqai language which is a member of the Turkic family of languages. The Qashqai were originally nomadic pastoralists and some remain so today.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The traditional nomadic Qashqai travelled with their flocks each year from the summer highland pastures north of Shiraz roughly 480 km or 300 mi south to the winter pastures on lower (and warmer) lands near the Persian Gulf, to the southwest of Shiraz. The majority, however, have now become partially or wholly sedentary. The trend towards settlement has been increasing markedly since the 1960s.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Khorasani Turks are Turkic-speaking people inhabiting parts of north-eastern Iran, and in the neighbouring regions of Turkmenistan up to beyond the Amu Darya River. They speak the Khorasani Turkic and live in North Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan, and Golestan provinces alongside Turkmens.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: 2% of Iran's citizens are Arabs. The historically large and oil-rich cities of Mahshahr, Behbahan, Masjed Soleyman, Izeh, Dezful, Shushtar, Andimeshk, Shush, Ramhormoz, Baghemalak, Gotvand, Lali, Omidieh, Aghajari, Hendijan, Ramshir, Haftkel, Bavi are inhabited by people who speak either Luri, Bakhtiari and Persian languages. There are smaller communities in Qom where there are a significant number of Arabs being of Lebanese descent, as well as Razavi Khorasan and Fars provinces. Iranian Arab communities are also found in Bahrain, Iraq, Lebanon, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Qatar.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Assyrian people of Iran are a Semitic people who speak modern Assyrian, a neo-Aramaic language descended from Classical Syriac, and are Eastern Rite Christians belonging mostly to the Assyrian Church of the East and, to a lesser extent, to the Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and Ancient Church of the East. They claim descent from the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia. They share a common identity, rooted in shared linguistic and religious traditions, with Assyrians in Iraq and elsewhere in the Middle East such as Syria and Turkey, as well as with the Assyrian diaspora.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Assyrian community in Iran numbered approximately 200,000 prior to the Islamic Revolution of 1979. However, after the revolution many Assyrians left the country, primarily for the United States, and the 1996 census counted only 32,000 Assyrians. Current estimates of the Assyrian population in Iran range from 32,000 () to 50,000 (). The Iranian capital, Tehran, is home to the majority of Iranian Assyrians; however, approximately 15,000 Assyrians reside in northern Iran, in Urmia and various Assyrian villages in the surrounding area.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Judaism is one of the oldest religions practiced in Iran and dates back to late biblical times. The biblical books of Isaiah, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Esther contain references to the life and experiences of Jews in Iran.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: By various estimates, 10,800 Jews remain in Iran, mostly in Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz. BBC reported Yazd is home to ten Jewish families, six of them related by marriage, however some estimate the number is much higher. Historically, Jews maintained a presence in many more Iranian cities. Iran contains the largest Jewish population of any Muslim majority country except Turkey.