title: Circular polarization

text: The handedness of polarized light is reversed reflected off a surface at normal incidence. Upon such reflection, the rotation of the plane of polarization of the reflected light is identical to that of the incident field. However, with propagation now in the "opposite" direction, the same rotation direction that would be described as "right-handed" for the incident beam, is "left-handed" for propagation in the reverse direction, and vice versa. Aside from the reversal of handedness, the ellipticity of polarization is also preserved (except in cases of reflection by a birefringent surface).


title: Circular polarization

text: Note that this principle only holds strictly for light reflected at normal incidence. For instance, right circularly polarized light reflected from a dielectric surface at grazing incidence (an angle beyond the Brewster angle) will still emerge as right-handed, but elliptically, polarized. Light reflected by a metal at non-normal incidence will generally have its ellipticity changed as well. Such situations may be solved by decomposing the incident circular (or other) polarization into components of linear polarization parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, commonly denoted "p" and "s" respectively. The reflected components in the "p" and "s" linear polarizations are found by applying the Fresnel coefficients of reflection, which are generally different for those two linear polarizations. Only in the special case of normal incidence, where there is no distinction between "p" and "s", are the Fresnel coefficients for the two components identical, leading to the above property.


title: Circular polarization

text: Circularly polarized light can be converted into linearly polarized light by passing it through a quarter-waveplate. Passing linearly polarized light through a quarter-waveplate with its axes at 45° to its polarization axis will convert it to circular polarization. In fact, this is the most common way of producing circular polarization in practice. Note that passing linearly polarized light through a quarter-waveplate at an angle "other" than 45° will generally produce elliptical polarization.


title: Circular polarization

text: Circular polarization may be referred to as right-handed or left-handed, and clockwise or anti-clockwise, depending on the direction in which the electric field vector rotates. Unfortunately, two opposing historical conventions exist.


title: Circular polarization

text: Using this convention, polarization is defined from the point of view of the source. When using this convention, left- or right-handedness is determined by pointing one's left or right thumb away from the source, in the same direction that the wave is propagating, and matching the curling of one's fingers to the direction of the temporal rotation of the field at a given point in space. When determining if the wave is clockwise or anti-clockwise circularly polarized, one again takes the point of view of the source, and while looking away from the source and in the same direction of the wave's propagation, one observes the direction of the field's spatial rotation.


title: Circular polarization

text: Using this convention, the electric field vector of a left-handed circularly polarized wave is as follows:


title: Circular polarization

text: As a specific example, refer to the circularly polarized wave in the first animation. Using this convention, that wave is defined as right-handed because when one points one's right thumb in the same direction of the wave's propagation, the fingers of that hand curl in the same direction of the field's temporal rotation. It is considered clockwise circularly polarized because, from the point of view of the source, looking in the same direction of the wave's propagation, the field rotates in the clockwise direction. The second animation is that of left-handed or anti-clockwise light, using this same convention.


title: Circular polarization

text: This convention is in conformity with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard and, as a result, it is generally used in the engineering community.


title: Circular polarization

text: Quantum physicists also use this convention of handedness because it is consistent with their convention of handedness for a particle's spin.


title: Circular polarization

text: Radio astronomers also use this convention in accordance with an International Astronomical Union (IAU) resolution made in 1973.


title: Circular polarization

text: In this alternative convention, polarization is defined from the point of view of the receiver. Using this convention, left- or right-handedness is determined by pointing one's left or right thumb toward the source, against the direction of propagation, and then matching the curling of one's fingers to the spatial rotation of the field.


title: Circular polarization

text: When using this convention, in contrast to the other convention, the defined handedness of the wave matches the handedness of the screw type nature of the field in space. Specifically, if one freezes a right-handed wave in time, when one curls the fingers of one's right hand around the helix, the thumb will point in the direction of progression for the helix, given the sense of rotation. Note that, in the context of the nature of all screws and helices, it does not matter in which direction you point your thumb when determining its handedness.


title: Circular polarization

text: When determining if the wave is clockwise or anti-clockwise circularly polarized, one again takes the point of view of the receiver and, while looking toward the source, against the direction of propagation, one observes the direction of the field's temporal rotation.


title: Circular polarization

text: Just as in the other convention, right-handedness corresponds to a clockwise rotation, and left-handedness corresponds to an anti-clockwise rotation.


title: Circular polarization

text: Many optics textbooks use this second convention. It is also used by SPIE as well as the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).


title: Circular polarization

text: As stated earlier, there is significant confusion with regards to these two conventions. As a general rule, the engineering, quantum physics, and radio astronomy communities use the first convention, in which the wave is observed from the point of view of the source. In many physics textbooks dealing with optics, the second convention is used, in which the light is observed from the point of view of the receiver.


title: Circular polarization

text: To avoid confusion, it is good practice to specify "as defined from the point of view of the source" or "as defined from the point of view of the receiver" when discussing polarization matters.


title: Circular polarization

text: The term "circular polarization" is often used erroneously to describe mixed polarity signals used mostly in FM radio (87.5 to 108.0 MHz in the USA), in which a vertical and a horizontal component are propagated simultaneously by a single or a combined array. This has the effect of producing greater penetration into buildings and difficult reception areas than a signal with just one plane of polarization. This would be an instance in which the polarization would more appropriately be called random polarization because the polarization at a receiver, although constant, will vary depending on the direction from the transmitter and other factors in the transmitting antenna design. See Stokes parameters.


title: Circular polarization

text: The term "FM radio" above refers to FM broadcasting, not two-way radio (more properly called land mobile radio), which uses vertical polarization almost exclusively.


title: Circular polarization

text: Circular dichroism (CD) is the differential absorption of left- and right-handed circularly polarized light. Circular dichroism is the basis of a form of spectroscopy that can be used to determine the optical isomerism and secondary structure of molecules.


title: Circular polarization

text: In general, this phenomenon will be exhibited in absorption bands of any optically active molecule. As a consequence, circular dichroism is exhibited by most biological molecules, because of the dextrorotary (e.g., some sugars) and levorotary (e.g., some amino acids) molecules they contain. Noteworthy as well is that a secondary structure will also impart a distinct CD to its respective molecules. Therefore, the alpha helix, beta sheet and random coil regions of proteins and the double helix of nucleic acids have CD spectral signatures representative of their structures.


title: Circular polarization

text: Also, under the right conditions, even non-chiral molecules will exhibit magnetic circular dichroism — that is, circular dichroism induced by a magnetic field.


title: Circular polarization

text: "Circularly polarized luminescence" (CPL) can occur when either a luminophore or an ensemble of luminophores is chiral. The extent to which emissions are polarized is quantified in the same way it is for circular dichroism, in terms of the "dissymmetry factor", also sometimes referred to as the "anisotropy factor". This value is given by:


title: Circular polarization

text: where formula_3 corresponds to the quantum yield of left-handed circularly polarized light, and formula_4 to that of right-handed light. The maximum absolute value of "g", corresponding to purely left- or right-handed circular polarization, is therefore 2. Meanwhile, the smallest absolute value that "g" can achieve, corresponding to linearly polarized or unpolarized light, is zero.


title: Circular polarization

text: The classical sinusoidal plane wave solution of the electromagnetic wave equation for the electric and magnetic fields is:


title: Circular polarization

text: is the angular frequency of the wave; formula_7 is an orthogonal formula_8 matrix whose columns span the transverse x-y plane; and formula_9 is the speed of light.


title: Circular polarization

text: If formula_12 is rotated by formula_13 radians with respect to formula_14 and the x amplitude equals the y amplitude, the wave is circularly polarized. The Jones vector is:


title: Circular polarization

text: where the plus sign indicates left circular polarization, and the minus sign indicates right circular polarization. In the case of circular polarization, the electric field vector of constant magnitude rotates in the "x"-"y" plane.


title: Circular polarization

text: A number of different types of antenna elements can be used to produce circularly polarized (or nearly so) radiation; following Balanis, one can use "dipole elements":


title: Circular polarization

text: "... two crossed dipoles provide the two orthogonal field components... If the two dipoles are identical, the field intensity of each along zenith ... would be of the same intensity. Also, if the two dipoles were fed with a 90° degree time-phase difference (phase quadrature), the polarization along zenith would be circular... One way to obtain the 90° time-phase difference between the two orthogonal field components, radiated respectively by the two dipoles, is by feeding one of the two dipoles with a transmission line which is 1/4 wavelength longer or shorter than that of the other," p.80;


title: Circular polarization

text: "To achieve circular polarization [in axial or end-fire mode] ... the circumference "C" of the helix must be ... with "C"/wavelength = 1 near optimum, and the spacing about "S" = wavelength/4," p.571;


title: Circular polarization

text: "... circular and elliptical polarizations can be obtained using various feed arrangements or slight modifications made to the elements... Circular polarization can be obtained if two orthogonal modes are excited with a 90° time-phase difference between them. This can be accomplished by adjusting the physical dimensions of the patch... For a square patch element, the easiest way to excite ideally circular polarization is to feed the element at two adjacent edges... The quadrature phase difference is obtained by feeding the element with a 90° power divider," p.859.


title: Circular polarization

text: In the quantum mechanical view, light is composed of photons. Polarization is a manifestation of the spin angular momentum of light. More specifically, in quantum mechanics, the direction of spin of a photon is tied to the handedness of the circularly polarized light, and the spin of a beam of photons is similar to the spin of a beam of particles, such as electrons.


title: Circular polarization

text: Only a few mechanisms in nature are known to systematically produce circularly polarized light. In 1911, Albert Abraham Michelson discovered that light reflected from the golden scarab beetle "Chrysina resplendens" is preferentially left-polarized. Since then, circular polarization has been measured in several other scarab beetles such as "Chrysina gloriosa", as well as some crustaceans such as the mantis shrimp. In these cases, the underlying mechanism is the molecular-level helicity of the chitinous cuticle.


title: Circular polarization

text: The bioluminescence of the larvae of fireflies is also circularly polarized, as reported in 1980 for the species "Photuris lucicrescens" and "Photuris versicolor". For fireflies, it is more difficult to find a microscopic explanation for the polarization, because the left and right lanterns of the larvae were found to emit polarized light of opposite senses. The authors suggest that the light begins with a linear polarization due to inhomogeneities inside aligned photocytes, and it picks up circular polarization while passing through linearly birefringent tissue.


title: Circular polarization

text: Water-air interfaces provide another source of circular polarization. Sunlight that gets scattered back up towards the surface is linearly polarized. If this light is then totally internally reflected back down, its vertical component undergoes a phase shift. To an underwater observer looking up, the faint light outside Snell's window therefore is (partially) circularly polarized.


title: Circular polarization

text: Weaker sources of circular polarization in nature include multiple scattering by linear polarizers, as in the circular polarization of starlight, and selective absorption by circularly dichroic media.


title: Frenzy

text: Frenzy is a 1972 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock. It is the penultimate feature film of his extensive career. The screenplay by Anthony Shaffer was based on the 1966 novel "Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square" by Arthur La Bern. The film stars Jon Finch, Alec McCowen and Barry Foster and features Billie Whitelaw, Anna Massey, Barbara Leigh-Hunt, Bernard Cribbins and Vivien Merchant. The original music score was composed by Ron Goodwin.


title: Frenzy

text: The plot centres on a serial killer in contemporary London and the ex-RAF serviceman he implicates. In a very early scene there is dialogue that mentions two actual London serial murder cases: the Christie murders in the 1940s-1950s and the Jack the Ripper murders in 1888. Barry Foster has said that, in order to prepare for his role, he was asked by Hitchcock to study two books about Neville Heath, an English serial killer who would often pass himself off as an officer in the RAF.


title: Frenzy

text: "Frenzy" was the third and final film that Hitchcock made in Britain after he moved to Hollywood in 1939. The other two were "Under Capricorn" in 1949 and "Stage Fright" in 1950. (There were some interior and exterior scenes filmed in London for the 1956 remake of "The Man Who Knew Too Much.)" The last film he made in Britain before his move to the United States was "Jamaica Inn" (1939). "Frenzy" was the only Hitchcock film given an R rating during its initial release. "Frenzy" was screened at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival, but it was not entered into the main competition.


title: Frenzy

text: Former RAF squadron leader Richard Blaney (Jon Finch) is fired from his job as a bartender in a pub near Covent Garden. He laments his loss with his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster), who runs a produce stand in Covent Garden. Rusk consoles him and gives a tip on a forthcoming horse-race, but Blaney has no money to bet. He visits his ex-wife Brenda (Barbara Leigh-Hunt), who runs a successful matchmaking agency, and complains loudly about his situation. They briefly argue, but she invites him to dinner. Broke, Blaney ends up spending the night at a Salvation Army shelter, where he discovers that Brenda has slipped money into his coat pocket.


title: Frenzy

text: On the following day, Rusk, whom the agency has turned away because of his creepy sexual proclivities, arrives at Brenda's office. Finding her alone, he rapes her, then strangles her with his necktie, revealing that he is the serial killer whom the newspapers have dubbed the "Necktie Murderer". After Rusk leaves, Blaney arrives, hoping to talk to Brenda again, but he finds her office locked. Brenda's secretary, returning from lunch, sees Blaney leaving. When the murder is discovered, Blaney becomes the prime suspect.


title: Frenzy

text: Blaney meets up with Barbara "Babs" Milligan (Anna Massey), his former pub co-worker, and convinces her that he is innocent. The two stay at a hotel, where they make love, then narrowly dodge the police. They appeal to one of Blaney's RAF buddies for help, but the man's wife refuses to harbour a fugitive. Blaney persuades Babs to fetch his belongings from the pub, so he can flee. While there, Babs runs into Rusk, who offers to let her use his flat for the night. After taking Babs there, he rapes and murders her. He hides her body in a sack and, late that night, stows it in the back of a lorry hauling potatoes. Back in his room, Rusk discovers that his distinctive jewelled tie pin (with the initial R) is missing, and realizes that Babs must have torn it off while he was strangling her. Knowing the tie pin will incriminate him, Rusk goes to retrieve it, but the lorry starts off on its journey while he is still inside. In spite of the bumpy ride, he retrieves the pin that is still clutched in Babs's hand. Dishevelled and covered in potato-dust, he gets out at a roadside café, then returns to his Covent Garden flat. When Babs's body is discovered, Blaney is suspected of her murder as well as Brenda's.


title: Frenzy

text: Blaney, unaware that Rusk is the actual murderer, turns to him for help. Rusk offers to hide Blaney at his flat and then tips off the police. In the face of this treachery, Blaney realizes that Rusk must be the murderer. At the trial, the jury finds Blaney guilty. During the trial and while being led away to prison, Blaney loudly protests that he is innocent and that Rusk is the real killer. Chief Inspector Oxford (Alec McCowen) reconsiders the evidence and quietly investigates Rusk. He discusses the case with his wife (Vivien Merchant) while trying to avoid eating the unappetizing food she has learned to prepare in an "exotic cooking" course.


title: Frenzy

text: Blaney, now in prison, vows to escape and avenge himself on Rusk. He deliberately injures himself and is taken to the hospital. His fellow inmate patients help him escape the locked ward. He goes to Rusk's flat. Rusk is not there, but Blaney finds a dead woman in Rusk's bed with Rusk's necktie around her neck. Inspector Oxford, who has anticipated that Blaney would go after Rusk, arrives to find Blaney with the dead woman. Just as Blaney begins to protest his innocence, the two hear a loud banging noise coming from the stairwell. The Inspector hastily conceals himself behind the door. Rusk enters, dragging a large trunk into the flat, and is shocked to see Blaney. Oxford reveals himself and wryly notes that Rusk is not wearing his tie. Realizing that both Blaney and Oxford can overpower him if he tries to do anything, Rusk resigns his fate and drops the trunk, surrendering himself to the authority.


title: Frenzy

text: After a pair of unsuccessful films depicting political intrigue and espionage, Hitchcock returned to the murder genre with this film. The narrative makes use of the familiar Hitchcock theme of an innocent man overwhelmed by circumstantial evidence and wrongly assumed to be guilty. Some critics consider "Frenzy" the last great Hitchcock film and a return to form after his two previous works: "Topaz" and "Torn Curtain".


title: Frenzy

text: Hitchcock approached Vladimir Nabokov to write the script, but the author turned him down because he was busy on a book. He then hired Anthony Shaffer.


title: Frenzy

text: Hitchcock set and filmed "Frenzy" in London after many years making films in the United States. The film opens with a sweeping shot along the Thames to Tower Bridge; and while the interior scenes were filmed at Pinewood Studios, much of the location filming was done in and around Covent Garden and was an homage to the London of Hitchcock's childhood. The son of a Covent Garden merchant himself, Hitchcock filmed several key scenes showing the area as the working produce market it was. Aware that the area's days as a market were numbered, Hitchcock wanted to record the area as he remembered it. According to the 'making-of' feature on the DVD, an elderly man who remembered Hitchcock's father as a dealer in the vegetable market came to visit the set during the filming and was treated to lunch by the director.


title: Frenzy

text: No. 31, Ennismore Gardens Mews, was used as the home of Brenda Margaret Blaney during the filming of "Frenzy".


title: Frenzy

text: During shooting for the film, Hitchcock's wife and long-time collaborator Alma had a stroke. As a result, some sequences were shot without Hitchcock on the set so he could tend to his wife.


title: Frenzy

text: The film was the first Hitchcock film to have nudity (with the arguable exception of the shower scene in "Psycho"). There are a number of classic Hitchcock set pieces in the film, particularly the long tracking shot down the stairs when Babs is murdered. The camera moves down the stairs, out of the doorway (with a rather clever edit just after the camera exits the door which marks where the scene moves from the studio to the location footage) and across the street, where the usual activity in the market district goes on with patrons unaware that a murder is occurring in the building. A second sequence set in the back of a delivery truck full of potatoes increases the suspense, as the murderer Rusk attempts to retrieve his tie pin from the corpse of Babs. Rusk struggles with the hand and has to break the fingers of the corpse in order to retrieve his tie pin and try to escape unseen from the truck.


title: Frenzy

text: The part of London shown in the film still exists more or less intact, but the fruit and vegetable market no longer operates from that site, having relocated in 1974. The buildings seen in the film are now occupied by banks and legal offices, restaurants and nightclubs, such as Henrietta Street, where Rusk lived (and Babs met her untimely demise). Oxford Street, which had the back alley (Dryden Chambers, now demolished) leading to Brenda Blaney's matrimonial agency, is the busiest shopping area in Britain. Nell of Old Drury, which is the public house where the doctor and solicitor had their frank, plot-assisting discussion on sex killers, is still a thriving bar. The lanes where merchants and workers once carried their produce, as seen in the film, are now occupied by tourists and street performers.


title: Frenzy

text: In a 29 May 1972 letter to the editor of "The Times", novelist La Bern said he found Hitchcock's production and Shaffer's adaptation of his book "appalling", concluding "Finally, I wish to dissociate myself with Mr Shaffer's grotesque misrepresentation of Scotland Yard offices."


title: Frenzy

text: Henry Mancini was originally hired as the film's composer. "If the same film was made ten years ago it would've had twice the amount of music in it", he said.


title: Frenzy

text: His opening theme was written in Bachian organ andante, opening in D minor, for organ and an orchestra of strings and brass, and was intended to express the formality of the grey London landmarks, but Hitchcock thought it sounded too much like Bernard Herrmann's scores. According to Mancini, "Hitchcock came to the recording session, listened awhile and said: 'Look, if I want Herrmann, I'd ask for Herrmann. After an enigmatic, behind-the-scenes melodrama, the composer was fired. He never understood the experience, insisting that his score sounded nothing like Herrmann's work. Mancini had to pay all transportation and accommodation costs himself. In his autobiography, Mancini reports that the discussions between himself and Hitchcock seemed clear, and he thought he understood what was wanted; but he was replaced and flew back home to Hollywood. The irony was that Mancini was being second-guessed for being too dark and symphonic after having been criticized for being too light before. Mancini's experience with "Frenzy" was a painful topic for the composer for years to come.


title: Frenzy

text: Hitchcock then hired composer Ron Goodwin to write the score after being impressed with some of his earlier work. He had Goodwin rescore the opening titles in the style of a London travelogue - the director had heard his score for the Peter Sellers sketch "Balham, Gateway to the South". Goodwin's music had a lighter tone in the opening scenes, and scenes featuring London scenery, while there were darker undertones in certain other scenes.


title: Frenzy

text: "Frenzy" received positive reviews from critics. Vincent Canby of the "New York Times" called it "a passionately entertaining film" with "a marvelously funny script" and a "superb" cast. He put it on his year-end list of the ten best films of 1972. "Variety" also posted a rave review, declaring: "Ingeniously fresh story-telling ideas, stamped with the same mischievous, audacious and often outrageous mixture of humor and suspense that first made him and later sustained him, make the Universal release one of Hitchcock's major achievements." Roger Ebert gave the film his highest grade of four stars, calling it "a return to old forms by the master of suspense, whose newer forms have pleased movie critics but not his public. This is the kind of thriller Hitchcock was making in the 1940s, filled with macabre details, incongruous humor, and the desperation of a man convicted of a crime he didn't commit." Penelope Gilliatt of "The New Yorker" wrote of Hitchcock that "we are nearly back in the days of his great English films", adding "He is lucky to have been able to draw on Anthony Shaffer to do "Frenzy"s sly screenplay, not to speak of a cast of first-rate, well-equated actors pretty much unknown outside England, so that audiences have no preconceptions about who are the stars and therefore unkillable." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film "Alfred Hitchcock's best picture in years", with "all the marks of work by a master at his craft and at his most assured". "Time" magazine printed a very positive review of the film: "In case there was any doubt, back in the dim days of "Marnie" and "Topaz", Hitchcock is still in fine form. "Frenzy" is the dazzling proof. It is not at the level of his greatest work, but it is smooth and shrewd and dexterous, a reminder that anyone who makes a suspense film is still an apprentice to this old master." In its 2012 review "The Guardian" called "Frenzy" a "complex and gripping thriller" praising the film as "a rich tapestry of suspense, and a masterpiece".


title: Frenzy

text: Some reviews were more mixed. Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote that the film "has a promising opening sequence and a witty curtain line, but the material in between is decidedly pedestrian. The reviewers who've been hailing "Frenzy" as a new classic and the triumphant return of the master of suspense are, to put it kindly, exaggerating the occasion ... If this picture had been made by anyone else, it would be described, justly, as a mildly diverting attempt to imitate Hitchcock." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" was unsure what to make of the picture, noting an "old-fashioned air" to it that seemed to suggest that Hitchcock's return to England "signalled a regression to an almost pre-war style of filmmaking". It concluded: "For all its apparent awkwardness of script and characterisation (Jon Finch especially can make little of Shaffer's anemically written hero) there is enough in "Frenzy" to suggest that, after the routine critical dismissals, it will repay serious assessment."


title: Frenzy

text: "Frenzy" ranked 14th on "Variety"s list of the Big Rental Films of 1972, with rentals of $6.3 million in the United States and Canada.


title: Frenzy

text: The film was the subject of the 2012 book "Alfred Hitchcock's Frenzy: The Last Masterpiece" by Raymond Foery. "Frenzy" holds a 90% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 42 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "Marking Alfred Hitchcock's return to England and first foray into viscerally explicit carnage, "Frenzy" finds the master of horror regaining his grip on the audience's pulse -- and making their blood run cold." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: The 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" is a book written by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759, which marks the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In it, Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature for animals, something he had already done for plants in his 1753 publication of "Species Plantarum".


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Before 1758, most biological catalogues had used polynomial names for the taxa included, including earlier editions of "Systema Naturae". The first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature across the animal kingdom was the 10th edition of "Systema Naturae". The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature therefore chose 1 January 1758 as the "starting point" for zoological nomenclature, and asserted that the 10th edition of "Systema Naturae" was to be treated as if published on that date. Names published before that date are unavailable, even if they would otherwise satisfy the rules. The only work which takes priority over the 10th edition is Carl Alexander Clerck's ' or ', which was published in 1757, but is also to be treated as if published on January 1, 1758.


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: During Linnaeus' lifetime, "Systema Naturae" was under continuous revision. Progress was incorporated into new and ever-expanding editions; for example, in his 1st edition (1735), whales and manatees were originally classified as species of fish (as was thought to be the case then), but in the 10th edition they were moved into the mammal class.


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: The animal kingdom (as described by Linnaeus): "Animals enjoy sensation by means of a living organization, animated by a medullary substance; perception by nerves; and motion by the exertion of the will. They have members for the different purposes of life; organs for their different senses; and faculties (or powers) for the application of their different perceptions. They all originate from an egg. Their external and internal structure; their comparative anatomy, habits, instincts, and various relations to each other, are detailed in authors who professedly treat on their subjects."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: The list has been broken down into the original six classes Linnaeus described for animals; Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, and Vermes. These classes were ultimately created by studying the internal anatomy, as seen in his key:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: By current standards Pisces and Vermes are informal groupings, Insecta also contained arachnids and crustaceans, and one order of Amphibia comprised sharks, lampreys, and sturgeons.


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described mammals as: "Animals that suckle their young by means of lactiferous teats. In external and internal structure they resemble man: most of them are quadrupeds; and with man, their natural enemy, inhabit the surface of the Earth. The largest, though fewest in number, inhabit the ocean."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus divided the mammals based upon the number, situation, and structure of their teeth, into the following orders and genera:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described birds as: "A beautiful and cheerful portion of created nature consisting of animals having a body covered with feathers and down; protracted and naked jaws (the beak), two wings formed for flight, and two feet. They are areal, vocal, swift and light, and destitute of external ears, lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, bladder, epiglottis, corpus callosum and its arch, and diaphragm."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus divided the birds based upon the characters of the bill and feet, into the following 6 orders and 63 genera:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described his "Amphibia" (comprising reptiles and amphibians) as: "Animals that are distinguished by a body cold and generally naked; stern and expressive countenance; harsh voice; mostly lurid color; filthy odor; a few are furnished with a horrid poison; all have cartilaginous bones, slow circulation, exquisite sight and hearing, large pulmonary vessels, lobate liver, oblong thick stomach, and cystic, hepatic, and pancreatic ducts: they are deficient in diaphragm, do not transpire (sweat), can live a long time without food, are tenacious of life, and have the power of reproducing parts which have been destroyed or lost; some undergo a metamorphosis; some cast (shed) their skin; some appear to live promiscuously on land or in the water, and some are torpid during the winter."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus divided the amphibians based upon the limb structures and the way they breathed, into the following orders and genera:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described fish as: "Always inhabiting the waters; are swift in their motion and voracious in their appetites. They breathe by means of gills, which are generally united by a bony arch; swim by means of radiate fins, and are mostly covered over with cartilaginous scales. Besides they parts they have in common with other animals, they are furnished with a nictitant membrane, and most of them with a swim-bladder, by the contraction or dilatation of which, they can raise or sink themselves in their element at pleasure."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus divided the fishes based upon the position of the ventral and pectoral fins, into the following orders and genera:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described his "Insecta" (comprising all arthropods, including insects, crustaceans, arachnids and others) as: "A very numerous and various class consisting of small animals, breathing through lateral spiracles, armed on all sides with a bony skin, or covered with hair; furnished with many feet, and moveable antennae (or horns), which project from the head, and are the probable instruments of sensation."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus described his "Vermes" as: "Animals of slow motion, soft substance, able to increase their bulk and restore parts which have been destroyed, extremely tenacious of life, and the inhabitants of moist places. Many of them are without a distinct head, and most of them without feet. They are principally distinguished by their tentacles (or feelers). By the Ancients they were not improperly called imperfect animals, as being destitute of ears, nose, head, eyes and legs; and are therefore totally distinct from Insects."


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: Linnaeus divided the "Vermes" based upon the structure of the body, into the following orders and genera:


title: 10th edition of Systema Naturae

text: The second volume, published in 1759, detailed the kingdom Plantae, in which Linnaeus included true plants, as well as fungi, algae and lichens. In addition to repeating the species he had previously listed in his "Species Plantarum" (1753), and those published in the intervening period, Linnaeus described several hundred new plant species. The species from "Species Plantarum" were numbered sequentially, while the new species were labelled with letters. Many were sent to Linnaeus by his correspondents overseas, including Johannes Burman and David de Gorter in South Africa, Patrick Browne, Philip Miller and John Ellis in America, Jean-François Séguier, Carlo Allioni and Casimir Christoph Schmidel in the Alps, Gorter and Johann Ernst Hebenstreit in the Orient, and François Boissier de Sauvages de Lacroix, Gerard and Barnadet Gabriel across Europe.


title: Condola Rashad

text: Condola Phylea Rashad (born December 11, 1986) is an American actress best known for her work in the theatre. She first broke out with a critically acclaimed performance in Lynn Nottage's off-Broadway play "Ruined" (2009), which won a Pulitzer Prize.


title: Condola Rashad

text: Rashad has since received four Tony Award nominations for her work on Broadway in the plays "Stick Fly", "The Trip to Bountiful", "A Doll's House, Part 2", and "Saint Joan". She is the youngest performer to have received that many nominations. In addition to these roles, she also received praise for playing Juliet in "Romeo and Juliet" opposite Orlando Bloom on Broadway. She plays Kate Sacker on the Showtime drama series "Billions". She appeared opposite Chiwetel Ejiofor in "Come Sunday" (2018). She played Joan of Arc in the 2018 Broadway revival of George Bernard Shaw's play "Saint Joan".


title: Condola Rashad

text: Rashad was born in New York on December 11, 1986, to actress Phylicia Rashad and sportscaster Ahmad Rashad, a former professional football player. She graduated from the California Institute of the Arts in 2008.


title: Condola Rashad

text: In 2009, Rashad received the Theatre World Award for Best Debut Performance in the Off-Broadway production "Ruined" and was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. In 2012, Rashad was nominated for Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in "Stick Fly".


title: Condola Rashad

text: Rashad starred as Shelby, the daughter of Queen Latifah's character, in the 2012 "Steel Magnolias" remake with the same title. (This role had been played by Julia Roberts in the original film.) In 2012, she appeared in a recurring role on the NBC series "Smash", and previously guest starred on "The Good Wife", "" and "Submissions Only". Her film credits include "Sex and the City 2" and "30 Beats".


title: Condola Rashad

text: In April 2013, she appeared on Broadway as Thelma in the revival of "The Trip to Bountiful" starring Cicely Tyson; for this performance, she received her second Featured Actress Tony nomination. In May 2013, she was cast as Juliet in the new Broadway production of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet".


title: Condola Rashad

text: In 2016, Rashad began starring in the Showtime drama series "Billions", and appeared in the film "Money Monster" directed by Jodie Foster.


title: Condola Rashad

text: In 2018, she starred in the Netflix-produced biographical film "Come Sunday", opposite Chiwetel Ejiofor, who played a Pentecostal minister whose thoughts have changed.


title: Condola Rashad

text: Rashad was placed on BET's "Future 40" list, which is a list of "40 of the most inspiring and innovative vanguards who are redefining what it means to be unapologetically young, gifted & black".


title: Barbershop (film)

text: Barbershop is a 2002 American comedy drama film directed by Tim Story and written by Mark Brown, Don D. Scott and Marshall Todd, from a story by Brown. The film was produced by George Tillman Jr., Robert Teitel and Brown, and stars Ice Cube, Anthony Anderson, Sean Patrick Thomas, Eve, Troy Garity, Michael Ealy, Leonard Earl Howze, Keith David and Cedric the Entertainer. The film revolves around the social life in a barbershop on the South Side of Chicago. It is the first installment in the "Barbershop series".


title: Barbershop (film)

text: "Barbershop" was released on September 13, 2002 by MGM Distribution Co. It received positive reviews from critics, with praise going to the performances of the cast. It went on to become a major commercial success, grossing $77 million worldwide on a $12 million production budget, launching the careers of then-acting newcomers Eve and Ealy.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: A sequel, "" was released on February 6, 2004, with the original cast returning without director Story, and a third installment, "", was released on April 15, 2016, and was directed by Malcolm D. Lee.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: On a cold winter day in Chicago, Calvin Palmer Jr. (Ice Cube) decides he has had enough of trying to keep open the barbershop his father handed down to him. He cannot borrow, revenues are falling, and he seems more interested in get-rich-quick schemes to bring in easy money. Without telling his employees or the customers, he sells the barbershop to a greedy loan shark, Lester Wallace (Keith David), who secretly plans to turn it into a strip club.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: After spending a day at work, and realizing just how vital the barbershop is to the surrounding community, Calvin rethinks his decision and tries to get the shop back - only to find out Wallace wants double the $20,000 he paid Calvin to return it, and before 7 pm that day. Right after he admits to the employees that he sold the barber shop, and that it would be closing at the end of the day, the police arrive to arrest one of the barbers, Ricky (Michael Ealy).


title: Barbershop (film)

text: Ricky is accused of driving his pickup truck into a nearby market to steal an ATM, but it's revealed that his cousin J.D. (Anthony Anderson) committed the crime after borrowing Ricky's truck. As this would be Ricky's 'third strike', he could be sentenced to life in prison. Calvin uses the $20,000 from Lester to bail Ricky out of jail, but because J.D. was going to let Ricky take the fall without remorse, Ricky is still angry.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: Calvin reveals that he found a gun in Ricky's locker in the barbershop and shows it to him. They stop the car and Ricky throws the gun into the river, proving that he does not want to get into any more trouble. Then they both go to confront Lester, as well as J.D. and Billy (Lahmard Tate), who took the ATM to Lester's place without his knowledge, still trying to pry it open. Calvin and Ricky demand that Lester give the barbershop back.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: Angered, Lester orders his bodyguard Monk (Kevin Morrow) to pull out his gun. The police arrive just in time to save Calvin and Ricky and arrest J.D. and Billy. Calvin and Ricky see the ATM, and get a $50,000 reward for returning it to police. They get the money, and the barbershop reopens with even better business than before. In the meantime, Calvin's wife Jennifer (Jazsmin Lewis) has given birth to a baby boy.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: Produced on a $12 million budget, "Barbershop", with a story by Mark Brown and a screenplay by Brown, Marshall Todd, and Don D. Scott, was filmed in Chicago during the winter of 2001 to early 2002. The filmmakers used a storefront in the South Chicago community area (79th Street and Exchange Avenue) that was once a laundromat to build the set for Calvin's barbershop, and the set was duplicated on a soundstage. Similar to what he achieved with his 1997 film "Soul Food", producer George Tillman Jr. wanted to portray African Americans in a more positive and three-dimensional light than many other Hollywood films had in the past. This film also features three original songs by R&B singer/songwriter Sherod Lindsey.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: The film received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a approval rating based on reviews, with an average score of . Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 66% based on reviews from 29 critics.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: In 2004, MGM released the sequel, "". All of the original cast returned, but director Tim Story did not. This film was directed by Kevin Rodney Sullivan. In the same year, Billie Woodruff directed a spin-off film entitled "Beauty Shop", with Queen Latifah as the lead (Latifah's character made her debut in "Barbershop 2"). "Beauty Shop" was pushed back from a late summer 2004 release, and finally reached theaters in March 2005.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: During the fall of 2005, State Street and Ice Cube debuted "" on the Showtime cable network, with Omar Gooding taking over Ice Cube's role of Calvin. The character "Dinka" is renamed "Yinka" on "Barbershop: The Series", as "Dinka" is not a typical Nigerian name (although a certain tribe in the Nigerian middle belt bears the name "Dimka"). In addition, Isaac's last name is changed from "Rosenberg" to "Brice", and the character Ricky has been replaced by a more hardened ex-con, Romadal.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: In 2014, a third "Barbershop" film was announced, titled "". In late March of that year, MGM executives revealed that they have been negotiating deals with Ice Cube to appear in the film. A year later, MGM announced that the studio has been setting up deals with Cedric the Entertainer, Queen Latifah, Lisa Maffia, and Nicki Minaj to appear in the film. Malcolm D. Lee directed the film and New Line Cinema distributed it. The film was released on April 15, 2016.


title: Barbershop (film)

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on August 27, 2002 by Epic Records. It peaked at #29 on the "Billboard" 200 and #9 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.


title: New York, I Love You

text: New York, I Love You is a 2008 American romantic comedy-drama anthology film consisting of eleven short films, each by a different director. The shorts all relate in some way to the subject of love, and are set among the five boroughs of New York City. The film is a sequel of sorts to the 2006 film "Paris, je t'aime", which had the same structure, and is the second installment in the "Cities of Love" franchise, created and produced by Emmanuel Benbihy. Unlike "Paris, je t'aime", the shorts of "New York, I Love You" all have a unifying thread, of a videographer who films the other characters.


title: New York, I Love You

text: The film stars an ensemble cast, among them Bradley Cooper, Shia LaBeouf, Natalie Portman, Anton Yelchin, Hayden Christensen, Orlando Bloom, Irrfan Khan, Rachel Bilson, Chris Cooper, Andy García, Christina Ricci, John Hurt, Cloris Leachman, Robin Wright, Julie Christie, Maggie Q, Ethan Hawke, James Caan, Shu Qi, and Eli Wallach.


title: New York, I Love You

text: "New York, I Love You" premiered at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival in September 2008, and was released in the United States on October 16, 2009. While the TIFF premiere of the film featured 14 novellas, distributors later decided to cut two of them: Scarlett Johansson's directorial debut "These Vagabond Shoes" and Andrei Zvyagintsev's novella "Apocrypha". The decision was taken after a focus screening in New York, where these two shorts were met with unfavorable reactions.


title: New York, I Love You

text: Following is the cast and crew of ten segments of "New York, I Love You" with the transition segment directed by Randy Balsmeyer:


title: New York, I Love You

text: The film grossed $1,588,087 in the United States, and $8,136,973 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $9,725,060.


title: New York, I Love You

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 37% approval rating based on 100 reviews, with an average rating of 5.10/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Like many anthologies, "New York, I Love You" has problems of consistency, but it isn't without its moments". On Metacritic it holds a score of 49 out of 100, based on reviews from 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: New York, I Love You

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a B regarding the film "takes the wrinkle-free, easy-travel concept first executed in the 2007 Gallic compilation "Paris, je t'aime" to a new city and styles itself..." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 stars saying in his review, "By its nature, "New York, I Love You" can't add up. It remains the sum of its parts." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" gave the film a mixed review claiming "Not that the 11 shorts in "New York, I Love You" are all that bad. It's a nice-looking city, after all, even if the interstitial skyline and traffic montages assembled by Randy Balsmeyer are about as fresh as the postcards on sale in Times Square." Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" gave the film 1 star claiming "there were two additional segments that have since been cut. So you'll have to wait for the DVD to see just how bad Scarlett Johansson's directing debut is."


title: New York, I Love You

text: Erica Abeel of "The Hollywood Reporter" writes: Heidi Patalano of "Metro New York" gives the film a 4 grade out of 5. Claudia Puig of "USA Today" explains that anthologies are by their very nature an uneven entity and adds:


title: New York, I Love You

text: An episode of the Netflix series "Master of None" is named and structured after "New York, I Love You". Like the film, the episode follows the intersecting lives of various New Yorkers, although the episode's stories are not exclusively about romance.


title: New York, I Love You

text: The series finale of the American show "Gossip Girl" was titled "New York, I Love You XOXO" based on the film's title.


title: Ford Duratec engine

text: Duratec is a brand name of the Ford Motor Company used for the company's range of gasoline-powered four-cylinder, five-cylinder and six-cylinder passenger car engines.


title: Ford Duratec engine

text: The original 1993 Duratec V6 engine was designed by Ford and Porsche. Ford first introduced this engine in the Ford Mondeo. Over time, "Duratec" became an omnibus name for Ford's gasoline engines unrelated to the original V6. The Ford Zeta engine, Ford Sigma engine and Ford Cyclone engine all carry the Duratec name, but are otherwise unrelated to each other or the original 1993 Duratec V6. The ambiguous use of the name is similar to Ford's use of the Zetec for the previous generation of gasoline engines, the Duratorq name for diesel engines, and EcoBoost for turbocharged gasoline engines.


title: Ann Curry

text: Ann Curry (born November 19, 1956) is an American journalist and photojournalist, who has been a reporter for more than 30 years, focused on human suffering in war zones and natural disasters. Curry has reported from the wars in Kosovo, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Afghanistan, Darfur, Congo and the Central African Republic. Curry has covered numerous disasters, including the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 and the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, where her appeal via Twitter topped Twitter's 'most powerful' list, credited for helping speed the arrival of humanitarian planes.


title: Ann Curry

text: In June 2012, she became the national and international correspondent-anchor for NBC News and the anchor at large for the "Today" show. She was co-anchor of "Today" from June 9, 2011, to June 28, 2012, and the program's news anchor from March 1997 until becoming co-anchor. She was also the anchor of "Dateline NBC" from 2005 to 2011.


title: Ann Curry

text: On January 13, 2015, it was announced that Curry would be leaving NBC News after nearly 25 years. In January 2015, Curry founded her own multi-platform media startup. She continued to conduct major news interviews on network television, including securing an exclusive interview with Iranian Foreign Minister Javad Zarif in 2015 about the Iran nuclear talks. She hosted and produced "We'll Meet Again with Ann Curry" from 2018 to 2019 on PBS.


title: Ann Curry

text: Ann Curry was born in Agaña, Guam, the daughter of Hiroe Nagase and Robert Paul "Bob" Curry. Her mother is Japanese, and her father, an American from Pueblo, Colorado, had Irish and German ancestry. Her parents met when her father, a career United States Navy sailor, worked as a streetcar conductor during the United States occupation of Japan after World War II. Although he was transferred out of Japan, he returned two years later to marry Nagase. Curry is the eldest of five children.


title: Ann Curry

text: Curry lived in Japan for several years as a child, and attended the Ernest J. King School on the United States Fleet Activities Sasebo naval base in Sasebo, Nagasaki. Later, she moved to Ashland, Oregon, where she graduated from Ashland High School. She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in journalism from the University of Oregon in 1978.


title: Ann Curry

text: Curry began her broadcasting career in 1978 as an intern at then NBC-affiliate (now CBS-affiliate) KTVL in Medford, Oregon. There she rose to become the station's first female news reporter. In 1980, Curry moved to NBC-affiliate KGW in Portland, where she was a reporter and anchor. Four years later, Curry moved to Los Angeles as a reporter for KCBS-TV and received two Emmy Awards while working as a reporter from 1984 to 1990.


title: Ann Curry

text: In 1990, Curry joined NBC News, first as the NBC News Chicago correspondent then as the anchor of" NBC News at Sunrise "from 1991 to 1996. Curry also served as a substitute news anchor for Matt Lauer from 1994 to 1997 at "Today". From 1997 to 2011, she served as news anchor at "Today", becoming the show's second-longest serving news anchor, behind Frank Blair, who served in that capacity from 1953 to 1975. During this time, she also served as a substitute anchor for "Today". On June 24, 2005, Curry was named co-anchor of "Dateline NBC" with Stone Phillips; she remained as the primary anchor when Phillips left on July 2, 2007, until she replaced Meredith Vieira on "Today" in 2011. She was the primary substitute on "NBC Nightly News" from 2005 to 2011.


title: Ann Curry

text: Curry has reported on major international stories, filing stories from places such as Baghdad, Sri Lanka, Congo, Rwanda, Albania, and Darfur. Curry hosted NBC's primetime coverage and highlights of the Live Earth concerts on July 7, 2007, and also contributed with interviews for the special with New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg and former Vice President Al Gore. Curry reported from the during the invasion of Afghanistan in November 2001, and had an exclusive interview with General Tommy Franks. She reported from Baghdad in early 2003, and then from the as the war in Iraq began. Curry was also the first network news anchor to report from inside the Southeast Asian tsunami zone in late 2004.


title: Ann Curry

text: On December 17, 2007, Curry bungee-jumped off the Transporter Bridge in Middlesbrough, England, to raise money for charity. Her jump was shown live on the "Today" show.


title: Ann Curry

text: In 2009, Curry traveled to Iran, where she interviewed then-President of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad days before Ahmadinejad traveled to America to speak in front of the United Nations General Assembly.


title: Ann Curry

text: In June 2012, Curry was widely reported as being replaced as co-host of "Today". Curry hired attorney Robert Barnett to represent her in her discussions with NBC. On June 28, Curry announced in an emotional broadcast on the show that she was leaving "Today". She signed a new multiyear contract with the network as NBC News national and international correspondent/anchor and "Today" anchor-at-large. Her departure had led to some discussions about racism, particularly as she was one of the most prominent Asian-American journalists on the national stage.


title: Ann Curry

text: For a time, she led a seven-person unit producing content and reporting for "NBC Nightly News with Lester Holt" (for which she also was a regular substitute anchor), "Dateline NBC", "Rock Center with Brian Williams", "Today", and MSNBC. Curry also anchored multiple NBC News primetime specials. On August 9, 2012, Curry made her first post-departure appearance on "Today", when she reported a story during the show's coverage at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. The reunion with her former co-anchor, Matt Lauer, was described in the media as "tense", "awkward", and "chilly". In September 2013, Lauer said he was disappointed in the way the media reported Curry's departure.


title: Ann Curry

text: In June 2016, she moderated a panel discussion between the Dalai Lama and Lady Gaga at the 84th annual U.S. Conference of Mayors in Indianapolis. In July 2017, PBS announced a new documentary television series "We'll Meet Again with Ann Curry" hosted and co-produced by Curry. In November 2017, she attended WE Day at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul, Minnesota. In 2018, she also spoke at two other WE Day events, in Seattle and in Toronto.


title: Ann Curry

text: In January 2018, Curry returned to television with her PBS series, "We'll Meet Again". Developed by her own production company, the series focused on 12 stories of people searching for individuals who changed their lives. She then appeared on "The View" as guest co-host on January 23, 2018, where she addressed the controversies surrounding her departure from "Today". In 2019, Curry hosted TNT/TBS’s "Chasing the Cure".


title: Ann Curry

text: Curry was raised Catholic by her mother, who was a convert to the religion. Curry is married to Brian Ross, a software executive, whom she met in college. They have a daughter, McKenzie, and a son, William Walker Curry Ross. The family lives in New Canaan, Connecticut.


title: Caterina Murino

text: Caterina Murino (born 15 September 1977) is an Italian actress. She began her acting career in the 1999 production of the play "Richard III" and later made her breakthrough with the 2004 film "The Corsican File". She went on to appear in the 2006 film "Casino Royale" and received a European Golden Globe at the 2008 Italian Golden Globe Awards.


title: Caterina Murino

text: Murino was born in Cagliari, Sardinia, and initially wanted to be a doctor. She finished fifth in the 1997 Miss Italy contest. She studied drama at the Scuola di Cinema e Teatro run by Francesca De Sapio, between 1999 and 2000. She then appeared in stage productions of "Richard III" and Italian-language plays. She began her career in television in 2002, and then gained international fame after playing Solange Dimitrios in the 2006 adaptation of the James Bond novel "Casino Royale".


title: Caterina Murino

text: In 2011 she also appeared in Bob Sinclar's music video clip "Far l'amore". She also starred in the video clip of the famous party band The Gypsy Queens' "l'Italiano".


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart is an American animated television series created by Parker Simmons for Cartoon Network. Produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Titmouse, it premiered on July 1, 2019. The show is based on the independent teaser short "I Love You Mao Mao", which Simmons had initially produced for the annual Titmouse Inc. "5-Second Day" on February 21, 2014 and subsequently posted on Newgrounds. The series was renewed for a second season on July 23, 2020.


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: On January 1, 2021, "Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart" was added to the HBO Max streaming service. On August 18, 2022, it was removed from the service as a result of the Warner Bros. Discovery merger. Cartoon Network subsequently removed all references to the show from their official websites, YouTube channels, and Twitter feeds. On October 14, 2022, Cartoon Network restored videos of the show to their YouTube channel and references to the show on their Twitter. However, the show remains missing from the Cartoon Network website.


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: "Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart" centers on its coming-of-age story, with the title character, Mao Mao, a daring cat who has high intentions for action and adventure. During one of his adventures, he gets stuck in a cute and cuddly town called Pure Heart Valley with his co-hero Badgerclops, a cyborg-armed badger, and meets Adorabat, a cute little bat. Together, the three go on adventures to protect their citizens of Pure Heart Valley from the forces of evil while they find a way to fix the Ruby Pure Heart to its original state.


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: Cartoon Network announced on May 20, 2019 that they greenlit "Mao Mao" up for a full series alongside "Tig n' Seek" (originally titled "Tiggle Winks"). Eight new episodes were released on June 28, on the Cartoon Network app, website, and VOD.


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: A second season was confirmed to be in production at the Cartoon Network Studios First Look Panel during the Comic-Con at Home event on July 22, 2020. However, production on the second season was stalled for years. In 2022, HBO Max removed the show from its streaming service and all references were removed from all forms of social media.


title: Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart

text: The show debuted on Cartoon Network in the United States on July 1, 2019. It premiered on the same day in India on Cartoon Network HD+. The series premiered on July 13, 2019 on Cartoon Network Canada, while the series premiered on Teletoon on September 6, 2019. It premiered in France on January 4, 2020. The show debuted in Italy on Cartoon Network on January 6, 2020. "Mao Mao: Heroes of Pure Heart" premiered on Cartoon Network UK on March 2, 2020. It premiered on Cartoon Network Japan on April 5, 2020.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Operation Warp Speed (OWS) was a public–private partnership initiated by the United States government to facilitate and accelerate the development, manufacturing, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics. The first news report of Operation Warp Speed was on April 29, 2020, and the program was officially announced on May 15, 2020. It was headed by Moncef Slaoui from May 2020 to January 2021 and by David A. Kessler from January to February 2021. At the end of February 2021, Operation Warp Speed was transferred into the responsibilities of the White House COVID-19 Response Team.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The program promoted mass production of multiple vaccines, and different types of vaccine technologies, based on preliminary evidence, allowing for faster distribution if clinical trials confirm one of the vaccines is safe and effective. The plan anticipated that some of these vaccines will not prove safe or effective, making the program more costly than typical vaccine development, but potentially leading to the availability of a viable vaccine several months earlier than typical timelines.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Operation Warp Speed, initially funded with about $10billion from the CARES Act (Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security) passed by the United States Congress on March 27, 2020, was an interagency program that includes components of the Department of Health and Human Services, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, the National Institutes of Health, and the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA); the Department of Defense; private firms; and other federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Energy, and the Department of Veterans Affairs.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: On May 15, 2020, President Donald Trump officially announced the public-private partnership. The purpose of Operation Warp Speed was to coordinate Health and Human Services-wide efforts, including the NIH ACTIV partnership for vaccine and therapeutic development, the NIH RADx initiative for diagnostic development, and work by BARDA.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Operation Warp Speed was formed to encourage private and public partnerships to enable faster approval and production of vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. The name was inspired by terminology for faster-than-light travel used in the "Star Trek" fictional universe, evoking a sense of rapid progress.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The Food and Drug Administration announced on June 30, 2020, that a vaccine would need to be at least 50% effective for diminishing the severity of COVID-19 symptoms to obtain regulatory and marketing approval.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: In January 2021, White House press secretary Jen Psaki announced that the program was expected to undergo a restructure and renaming under the Biden administration. Also in January 2021, Dr. Moncef Slaoui, former Operation Warp Speed lead, was told not to use the name Operation Warp Speed anymore. At the end of February 2021, responsibilities of Operation Warp Speed were transferred into the White House COVID-19 Response Team.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: According to the Department of Health and Human Services' fact sheet, the main stated goal of Operation Warp Speed was to "produce and deliver 300 million doses of safe and effective vaccines with the initial doses available by January 2021, as part of a broader strategy to accelerate the development, manufacturing, and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics".


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: While coordination was expected with the FDA on technical matters, Commissioner Stephen Hahn noted that the FDA would "provide technical and development assistance to Operation Warp Speed, but the manufacturers decide if they're going to go forward or not" and clarified that the agency had "drawn a very bright line at FDA between us and Operation Warp Speed because we're the independent regulator".


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Operation Warp Speed used BARDA as the financial interface between the U.S. federal government and the biomedical industry. The program was initially being funded with $10billion, with additional funds allocated through BARDA. Funding was increased to about $18billion by October 2020.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Rick Bright, the BARDA director, was reassigned on or about April 22, 2020, following his resistance to (as he phrased it) "efforts to fund potentially dangerous drugs promoted by those with political connections". In May, new leadership was announced. Moncef Slaoui was named Operation Warp Speed's chief adviser. Slaoui is a vaccine researcher and, formerly, Chairman of Global Research and Development and Chairman of Global Vaccines at GlaxoSmithKline, where he led the development of five vaccines. General Gustave F. Perna, who served as commanding general of Army Materiel Command, was named Operation Warp Speed chief operating officer. Retired Lieutenant General Paul A. Ostrowski, who previously served as director of the Army Acquisition Corps, was the director of supply, production and distribution. Army Major General Christopher J. Sharpsten was the deputy director.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Alex Azar, Mark Esper, and Deborah Birx were on the board of directors of OWS, while Tony Fauci, Francis Collins, and Robert Redfield were nonvoting advisers.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: As of August 2020, eight companies were chosen for funding of some $11billion to expedite development and preparation for manufacturing their respective vaccine candidates.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The vaccine developers, different vaccine technologies, and treatments receiving government research funding were:


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: As of October 2020, Operation Warp Speed had spent less than $1billion to support the development and manufacturing of three monoclonal antibody treatments, versus almost $10billion on six vaccines.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The BioNtech project to develop a novel mRNA technology for a COVID-19 vaccine was called "Project Lightspeed", which started in mid-January 2020 at BioNTech's laboratories in Mainz, Germany, just days after the SARS-Cov-2 genetic sequence was first made public. In September 2020, BioNTech received €375million (million) from the government of Germany to accelerate the development and production capacity of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Pfizer CEO Albert Bourla said that the company decided against taking direct Warp Speed funding for the development of the vaccine out of a desire "to liberate our scientists [from] any bureaucracy that comes with having to give reports and agree how we are going to spend the money in parallel or together".


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: But on July 22, 2020, Operation Warp Speed placed an advance-purchase order of $2billion with Pfizer to manufacture 100 million doses of a COVID-19 vaccine for use in the United States when the vaccine was shown to be safe, effective, licensed, and authorized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). On December 23, 2020, the Trump administration announced that they had ordered another 200 million doses from Pfizer. On November 9, the Pfizer–BioNTech partnership announced positive early results from its Phase III trial of the BNT162b2 vaccine candidate, and on December 11, the FDA provided emergency use authorization, initiating the distribution of the vaccine.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Pfizer head of vaccine research and development Dr. Kathrin Jansen initially said Pfizer was not a participant in Operation Warp Speed because it did not accept taxpayer funds for research and development, but Pfizer released a statement saying her comments had been "taken out of context" and confirmed that Pfizer was a part of the Warp Speed program. The White House confirmed Pfizer's involvement and the government's initial advance-order purchase for a hundred million doses of vaccine. Company representatives said in November that "the company is part of Operation Warp Speed as a supplier of a potential coronavirus vaccine," and that "Pfizer is proud to be one of various vaccine manufacturers participating in Operation Warp Speed as a supplier of a potential COVID-19 vaccine."


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The United Kingdom was the first country to authorize the vaccine on an emergency basis on December 2, 2020. Emergency use authorization in the United States was issued December 11, 2020.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Vaccine doses purchased by Operation Warp Speed were sent from manufacturers via UPS and FedEx to locations specified by state governments. The Federal Pharmacy Partnership delivers doses to CVS and Walgreens locations, which then send pharmacists for mass vaccinations at care facilities like nursing homes.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: In October 2020, Alex Azar, at that time the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, predicted a hundred million available doses by the end of the year. The Trump administration later reduced the goal to twenty million doses. As of January 6, 2021, the CDC was reporting 17,288,950 doses distributed, but only 5,306,797 actually administered to a person. Of those, 3,416,875 were distributed and 511,635 administered through the Federal Pharmacy Partnership. General Gustave Perna said reporting delays cause the administration numbers to lag by 72 to 96 hours. By January 31, 2021, when Operation Warp Speed was being transferred to the Biden Administration, 63.7 million doses had been delivered of a total of 200 million doses that Pfizer and Moderna were contracted to provide by the end of March 2021.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The distribution effort was criticized for lack of coordination between federal and state governments, and lack of timely federal funding for mass vaccination campaigns. Other reasons cited included the Christmas holiday, employees declining to be vaccinated, a longer than typical time spent on paperwork or answering patient questions, the required observation time, and shortage of trained staff.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Although initially budgeted by Congress for about $10billion in May 2020, Operation Warp Speed had spent $12.4billion by mid-December on vaccine developers for the combined costs of R&D and pre-approval manufacturing for millions of vaccine doses.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Operation Warp Speed anticipated that some of these vaccines would not prove safe or effective, making the program more costly than typical vaccine development, but potentially leading to the availability of a viable vaccine several months earlier than typical timelines. The low prices of coronavirus vaccines were attributed to the high amount of research funding provided by Operation Warp Speed: despite preliminary data suggesting that the COVID-19 vaccines subsidized by the plan had higher effectiveness than flu vaccines, vaccine developers set initial pricing in line with those of the annual influenza vaccine.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The goals of the projectto develop, manufacture, and distribute hundreds of millions of COVID-19 vaccine doses by the end of 2020were initially criticized as being unrealistic, based on decades of experience in developing viral infection vaccines which normally require years or decades for assuring the chosen vaccine will not be toxic and have adequate efficacy.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Most viral infections do not have vaccines because the vaccine technology failed in early-stage clinical trials. Because many vaccines cause side effects, such as pain at the injection site, headaches, and influenza symptoms, safety testing requires years of observation in thousands of clinical trial participants. Similarly, sufficient timea year or multiple yearsis usually needed to be certain a vaccine has durable efficacy while the virus remains pandemic. Despite extensive previous research attempts to produce safe, effective vaccines against coronaviruses, such as SARS and MERS, all vaccine candidates for coronavirus infections have failed during clinical research, and no vaccine existed to prevent any coronavirus infection. To prepare for manufacturing and distribution, Operation Warp Speed expended resources and financing before the safety and efficacy results of vaccine candidates were known.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: In the case of Operation Warp Speed, effective vaccines made by BioNTech in Germany and Pfizer and Moderna were given an emergency use authorization by the FDA in December 2020, established an exceptionally fast development and approval timeline for vaccines granted emergency marketing. Pfizer joined the Warp Speed program in July 2020, and signed a $1.95 billion contract to be paid out when the vaccine would be FDA approved, and included an initial order of 100 million vaccines. In December 2020, the Trump administration ordered 200 million additional vaccines from Pfizer.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: At the end of February 2021, Operation Warp Speed transitioned into the White House COVID-19 Response Team under the Biden Administration.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: There was potential that the Warp Speed project would expend effort and funding in direct competition with publicly traded American vaccine companies already fully engaged and financed for development. There was also the possibility that a billion dollars or more of U.S. taxpayer money would be expended on only American efforts or a narrow alternate choice, such as investing in one other vaccine platformthe University of Oxford-AstraZeneca candidate for which the U.S. already paid billion in May 2020 to receive 300 million doses for American use, when the AstraZeneca vaccine was successful in advancing to proof of safety and efficacy beyond its status as an early-stage Phase I–II trial in May.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Warp Speed did not partner with Chinese vaccine development organizations, or with the World Health Organization (WHO), the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations, or the European Commission, which are coordinating and financing international programs for multiple vaccine development, having raised $8billion together from international partners on May4 for a Coronavirus Global Response. The U.S. government chose not to include Operation Warp Speed as part of the international Solidarity trial on vaccine development, organized by the WHO.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: On December 8, 2020, President Trump signed an executive order mandating that companies sell vaccine to the US before selling to any other countries (even if they already had contracts with other countries).


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The focus of Operation Warp Speed to deploy approved COVID-19 vaccines first for the American people raised ethical and logistical concerns that access to vaccines outside of the United States may be restricted during 2021, leaving low-to-middle-income countries with no or minimal supply. Concerns were elevated when the Trump administration withdrew its financial support for the WHO and COVAX, and whether the program would participate in international vaccination practices, optimization, and education against vaccine hesitancy and misinformation. In February 2021 after Operation Warp Speed was transitioned to the White House COVID-19 Response Team, the United States pledged to donate any vaccine surplus out of concern for vaccine-poor regions, such as Africa.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: There was concern that the name and intended shortened timeline of Operation Warp Speed could encourage vaccine hesitancy, with one expert stating that "some of the language coming out of the White House is very damaging" because one argument of anti-vaccinators is that products are rushed to market without adequate testing. Failure of the public to have confidence in a new vaccine and refuse vaccination is a global health concern, which increases the risk of further viral spreading that could lead to ongoing COVID-19 outbreaks during 2020–21. A September 2020 survey found that half of American adults surveyed said they would not accept a vaccination if it was available at that time, and three-quarters expressed concerns about the pace of the process and fears that a vaccine might be confirmed before its safety and effectiveness are fully understood.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: The leader of the Operation Warp Speed project, Moncef Slaoui, had been a board member of the U.S. vaccine developer, Moderna, and divested his shares in Moderna stock, at a potential personal gain of $10million, raising questions of his neutrality in judging vaccine candidates. Although Slaoui resigned from the Moderna board when named to head Warp Speed, his share value in Moderna stock increased by $3million in one day when Moderna announced an advance in vaccine clinical research. At the request of the incoming Biden administration, Slaoui resigned from the project in early January 2021.


title: Operation Warp Speed

text: Shareholders sued biotech firm Inovio, claiming the company misled the public when it reported how quickly it had designed the blueprint for its vaccine candidate. A class action lawsuit was filed in August 2020 against Vaxart in Northern California U.S. District Court for alleged securities fraud, a concern related to Vaxart executives enriching themselves by selling shares timed to positive news on vaccine development during mid-2020. Executives, board members, and investment firms holding shares in vaccine and therapeutic companies, including Moderna, Novavax, and Regeneron, took profits worth some billion (about €830 million) on positive news during 2020.


title: Queens of Mystery

text: Queens of Mystery is a British comedy-drama murder-mystery series created by Julian Unthank currently airing on SVOD provider Acorn TV, starring Julie Graham (Cat Stone), Siobhan Redmond (Jane Stone), Olivia Vinall (Matilda Stone-Series 1), Florence Hall (Matilda Stone-Series 2), and Sarah Woodward (Beth Stone). In the first series, Vinall stars as Matilda Stone, a young detective who has been assigned to the constabulary in her fictional hometown village of Wildemarsh, England, where she is reunited with her three crime-writing aunts Cat, Beth, and Jane, played by Graham, Woodward, and Redmond. Florence Hall took over the role of Matilda Stone in Series 2. "Queens of Mystery" is Acorn TV's second entirely original production.


title: Queens of Mystery

text: The first series was released in 2019 and comprises three separate stories, each split across two 45-minute episodes. "Queens of Mystery" was renewed for a second series in March 2021, which premiered on 29 November 2021.


title: Queens of Mystery

text: Julie Graham was attracted to the script's portrayal of older women, explaining that "Cat, Jane, and Beth... are all in their fifties... it was a joy to see scenes about authentic females in a family. It's unusual and it's important and of this moment", while Olivia Vinall said the series "feels really truthful [about] the way the women behave." Graham also called "Queens of Mystery" "very tongue-in-cheek and cartoonish."


title: Queens of Mystery

text: Filming for the first season took place in Kent, specifically in Stone Street in Cranbrook. Production used Lympne Castle as Hiddledean Castle in the fictional town of Wildemarsh in the Murder In The Dark episode. The series visited several locations in Farningham, Beth’s cottage was filmed at Mill Estate. Wadard Books doubled as the Murder Ink bookshop and Jane’s house. Farningham Village Store also featured as Wildemarsh Village stores and the Entrance to The Corn Exchange Theatre. In the Death By Vinyl episode Stoneydale craft shop in Cranbrook was converted into The Sound and Fury record shop. Cranbrook also features as the High street throughout the series. St Michael's Churchyard in Smarden was used as the Wildemarsh churchyard and a private residence in Water Lane featured as the village's Embittered Hack Pub. The police station is filmed at the old school building in Benenden, alongside the village green and church in the backdrop.


title: Queens of Mystery

text: "The New York Times" recommended the series due to its "whimsical" tone, noting its "fairy-tale-style omniscient narrator" and comparing it favorably with "Pushing Daisies". Writing for "TV Insider", Matt Roush found "Queens of Mystery" to be in the same vein as "Murder, She Wrote", yet inferior to sibling Acorn TV series "Agatha Raisin".


title: Shish kebab

text: Shish kebab is a popular meal of skewered and grilled cubes of meat. It can be found in Mediterranean cuisine and is similar to or synonymous with dishes called shashlik and khorovats, found in the Caucasus region.


title: Shish kebab

text: It is one of the many types of kebab, a range of meat dishes originating in the Middle East. In North American English, the word "kebab" alone often refers to shish kebab, though outside of North America, "kebab" may also mean doner kebab.


title: Shish kebab

text: It is traditionally made of lamb but there are also versions with various kinds of meat, poultry, or fish. In Turkey, shish kebab and the vegetables served with it are grilled separately, normally not on the same skewer.


title: Shish kebab

text: "Shish kebab" is an English rendering of (sword or skewer) and "kebap" (roasted meat dish), that dates from around the beginning of the 20th century. According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", its earliest known publication in English is in the 1914 novel "Our Mr. Wrenn" by Sinclair Lewis.


title: Shish kebab

text: The word "kebab" alone was already present in English by the late 17th century, from the ("kabāb"), partly through Urdu, Persian and Turkish. Etymologist Sevan Nişanyan states that the word has the equivalent meaning of "frying/burning" with "kabābu" in the old Akkadian language, and "kbabā/כבבא" in Aramaic. The oldest known example of , probably originally meaning a pointed stick, comes from the 11th-century "Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk", attributed to Mahmud of Kashgar.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The Zaporozhian Sich (, ; also , ; Free lands of the Zaporozhian Host the Lower) was a semi-autonomous polity and proto-state of Cossacks that existed between the 16th to 18th centuries, including as an independent stratocratic state within the Cossack Hetmanate for over a hundred years, centred around the region now home to the Kakhovka Reservoir and spanning the lower Dnieper river in Ukraine. In different periods the area came under the sovereignty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire, the Tsardom of Russia, and the Russian Empire.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: In 1775, shortly after Russia annexed the territories ceded to it by the Ottoman Empire under the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774), Catherine the Great disbanded the Sich. She incorporated its territory into the Russian province of Novorossiya.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The term "Zaporozhian Sich" can also refer metonymically and informally to the whole military-administrative organisation of the Zaporozhian Cossack host.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The name "Zaporizhia" refers to the military and political organization of the Cossacks and to the location of their autonomous territory 'beyond the Rapids' (') of the Dnieper River. The Dnieper Rapids were a major portage on the north-south Dnieper trade route. The term "sich" is a noun related to the Eastern Slavic verb "sich (сѣчь), meaning "to chop" or "cut"; it may have been associated with the usual wood sharp-spiked stockades around Cossack settlements.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Zaporizhia was located in the region around Kakhovka Reservoir in today's south-eastern Ukraine (much of its territory is now flooded by the reservoir). The area was also known under the historical term, Wild Fields.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: A possible precursor of the Zaporozhian Sich was a fortification ("sich") built on the Tomakivka island () in the middle of the Dnieper River in the present-day Zaporizhzhia region of Ukraine. However there is no direct evidence about the exact time of the existence of Tomakivska Sich, whereas indirect data suggest that at the time of Tomakivska Sich there was no Zaporozhian Sich yet.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The Zaporozhian Sich emerged as a method of defence by Slavic colonists against the frequent and devastating raids of Crimean Tatars, who captured and enslaved hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians, Belorusians and Poles in operations called "the harvesting of the steppe". The Ukrainians created a self-defence force, the Cossacks, fierce enough to stop the Tatar hordes, and built fortified camps ("sichi") that were later united to form a central fortress, the Zaporozhian Sich.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Prince Dmytro Vyshnevetsky established the first Zaporozhian Sich on the island of Small (Mala) Khortytsia in 1552, building a fortress at "Niz Dnieprovsky" (Lower Dnieper) and placing a Cossack garrison there; Tatar forces destroyed the fortress in 1558. The Tomakivka Sich was built on a now-inundated island to the south, near the modern city of Marhanets; Tatars also razed that sich, in 1593. A third sich soon followed, on Bazavluk island, which survived until 1638, when it was destroyed by a Polish expeditionary force suppressing a Cossack uprising. These settlements, founded during the 16th century, were already complex enough to constitute an early proto-state.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The Zaporozhian Cossacks became included in the Kiev Voivodeship from 1583 to 1657, part of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown. They resented Polish rule, however, one of the reasons being religious differences, as the cossacks were Orthodox Christians whereas the Poles were mostly Catholics. They thus engaged in a long struggle for independence from surrounding powers, the Rzeczpospolita (Polish state), the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the Tsardom of Russia and Russian Empire. The Sich became the centre of Cossack life, governed by the "Sich Rada" alongside its Kosh Ataman (sometimes called Hetman, from German "Hauptmann").


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky captured a sich at Mykytyn Rih, near the present-day city of Nikopol. From there he began an uprising against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that led to the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate (1649–1764). After the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654, the Zaporozhian Host was split into the Hetmanate, with its capital at Chyhyryn, and the more autonomous region of Zaporozhia, which continued to be centred on the Sich. During this period the Sich changed location several times. The Chortomlyk Sich was built at the mouth of the Chortomlyk River in 1652. In 1667 the Truce of Andrusovo made the Sich a condominium ruled jointly by Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: During the reign of Peter the Great, Cossacks were used for the construction of canals and fortification lines in northern Russia. An estimated 20–30 thousands were sent each year. Hard labour led to a high mortality rate among builders, and only an estimated 40% of Cossacks returned home.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: After the Battle of Poltava in 1709, the Chortomlyk Sich (sometimes referred to as the "Old Sich" ("Stara Sich")) was destroyed and Baturyn, the capital of Hetman Ivan Mazepa, was razed. Another sich was built at the mouth of the Kamianets river but was destroyed in 1711 by the Russian government. The Cossacks then fled to the Crimean Khanate to avoid persecution and founded the Oleshky Sich in 1711 (today the city of Oleshky). In 1734, they were allowed to return to the Russian Empire. Suffering from discrimination in the Khanate, Cossacks accepted the offer to return and built another Sich in close proximity to the former Chortomlyk Sich (referred to as the "New Sich").The population in steppe region numbered around 52,000 in the year 1768.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Fear of the independence of the Sich resulted in the Russian administration abolishing the Hetmanate in 1764. The Cossack officer class was incorporated into the Imperial Russian nobility (Dvoryanstvo). The rank and file Cossacks, however, including a substantial portion of the old Zaporozhians, were reduced to peasant status. Tension rose after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, when the need for a southern frontier ended after the annexation of the Crimea. The colonisation of Novorossiya (New Russia) with Serbian and Romanians sponsored by Russia created further conflict. After the end of the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for possession of the Black Sea and Crimean steppes, Russia no longer needed the Zaporozhian Cossacks for protection of the border region. Russia finally destroyed the Zaporozhian Sich through military force in 1775.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: In May 1775, Russian General Peter Tekeli received orders to occupy and destroy the Zaporozhian Sich from Grigory Potemkin, who had been formally admitted into Cossackdom a few years earlier. Potemkin was given direct orders from Catherine the Great. On 5 June 1775, Tekeli surrounded the Sich with artillery and infantry. He postponed the assault and even allowed visits while the head of the Host, Petro Kalnyshevsky, was deciding how to react to the Russian ultimatum. The Zaporozhians decided to surrender. The Sich was officially disbanded by the 3 August 1775 manifesto of Catherine, "On the Liquidation of Zaporozhian Sich and Annexation thereof to Novorossiya Governorate", and the Sich was razed to the ground.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Some of the Cossack officer class, the "starshyna", became hereditary Russian nobility and obtained huge lands in spite of their previous attempts to relocate the Sich to either North America or Australia. Under the guidance of a "starshyna" named Lyakh, a conspiracy was formed among a group of 50 Cossacks to pretend to go fishing on the river Inhul next to the Southern Buh in the Ottoman provinces, and to obtain 50 passports for the expedition. The pretext was enough to allow about 5,000 Zaporozhians to flee, some travelling to the Danube Delta where they formed a new Danube Sich, as a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. Others moved to Hungary to form a Sich there as a protectorate of the Austrian Empire. According to folklore, some moved to Malta, because Kosh otamans and other senior members of the starshyna considered themselves a kind of Maltese chivalry.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The leader of the Zaporozhian Host, Petro Kalnyshevsky, was arrested and exiled to the Solovetsky Islands (where he lived to the age of 112 in the Solovetsky Monastery). Four high level "starshynas" were repressed and exiled, later dying in Siberian monasteries. Lower level "starshynas" who remained and went over to the Russian side were given army ranks and all the privileges that accompanied them, and allowed to join Hussar and Dragoon regiments. Most of the ordinary Cossacks were made peasants and even serfs.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: In 1780, after disbanding the Zaporozhian Cossack Host, General Grigorii Potemkin attempted to gather and reorganize the Cossacks on a voluntary basis, and they helped to defend Ukraine from the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792). He was able to gather almost 12,000 Cossacks and called them the Black Sea Cossacks. After the conflict was over, rather than allowing the Cossacks to settle across Southern Ukraine, the Russian government began to resettle them on the Kuban River. In 1860, they changed their name to the Kuban Cossacks.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Ukrainian writer Adrian Kaschenko (1858–1921) and historian Olena Apanovich note that the abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich had a strong symbolic effect, and memories of the event remained for a long time in local folklore.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The Zaporozhian Host was led by the Sich Rada that elected a Kosh Otaman as the host's leader. He was aided by a head secretary ("pysar"), head judge, and head archivist. During military operations the Otaman carried unlimited power supported by his staff as the military collegiate. He decided with an agreement from the Rada whether to support a certain Hetman (such as Bohdan Khmelnytsky) or other leaders of state.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: Some sources refer to the Zaporozhian Sich as a "Cossack republic", because the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, and its leaders ("starshyna") were elected. The Cossacks formed a society (hromada) that consisted of "kurins" (each with several hundred Cossacks). A Cossack military court severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, the bringing of women to the Sich, the consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, and other offenses. The administration of the Sich provided Orthodox churches and schools for the religious and secular education of children.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The population of the Sich had a cosmopolitan component, including Ukrainians, Moldavians, Tatars, Poles, Lithuanians, Jews, Russians and many other ethnicities. The social structure was complex, consisting of destitute gentry and boyars, "szlachta" (Polish nobility), merchants, peasants, outlaws of every sort, runaway slaves from Turkish galleys, and runaway serfs (as the Zaporozhian polkovnyk Pivtorakozhukha). Some of those who were not accepted to the host formed gangs of their own, and also claimed to be Cossacks. However, after the Khmelnytsky Uprising these formations largely disappeared and were integrated mainly into Hetmanate society.


title: Zaporozhian Sich

text: The Cossacks developed a large fleet of fast, light vessels. Their campaigns were targeted at rich settlements on the Black Sea shores of the Ottoman Empire, and several times took them as far as Constantinople and Trabzon (formerly Trebizond).


title: American Zoetrope

text: American Zoetrope (also known as Omni Zoetrope from 1977 to 1980 and Zoetrope Studios from 1980 until 1990) is a privately run American film production company, centered in San Francisco, California and founded by Francis Ford Coppola and George Lucas.


title: American Zoetrope

text: Opened on December 12, 1969, the studio has produced not only the films of Coppola (including "Apocalypse Now", "Bram Stoker's Dracula" and "Tetro"), but also George Lucas's pre-"Star Wars" film ("THX 1138"), as well as many others by "avant-garde" directors such as Jean-Luc Godard, Akira Kurosawa, Wim Wenders and Godfrey Reggio. American Zoetrope was an early adopter of digital filmmaking, including some of the earliest uses of HDTV.


title: American Zoetrope

text: Four films produced by American Zoetrope are included in the American Film Institute's Top 100 Films. American Zoetrope-produced films have received 15 Academy Awards and 68 nominations.


title: American Zoetrope

text: Initially located in a warehouse at 827 Folsom Street on the second floor of The Automatt building, the company's headquarters have, since 1972, been in the historic Sentinel Building, at 916 Kearny Street in San Francisco's North Beach neighborhood.


title: American Zoetrope

text: Coppola named the studio after a zoetrope he was given in the late 1960s by the filmmaker and collector of early film devices, Mogens Skot-Hansen. "Zoetrope" is also the name by which Coppola's quarterly fiction magazine, "", is often known.


title: American Zoetrope

text: In 1980, the company bought General Service Studios in Hollywood, California, and became Zoetrope Studios, to produce and distribute films, as did later DreamWorks studio.


title: American Zoetrope

text: In 1999, it signed a deal with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer for a first-look financing and production agreement. In 2000, it signed a 10-year financing pact with VCL Film + Meiden to handle foreign sales of their own titles.


title: American Zoetrope

text: American Zoetrope is now owned entirely by Coppola's son and daughter, directors Roman Coppola and Sofia Coppola, while a majority of the film library is now owned by Lionsgate (with some exceptions, for example, "Bram Stoker's Dracula", which is currently owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment) while StudioCanal owns international distribution rights.


title: American Zoetrope

text: Zoetrope.com, the Coppola family's website, was created around 1996 and became an online community for writers. In 2016, Francis Ford Coppola announced its relaunch as a "virtual studio".


title: American Zoetrope

text: In the building lobby Coppola operates a small Italian café, Cafe Zoetrope, featuring Inglenook Estate wine and memorabilia from his films. Earlier, the building had been the location of Enrico Banducci's "hungry i" nightclub.