title: History of Romania

text: As the 1930s progressed, Romania's already shaky democracy slowly deteriorated toward fascist dictatorship. The constitution of 1923 gave the king free rein to dissolve parliament and call elections at will; as a result, Romania was to experience over 25 governments in a single decade.


title: History of Romania

text: Increasingly, these governments were dominated by a number of anti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist, and mostly at least quasi-fascist parties. The National Liberal Party steadily became more nationalistic than liberal, but nonetheless lost its dominance over Romanian politics. It was eclipsed by parties like the (relatively moderate) National Peasants' Party and its more radical Romanian Front offshoot, the National-Christian Defense League (LANC) and the Iron Guard. In 1935, LANC merged with the National Agrarian Party to form the National Christian Party (NCP). The quasi-mystical fascist Iron Guard was an earlier LANC offshoot that, even more than these other parties, exploited nationalist feelings, fear of communism, and resentment of alleged foreign and Jewish domination of the economy.


title: History of Romania

text: Already, the Iron Guard had embraced the politics of assassinations, and various governments had reacted more or less in kind. On December 10, 1933, Liberal prime minister Ion Duca "dissolved" the Iron Guard, arresting thousands; consequently, 19 days later he was assassinated by Iron Guard legionnaires.


title: History of Romania

text: Throughout the 1930s, these nationalist parties had a mutually distrustful relationship with King Carol II. Nonetheless, in December 1937, the king appointed LANC leader, the poet Octavian Goga as prime minister of Romania's first Fascist government. Around this time, Carol met with Adolf Hitler, who expressed his wish to see a Romanian government headed by the pro-Nazi Iron Guard. Instead, on 10 February 1938 King Carol II used the occasion of a public insult by Goga toward Lupescu as a reason to dismiss the government and institute a short-lived royal dictatorship, sanctioned seventeen days later by a new constitution under which the king named personally not only the prime minister but all the ministers.


title: History of Romania

text: In April 1938, King Carol had Iron Guard leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (aka "The Captain") arrested and imprisoned. On the night of 29–30 November 1938, Codreanu and several other legionnaires were killed while purportedly attempting to escape from prison. It is generally agreed that there was no such escape attempt, but that they were murdered in retaliation for a series of assassinations by Iron Guard commandos.


title: History of Romania

text: The royal dictatorship was brief. On 7 March 1939, a new government was formed with Armand Călinescu as prime minister; on 21 September 1939, three weeks after the start of World War II, Călinescu, in turn, was also assassinated by legionnaires avenging Codreanu's murder.


title: History of Romania

text: In 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which stipulated, among other things, the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia. After the 1940 territorial losses and growing increasingly unpopular, Carol was compelled to abdicate and name general Ion Antonescu as the new Prime-Minister with full powers in ruling the state by royal decree.


title: History of Romania

text: According to the 1930 Romanian Census, Romania had a population of 18,057,028. Romanians made up 71.9% of the population and 28.1% of the population were ethnic minorities.


title: History of Romania

text: In Northern Transylvania, the Romanian census from 1930 counted 49% Romanians and 38% Hungarians, while the Hungarian census from 1941 counted 39.1% Romanians and 53.5% Hungarians. Far from settling matters, the Second Vienna Award had exacerbated relations between Romania and Hungary. It did not solve the nationality problem by separating all Magyars from all Romanians. Some 1,150,000 to 1,300,000 Romanians, or 48 percent to over 50 percent of the population of the ceded territory, depending upon whose statistics are used, remained north of the new frontier, while about 500,000 Magyars (other Hungarian estimates go as high as 800,000, Romanian as low as 363,000) continued to reside in the south.


title: History of Romania

text: In Bessarabia, the Romanian census from 1930 counted 56% Romanians, 12% Russians and 10% Ukrainians. While the 1941 census during the Romanian wartime administration counted 65% Romanians, 16% Ukrainians, 6% Russians.


title: History of Romania

text: In Southern Dobruja, the Romanian census from 1930 counted 37% Bulgarians, 34% Turks and 20% Romanians. While the 1940 census counted 37% Bulgarians, 36% Turks and 26% Romanians. The Tatars, Gagauz and Gypsy were counted as Turks. When Southern Dobruja was restored to Bulgaria under the Treaty of Craiova. The treaty was followed by a mandatory population exchange: about 110,000 Romanians (almost 95% of the total population of Romanians), Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians were forced to leave Southern Dobruja, whereas 77,000 Bulgarians had to leave Northern Dobruja. Only a few hundred Romanians and Aromanians are now left in the region.


title: History of Romania

text: According to population statistics, Romania had a population of 19.933.800 people in 1939. The 14th most populous country in the world making up 0.9% of world's population. Ahead of Mexico and Portugal with 19,320,000 and 18,595,400 (colonies included). And behind Belgium and Spain with 22,491,000 (colonies included) and 26,822,800 (colonies included).


title: History of Romania

text: In the aftermath of World War I, Romania, which fought with the Entente against the Central Powers, had greatly expanded its territory, incorporating the regions of Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Bukovina, largely as a result of the vacuum created by the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires. This led to the achievement of the long-standing nationalist goal of creating a Greater Romania, a national state that would incorporate all ethnic Romanians. However, the newly gained territories also included significant Hungarian (7.9%), German (4.1%), Ukrainian (3.2%), Russian (2.3%) and Bulgarian (2.0%) minorities, putting Romania at odds with several of her neighbours. This occasionally led to violent conflict, as exemplified by the Hungarian–Romanian War and the Tatarbunary Uprising. To contain Hungarian irredentism, Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia established the Little Entente in 1921. That same year Romania and Poland concluded a defensive alliance against the emergent Soviet Union, and in 1934 the Balkan Entente was formed with Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey, which were suspicious of Bulgaria.


title: History of Romania

text: Since the late 19th century onwards Romania had been a relatively democratic constitutional monarchy with a pro-Western outlook, but the country faced increasing turmoil in the 1930s as a result of the Great Depression in Romania and the rise of fascist movements such as the Iron Guard, which advocated revolutionary terrorism against the state. Under the pretext of stabilizing the country, the increasingly autocratic King Carol II proclaimed a 'royal dictatorship' in 1938. The new regime featured corporatist policies that often resembled those of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. In parallel with these internal developments, economic pressures and a weak Franco-British response to Hitler's aggressive foreign policy caused Romania to start drifting away from the Western Allies and closer to the Axis.


title: History of Romania

text: On 13 April 1939, France and the United Kingdom had pledged to guarantee the independence of the Kingdom of Romania. Negotiations with the Soviet Union concerning a similar guarantee collapsed when Romania refused to allow the Red Army to cross its frontiers.


title: History of Romania

text: On 23 August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Among other things, this recognized the Soviet "interest" in Bessarabia (which had been ruled by the Russian Empire from 1812 to 1918). This Soviet interest was combined with a clear indication that there was an explicit lack of any German interest in the area.


title: History of Romania

text: Eight days later Nazi Germany invaded the Second Polish Republic. Expecting military aid from Britain and France, Poland chose not to activate the Polish-Romanian Alliance in order to be able to use the Romanian Bridgehead strategy. A neutral Romania would be used to resupply the Polish troops and could be used as an escape corridor in case of defeat. Following the fall of Poland, the Polish government, the treasury of the National Bank of Poland and about 120.000 Polish troops withdrew through the Romania, the majority of those troops joined the newly formed Polish Armed Forces in the West in France and the United Kingdom during 1939 and 1940.


title: History of Romania

text: Romania officially remained neutral and, under pressure from the Soviet Union and Germany, interned the fleeing Polish government after its members had crossed the Polish–Romanian border on 17 September, forcing them to relegate their authority to what became the Polish government-in-exile. After the assassination of Prime Minister Armand Călinescu on 21 September King Carol II tried to maintain neutrality for several months longer, but the surrender of the Third French Republic and the retreat of British forces from continental Europe rendered the assurances that both countries had made to Romania meaningless.


title: History of Romania

text: In 1940 Romania's territorial gains made following World War I were largely undone. In July, after a Soviet ultimatum, Romania agreed to give up Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (the Soviets also annexed the city of Hertsa, which was not stated in the ultimatum). Two-thirds of Bessarabia were combined with a small part of the Soviet Union to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. The rest (northern Bukovina, the northern half of Hotin county and Budjak) was apportioned to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.


title: History of Romania

text: Shortly thereafter, on 30 August, under the Second Vienna Award, Germany and Italy mediated a compromise between Romania and the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary received a region referred to as 'Northern Transylvania', while 'Southern Transylvania' remained part of Romania. Hungary had lost Transylvania after World War I in the Treaty of Trianon. On 7 September, under the Treaty of Craiova, Southern Dobruja (which Bulgaria had lost after the Romanian invasion during the Second Balkan War in 1913), was ceded to Bulgaria under pressure from Germany. Despite the relatively recent acquisition of these territories, they were inhabited by a majority of Romanian speaking people (except Southern Dobruja), so the Romanians had seen them as historically belonging to Romania, and the fact that so much land was lost without a fight shattered the underpinnings of King Carol's power.


title: History of Romania

text: On 4 July, Ion Gigurtu formed the first Romanian government to include an Iron Guardist minister, Horia Sima. Sima was a particularly virulent antisemite who had become the nominal leader of the movement after the death of Corneliu Codreanu. He was one of the few prominent far-right leaders to survive the bloody infighting and government suppression of the preceding years.


title: History of Romania

text: In the immediate wake of the loss of Northern Transylvania, on 4 September the Iron Guard (led by Horia Sima) and General (later Marshal) Ion Antonescu united to form the "National Legionary State", which forced the abdication of Carol II in favor of his 19-year-old son Michael. Carol and his mistress Magda Lupescu went into exile, and Romania, despite the unfavorable outcome of recent territorial disputes, leaned strongly toward the Axis. As part of the deal, the Iron Guard became the sole legal party in Romania. Antonescu became the Iron Guard's honorary leader, while Sima became deputy premier.


title: History of Romania

text: In power, the Iron Guard stiffened the already harsh anti-Semitic legislation, enacted legislation directed against minority businessmen, tempered at times by the willingness of officials to take bribes, and wreaked vengeance upon its enemies. On 8 October German troops began crossing into Romania. They soon numbered over 500,000.


title: History of Romania

text: On 23 November Romania joined the Axis powers. On 27 November, 64 former dignitaries or officials were executed by the Iron Guard in Jilava prison while awaiting trial (see "Jilava Massacre"). Later that day, historian and former prime minister Nicolae Iorga and economist Virgil Madgearu, a former government minister, were assassinated.


title: History of Romania

text: The cohabitation between the Iron Guard and Antonescu was never an easy one. On 20 January 1941, the Iron Guard attempted a coup, combined with a pogrom against the Jews of Bucharest. Within four days, Antonescu had successfully suppressed the coup. The Iron Guard was forced out of the government. Sima and many other legionnaires took refuge in Germany; others were imprisoned. Antonescu abolished the National Legionary State, in its stead declaring Romania a "National and Social State."


title: History of Romania

text: On 22 June 1941, German armies with Romanian support attacked the Soviet Union. German and Romanian units conquered Bessarabia, Odessa, and Sevastopol, then marched eastward across the Russian steppes toward Stalingrad. Romania welcomed the war because they were allies with Germany. Hitler rewarded Romania's loyalty by returning Bessarabia and northern Bukovina and by allowing Romania to administer Soviet lands immediately between the Dniester and the Bug, including Odessa and Nikolaev. Romanian jingoes in Odessa even distributed a geography showing that the Dacians had inhabited most of southern Russia. After recovering Bessarabia and Bukovina (Operation München), Romanian units fought side by side with the Germans onward to Odessa, Sevastopol, Stalingrad and the Caucasus. The total number of troops involved on the Eastern Front with the Romanian Third Army and the Romanian Fourth Army was second only to that of Nazi Germany itself. The Romanian Army had a total of 686,258 men under arms in the summer of 1941 and a total of 1,224,691 men in the summer of 1944. The number of Romanian troops sent to fight in the Soviet Union exceeded that of all of Germany's other allies combined. A "Country Study" by the U.S. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress attributes this to a "morbid competition with Hungary to curry Hitler's favor... [in hope of]... regaining northern Transylvania."


title: History of Romania

text: Bessarabia and the Northern Bukovina were now fully re-incorporated into the Romanian state after they had been occupied by the USSR a year earlier. As a substitute for Northern Transylvania, which had been given to Hungary following the Second Vienna Award, Hitler persuaded Antonescu in August 1941 to also take control of the Transnistria territory between the Dniester and the Southern Bug, which would also include Odessa after its eventual fall in October 1941. Although the Romanian administration set up a civil government, the Transnistria Governorate, the Romanian state had not yet formally incorporated Transnistria into its administrative framework by the time it was retaken by Soviet troops in early 1944.


title: History of Romania

text: Romanian armies advanced far into the Soviet Union during 1941 and 1942 before being involved in the disaster at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43. Petre Dumitrescu, one of Romania's most important generals, was commander of the Third Army at Stalingrad. In November 1942, the German Sixth Army was briefly put at Dumitrescu's disposal during a German attempt to relieve the Third Army following the devastating Soviet Operation Uranus. Prior to the Soviet counteroffensive at Stalingrad, the Antonescu government considered a war with Hungary over Transylvania an inevitability after the expected victory over the Soviet Union.


title: History of Romania

text: On 23 August 1944, with the Red Army penetrating German defenses during the Jassy–Kishinev Offensive, King Michael I of Romania led a successful coup against the Axis with support from opposition politicians, most of the army and Communist-led civilians. Michael I, who was initially considered to be not much more than a figurehead, was able to successfully depose the Antonescu dictatorship. The King then offered a non-confrontational retreat to German ambassador Manfred von Killinger. But the Germans considered the coup "reversible" and attempted to turn the situation around by military force. The Romanian First, Second (forming), and what little was left of the Third and the Fourth Armies (one corps) were under orders from the King to defend Romania against any German attacks. King Michael offered to put the Romanian Army, which at that point had a strength of nearly 1,000,000 men, on the side of the Allies. Stalin immediately recognized the king and the restoration of the conservative Romanian monarchy.


title: History of Romania

text: In a radio broadcast to the Romanian nation and army on the night of 23 August King Michael issued a cease-fire, proclaimed Romania's loyalty to the Allies, announced the acceptance of an armistice (to be signed on September 12) offered by Great Britain, the United States, and the USSR, and declared war on Germany. The coup accelerated the Red Army's advance into Romania, but did not avert a rapid Soviet occupation and capture of about 130,000 Romanian soldiers, who were transported to the Soviet Union, where many perished in prison camps. The armistice was signed three weeks later on 12 September 1944, on terms virtually dictated by the Soviet Union. Under the terms of the armistice, Romania announced its unconditional surrender to the USSR and was placed under occupation of the Allied forces with the Soviet Union as their representative, in control of media, communication, post, and civil administration behind the front. Some attribute the postponement of a formal Allied recognition of the "de facto" change of orientation until 12 September (the date the armistice was signed in Moscow) to the complexities of the negotiations between the USSR and UK.


title: History of Romania

text: During the Moscow Conference in October 1944 Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, proposed an agreement to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin on how to split up Eastern Europe into spheres of influence after the war. The Soviet Union was offered a 90% share of influence in Romania.


title: History of Romania

text: The Armistice Agreement of 12 September stipulated in Article 18 that "An Allied Control Commission will be established which will undertake until the conclusion of peace the regulation of and control over the execution of the present terms under the general direction and orders of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, acting on behalf of the Allied Powers". The Annex to Article 18 made clear that "The Romanian Government and their organs shall fulfil all instructions of the Allied Control Commission arising out of the Armistice Agreement." The Agreement also stipulated that the Allied Control Commission would have its seat in Bucharest. In line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement, two Romanian People's Tribunals were set up to try suspected war criminals.


title: History of Romania

text: As the country declared war on Germany on the night of 23 August 1944, border clashes between Hungarian and Romanian troops erupted almost immediately. On 24 August, German troops attempted to seize Bucharest and suppress Michael's coup, but were repelled by the city's defenses, which received some support from the United States Air Force. Other Wehrmacht units in the country suffered severe losses: remnants of the Sixth Army retreating west of the Prut River were cut off and destroyed by the Red Army, which was now advancing at an even greater speed, while Romanian units attacked German garrisons at the Ploiești oilfields, forcing them to retreat to Hungary. The Romanian Army captured over 50,000 German prisoners around this time, who were later surrendered to the Soviets.


title: History of Romania

text: In early September, Soviet and Romanian forces entered Transylvania and captured the towns of Brașov and Sibiu while advancing toward the Mureș River. Their main objective was Cluj (Cluj-Napoca), a city regarded as the historical capital of Transylvania. However, the Second Hungarian Army was present in the region, and together with the Eighth German Army engaged the Allied forces on 5 September in what was to become the Battle of Turda, which lasted until 8 October and resulted in heavy casualties for both sides. Also around this time, the Hungarian Army carried out its last independent offensive action of the war, penetrating Arad County in western Romania. Despite initial success, a number of ad hoc Romanian cadet battalions managed to stop the Hungarian advance at the Battle of Păuliș, and soon a combined Romanian-Soviet counterattack overwhelmed the Hungarians, who gave ground and evacuated Arad itself on 21 September.


title: History of Romania

text: The Romanian Army ended the war fighting against the Wehrmacht alongside the Red Army in Transylvania, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Austria and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, from August 1944 until the end of the war in Europe. In May 1945, the First and Fourth armies took part in the Prague Offensive. The Romanian Army incurred heavy casualties fighting Nazi Germany. Of some 538,000 Romanian soldiers who fought against the Axis in 1944–45, some 167,000 were killed, wounded or went missing.


title: History of Romania

text: Under the 1947 Treaty of Paris, the Allies did not acknowledge Romania as a co-belligerent nation but instead applied the term "ally of Hitlerite Germany" to all recipients of the treaty's stipulations. Like Finland, Romania had to pay $300 million to the Soviet Union as war reparations. However, the treaty specifically recognized that Romania switched sides on 24 August 1944, and therefore "acted in the interests of all the United Nations". As a reward, Northern Transylvania was, once again, recognized as an integral part of Romania, but the border with the USSR and Bulgaria was fixed at its state in January 1941, restoring the pre-Barbarossa status quo (with one exception). Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Eastern territories became part of Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova.


title: History of Romania

text: In Romania proper, Soviet occupation following World War II facilitated the rise of the Communist Party as the main political force, leading ultimately to the forced abdication of the King and the establishment of a single-party people's republic in 1947.


title: History of Romania

text: Soviet occupation following World War II strengthened the position of Communists, who became dominant in the left-wing coalition government that was appointed in March 1945. King Michael I was forced to abdicate and went into exile. Romania was proclaimed a people's republic and remained under military and economic control of the Soviet Union until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements; mixed Soviet-Romanian companies were established to mask the Soviet Union's looting of Romania.


title: History of Romania

text: Romania's leader from 1948 to his death in 1965 was Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the First Secretary of the Romanian Workers' Party. Between 1947 and 1962, people were detained in prisons and camps, deported and put under house arrest and administrative detention. According to writer Cicerone Ioniţoiu, there were hundreds of thousands of cases of abuse, death and torture against a large range of people from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Between 60,000 and 80,000 political prisoners were detained. Ioniţoiu estimated two million people were victims of Communist repression in Romania. According to Benjamin Valentino, probably tens or hundreds of thousands of deaths occurred as part of political repression and agricultural collectivization in Communist Romania, though he said documentation is insufficient for an accurate estimate to be made.


title: History of Romania

text: Gheorghiu-Dej attained greater independence for Romania from the Soviet Union by persuading Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev to withdraw troops from Romania in April 1958. After the negotiated withdrawal of Soviet troops, Romania under the new leadership of Nicolae Ceauşescu started to pursue independent policies, including the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia—Romania being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion—the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), and the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with West Germany. Romania's close ties with Arab countries and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) allowed to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Egyptian president Sadat to Israel.


title: History of Romania

text: Between 1977 and 1981, Romania's foreign debt sharply increased from US$3 to US$10 billion and the influence of international financial organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank grew, in conflict with Ceauşescu's autarchic policies. Ceauşescu's independent foreign policy meant leaders of Western nations leaders were slow to criticize Romania's government which, by the late 1970s, had become arbitrary, capricious and harsh. The Romanian economy grew quickly through foreign credit but this was replaced with austerity and political repression, which became more draconian through the 1980s.


title: History of Romania

text: Ceauşescu eventually initiated a project of full reimbursement of the foreign debt; to achieve this, he imposed austerity policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the nation's economy. The project was completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow. He greatly extended the authority of the "Securitate" (secret police) and imposed a cult of personality, leading to a dramatic decrease in Ceauşescu's popularity and culminating in his overthrow and execution in the bloody Romanian Revolution in December 1989.


title: History of Romania

text: The Romanian Revolution resulted in more than 1,000 deaths in Timișoara and Bucharest, and brought the fall of Ceauşescu and the end of the Communist regime in Romania. After a week of unrest in Timişoara, a mass rally summoned in Bucharest in support of Ceauşescu on 21 December 1989 turned hostile. The Ceauşescu couple fled Bucharest by helicopter but ended up in the custody of the army.


title: History of Romania

text: After being tried and convicted by a kangaroo court for genocide and other crimes, they were executed on 25 December 1989.


title: History of Romania

text: Ion Iliescu, a former Communist Party official marginalized by Ceauşescu, attained national recognition as the leader of an impromptu governing coalition, the National Salvation Front (FSN) that proclaimed the establishment of democracy and civil liberties on 22 December 1989. The Communist Party was initially outlawed by Ion Iliescu, but he soon revoked that decision; as a consequence, Communism is not outlawed in Romania today. However, Ceauşescu's most controversial measures, such as bans on abortion and contraception, were among the first laws to be changed after the Revolution.


title: History of Romania

text: After the fall of Ceauşescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN) led by Ion Iliescu introduced partial multi-party democratic and free market measures. A university professor with family roots in the Communist Party, Petre Roman, was named prime minister of the new government, which mostly consisted of former communist officials. The government initiated modest free market reforms. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNŢ-CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL), and the Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSDR), were reconstituted.


title: History of Romania

text: In April 1990, after several major political rallies that January), a sit-in protest questioning the legitimacy of the government began in University Square, Bucharest, organized by the main opposition parties. The protest became ongoing mass demonstration known as the Golaniad. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. Presidential and parliamentary elections were held on 20 May 1990. Taking advantage of FSN's tight control of the national radio and television, Iliescu won 85% of the vote. The FSN secured two-thirds of the seats in Parliament. Though most protesters left University Square after the government gained a large parliamentary majority, a minority deemed the results undemocratic and demanded the exclusion from political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence; some of the protesters attacked the police headquarters, national television station, and the Foreign Ministry. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to defend the state institutions in Bucharest.


title: History of Romania

text: Various worker groups from Romania's industrial platforms responded, some of them engaged in altercations with the protesters. The coal miners of the Jiu Valley, thousands of whom arrived in Bucharest on 14 June, were the most visible and politically influential. According to the miners, most of the violence was perpetrated by government agents who were agitating the crowds. Some of the counter-protesters attacked the headquarters and private residences of opposition leaders. Later parliamentary inquiries showed members of the government intelligence services were involved in the instigation and manipulation of both the protesters and the miners, and in June 1994, a Bucharest court found two former "Securitate" officers guilty of ransacking and stealing $100,000 from the house of a leading opposition politician. Petre Roman's government fell in late September 1991, when the miners returned to Bucharest to demand higher salaries. A technocrat, Theodor Stolojan, was appointed to head an ad interim/acting government until new elections could be held.


title: History of Romania

text: In December 1991, a new constitution was drafted and subsequently adopted, after a popular referendum, which, however, attracted criticism from international observers.The constitution was most recently revised by a national referendum on 18–19 October 2003, and took effect on 29 October 2003.


title: History of Romania

text: In March 1992, the FSN split into two groups: the Democratic National Front (FDSN), led by Ion Iliescu and the Democratic Party (PD), led by Petre Roman. Iliescu won the presidential elections in September 1992 and his FDSN won the general elections held at the same time. With parliamentary support from the nationalist Romanian National Unity Party (PUNR), Greater Romania Party (PRM), and the ex-communist Socialist Workers' Party (PSM), a new government was formed in November 1992 under Prime Minister Nicolae Văcăroiu. The FDSN changed its name to Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) in July 1993.


title: History of Romania

text: The subsequent disintegration of the National Salvation Front (FSN) produced the Party of Social Democracy in Romania (PDSR) (later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD), and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state.


title: History of Romania

text: Emil Constantinescu of the Democratic Convention (CDR) won the second round of the 1996 presidential election and replaced Iliescu as head of state. The PDSR won the largest number of seats in the Parliament, but was unable to form a viable coalition. Constituent parties of the CDR joined the Democratic Party (PD) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR/RMDSZ) to form a centrist coalition government, holding 60% of the seats in Parliament.


title: History of Romania

text: This coalition implemented several critical reforms. The new coalition government, under prime minister Victor Ciorbea remained in office until March 1998, when Radu Vasile (PNŢ-CD) took over as prime minister. The former governor of the National Bank, Mugur Isărescu, eventually replaced Radu Vasile as head of the government.


title: History of Romania

text: The 2000 election brought Iliescu's PDSR, known as Social Democratic Party (PSD) after the merger with the PSDR, back to power. Iliescu won a third term as the country's president. Adrian Năstase became the prime minister of the newly formed government.


title: History of Romania

text: In 2004, Traian Băsescu was elected president with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also included the Conservative Party (PC) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR).


title: History of Romania

text: Presidential and parliamentary elections took place again on 28 November 2004. No political party secured a viable parliamentary majority and opposition parties alleged the PSD had committed large-scale electoral fraud. There was no winner in the first round of the presidential elections. The joint PNL-PD candidate Traian Băsescu won the second round on 12 December 2004 with 51% of the vote and became the third post-revolutionary president of Romania.


title: History of Romania

text: The then PNL leader, Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu was assigned the task of building a coalition government without the PSD. In December 2004, the new coalition government (PD, PNL, PUR —Romanian Humanist Party—which eventually changed its name to Romanian Conservative Party/PC and UDMR/RMDSZ—was sworn in under Prime Minister Tăriceanu.


title: History of Romania

text: In June 1993, the country applied for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a full member on 1 January 2007.


title: History of Romania

text: Following the free travel agreement and politic of the post–Cold War period, as well as hardship of the life in the post 1990s economic depression, Romania has an increasingly large diaspora. The main emigration targets have been Italy, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States and Hungary.


title: History of Romania

text: In 2009, President Traian Basescu was re-elected for a second five-year term as the President of Romania.


title: History of Romania

text: In January 2012, Romania experienced national protests, which were the first significant popular uprising in the country since 1991. They were triggered by proposed health reforms, and were further motivated by wider disillusionment with austerity and the government.


title: History of Romania

text: In January 2014, Romania's supreme court sentenced former Prime Minister Adrian Nastase, who held office between 2000 and 2004, to four years in prison for taking bribes.


title: History of Romania

text: In 2014, Klaus Iohannis was elected as the President of Romania, and he was re-elected by a landslide victory in 2019.


title: History of Romania

text: In December 2020, the parliamentary election was won by the then oppositional Social Democrats (PSD). Additionally, former Prime Minister Ludovic Orban resigned because of the defeat of the National Liberal Party (PNL). However, Florin Cîțu, a member of the National Liberal Party (PNL), became the new Prime Minister, forming a three party, center-right coalition consisting of the PNL, the USR PLUS, and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR/RMDSZ).


title: History of Romania

text: In November 2021, Nicolae Ciucă became Romania’s new prime minister. He formed a coalition government between former arch rivals, his own center-right National Liberal Party (PNL) and center-left Social Democratic Party (PSD). PNL has eight ministers, PSD nine and three from the ethnic Hungarian UDMR group.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: In medicine and medical anthropology, a culture-bound syndrome, culture-specific syndrome, or folk illness is a combination of psychiatric and somatic symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture. There are no objective biochemical or structural alterations of body organs or functions, and the disease is not recognized in other cultures. The term "culture-bound syndrome" was included in the fourth version of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) which also includes a list of the most common culture-bound conditions (DSM-IV: Appendix I). Counterpart within the framework of ICD-10 (Chapter V) are the "culture-specific disorders" defined in Annex 2 of the "Diagnostic criteria for research".


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: More broadly, an endemic that can be attributed to certain behavior patterns within a specific culture by suggestion may be referred to as a potential behavioral epidemic. As in the cases of drug use, or alcohol and smoking abuses, transmission can be determined by communal reinforcement and person-to-person interactions. On etiological grounds, it can be difficult to distinguish the causal contribution of culture upon disease from other environmental factors such as toxicity.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Some culture-specific syndromes involve somatic symptoms (pain or disturbed function of a body part), while others are purely behavioral. Some culture-bound syndromes appear with similar features in several cultures, but with locally specific traits, such as penis panics.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: A culture-specific syndrome is not the same as a geographically localized disease with specific, identifiable, causal tissue abnormalities, such as kuru or sleeping sickness, or genetic conditions limited to certain populations. It is possible that a condition originally assumed to be a culture-bound behavioral syndrome is found to have a biological cause; from a medical perspective it would then be redefined into another nosological category.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: The term "culture-bound syndrome" is controversial since it reflects the different opinions of anthropologists and psychiatrists. Anthropologists have a tendency to emphasize the relativistic and culture-specific dimensions of the syndromes, while physicians tend to emphasize the universal and neuropsychological dimensions. Guarnaccia & Rogler (1999) have argued in favor of investigating culture-bound syndromes on their own terms, and believe that the syndromes have enough cultural integrity to be treated as independent objects of research.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Guarnaccia and Rogler demonstrate the issues that occur when diagnosing cultural bound disorders using the DSM-IV. One of the key problems that arise is the "subsumption of culture bound syndromes into psychiatric categories", which ultimately creates a medical hegemony and places the western perspective above that of other cultural and epistemological explanations of disease. The urgency for further investigation or reconsideration of the DSM-IV's authoritative power is emphasized, as the DSM becomes an international document for research and medical systems abroad. Guarnaccia and Rogler provide two research questions that must be considered, "firstly, how much do we know about the culture-bound syndromes for us to be able to fit them into standard classification; and secondly, whether such a standard and exhaustive classification in fact exists".


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: It is suggested that the problematic nature of the DSM becomes evident when we view it as definitively conclusive. Questions are raised to whether culture-bound syndromes can be treated as discrete entities, or whether their symptoms are generalized and perceived as an amalgamation of previously diagnosed illnesses. If this is the case, then the DSM may be what Bruno Latour would defined as "particular universalism". In that the Western medical system views itself to have a privileged insight into the true intelligence of nature, in contrast to the model provided by other cultural perspectives.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Some studies suggest that culture-bound syndromes represent an acceptable way within a specific culture (and cultural context) among certain vulnerable individuals (i.e. an "ataque de nervios" at a funeral in Puerto Rico) to express distress in the wake of a traumatic experience. A similar manifestation of distress when displaced into a North American medical culture may lead to a very different, even adverse outcome for a given individual and his or her family. The history and etymology of some syndromes such as Brain-Fog Syndrome, have also been reattributed to 19th century Victorian Britain rather than West Africa.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: In 2013, the DSM 5, dropped the term culture-bound syndrome, preferring the new name "Cultural Concepts of Distress".


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Within the traditional Hmong culture, epilepsy (qaug dab peg) directly translates to "the spirit catches you and you fall down" which is said to be an evil spirit called a dab that captures your soul and makes you ill. In this culture, individuals with seizures are seen to be blessed with a gift; an access point into the spiritual realm which no one else has been given. In westernised society, epilepsy is considered a serious long-term brain condition, that can have a major impairment on an individual's life. The way the illness is dealt with in Hmong culture is vastly different due to the high-status epilepsy has amongst the culture, compared to individuals who have the condition in westernised societies. Individuals with epilepsy within the Hmong culture are a source of pride for their family.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Another culture bound illness is neurasthenia which is a vaguely described medical ailment in Chinese culture that presents as lassitude, weariness, headaches, and irritability and is mostly linked to emotional disturbance. A report done in 1942 showed that 87% of patients diagnosed by Chinese psychiatrists as having neurasthenia could be reclassified as having major depression according to the DSM-3 criteria. Another study conducted in Hong Kong showed that most patients selectively presented their symptoms according to what they perceived as appropriate and tended to only focus on somatic suffering, rather than the emotional problems they were facing.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Globalisation is a process whereby information, cultures, jobs, goods, and services are spread across national borders. This has had a powerful impact on the 21st century in many ways including through enriching cultural awareness across the globe. Greater level of cultural integration is occurring due to rapid industrialisation and globalisation, with cultures absorbing more influences from each other. As cultural awareness begins to increase between countries, there is a consideration into whether cultural bound syndromes will slowly lose their geographically bound nature and become commonly known syndromes that will then become internationally recognised. Anthropologist and psychiatrist Roland Littlewood makes the observation that these diseases are likely to vanish in an increasingly homogenous global culture in the face of globalisation (and industrialisation). Depression for example, was once only accepted in western societies, however it is now recognised as a mental disorder in all parts of the world. In contrast to Eastern civilizations such as Taiwan, depression is still much more common in Western cultures like the United States. This could indicate that globalisation may have an impact on allowing disorders to be spread across borders, however these disorders may remain predominant in certain cultures.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: The fourth edition of "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" classifies the below syndromes as culture-bound syndromes:


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: The fifth edition of "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" classifies the below syndromes as cultural concepts of distress, a closely related concept:


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: The 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) classifies the below syndromes as culture-specific disorders:


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Though "the ethnocentric bias of Euro-American psychiatrists has led to the idea that culture-bound syndromes are confined to non-Western cultures", a prominent example of a Western culture-bound syndrome is anorexia nervosa.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Within the contiguous United States, the consumption of kaolin, a type of clay, has been proposed as a culture-bound syndrome observed in African Americans in the rural south, particularly in areas in which the mining of kaolin is common.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: In South Africa, among the Xhosa people, the syndrome of amafufunyana is commonly used to describe those believed to be possessed by demons or other malevolent spirits. Traditional healers in the culture usually perform exorcisms in order to drive off these spirits. Upon investigating the phenomenon, researchers found that many of the people claimed to be affected by the syndrome exhibited the traits and characteristics of schizophrenia.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Some researchers have suggested that both premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and the more severe premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), which have currently unknown physical mechanisms, are Western culture-bound syndromes. However, this is controversial.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Tarantism is an expression of mass psychogenic illness documented in Southern Italy since the 11th century.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Morgellons is a rare self-diagnosed skin condition reported primarily in white populations in the United States. It has been described by a journalist as "a socially transmitted disease over the Internet".


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Vegetative-vascular dystonia can be considered an example of somatic condition formally recognised by local medical communities in former Soviet Union countries, but not in Western classification systems. Its umbrella term nature as neurological condition also results in diagnosing neurotic patients as neurological ones, in effect substituting possible psychiatric stigma with culture-bound syndrome disguised as a neurological condition.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: Refugee children in Sweden have been known to fall into coma-like states on learning their families will be deported. The condition, known in Swedish as , or resignation syndrome, is believed to only exist among the refugee population in Sweden, where it has been prevalent since the early part of the 21st century. In a 130-page report on the condition commissioned by the government and published in 2006, a team of psychologists, political scientists, and sociologists hypothesized that it was a culture-bound syndrome.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: A startle disorder similar to latah, called (sometimes spelled "imu:"), is found among Ainu people, both Sakhalin Ainu and Hokkaido Ainu.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: A condition similar to piblokto, called (sometimes "meryachenie"), is found among Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Evenks living in Siberia.


title: Culture-bound syndrome

text: The trance-like violent behavior of the Viking age berserkers – behavior that disappeared with the arrival of Christianity – has been described as a culture-bound syndrome.


title: Tasha Smith

text: Tasha Smith (born February 28, 1971) is an American actress, director and producer. She began her career in a starring role on the NBC comedy series "Boston Common" (1996–97), and she later appeared in numerous movies and television series.


title: Tasha Smith

text: Smith has appeared in the films "The Whole Ten Yards" (2004), "Daddy's Little Girls" (2007), "The Longshots" (2008), "Couples Retreat" (2009), and "Jumping the Broom" (2011). She starred as Angela Williams in the Tyler Perry films "Why Did I Get Married?" (2007), its sequel "Why Did I Get Married Too?" (2010), and on the television series based on the movies, "For Better or Worse" (2011–2017). In 2015, she began a recurring role as Carol Holloway on the Fox musical drama series "Empire". Later in the same year, Smith made her directorial debut.


title: Tasha Smith

text: Tasha Smith was born on February 28, 1971 in Camden, New Jersey, and was raised by a single mother. She has an identical twin sister Sidra Smith, who currently lives in Harlem. Smith dropped out of Camden High School in her freshman year, and at age 19 moved to California.


title: Tasha Smith

text: Smith made her acting debut with a small role in the comedy film "Twin Sitters" (1994). From 1996 to 1997, she starred in the NBC comedy series, "Boston Common". Later in 1997, she was cast alongside Tom Arnold in another short-lived comedy series, "The Tom Show" on The WB. In 2000, she had supporting role in the HBO miniseries, "The Corner" in which she played a drug addict. In the 2000s, Smith had guest starring roles on "The Parkers", "Without a Trace", "Nip/Tuck", and "Girlfriends". She has made number of supporting roles in movies such as "Playas Ball" (2003), "The Whole Ten Yards" (2004), and "ATL" (2006).


title: Tasha Smith

text: Smith has played roles in multiple Tyler Perry projects. In 2007, she appeared as the main antagonist in the romantic comedy-drama film, "Daddy's Little Girls". She played the role of Angela Williams in the "Why Did I Get Married?" (2007), and its sequel "Why Did I Get Married Too?" (2010). The role she later played in the comedy series based on films, "Tyler Perry's For Better or Worse".


title: Tasha Smith

text: Smith co-starred alongside Ice Cube and Keke Palmer in the family comedy-drama film, "The Longshots" (2008). She had supporting role in the romantic comedy film "Couples Retreat" (2009), and co-starred alongside Salli Richardson, Nicole Ari Parker and Michael B. Jordan in "Pastor Brown" (2010). In 2011, she appeared in the comedy-drama film "Jumping the Broom" alongside Angela Bassett and Paula Patton, and in 2014, she played a psychotherapist in the erotic thriller, "Addicted". In 2014, she also was cast in a recurring role in the Fox drama series "Empire" as Carol Hardaway, Cookie Lyon's younger sister.


title: Tasha Smith

text: In 2015, Smith made her directorial debut with the short film "Boxed in", which premiered during the 19th Annual American Black Film Festival. In 2017, Smith directed the television film "When Love Kills: The Falicia Blakely Story", starring Lil Mama and Lance Gross, based on a true story. It premiered to 1.6 million viewers, ranking as TV One's #1 original movie premiere of all time among all key demos. In October 2017, she also directed an episode in the BET drama anthology series "Tales". Smith worked as Mary J. Blige's acting coach for her role in "Mudbound".


title: Tasha Smith

text: In 2019, Smith appeared in the comedy-drama film "Dolemite Is My Name", and starred opposite Lisa Kudrow and Whitney Cummings in the Amazon comedy pilot "Good People". Also that year, she directed episodes of "Star", "9-1-1" and "Black Lightning". In 2020, Smith directed the episode "Legacy" on the Starz TV series "P-Valley". In 2021, Smith directed the Starz drama series "Black Mafia Family".


title: Tasha Smith

text: In 2022, it was announced that Smith will be starring in the Lee Daniels' horror/thriller "The Deliverance" with Mo'Nique, Andra Day, Omar Epps, and Miss Lawrence.


title: Tasha Smith

text: In December 2010, Smith married her boyfriend of one-year Keith Douglas, who was also her manager. In November 2014, Smith appeared in court to request a restraining order against Douglas. In documents filed prior to the court appearance, she accused him of having affairs with other women. Smith's friend Tisha Campbell-Martin acted as a character witness. The final divorce decree was issued in March 2015. However, Smith contested the divorce by alleging that Douglas concealed information from her that she should have known before the marriage. Smith alleged that Douglas was not "man of the cloth" that he presented himself to be during their courtship. She also said that, if she had known about Douglas' background, she would not have married him. The allegations about Douglas' background included five marriages before he married Smith, multiple children that he did not claim and disclose to Smith, and non-payment of income taxes for nearly a decade. The judge in the case granted Smith an annulment of the marriage in December 2015 on the basis of fraud committed by Douglas.


title: Tasha Smith

text: In an interview with D.L. Hughley in 2014, Tasha Smith shared that during most of her teenage years and young adulthood she was an atheist, despite her family being devout religious Christians, because of the "hardships, tragedies, and misfortune she saw her family endure throughout her childhood." However, she said after learning that one of her family members had gotten very sick and was not able to visit them at the hospital, she decided to turn to prayer "and ask God to show himself to her and help her unbelief." After doing so, she says that she became a devout, practicing Christian and uses her Christian faith as one of her motivators for her career and philanthropy.


title: Tasha Smith

text: Smith is the creator of TSAW - an actor's workshop that empowers and inspires performers at various stages in their careers with focus on the Black community.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Mohamed Saïd Benrahma (; born 10 August 1995) is an Algerian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Premier League club West Ham United and the Algeria national team.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Benrahma began his professional career with Nice, later spending time on loan with Angers, Gazélec Ajaccio and Châteauroux during his early career. He came to prominence in the EFL Championship after a move to Brentford in 2018, scoring 27 goals in 83 appearances for the West London outfit before moving to the Premier League with West Ham on a permanent basis following a loan spell in 2021.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: A winger, Benrahma began his youth career with Algerian club NRB Bethioua, before moving to France and joining Balma SC, Colomiers and then Ligue 1 club Nice in 2013. He made his professional debut under manager Claude Puel during the 2013–14 season, but played most of his football for the club with the reserve team, for whom he made 37 appearances and scored 11 goals between 2013 and 2016. Benrahma scored one goal in his three first team appearances during the 2014–15 season and scored a further two in 2015–16.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Ankle injuries and the arrival of manager Lucien Favre led to Benrahma spending a large portion of his latter career with the club away on loan, at Ligue 1 club Angers and Ligue 2 clubs Gazélec Ajaccio and Châteauroux. Benrahma departed the Stade de Nice in July 2018, having made 18 appearances and scored three goals during his time with the club.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: On 6 July 2018, Benrahma moved to England to join Championship club Brentford on a four-year contract, with the option of a further year, for an undisclosed fee, reported to be £2.7 million. He scored his first goal for the club on his third appearance, in a 4–2 EFL Cup first round victory over Southend United on 14 August 2018. Six weeks later, Benrahma was sent off for the first time in his Bees career after committing two bookable offences during a 2–2 draw with Reading on 29 September. After returning from injury in December, Benrahma broke into the starting lineup and came into form in mid-January 2019, scoring nine goals in 14 league matches. He was nominated for the January and February PFA Fans' Player of the Month awards and one of his three goals in a 5–1 win over Hull City was chosen as the Championship Goal of the Month for February and as Brentford's Goal of the Season. An ankle injury suffered in early April 2019 ended Benrahma's season, by which time he had made 45 appearances and scored 11 goals.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Benrahma missed Brentford's entire 2019–20 pre-season match programme and returned to competitive play in mid-August 2019, before breaking back into the starting lineup late in the month. During a 2019–20 season in which his performances led to him being voted the Brentford Supporters' Player of the Year and named in the Championship PFA Team of the Year, Benrahma made 46 appearances and scored 17 goals, which included two hat-tricks. His performances during Brentford's run to the 2020 Championship play-off Final saw him win the January 2020 PFA Fans' Player of the Month and the July 2020 Championship Player of the Month awards. In addition, he was nominated for the 2020 London Football Awards EFL Player of the Year award and the 2019–20 PFA Fans' Championship Player of the Year award.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: After a second consecutive pre-season of transfer speculation, Benrahma was left out of head coach Thomas Frank's matchday squads early in the 2020–21 regular season, before making his first appearance of the season as a substitute for Sergi Canós after 73 minutes of a 1–1 draw with Millwall on 26 September 2020. He started the following match versus West London rivals Fulham in the EFL Cup and his performance and second goal in the 3–0 fourth round victory was recognised with the man of the match and Goal of the Round awards respectively.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: On 16 October 2020, Benrahma joined Premier League club West Ham United on an initial season-long loan deal, with an agreement to make the transfer permanent. On 31 October, he came off the bench and made his debut in a 2–1 loss against Liverpool in a league fixture. He was named in the starting 11 for the first time in a 2–1 win over Leeds United on 11 December.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: On 29 January 2021, the loan deal was terminated early as West Ham signed Benrahma on a permanent contract in order to free up a domestic loan space for the incoming Jesse Lingard. The club agreed to pay £25 million plus £5 million in add-ons. The transfer fee made Benrahma West Ham’s third most expensive player behind Sébastien Haller and Felipe Anderson. On 15 May 2021, Benrahma scored his first goal for West Ham in a 1–1 away league draw against Brighton & Hove Albion.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: In September 2015, Benrahma was called up to the Algeria national team for friendly matches against Guinea and Senegal. He made his debut in the match versus Senegal on 13 October 2015, when he came on as a substitute for Baghdad Bounedjah after 70 minutes of the 1–0 victory. One month later, Benrahma was called into the squad for two 2018 World Cup second round qualifiers versus Tanzania, but did not make an appearance. Benrahma's club form at Brentford during the 2018–19 season was recognised with a call-up for two 2019 Africa Cup of Nations qualifiers and he won his second international cap with a start in a 1–0 win over Tunisia on 26 March 2019. He was named in Algeria's preliminary squad for the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations, but was forced to withdraw due to injury.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Benrahma scored his first international goal in a 4–0 away win against Djibouti on 12 November 2021 in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifiers.


title: Saïd Benrahma

text: Benrahma was born in Aïn Témouchent and grew up in Sidi Bel Abbès. He moved to Toulouse, France with his parents at the age of 11 and holds a French passport. Benrahma's father died in January 2020 and he publicly dedicated each of his subsequent five goals to him.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The Party for Socialism and Liberation (PSL) is a communist party in the United States, established in 2004. Its members are active in a wide range of movements including the labor, anti-war, immigrants' rights, women's rights, and anti-police brutality movements. It has been closely tied to the ANSWER Coalition throughout its existence; PSL founder Brian Becker is ANSWER's National Coordinator. Other prominent members include Gloria La Riva, Michael Prysner, and Eugene Puryear.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL, which initially had around 40 members, was formed when the San Francisco branch and other members left the Workers World Party in June 2004, announcing that "the Workers World Party leadership is no longer capable of fulfilling [the] mission" of building socialism. Its co-founders included Richard Becker and Gloria La Riva. During that time, it has operated out of a small storefront in San Francisco's Mission District. By 2019, it said it had members in 90 cities.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL ran La Riva and Sunil Freeman in the 2020 United States presidential election. Originally Leonard Peltier was the vice-presidential nominee, but he withdrew for health reasons.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: Following a wake of protests in the summer of 2020 against the death of Elijah McClain, the Aurora Police Department arrested organizers involved with the Party for Socialism and Liberation and other local groups on charges ranging from inciting a riot to kidnapping. This was in response to a protest on July 3 where the Aurora police precinct was surrounded by protesters calling for the officers responsible for McClain's death to be fired and charged. On September 17, three party members, Joel Northam, Lillian House, Eliza Lucero, and another community activist, Terrance Roberts, were arrested. Northam was arrested with the aid of a SWAT team and armored vehicle, while Roberts was apprehended while on a jog. Others were arrested at home or at work, and for eight days, were held in conditions what attorney Amelia Power termed to be "solitary confinement." They reported being locked in their cells with multiple other inmates at the same time that there was a COVID outbreak in the facility, and were only given one mask each for the duration of their confinement. House, Lucero, and Northam faced up to 48 years in prison.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The activists argued that their arrests were an act of retaliation and intimidation by the police. In a livestream, party leadership condemned the arrests, saying


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: After their appearance in court on March 26, 2021, an Adams county judge dropped the kidnapping charges, but the organizers were still being perused for numerous other felonies and misdemeanors for over five more months. It wasn't until September 13, 2021 that all charges were finally dropped. "[On September 1st] the Colorado Attorney General also announced a 32-count indictment against the police and paramedics who murdered Elijah McClain" – realizing the demands that they had been fighting for.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The party's goal is to lead a revolution paving the way towards socialism, under which a "new government of working people" would be formed. The PSL proposes many radical changes to be implemented by this government. In the political sphere, all elected representatives should be recallable, securing freedom of speech for the working class and the elimination of corporate influence through lobbying from politics. The party's program states: "Achieving fully developed socialism, a goal that has not yet been achieved anywhere, will open the way to communism and the end of class society."


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL describes its primary goal as the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the institution of socialism, stating:


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The Party for Socialism and Liberation believes that the only solution to the deepening crisis of capitalism is the socialist transformation of society. Driven by an insatiable appetite for ever greater profits regardless of social cost, capitalism is on a collision course with the people of the world and the planet itself. Imperialist war; deepening unemployment and poverty; deteriorating health care, housing and education; racism; discrimination and violence based on gender and sexual orientation; environmental destruction—all are inevitable products of the capitalist system itself.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The idea that the capitalists’ grip on society and their increasingly repressive state can be abolished through any means other than a revolutionary overturn is an illusion...There are really only two choices for humanity today—an increasingly destructive capitalism, or socialism.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL would, among other measures, prohibit the exploitation of labor for private profit, implement a working week of 30 hours, introduce a basic income guarantee, ensure paid parental and family leave for up to two years, provide paid sick and disability leave, require a minimum of one month's paid vacation, institute single payer health insurance, outlaw renting and selling land, provide free college, and eliminate fossil fuels and nuclear energy.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL would grant the right of self-determination to what it considers oppressed nations of the United States, including "African Americans, Native, Puerto Rican and other Latino national minorities, the Hawaiian nation, Asian, Pacific Islander, Arab, and other oppressed peoples who have experienced oppression as a whole people under capitalism". It would grant independence to Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Virgin Islands and the Mariana Islands, which it considers colonies.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: It has been outspoken in condemning Israel and its role in the Middle East. The PSL led demonstrations against the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in July 2006 and supports the right of return for Palestinians. The PSL voiced solidarity with Nepal upon the overthrow of the monarchy and the election of Pushpa Kamal Dahal in 2008.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL generally views other self-described socialist countries favorably. It supports Cuba and mourned the death of its former President Fidel Castro; additionally, it has endorsed activities that called for the release of the Cuban Fivedeemed political prisoners by supportersand called for the extradition of anti-Castro terrorist Luis Posada Carriles from the United States. It supports the Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela. Historically, it has described the Soviet Union positively, saying that the October Revolution was "the single biggest event that shaped global politics in the 20th century". However, it believes that the New Economic Policy of Vladimir Lenin "led to a re-polarization of social classes, especially in the countryside". The PSL blames the reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev for the dissolution of the Soviet Union.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: While the PSL has at times been critical of the Chinese government, particularly for failing to uphold certain communist ideals like the abolition of private property, it views the Chinese Revolution favorably, argues that the Communist Party of China has made important contributions to socialism and anti-imperialism, and argues that, despite its flaws, a "militant political defense of the Chinese government" is necessary to stave off "counterrevolution, imperialist intervention and dismemberment". The PSL has generally defended China's human rights records, denying, for instance, the premise that the Chinese military massacred student protestors in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and that China maintains a system of internment camps in Xinjiang. The PSL supports China's policies towards Tibet and opposed the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, calling them "chauvinist", "separatist", and "anti-China".


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The stance of the PSL on North Korea is that the country is often unfairly targeted and that the goal of the United States is regime change. The PSL advocates a significant overhaul of US foreign policy towards North Korea, including the lifting of sanctions on North Korea, the withdrawal of US troops from South Korea, and the signing of a peace treaty. The PSL is supportive of North Korea's nuclear weapons program; in the PSL's official newspaper, for instance, Stephan Gowans argued that a North Korean nuclear arsenal is "to be welcomed by anyone who opposes imperialist military interventions; supports the right of a people to organize its affairs free from foreign domination; and has an interest in the survival of one of the few top-to-bottom, actually-existing, alternatives to the global capitalist system of oppression, exploitation and foreign domination". PSL has also expressed skepticism towards Western claims of North Korea's human rights record, arguing that "conditions in North Korea are vastly better than those in other developing countries" and stating that condemnations of North Korea's human rights records are "thinly veiled justification[s] for U.S. aggression toward North Korea".


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL opposes the American-led intervention in the Syrian Civil War, arguing that the United States' goal is "the projection of permanent imperial power and domination in a region that contains two-thirds of the world's oil reserves". It has generally been supportive of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad and Russian military efforts in Syria, and denies the conclusion of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and other international organizations that the Syrian government used chemical weapons, which are banned under the Chemical Weapons Convention.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL has been critical of certain intergovernmental organizations, particularly international economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund, and World Bank. Its official newspaper published an article stating that the "WTO is one of many institutions, like the G8, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, that undermine the sovereignty of nations by forcing the implementation of disastrous neoliberal economic policies of privatization, liberalization and deregulation". It has further argued that "the IMF works on behalf of multinational corporations, finding natural resources, sweatshop laborers, and consumers for Western capitalism's surplus production" and has called the G20 an "instrument of capitalist plunder". It has also called the International Criminal Court a "fake court that has been used as a tool by the imperialists against those resisting imperialist aggression".


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL co-operates with other organizations across the United States in the anti-war movement and is a member of the steering committee of the Act Now to Stop War and End Racism Coalition (A.N.S.W.E.R.). As one of the most active members of the coalition, the PSL has gained notice for successfully forging ties with Arab and Muslim American groups such as the Muslim American Society, Al-Awda and the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. The PSL has advocated for the end of the United States military presence in Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan, and the closure of all United States foreign military bases.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL advocates "the overthrow, dismantling and complete replacement" of the "police, prisons, military and courts" of the United States. It supports replacing the current legal system of the United States with a "new justice system based on the democratic organization of the working class and its right to defend its class interests on the basis of solidarity and unity" and advocates reorganizing the prison system around "social education and rehabilitation".


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The party's main publication is the website and monthly paper "Liberation News", which replaced a quarterly magazine, "Socialism and Liberation". The PSL also publishes "Breaking the Chains: A Socialist Perspective on Women's Liberation," a quarterly socialist and feminist magazine, and "Reds In Ed", a monthly newsletter initiated by teachers who are members of the PSL. Additionally, the PSL publishes "Liberation School", which publishes longer-form analysis, Party documents, interviews, and educational resources including study guides, curricula, and video and audio courses.


title: Party for Socialism and Liberation

text: The PSL outlines its political perspective, including its assessment of the current international and domestic situation, in the pamphlet "Who We Are, What We Stand For". The party also owns its own printing company, PSL Publications, through which it has published multiple printed books such as "Socialists and War: Two Opposing Trends" by members Mazda Majidi and Brian Becker and an e-book which was released through Amazon titled "A Woman's Place Is in the Struggle" by members Ana Maria Ramirez, Anne Gamboni, Gloria La Riva and Liz Lowengard. The PSL's publication company, Liberation Media, is headquartered in San Francisco, California.


title: Linda Emond

text: Linda Marie Emond (born May 22, 1959) is an American stage, film, and television actress. Emond has received three Tony Award nominations for her performances in "Life (x) 3" (2003), "Death of a Salesman" (2012), and "Cabaret" (2014).


title: Linda Emond

text: Emond was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey. She was raised in Orange County, California, and attended Loara Elementary, Ball Junior High and Loara High Schools (where she was homecoming queen). She graduated with a BA in Theatre Arts from California State University, Fullerton in 1982. She earned an MFA from the Professional Actor Training Program at the University of Washington, Seattle.


title: Linda Emond

text: Her first professional stage performance, for which she earned her Equity card, was in "On the Verge" at The Empty Space Theatre in Seattle during her last semester of graduate school.


title: Linda Emond

text: She worked extensively in Chicago where she went on to be nominated for five Joseph Jefferson Awards, winning it twice for her performances as Eliza Doolittle in "Pygmalion" and Paulina in "The Winter's Tale".


title: Linda Emond

text: She debuted on the New York stage in the Off-Broadway play "Nine Armenians" in 1996 at the Manhattan Theatre Club for which she received a Drama Desk Award nomination.


title: Linda Emond

text: She has performed in Tony Kushner's "Homebody/Kabul" in three separate productions, the first at the New York Theatre Workshop in 2001, receiving a nomination for a Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Featured Actress, and winning both the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Actress and the 2002 Obie Award for Performance. She appeared in the same play at the Mark Taper Forum, Los Angeles and at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in 2004.


title: Linda Emond

text: In 2011, she appeared off-Broadway in Tony Kushner's "The Intelligent Homosexual's Guide to Capitalism and Socialism with a Key to the Scriptures" as “Empty”, a part that was written for her.


title: Linda Emond

text: She was cast as "Elaine" in Craig Lucas's "The Dying Gaul" at the Vineyard Theater in 1998. She played the role of Queen Hermione in "The Winter's Tale" at the Public Theater production of Shakespeare in the Park in July 2010. In regional theatre, Emond has performed at Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago in David Hare's "The Secret Rapture" in 1990 and at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in "The Cherry Orchard" (2004) and A.R. Gurney's "Far East" (1998).


title: Linda Emond

text: On Broadway, Emond appeared in productions of the musical "1776" (1997) as Abigail Adams, and in Yasmina Reza's play "Life x 3" (2003), for which she was nominated for the 2003 Tony Award as Best Featured Actress in a Play and for which she won the Outer Critics Circle Award. She starred as Linda Loman in the 2012 Broadway revival of "Death of a Salesman", opposite Philip Seymour Hoffman and as Fraulein Schneider in the 2014 revival of "Cabaret" and received Tony nominations for both performances.


title: Linda Emond

text: Emond's film and television roles include Simone Beck in "Julie & Julia" (2009), "Georgia O'Keeffe" (2009) a made-for-television Lifetime film, and as Abigail Adams in "American Experience: John and Abigail Adams" for PBS. In 2009, she played Mary Ann McCray in the Hallmark Hall of Fame television presentation of "A Dog Named Christmas". She has had recurring roles in such New York-based television series as "The Good Wife", "", "Gossip Girl", "Wonderland", "Elementary", and "The Knick".


title: Linda Emond

text: She is also a voiceover actor, having narrated over 50 episodes of the Lifetime series "Intimate Portrait". As an audiobook reader, Emond is the recipient of four Audiofile Earphones Awards and was named one of their Best Voices of the Year.


title: Linda Emond

text: Emond co-starred in "Indignation" (2016), an adaptation of Philip Roth's 2008 novel of the same name, playing Esther Messner, the mother of Logan Lerman's lead character.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Mission Kashmir is a 2000 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film directed and produced by Vidhu Vinod Chopra. The film stars Sanjay Dutt, Hrithik Roshan, Jackie Shroff, Preity Zinta, and Sonali Kulkarni. It deals with terrorism and the tragedy of children suffering from war.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: "Mission Kashmir" follows a young boy Altaaf Khan, who gets adopted by a police chief as his police team accidentally kills Altaaf's entire family. After finding out, he seeks revenge and becomes a terrorist. Rated R in the United States due to violence, the film was screened at the Stockholm International Film Festival and released theatrically in India and worldwide on 27 October 2000 during the Diwali festival.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: The film clashed with Aditya Chopra's musical romance "Mohabbatein" which starred Shah Rukh Khan and Amitabh Bachchan. Nevertheless, it was a critical and commercial success with global revenues of , emerging as the 3rd highest-grossing Hindi film of 2000. It won the Filmfare Award for Best Action and had similarities with Roshan's another 2000 film "Fiza", in which he also played a terrorist.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Inayat Khan is the Senior Superintendent of Police of Srinagar, Kashmir. When Inayat's young son Irfaan succumbs to his injuries he sustained from an accident following doctors' refusal to treat him in fear due to the fatwa instigated by wanted terrorist Malik Ul Khan forbidding doctors to treat policemen and their families, Inayat swears revenge against Malik. Inayat and his team manage to track down Malik and his men, but in the crossfire that ensues, a bystander couple is killed along with Malik and his men, leaving their son Altaaf as the sole survivor. Inayat's wife Neelima still grieving from the loss of her son and wrongly blaming herself for his death despite her husband's faith in her, convinces a reluctant Inayat to adopt the young Altaaf, who's traumatized from the loss of his family. Inayat fears Altaaf might seek vengeance if he learns the truth behind the event, and this fear comes true one day. After an unsuccessful attempt on Inayat's life, the young Altaaf runs away and is found and brought up by a terrorist group led by their Pathan leader Hilal Kohistani, who brainwashes him into thinking that he and his men act according to Islamic principles and trains him to become a terrorist.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Ten years later, Hilal and an adult Altaaf are assigned the task of completing "Mission Kashmir," a plan of an unnamed terrorist sponsor that involves; or so Altaaf is told, killing the Indian Prime Minister. Hilal uses Altaaf's hatred as a means to achieve his own goals while encouraging the latter to target Inayat, who is now an Inspector General, for his family's death. Altaaf visits his childhood friend and television personality Sufiya Parvez and, though he falls in love with her, uses her to try and make Hilal's plan of blowing up the local TV tower of Srinagar on Khan's birthday successful. He makes another unsuccessful attempt on Inayat's life, which results in him being branded as a wanted criminal by the media and a fallout between Inayat and Neelima.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Sufiya also learns of Altaaf's true occupation and breaks off her relationship with him. On the same date that Atlaaf's family was murdered, Altaaf makes another attempt on Inayat by having three of Hilal's men plant a bomb in Khan's briefcase. Unfortunately, Neelima falls victim to it by accident, much to the complete devastation of both Inayat and Altaaf, with the former having lost his chance to apologize for his argument with her and the latter being wracked with extreme remorse for killing her.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Following Neelima's funeral, Inayat manages to invade one of the terrorists' hideouts and discovers evidence and information about Mission Kashmir after capturing the men who planted the bomb. After going through some cassette tapes with the help of Sufiya, Inayat learns that the true goal of Mission Kashmir is to launch missiles on local places of Hindu and Muslim worship to escalate Hindu-Muslim conflict across the subcontinent, thereby dividing Kashmir and turning it into a war zone. It also turns out that the attack on the TV tower was planned by Hilal to spread the rumor of assassinating the Prime Minister to cover up the true plot. Inayat also learns that Hilal deliberately kept the true plot of Mission Kashmir a secret from Altaaf for he fears that Altaaf would not support it. This is made evident when Atlaaf leaves to the swampy hideouts to prepare for the launches, Hilal secretly tells one of his men to keep an eye on Atlaaf and kill him if he doesn't consent over the true targets.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: By staging a fire in the jail that allows one of the bomb-briefcase men to escape, Inayat and his men manage to track down and capture Hilal. Inayat offers to make a deal with Hilal: going under the false pretense of allowing Hilal and his men to continue forward with Mission Kashmir in exchange for killing Altaaf to avenge Neelima's death. Seeing that Inayat's 'hatred' of Altaaf is worthy of a Pathan's duty, Hilal accepts the deal, and to ensure no other mistake will be made, Inayat goes alone with Hilal to the hideouts.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: As Hilal and Inayat reach the hideouts, Hilal tells Altaaf of Inayat's whereabouts. An enraged Altaaf starts beating up a weary Inayat, but the latter reveals to him the true goals of Mission Kashmir, stating that Kashmir will be turned into hell if he lets Hilal destroy the holy shrines. Hilal orders Altaaf to shoot Inayat, who is willing to accept his fate after expressing his dear love for Altaaf and remorse for killing his family.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: As Altaaf struggles to do it, he remembers that Neelima took him to the shrines and the comment Neelima said about choosing sides during her visit earlier. Unwilling to betray his mother, Atlaaf decides to put his plan of revenge aside and aids Inayat in stopping Hilal and his men from targeting the holy shrines. However, Hilal throws a bomb to distract them before getting shot to death by Altaaf, giving Hilal's men a chance to prepare to blow up the shrines.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: While Inayat shoots down several terrorists, Altaaf redeems himself by taking possession of a missile launcher and using it to destroy the other launchers and kill the remaining terrorists, thus saving the shrines. However, Altaaf gets shot in the torso and falls into the swamps. Inayat jumps in and rescues the unconscious Altaaf by bringing him to shore, evading the explosion of the hideouts caused by Altaaf's act of redemption.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: The plans of Mission Kashmir are revealed to the public by the media, and the terrorist sponsor's hideout is found by Kashmiri police, who shoot the sponsor as he tries to get away after killing two of his associates. Altaaf wakes up from a pleasant dream, where he reconciles with Sufiya and forgives Inayat, accepting the latter as his father again after 10 years.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Due to the tight security in Kashmir, in late 1999, when the lead actor Hrithik Roshan arrived on location to start shooting "Mission Kashmir", his debut film "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" (2000) had not yet released, so no one recognized his face. Arriving for the first day of the shoot in Srinagar dressed as a Kashmiri militant, which he portrays in the film, the security guards on location thought Hrithik really was Kashmiri – because of his fair skin and light coloring, and refused to allow him on set. Shortly thereafter, on 14 January 2000, "Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai" turned him a superstar overnight, and his face was instantly recognized everywhere.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: Saisuresh Sivaswamy from "Rediff" wrote, "This is a story from the director's heart, not his head, and the sincerity comes across in frame after frame." Giving the film 4 out of 5 stars, N. K. Deoshi of "apunkachoice.com" wrote, "Beneath all the drama that goes on in the movie there lurks the aspiration to get across to people the message of what actually people of Kashmir are going through." Savitha Padmanabhan of "The Hindu" stated, ""Mission Kashmir" might have its faults but it is definitely a cut above the rest of the commercial Hindi films that have been made on terrorism." She also praised the cast's performances and the film's production value. Film journal "Screen" praised the performances, but further wrote, "Chopra makes a sincere effort in his latest film "Mission Kashmir" to bring to the fore, the turmoil in the valley. But one feels disappointed, all the same, that there is very little of Kashmiriyat in the story, which is more of a personal conflict between the victim of a police shoot-out and a police officer." Suman Tarafdar of "Filmfare" panned the film for its lack of "serious look at the issue". Vinayak Chakravorty of "Hindustan Times", however, rated the film 3.5 stars, calling it "a good show" and praising Dutt's performance as "perfect". Jitendra Kothari of "India Today" praised the film as "a gripping film on a trenchantly topical issue, avoiding apportioning blame by intermingling strains of loss and guilt."


title: Mission Kashmir

text: The soundtrack of the film contains seven songs. The music is conducted by the trio Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, performing separately. Ehsaan Noorani composed three songs, while Shankar Mahadevan and Loy Mendonsa composed two songs each.


title: Mission Kashmir

text: According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around 1.5million units sold, the film's soundtrack album was the year's third highest-selling. The song "Bumbro" was recreated as "Bumbro" for the film "Notebook" (2019).


title: Petticoat

text: A petticoat or underskirt is an article of clothing, a type of undergarment worn under a skirt or a dress. Its precise meaning varies over centuries and between countries.


title: Petticoat

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", in current British English, a petticoat is "a light loose undergarment ... hanging from the shoulders or waist". In modern American usage, "petticoat" refers only to a garment hanging from the waist. They are most often made of cotton, silk or tulle. Without petticoats, skirts of the 1850s would not have the volume they were known for. In historical contexts (16th to mid-19th centuries), "petticoat" refers to any separate skirt worn with a gown, bedgown, bodice or jacket; these petticoats are not, strictly speaking, underwear, as they were made to be seen. In both historical and modern contexts, "petticoat" refers to skirt-like undergarments worn for warmth or to give the skirt or dress the desired attractive shape.


title: Petticoat

text: Sometimes a petticoat may be called a "waist slip" or "underskirt" (UK) or "half slip" (US), with "petticoat" restricted to extremely full garments. A chemise hangs from the shoulders. "Petticoat" can also refer to a full-length slip in the UK, although this usage is somewhat old-fashioned.


title: Petticoat

text: In the 14th century, both men and women wore undercoats called "petticotes". The word "petticoat" came from Middle English or , meaning "a small coat/cote". "Petticoat" is also sometimes spelled "petty coat". The original petticoat was meant to be seen and was worn with an open gown. The practice of wearing petticoats as undergarments was well established in England by 1585. In French, petticoats were called . The , worn in Spain, was considered a type of petticoat.


title: Petticoat

text: In the 18th century in Europe and in America, petticoats were considered a part of the exterior garment and were meant to be seen. An underpetticoat was considered an undergarment and was shorter than a regular petticoat. Underpetticoats were also known as a "dickey". Also in the American colonies, working women wore shortgowns (bedgowns) over petticoats that normally matched in color. The hem length of a petticoat in the 18th century depended on what was fashionable in dress at the time. Often, petticoats had slits or holes for women to reach pockets inside. Petticoats were worn by all classes of women throughout the 18th century. The style known as polonaise revealed much of the petticoat intentionally.


title: Petticoat

text: In the early 19th century, dresses became narrower and simpler with much less lingerie, including "invisible petticoats". Then, as the waltz became popular in the 1820s, full-skirted gowns with petticoats were revived in Europe and the United States. In the Victorian era, petticoats were used to give bulk and shape to the skirts worn over the petticoat. By the mid 19th century, petticoats were worn over hoops. As the bustle became popular, petticoats developed flounces towards the back. In the 1870s, petticoats were worn in layers. Colored petticoats came into fashion by the 1890s.


title: Petticoat

text: In the early 20th century, petticoats were circular, had flounces and buttons, in which women could attach additional flounces to the garment. Bloomers were also touted as a replacement for petticoats when working and by fashion reformers.


title: Petticoat

text: Petticoats were revived by Christian Dior in his full-skirted "New Look" of 1947, and tiered, ruffled, stiffened petticoats remained extremely popular during the 1950s and 1960s. These were sold in a few clothing stores as late as 1970.


title: Petticoat

text: Sybil Connolly recalled how a red flannel petticoat, worn by a Connemara woman, inspired her first international fashion collection which took place in New York in 1953. She had travelled to Connemara for inspiration, where she saw a woman wearing a traditional red flannel petticoat. She bought a bolt of the same fabric from the local shop and made it into a quilted evening skirt, which was a huge success at the fashion show. One of these skirts is part of the collection at The Hunt Museum.


title: Petticoat

text: Underskirts worn under non-Western clothing, such as the "ghagra" worn under a sari, are also often called "petticoats". Sari petticoats usually match the color of the sari and are made of satin or cotton. Compared to the Western petticoat, South Asian petticoats are rarely shorter than ankle length and are always worn from the waist down. They may also be called inner skirts or inskirts.


title: Petticoat

text: In Japan, similar to a "petticoat", a (commonly referred to simply as a ; a is sometimes worn underneath a ) are worn under the kimono as a form of underwear similar in function to the petticoat. The resembles a shorter kimono, typically without two half-size front panels (the ) and with sleeves only marginally sewn up along the wrist-end. are commonly made of white silk, though historically were typically made of red silk; as the collar of the shows underneath the kimono and is worn against the skin, a half-collar (a ) is often sewn to the collar as a protector, and also for decoration. The is sometimes worn underneath the , and resembles a tube-sleeved kimono-shaped top, without a collar, and an accompanying skirt slip.


title: Petticoat

text: The early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft was disparaged by Horace Walpole as a "hyena in petticoats". Florentia Sale was dubbed "the Grenadier in Petticoats" for travelling with her military husband Sir Robert Henry Sale around the British Empire.


title: Petticoat

text: The phrase "petticoat government" has referred to women running government or domestic affairs. The phrase is usually applied in a positive tone welcoming female governance of society and home, but occasionally is used to imply a threat to "appropriate" government by males, as was mentioned in several of Henry Fielding's plays. An Irish pamphlet "Petticoat Government, Exemplified in a Late Case in Ireland" was published in 1780. The American writer Washington Irving used the phrase in Rip Van Winkle (1819). Frances Trollope wrote "Petticoat Government: A Novel" in 1850. Emma Orczy wrote "Petticoat Government", another novel, in 1911. G. K. Chesterton (1874–1936) mentions petticoat in a positive manner; to the idea of female dignity and power in his book "What's Wrong With the World" (1910) he states:


title: Petticoat

text: President Andrew Jackson's administration was beset by a scandal called the "Petticoat affair", dramatized in the 1936 film "The Gorgeous Hussy". A 1943 comedy film called "Petticoat Larceny" (cf. petty larceny) depicted a young girl being kidnapped by grifters. In 1955, Iron Curtain politics were satirized in a Bob Hope and Katharine Hepburn film "The Iron Petticoat". In the same year Western author Chester William Harrison wrote a short story "Petticoat Brigade" that was turned into the film "The Guns of Fort Petticoat" in 1957. Blake Edwards filmed a story of an American submarine filled with nurses from the Battle of the Philippines called "Operation Petticoat" (1959). "Petticoat Junction" was a CBS TV series that aired in 1963. CBS had another series in the 1966–67 season called "Pistols 'n' Petticoats".


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: The first series of the British crime drama "Broadchurch" originally aired on the ITV broadcast network in the United Kingdom from 4 March 2013 to 22 April 2013. The eight-episode series began with the murder of an 11-year-old boy in the fictional, close-knit coastal town of Broadchurch in Dorset, United Kingdom. The series depicted the impact that suspicion and media attention have on the community.


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: Though "Broadchurch" was first conceived of in 2003, creator and writer Chris Chibnall first began fleshing out the story and writing scripts for the first episodes in 2011. He approached ITV in autumn 2011 with the series, and the network quickly approved it for production. The role of Reverend Paul Coates was written for Arthur Darvill, and leads David Tennant and Olivia Colman were the first cast. Other roles were cast using auditions. Principal photography began on 13 August 2012 in Dorset. Most scenes were shot on location, with the majority of filming in and around Clevedon and West Bay. Soundstages were used for some interior scenes. Dialogue rarely departed from the scripts, but other aspects of the performances were improvised. A documentary visual style and an emphasis on first takes were used to heighten the realism of the series and acting. Few of the crew and none of the actors knew the identity of the murderer when filming began. A number of steps were taken to maintain this secret. Only those cast and crew with an absolute need to know were told the identity of the murderer once filming began on the final three episodes.


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: "Broadchurch" series one received widespread critical acclaim and high viewership ratings. Music by Ólafur Arnalds helped to inspire the series' mood and tone. Arnalds composed the series' soundtrack, which won a BAFTA Craft award. Among the many honours received by cast and crew, Olivia Colman won a BAFTA for Best Actress and David Bradley for Best Supporting Actor, and the series was named Best Drama.


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: The final episode of series one finished with a caption reading "Broadchurch Will Return". ITV executives confirmed that a second series of "Broadchurch" had been commissioned, with production to begin in 2014.


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: Following episode eight, an extra scene was released on YouTube depicting Danny's wake, held the afternoon after the funeral but before the evening when the beacons were lit. Nigel and Mark were shown reconciled, Olly turned down a job at the "Herald", and Hardy spoke to Karen about why he alerted her to Joe's arrest. The video ended with the words ""Broadchurch" will return".


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: "Broadchurch" was created and written by Chris Chibnall, and produced by Kudos Film and Television in association with Shine America and Imaginary Friends. Chibnall served as executive producer along with Kudos' Jane Featherstone, while Richard Stokes was producer.


title: Broadchurch (series 1)

text: "Broadchurch" creator and writer Chris Chibnall described the project as a labour of love. He spent more than a decade in the United Kingdom working on various television programs, and initially conceived "Broadchurch" about 2003 while working on his first series, "Born and Bred". The concept was to explore how a child's murder affects a small, close-knit community, and how the characters react to the media attention and the mutual suspicion that arises.