title: Liberal arts college

text: Yale-NUS College was started in 2011 as Singapore's first liberal arts college as a collaboration between Yale University in the United States and the National University of Singapore. It attracted controversy over concerns that Yale was compromising on its liberal values by opening a college in a country where there are strong curbs on freedom of speech and assembly, with Yale faculty members expressing their "concern regarding the history of lack of respect for civil and political rights in the state of Singapore”. In response, many existing faculty and students have noted that there has been little repression of freedom of expression at the college and that it provides a great opportunity to promote the liberal arts in Asia. In August 2021, NUS announced the closure of Yale-NUS College, with the Class of 2025 being the last cohort to receive an NUS degree. It will be replaced by NUS College, a merger between Yale-NUS College and the NUS University Scholars Programme.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Kalayaan College in the Philippines is one of the best examples of a liberal arts college in the country. Located in the New Manila district of Quezon City, it was founded in 2000 by former educators from the University of the Philippines led by Dr. José Abueva, President of the University from 1987 to 1993 and current Chairman of the KC Board of Trustees. It offers the same kind of education provided by UP to qualified students who are unable to enter the country's premier state university because of its limited college quotas. The curriculum and grading system are patterned after the academic programs and the grade structure offered by the University of the Philippines and is composed of administrators and faculty members who graduated from UP, and/or are also members of the UP academic community.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Sogang University was founded as South Korea's first liberal arts college. In 1960, Jesuits founded Sogang College. Although, it became Sogang University in 1970, it is still following model of American liberal arts college in many aspects. Seoul National University in South Korea established the College of Liberal Studies in 2007, initially as an educational project. However, after being established as a proper college in the SNU, it has become the only college that allows students to create their own major.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Liberal arts colleges in South Asia include Ajeenkya DY Patil University in Pune, India, Forman Christian College in Lahore, Pakistan, Habib University in Karachi, Pakistan and FLAME University in Pune, Maharashtra, India, referred to as India's 'first college of Liberal Education'. The University is a member of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance has also recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Nuffield College, University of Oxford.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Also, Ahmedabad University, a private, non-profit university offers its students a liberal education which is focused on research and interdisciplinary learning"."


title: Liberal arts college

text: Baghdad College has offered a liberal arts curriculum since the early 20th century, but despite its name it has never offered more than a high school education. Effat University in Saudi Arabia, a women's institution, is a member of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance. Israel's first liberal arts college, Shalem College, was established in 2013.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Three institutions in Africa are members of the Global Liberal Arts Alliance: Al Akhawayn University in Morocco, American University of Cairo in Egypt, and American University of Nigeria. The Egyptian and Nigerian schools are universities with a liberal arts component, but Al Akhawayn was founded on the model of an American liberal arts college.


title: Liberal arts college

text: Ashesi University is a liberal arts college located in Berekuso, Ghana, established in 2002. The school's president, Patrick Awuah, described the school's mission as "educating a new generation of leaders in Africa who think ethically and who are problem solvers and have the ability and the desire to confront problems on the continent."


title: Liberal arts college

text: Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college located in the western suburbs of Sydney. Founded in 2006, it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its kind in Australia. Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree. The key disciplines studied are history, literature, philosophy and theology.


title: Liberal arts college

text: The Millis Institute is the School of Liberal Arts at Christian Heritage College located in Brisbane. It offers a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts in which students can choose to major in Philosophy, Theology, History or Literature.


title: Liberal arts college

text: A new School of Liberal Arts has been formed in the University of Wollongong; the new Arts course entitled 'Western Civilisation' was first offered in 2020. The interdisciplinary curriculum focuses on the classic intellectual and artistic literature of the Western tradition. Courses in the liberal arts have also been developed at the University of Sydney and University of Notre Dame.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The Quirinal Palace ( ) is a historic building in Rome, Italy, one of the three current official residences of the president of the Italian Republic, together with Villa Rosebery in Naples and the Tenuta di Castelporziano, an estate on the outskirts of Rome, some 25 km from the centre of the city. It is located on the Quirinal Hill, the highest of the seven hills of Rome in an area colloquially called Monte Cavallo. It has served as the residence for thirty popes, four kings of Italy and twelve presidents of the Italian Republic.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The Quirinal Palace was selected by Napoleon to be his residence "par excellence" as emperor. However, he never stayed there because of the French defeat in 1814 and the subsequent European Restoration.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The palace extends for an area of 110,500 square meters and is the twelfth-largest palace in the world in terms of area, some twenty times the area of the White House.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The current site of the palace has been in use since ancient Roman times, as excavations in the gardens testify. On this hill, the Romans built temples for several deities, from Flora to Quirinus, after whom the hill was named. During the reign of Constantine, the last complex of Roman baths was built here, as the statues of the twins Castor and Pollux taming the horses decorating the fountain in the square testify. The Quirinal, being the highest hill in Rome, was much sought after and became a popular location for the Roman patricians, who built luxurious villas there. An example is the remains of a villa in the Quirinal gardens, where a mosaic, part of the old floor has been found.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The palace, located on the "Via del Quirinale" and facing onto the "Piazza del Quirinale", was built in 1583 by Pope Gregory XIII as a papal summer residence. The Pope, who wanted to find a location which was far away from the humidity and stench coming from the river Tiber and likewise the unhealthy conditions of the Lateran Palace, chose the Quirinal hill as it was one of the most suitable places in Rome. On the site, there was already a small villa owned by the Carafa family and rented to Luigi d'Este. The Pope commissioned the architect Ottaviano Mascherino to build a palace with porticoed parallel wings and an internal courtyard by incorporating the Carafa villa, the original nucleus of the palace, later known as the Gregorian building. That project was not fully completed due to the Pope's death in 1585. However, it is still recognisable in the north part of the courtyard, especially in the double loggia facade, topped by the panoramic Torre dei Venti (tower of the winds) or Torrino. To the latter, a bell tower was added according to a project by Carlo Maderno and Francesco Borromini.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: Pope Paul V (r. 1605–1621) commissioned the completion of the work on the main building of the palace.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The palace was also used as the location for papal conclaves in 1823, 1829, 1831, and 1846. It served as a papal residence and housed the central offices responsible for the civil government of the Papal States until 1870. In September 1870, what was left of the Papal States was occupied militarily and annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. Some five months later, in 1871, Rome became the capital of the new Italian state. The palace became the official royal residence of the kings of Italy, though some of these, notably King Victor Emmanuel III (reigned 1900–1946) actually lived in a private residence elsewhere (Villa Savoia), leaving the Quirinal to be used simply as a suite of offices and for state functions. The monarchy was abolished in 1946 and the palace became the official residence and workplace for the presidents of the Italian Republic. Still, some have declined the "Colle" residence and kept their usual Roman residence: for example, Sandro Pertini preferred his old flat near the Trevi Fountain.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The palace's façade was designed by Domenico Fontana. Its Great Chapel was designed by Carlo Maderno. It contains frescos by Guido Reni, but the most famous fresco is the "Blessing Christ" by Melozzo da Forlì, placed over the stairs. The palace grounds include a famous set of gardens laid out in the 17th century.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The palace is composed of the main building, which is built around the majestic courtyard, with the most beautiful halls and rooms of the complex environments that serve as representative of the Presidency of the Republic, while the offices and apartments of the head of state are housed in the Fuga building at the end of the "Manica lunga", the long building on the side of Quirinal street ("via del Quirinale" in Italian). On the "piano nobile" of the "Manica lunga" lie the opulent imperial apartments, which were specially arranged, decorated and furnished for two visits of Kaiser Wilhelm II (in 1888 and 1893) and which now houses the monarchs or foreign heads of state visiting the president of the republic. The palace, in its totality, has 1,200 rooms.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The shape of the staircase was very useful during the papal period since the double-crossed ramp allowed to reach the two main rooms of the papal palace directly: the Throne room, today the Great hall of cuirassiers, and the Consistory room, today the Great hall of banquets, at the time because used as papal private apartments.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This was the throne room of the papal palace, where ambassadors and dignitaries were received and public audiences were held. The royal guards stood here during the Savoy period. Today, the room serves for public audiences, receptions, and solemn ceremonies held by the Presidency of the Republic.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: It is the largest chapel in the building, built with the same size and shape as the Sistine Chapel so that the same ceremonial could be repeated both in the Vatican and in the Quirinal. Four popes were elected here. Today the chapel hosts concerts and religious ceremonies.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: It is one among the rooms formerly part of the papal private apartments, today hosting informal meetings of the president of the republic on occasion.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The Yellow Room was once part of a seventy-meter long gallery built by Pope Alexander VII, later ordered split by Napoleon to serve as Empress's private residence. It features magnificent yellow fabrics lined to the walls, hence the name of the room. In modern times, under the republic, the Napoleonic decorations were mostly removed, revealing the original ornaments.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This room hosted the throne during the Savoy reign. Someone says that the legs of the throne present here had to be shortened when Victor Emanuel III became king. In fact, his father and mother were cousins and precisely because of inbreeding, his legs had not been able to develop fully: he had remained tall as a boy. For example, when he was forced to walk holding up his sword so that it did not rub on the ground.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This room is one of the latest Savoy's interventions opened in the 1940s by dismantling rooms of the private papal apartments. The name derives from the tapestries on the walls representing the twelve labors of Hercules.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This room was also opened by dismantling rooms of the papal private apartment. It is a passage room; the name derives from the precious cabinets displayed here.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This extraordinary masterpiece of the architect Ottaviano Mascarino is the original staircase of the Gregorian building. The ramp winds up to aspirate to culminate in a skylight. In the Savoy era, we risked losing this masterpiece as well as all the other rooms of the Gregorian building: some princes wanted it to be destroyed to make room for a large ballroom; the project was eventually halted due to excessive expenses.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The "enfilade" of the tapestries room, of the mirrors room and of the great hall of banquets was conceived in the Savoy era for the court galas which were held once a month, on the third Thursday of the month. Arriving from the staircase of honour, you first came across the great Hall of banquets, followed by the mirrors room and by the tapestries room. The tapestries room, in particular, was used as a conversation room.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: It is the smaller chapel of the palace. In the Savoy era, it was deconsecrated and used by servants to wash dishes since it was close to the zodiac room.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: This room was used by the Savoy as a ballroom. Here today are held audiences of the president of the republic with few participants and the oath of the Judges of the Constitutional Court.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: In the papal era, this room was used as the consistory room where the Cardinal's College met. From the Savoy period onwards, banquets and state dinners have been held here. Today, the new government is also sworn in here.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: Here the president of the republic meets the "entourage" of visiting foreign dignitaries. The name of the room derives from the tapestries on display, made on Agnolo Bronzino's own design.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The Quirinal Gardens, famous for the privileged position that makes them almost an "island" elevated above Rome, were, over the centuries, changed depending on the tastes and needs of the papal court.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: The current arrangement complements the garden "formal" seventeenth century facing the original core of the building with the garden "romantic" in the second half of the eighteenth century, preserving at that time the elegant Coffee House built by Ferdinando Fuga as reception room of Benedict XIV Lambertini, decorated by beautiful paintings of Pompeo Batoni and Giovanni Paolo Pannini.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: Within the Quirinal gardens lies the famous water organ built between 1997 and 1999 by Barthélemy Formentelli based on the characteristics of the previous nineteenth-century organ. The organ is fed by a waterfall with a jump of 18 meters and has a single keyboard of 41 notes with a first short octave, without pedalboard.


title: Quirinal Palace

text: By means of a trap door located in the gardens, entry can be gained to the archaeological excavations that have unearthed the remains of the original temple to the god Quirinus and some insulae of the imperial age.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: USS "Blue Ridge" (LCC-19) is the lead ship of the two amphibious command ships of the United States Navy, and is the flagship of the Seventh Fleet. Her primary role is to provide command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence (C4I) support to the commander and staff of the United States Seventh Fleet. She is currently forward-deployed to U.S. Navy Fleet Activities, Yokosuka in Japan, and is the third Navy ship named after the Blue Ridge Mountains, a range of mountains in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. "Blue Ridge" is the oldest deployed warship of the U.S. Navy, following the decommissioning of . "Blue Ridge", as the U.S. Navy's active commissioned ship having the longest total period as active, flies the First Navy Jack instead of the jack of the United States. "Blue Ridge" is expected to remain in service until 2039.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was put "in commission special" on 14 November 1970, at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard as an Amphibious Command and Control (LCC) ship, with Captain Kent J. Carroll as the commanding officer. The ship was sponsored by Mrs. Gretchen Byrd, wife of the U.S. Senator from Virginia, Harry F. Byrd Jr. The principal speaker at the ceremony was John W. Warner, Under Secretary of the Navy and later Senator from Virginia.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was the replacement for , but "Estes" was decommissioned earlier than planned in October 1969 due to the budget cuts of the late 1960s.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was the lead ship of her class and represented almost seven years of planning and construction work. The result was a ship specifically designed from the keel up as a command and control ship. As designed, "Blue Ridge" was capable of supporting the staff of both the Commander of an Amphibious Task Force and the staff of the Commanding General of the Landing Force. The advanced computer system, extensive communications package and modern surveillance and detection systems was molded into the most advanced joint amphibious command and control center ever constructed.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: At the time of her commissioning, "Blue Ridge" had the distinction of carrying the world's most sophisticated electronics suite, which was said to be some thirty percent larger than that of the aircraft carrier , which had been the most complex. "Blue Ridge" was armed with a "main battery" of computers, communications gear, and other electronic facilities to fulfill her mission as a command ship. An extremely refined communications system was also an integral part of the ship's radical new design. Through an automated patch panel and computer controlled switching matrix her crew could use any combination of communication equipment desired. The clean topside area is the result of careful design intended to minimize the ship's interference with her own communications system. U.S. Navy long-range communications were heavily reliant on high frequency radio systems in the 1970s and have evolved to predominantly satellite communications in the 2000s. This is illustrated by the long wire antennas and the directional HF yagi or log-periodic antenna initially installed on "Blue Ridge" and later removed and replaced with a number of satellite communications antennas.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Besides small arms, "Blue Ridge" was armed with two twin Mark 33 3"/50 caliber guns at commissioning, though they have since been removed. She also carried two Mark 25 launchers and electronics for the Basic Point Defense Missile System (BPDMS) which was added sometime in the 1970s and removed in the 1990s. Two 20 mm Phalanx CIWS systems were added in the 1980s for point defense. In recent years she has also carried 25 mm Bushmaster cannons.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: In late January 1971, the ship conducted her first INSURV in the North Atlantic, after transiting the Delaware River, from and return to Philadelphia.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 11 February 1971, "Blue Ridge" steamed on her maiden voyage from the shipyard to the ship's first homeport, San Diego, California, around South America via the Strait of Magellan, making liberty calls at Norfolk, Virginia (15 February), Rio de Janeiro (4–6 March), Lima (20–22 March), Rodman Naval Station, Panama Canal Zone (27–28 March), and Acapulco (2–5 April). "Blue Ridge"s beam is , but the Panama Canal locks at that time were only , creating problems for the "Blue Ridge"-class of ships with fenders and barges for the sponsons.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: As the ship crossed the equator on 26 February at 38 degrees and 24 minutes longitude, bound for Rio de Janeiro, "Blue Ridge" performed her first crossing the line ceremony, initiating the "wog" majority of the crew, except for one.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Upon entry to the Strait of Magellan, "Blue Ridge" took on a passage pilot from the Chilean Navy for the transit. The Chilean patrol boat lost its mast and damaged one of "Blue Ridge"s basket antennas, just aft of the port sponson, in the boarding operation.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: In "Blue Ridge"s transit from Lima to Rodman Naval Station, Panama, she was assigned the duty of going to the aid of any U.S. tuna fishing boat being harassed or captured by the Ecuadorian Navy because they were fishing in a claimed fishing zone that the U.S. did not recognize. This was known as the Tuna War, but no incident occurred.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" arrived at San Diego on 9 April, with Rear Admiral David M. Rubel, U.S. Navy, Commander Amphibious Group Three and staff embarked. Rear Admiral Rubel is the first Flag Officer embarked on "Blue Ridge". Amphibious Group Three staff came aboard "Blue Ridge" at the Rodman port call with the next port call being Acapulco.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: The rest of the year was highlighted by Command Post Exercises 3–7 May and 11–13 August. Refresher training was conducted in late June and early July. "Blue Ridge" acted as amphibious task force and landing force flagship for the major amphibious training exercise of the year, ROPEVAL WESTCO (3-71), from 8–16 September.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: For "Blue Ridge"s first drydock since the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, from 11 October to 19 November she was in the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for Post Shakedown availability. "Blue Ridge"s power plant was switched from Navy Standard Oil fuel to Navy Distillate fuel.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: From 1972 until 1979, "Blue Ridge" deployed to the Western Pacific on 6 WestPacs, as the flagship of the Commander Amphibious Force, Seventh Fleet.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: After completing degaussing in the deperming facility at Ballast Point, on 7 January 1972, "Blue Ridge" departed home port San Diego and steamed to Pearl Harbor for deployment on the ship's first WestPac, with port visits at Guam, Sasebo, Japan, White Beach, Okinawa, Subic Bay, Hong Kong and Singapore.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Making the next leg of the transit to WestPac, Guam, with and , During the transit, four Soviet reconnaissance aircraft overflew the convoy to collect data on the new ship.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: As the ship crossed the equator on 27 February 1972 at , bound for Singapore, "Blue Ridge" performed her second crossing the line ceremony.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Additional port visits were planned, but in late March 1972, as "Blue Ridge" prepared at White Beach, Okinawa for exercise Golden Dragon, North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam across the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) on 30 March 1972 in their Easter Offensive. This was the largest invasion since the Korean War, radically departing from previous offensives. It was designed to strengthen the North Vietnamese position as the Paris Peace Accords drew towards a conclusion.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 3 April 1972, Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet (CinCPac) Admiral John S. McCain Jr. cancelled Exercise Golden Dragon. General Miller and the 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade (9th MAB) staff were ordered to remain on "Blue Ridge" for combat or evacuation operations. The 9th MAB had various contingency plans from potentially conducting emergency evacuations to building up their forces.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 5 April 1972, "Blue Ridge" departed for the war zone, the Gulf of Tonkin. "Blue Ridge" was the command ship during April through July for the last major combat amphibious engagement of the Vietnam War. The Easter Counter-Offensive was "the largest concentration of wartime amphibious force since the Inchon and Wonsan landings of the Korean War."


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Detachment "N" of the 1st Radio Battalion had deployed with the 9th MAB for the exercise in Korea. It was integrated with the Task Force 76 Joint Intelligence Center and operated from the supplemental radio spaces of "Blue Ridge" using input from the service cryptologic agencies in Southeast Asia. However, operating from "Blue Ridge" posed reception problems because of the distance from shore. From 24 April 1972, two or three direct support elements were in operation from naval gunfire ships at any one time, with control remaining at the headquarters element on "Blue Ridge". In July 1972, they moved to and when "Blue Ridge" returned to the United States, detachment analysts relocated to the Naval Communications Station, San Miguel, near San Antonio, Zambales, Philippines. As CTU 76.0.1, escorted by , "Blue Ridge" conducted special operations in the Tonkin Gulf in Operation Venture Road.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: With a lull in the fighting and 64 days at sea, "Blue Ridge" made a port call to Subic, from 7 to 14 June, for supplies and sanity, then returned to the Gulf of Tonkin.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Nguyen Van Thieu, president of South Vietnam, came aboard "Blue Ridge" on 28 June 1972 to confer with Vice Admiral Holloway, Admiral Gaddis, General Miller and "to convey his personal thanks to the sailors and Marines of the amphibious forces for 'the preservation of Peace and Freedom' in South Vietnam."


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On the first of July, while steaming outside of Da Nang Harbor, in the combat zone and the ship's port 3-inch gun manned, "Blue Ridge" had her first change of command. That day was also the day that "Blue Ridge" earned the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: The Easter Counter-Offensive was "Blue Ridge"s longest time at sea, 64 days from 5 April to 7 June 1972. After 7 days in Subic, "Blue Ridge" returned to the Gulf of Tonkin until 18 July 1972 and was then ordered to the Philippines for typhoon relief along with "Tripoli", "Juneau", "Alamo", and "Cayuga". "The 33d MAU and subordinate units were awarded the Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for their efforts", but "Blue Ridge" was not.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 18 August 1972, "Blue Ridge" returned to San Diego. In September the ship received aboard, CNO Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt Jr. and Secretary of the Navy, John Warner for visits. From 5 thru 9 October, "Blue Ridge" made a port visit to San Francisco, training and a First Fleet sponsored event.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: From 12 February 1973 until 4 April 1973, Operation Homecoming, returning POWs from Hanoi and VC camps in South Vietnam went to Clark Air Base in the Philippines. With "Blue Ridge" still in her homeport of San Diego, the current ship's intelligence officer and prior ship's intelligence officer contributed to the operation. "The Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines each had liaison officers dedicated to prepare for the return of American POWs well in advance of their actual return. These liaison officers worked behind the scenes traveling around the United States assuring the returnees well being. They also were responsible for debriefing POWs to discern relevant intelligence about MIAs and to discern the existence of war crimes committed against them."


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 24 February 1973, "Blue Ridge" left San Diego for Pearl Harbor (2–3 March) and her second WestPac, with liberty port visits of Sasebo (7–14 June), Yokosuka (25 July-5 Aug), White Beach (15–31 March, 11 April, 16 Aug, 4-19 Sept), Hong Kong (7–12 May), Subic (26 March-5 April, 22-26 Sept, 7-8 Oct), Manila, Singapore (24-29 Aug) and Chilung (1–5 June). "Blue Ridge" conducted training exercises: Operation Golden Dragon in early April off South Korea, Operation Pagasa I in middle May off Philippines, Operation Pagasa II in early October off Philippines.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: With Operation End Sweep progressing in the coastal waters of North Vietnam for the mines released there, "Blue Ridge" left White Beach again on 10 July 1973 headed for the Gulf of Tonkin. She carried equipment that was needed by U.S. helicopters that were involved in clearing mined North Vietnamese waters. "Blue Ridge" spent two nights in north Vietnamese waters off the coast of Vinh and Hon Matt before departing for Manila in the Philippines.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Because of the problems associated with the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973, "Blue Ridge", on the transit back to White Beach, Okinawa from port call in Singapore, became the first Seventh Fleet combatant ship to refuel at sea with a commercial tanker, taking on some 158,000 gallons of Navy distillate from the "Falcon Princess".


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Late in "Blue Ridge's" second WestPac, the ship was conducting a joint exercise with the Philippine Navy in the South China Sea called PAGASA II, as the command ship. One of "Blue Ridge"s ensigns went overboard unnoticed and when found absent for a watch muster, a compartment search was conducted aboard the ship for the missing officer. With failure to find him on 28 September 1973, a search and rescue operation commenced without success. Two days later the ensign was declared missing at sea and Exercise PAGASA II resumed. On Monday, 1 October 1973, the U.S. Embassy in Moscow was notified that the Soviet trawler AGI "Kursograph" found an American sailor in "Blue Ridge's" operation area and the ensign was returned safely to "Blue Ridge" the next day after diplomatic negotiations.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: At the end of Pagasa II, bad tropical weather forced the transfer of the staff from "Blue Ridge" to "Denver", after a very short stay in Subic Bay, to occur in White Beach instead, on 7 October. On 8 October, "Blue Ridge" steamed for homeport San Diego carrying a Patrol Craft Fast on the helicopter deck. "Blue Ridge" arrived in San Diego 23 October [1973].


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Late in March 1975 and late in "Blue Ridge's" third WestPac, the deteriorating military and political situation in Cambodia and South Vietnam disrupted "Blue Ridge's" operational plans as had occurred in late March 1972.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was at White Beach, Okinawa when the 9th MAB was alerted on 25 March 1975 for immediate departure to Da Nang to reinforce U.S. facilities, but "Blue Ridge" did not get underway for Vietnam until 27 March. Marines and sailors hastily trained for crowd control, evacuation procedures, and a Vietnamese orientation course. The printing section on board "Blue Ridge" reproduced thousands of signs in Vietnamese including a simplified instruction card for the small unit leader that included basic Vietnamese phrases and human relations oriented "do's and don'ts. However North Vietnamese forces captured Da Nang on 29 March.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 12 April, in response to the Cambodian government's crumbling defenses around the capital of Phnom Penh, Operation Eagle Pull evacuated 289 Americans, Cambodians and third country nationals by helicopter to the .


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: After the end of the Battle of Xuân Lộc on 21 April, President Thieu resigned and fled into exile and North Vietnamese forces surrounded Saigon. The fixed wing evacuation from Tan Son Nhut Airport was halted by North Vietnamese artillery fire on the morning of 29 April and the helicopter evacuation Operation Frequent Wind commenced. Admiral Gayler directed USSAG/Seventh Air Force and Seventh Fleet to begin Frequent Wind Option IV at 10:51 (Saigon time), but for some unexplainable reason, dissemination of this message to the participating units had been delayed from 10:52 until 12:15. Evacuation helicopters finally departed with the first wave started landing at 15:06 and returning to fleet at 15:40 with the first load of evacuees.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: The commanding officer of ProvMAG 39, Colonel McLenon, exercised control of his Marine aircraft through the Tactical Air Coordination Center (TACC) on board "Blue Ridge". The Helicopter Direction Center on board "Okinawa", maintained aircraft spacing and routing. The primary difference between TACC and HDC was that TACC controlled the tactical disposition of the helicopters and HDC controlled the helicopters as long as they were in the Navy's airspace. These areas of responsibility often overlapped and at times even merged. Under the conditions existing on the morning of 29 April 1975, the difference in control responsibilities of TACC and HDC at best seemed blurred, at worst redundant. Coordination and control of the overall embarkation operation suffered from more serious communication problems. Direct communications with Admiral Whitmire and 9th MAB Rear were sporadic, at best, requiring a continuous relay by the C-130 Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: The sky over the evacuation fleet was soon filled with Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) helicopters, looking for a place to land and unload their passengers. Five helicopters crashed on the ship that day, not counting ones ditched or abandoned overboard. One crashed, causing a near disaster and showering the ship and personnel with debris. An NBC film crew, with reporter George Lewis, filmed this unexpected arrival of RVNAF helicopters on the flight deck of "Blue Ridge", showing the processing of the refugees and two helicopters' rotor blades colliding. To free up space on the flight deck, RVNAF helicopters were ditched by their pilots in the South China Sea after unloading their refugees on ship. Along with the widely published photo of an RVNAF UH-1 "Huey" being pushed over the side of "Blue Ridge", they filmed one unknown crew member being tossed into a flight deck safety net by the movement of the chopper going over the side.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: The evacuation continued until the morning of 30 April with the last helicopter evacuating the Marine Security Guards from the roof of the U.S. Embassy at 07:53 and landing on USS "Okinawa" at 08:30. At 11:30 North Vietnamese tanks smashed through the gates of the Presidential Palace less than 1 km from the Embassy and raised the flag of the Viet Cong over the building, ending the Vietnam War.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: With the decommissioning of the 7th Fleet Flagship cruiser in December 1979, "Blue Ridge" became the new flagship of the U.S. Seventh Fleet, and has been forward deployed at the Yokosuka Naval Base, Japan ever since.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: From 21 July 1979 through 30 June 1984, "Blue Ridge" and other ships in the West Pacific engaged in operation Boat People, receiving the Humanitarian Service Medal, rescuing refugees from Vietnam. For example, on 6 October 1980 while transiting the South China Sea, "Blue Ridge" embarked Vietnamese refugees onboard from two separate small boats. The first being sighted before noon contained 54 total refugees. The second containing 37 were embarked onboard "Blue Ridge" shortly after 1800. Both boats were dangerously overloaded, and adrift when sighted. Of the 54 total refugees aboard the first boat, all were in good health, having been to sea only a few days. Of the 37 total refugees aboard the second boat, all were severely dehydrated, many so weak they could not stand, and had to be hoisted aboard "Blue Ridge". Mechanical failure of the second boat had left the 37 adrift well short of the shipping lane. Initially it was unclear how long they had been at sea, though they had been without potable water for many days. Also on 15 May 1984 "Blue Ridge" rescued 35 refugees in the South China Sea, northeast of Cam Ranh Bay.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: In May 1989, "Blue Ridge", "Sterett" and visited Shanghai, China. They were the first U.S. warships to enter Shanghai Harbor in 40 years and it was only the second visit by U.S. warships to the People's Republic of China since 1949.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" performed a nine-and-a-half–month deployment as flagship for commander, United States Naval Forces Central Command (ComUSNavCent), during Operations Desert Shield, and Desert Storm from 28 August 1990 through 24 April 1991, receiving a Navy Unit Commendation.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" participates routinely in U.S. and allied training exercises each year with countries throughout the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean. For example, in 2009 "Blue Ridge" participated in ANNUALEX 21G (Annual Exercise 21G) with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and PASSEX (Passing Exercise) with the French Navy.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was one of several participating in disaster relief in Operation Tomodachi, after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. "Blue Ridge" brought relief supplies from Singapore to Japan but remained in the vicinity of Okinawa where the embarked U.S. Seventh Fleet staff provided command and control for the duration of Operation Tomodachi. The Seventh Fleet Band disembarked from "Blue Ridge" in order to provide the Japanese public with concerts dedicated to the victims of the tsunami. On 9 May 2010, sailors from "Blue Ridge" took part in a Victory Day Parade of the Russian Navy's Pacific Fleet in the city of Vladivostok, being assembled on the city square next to French sailors. The officer inspecting the parade greeted the sailors, to which the sailors responded with a Russian-style threefold loud "Ura".


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 25 January 2020, an MH-60S helicopter attached to the ship crashed approximately from Okinawa, Japan. Following search and rescue efforts all five crewmembers were found uninjured.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: On 18 July 1972, "Blue Ridge" was awarded the Combat Action Ribbon for her action at Tiger Island, and on 9 August 1972, the ship was awarded the Battle "E" by the commander Amphibious Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet. It was the only one "Blue Ridge" received prior to substantial changes made to the award in 1976 and is not listed as a Navy "E" Ribbon on the unit awards page. "Blue Ridge" received 15 Navy "E" Ribbon awards from 1977 to 2010.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" was awarded the Vietnam Service Medal and has two campaign stars one for Consolidation II '72 Campaign and the second for Vietnam Ceasefire '72 Campaign (Easter Counter-Offensive) with a total of 99 days in the combat zone, not counting 18 uncredited days in July 1972. "Blue Ridge" may have earned the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal for six months of service off South Vietnam from February to July 1972 as listed by NavSource.org. However, The Navy Unit awards page does not mention the award and the ship's crew did not paint the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal on the ship's bridge wing in 1993 or 2011.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Operation Eagle Pull (11–13 April 1975), the evacuation of the U.S. Embassy in Cambodia, "Blue Ridge" was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation, Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal and the Humanitarian Service Medal.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: Operation Frequent Wind (29–30 April 1975), the evacuation of Saigon, South Vietnam, "Blue Ridge" was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation, Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal and the Humanitarian Service Medal. "Blue Ridge" received Humanitarian Service Medals for two different operations in 1980 and 1984 for rescuing Vietnamese boat people.


title: USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19)

text: "Blue Ridge" received the ship's second Navy Unit Commendation along with the Southwest Asia Service Medal, the Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia) and Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait) for Desert Shield and Desert Storm. The ship was also awarded the Joint Meritorious Unit Award and the Humanitarian Service Medal during Operation Tomodachi.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II series (trademarked with square brackets as "Apple ][" and rendered on later models as "Apple //") is a family of home computers, one of the first highly successful mass-produced microcomputer products, designed primarily by Steve Wozniak, manufactured by Apple Computer (now Apple Inc.), and launched in 1977 with the original Apple II.


title: Apple II series

text: In terms of ease of use, features, and expandability, the Apple II was a major advancement over its predecessor, the Apple I, a limited-production bare circuit board computer for electronics hobbyists. Through 1988, a number of models were introduced, with the most popular, the Apple IIe, remaining relatively unchanged into the 1990s.


title: Apple II series

text: A model with more advanced graphics and sound and a 16-bit processor, the Apple II, was added in 1986. It remained compatible with earlier Apple II models, but the II had more in common with mid-1980s systems like the Atari ST, Amiga, and Acorn Archimedes.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II was first sold on June 10, 1977. By the end of production in 1993, somewhere between five and six million Apple II series computers (including about 1.25 million Apple II models) had been produced. The Apple II was one of the longest running mass-produced home computer series, with models in production for just under 17 years.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II became one of several recognizable and successful computers during the 1980s and early 1990s, although this was mainly limited to the US. It was aggressively marketed through volume discounts and manufacturing arrangements to educational institutions, which made it the first computer in widespread use in American secondary schools, displacing the early leader Commodore PET. The effort to develop educational and business software for the Apple II, including the 1979 release of the popular VisiCalc spreadsheet, made the computer especially popular with business users and families.


title: Apple II series

text: Despite the introduction of the Motorola 68000-based Macintosh in 1984, the Apple II series still reportedly accounted for 85% of the company's hardware sales in the first quarter of fiscal 1985. Apple continued to sell Apple II systems alongside the Macintosh until terminating the II in December 1992 and the IIe in November 1993. The last II-series Apple in production, the IIe card for Macintoshes, was discontinued on October 15, 1993. The total Apple II sales of all of its models during its 16-year production run were about 6 million units, with the peak occurring in 1983 when 1 million were sold.


title: Apple II series

text: All the machines in the series, except the //c, shared similar overall design elements. The plastic case was designed to look more like a home appliance than a piece of electronic equipment, and the machine could be opened without the use of tools, allowing access to the computer's internals.


title: Apple II series

text: The motherboard held eight expansion slots and an array of random access memory (RAM) sockets that could hold up to 48 kilobytes. Over the course of the Apple II series' life, an enormous amount of first- and third-party hardware was made available to extend the capabilities of the machine.


title: Apple II series

text: The //c was designed as a compact, portable unit, not intended to be disassembled, and could not use most of the expansion hardware sold for the other machines in the series.


title: Apple II series

text: All machines in the Apple II series had a built-in keyboard, with the exception of the IIgs which had a separate keyboard.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple IIs had color and high-resolution graphics modes, sound capabilities and a built-in BASIC programming language. The Apple II was targeted for the masses rather than just hobbyists and engineers, and influenced many of the microcomputers that followed it. Unlike preceding home microcomputers, it was sold as a finished consumer appliance rather than as a kit (unassembled or preassembled). The Apple II series eventually supported over 1,500 software programs.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple marketed the machine as a durable product, including a 1981 ad in which an Apple II survived a fire started when a cat belonging to one early user knocked over a lamp.


title: Apple II series

text: The original Apple II provided an operating system in ROM along with a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC. The only form of storage available was cassette tape.


title: Apple II series

text: When the Disk II floppy disk drive was released in 1978, a new operating system, Apple DOS, was commissioned from Shepardson Microsystems and developed by Paul Laughton, adding support for the disk drive. The final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card, the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. With the release of MousePaint in 1984 and the Apple II in 1986, the platform took on the look of the Macintosh user interface, including a mouse.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple eventually released Applesoft BASIC, a more advanced variant of the language which users could run instead of Integer BASIC for more capabilities.


title: Apple II series

text: Some commercial Apple II software booted directly and did not use standard DOS disk formats. This discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks, and improved loading speed.


title: Apple II series

text: The first Apple II computers went on sale on June 10, 1977 with a MOS Technology 6502 (later Synertek) microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz, 4 KB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into the ROMs. The video controller displayed 40 columns by 24 lines of monochrome, upper-case-only (the original character set matches ASCII characters 0x20 to 0x5F) text on the screen, with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a TV monitor, or on a regular TV set by way of a separate RF modulator. The original retail price of the computer was US$1298(with 4 KB of RAM) and US$2638 (with the maximum 48 KB of RAM). To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing was represented using rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore.


title: Apple II series

text: An external -inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II, attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), was used for data storage and retrieval to replace cassettes. The Disk II interface, created by Steve Wozniak, was regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.


title: Apple II series

text: Rather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line out jack; all other sounds (including two, three and, eventually, four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by software that clicked the speaker at just the right times.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices, including Apple II peripheral cards such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and realtime clocks. There were plug-in expansion cards – such as the Z-80 SoftCard – that permitted the Apple to use the Z80 processor and run a multitude of programs developed under the CP/M operating system, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. There was also a third-party 6809 card that would allow OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Eventually, Apple II accelerator cards were created to double or quadruple the computer's speed.


title: Apple II series

text: Rod Holt designed the Apple II's power supply. He employed a switched-mode power supply design, which was far smaller and generated less unwanted heat than the linear power supply some other home computers used.


title: Apple II series

text: The original Apple II was discontinued at the start of 1981, having been superseded by the Apple II+. By 1984, over six million machines had been sold.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II Plus, introduced in June 1979, included the Applesoft BASIC programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, which was previously available as an upgrade, supported floating-point arithmetic, and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple II series (though it ran at a noticeably slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC).


title: Apple II series

text: Except for improved graphics and disk-booting support in the ROM, and the removal of the 2k 6502 assembler/disassembler to make room for the floating point BASIC, the II+ was otherwise identical to the original II. RAM prices fell during 1980–81 and all II+ machines came from the factory with a full 48k of memory already installed.


title: Apple II series

text: After the success of the first Apple II in the United States, Apple expanded its market to include Europe, Australia and the Far East in 1979, with the Apple II Europlus (Europe, Australia) and the Apple II J-Plus (Japan). In these models, Apple made the necessary hardware, software and firmware changes in order to comply to standards outside of the US.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the Apple IIe, a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine that used newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 KB of RAM.


title: Apple II series

text: The IIe RAM was configured as if it were a 48 KB Apple II Plus with a language card. The machine had no slot 0, but instead had an auxiliary slot that could accept a 1 KB memory card to enable the 80-column display. This card contained only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display was built into the Apple IIe. An "extended 80-column card" with more memory increased the machine's RAM to 128 KB.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple IIe was the most popular machine in the Apple II series. It has the distinction of being the longest-lived Apple computer of all time—it was manufactured and sold with only minor changes for nearly 11 years. The IIe was the last Apple II model to be sold, and was discontinued in November 1993.


title: Apple II series

text: During its lifespan two variations were introduced: the Apple IIe Enhanced (four replacement chips to give it some of the features of the later model Apple IIc) and the Apple IIe Platinum (a modernized case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a numeric keypad).


title: Apple II series

text: Some of the feature of the IIe were carried over from the less successful "Apple III", among them the ProDOS operating system.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple IIc was released in April 1984, billed as a portable Apple II because it could be easily carried due to its size and carrying handle, which could be flipped down to prop the machine up into a typing position. Unlike modern portables it lacked a built-in display and battery. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the Snow White design language, and the only one that used its unique creamy off-white color.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the 65C02 low-power variant of the 6502 processor, and featured a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive and 128 KB RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a port usable by either a joystick or mouse. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all.


title: Apple II series

text: Two different monochrome LCD displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to 15 V DC, though the IIc itself will accept between 12 V and 17 V DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II, released on September 15, 1986, is the last model in the Apple II series, and a radical departure from prior models. It uses a 16-bit microprocessor, the 65C816 operating at 2.8 MHz with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM. The graphics are significantly improved, with 4096 colors and new modes with resolutions of 320×200 and 640×400.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II evolved the platform while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. Its Mega II chip contains the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor). This, combined with the 65816's ability to execute 65C02 code directly, provides full support for legacy software, while also supporting 16-bit software running under a new OS.


title: Apple II series

text: The OS eventually included a Macintosh-like graphical Finder for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with desk accessories. Later, the II gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, a multitasking Unix-like shell and TrueType font support.


title: Apple II series

text: The GS includes a 32-voice Ensoniq 5503 DOC sample-based sound synthesizer chip with 64 KB dedicated RAM, 256 KB (or later 1.125 MB) of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices) and, built-in AppleTalk networking.


title: Apple II series

text: The final Apple II model was the Apple IIc Plus introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5.25-inch floppy drive had been replaced with a -inch drive, the power supply was moved inside the case, and the processor was a fast 4 MHz 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the II.


title: Apple II series

text: The IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and II. Unlike the IIe IIc and II, the IIc Plus came only in one version (American) and was not officially sold anywhere outside the US. The Apple IIc Plus ceased production in 1990, with its two-year production run being the shortest of all the Apple II computers.


title: Apple II series

text: Although not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the Apple IIe Card, an expansion card for the LC line of Macintosh computers, was released. Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (using the Mega II chip from the Apple II), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation (although video was emulated in software and was slower at times than a IIe).


title: Apple II series

text: Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could be "borrowed" by the card when in Apple II mode (i.e. extra RAM, 3.5-inch floppy, AppleTalk networking, hard disk). The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple II.


title: Apple II series

text: Mike Markkula, a retired Intel marketing manager, provided the early critical funding for Apple Computer. From 1977 to 1981, Apple used the Regis McKenna agency for its advertisements and marketing. In 1981, Chiat-Day acquired Regis McKenna's advertising operations and Apple used Chiat-Day. At Regis McKenna Advertising, the team assigned to launch the Apple II consisted of Rob Janoff, art director, Chip Schafer, copywriter and Bill Kelley, account executive. Janoff came up with the Apple logo with a bite out of it. The design was originally an olive green with matching company logotype all in lower case. Steve Jobs insisted on promoting the color capability of the Apple II by putting rainbow stripes on the Apple logo. In its letterhead and business card implementation, the rounded "a" of the logotype echoed the "bite" in the logo. This logo was developed simultaneously with an advertisement and a brochure; the latter being produced for distribution initially at the first West Coast Computer Faire.


title: Apple II series

text: Since the original Apple II, Apple has paid high attention to its quality of packaging, partly because of Steve Jobs' personal preferences and opinions on packaging and final product appearance. All of Apple's packaging for the Apple II series looked similar, featuring much clean white space and showing the Apple rainbow logo prominently. For several years up until the late 1980s, Apple used the Motter Tektura font for packaging, until changing to the Apple Garamond font.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple ran the first advertisement for the Apple II, a two-page spread ad titled "Introducing Apple II", in "BYTE" in July 1977. The first brochure, was entitled "Simplicity" and the copy in both the ad and brochure pioneered "demystifying" language intended to make the new idea of a home computer more "personal." The Apple II introduction ad was later run in the September 1977 issue of "Scientific American".


title: Apple II series

text: Apple later aired eight television commercials for the Apple II, emphasizing its benefits to education and students, along with some print ads.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the United States and abroad, in a similar way to the IBM PC. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Most could not be legally imported into the United States. Apple sued and sought criminal charges against clone makers in more than a dozen countries.


title: Apple II series

text: Originally the Apple II used Compact Cassette tapes for program and data storage. A dedicated tape recorder along the lines of the Commodore Datasette was never produced; Apple recommended using the Panasonic RQ309 in some of its early printed documentation. The uses of common consumer cassette recorders and a standard video monitor or television set (with a third party R-F modulator) made the total cost of owning an Apple II less expensive and helped contribute to the Apple II's success.


title: Apple II series

text: Cassette storage may have been inexpensive, but it was also slow and unreliable. The Apple II's lack of a disk drive was "a glaring weakness" in what was otherwise intended to be a polished, professional product. Recognizing that the II needed a disk drive to be taken seriously, Apple set out to develop a disk drive and a DOS to run it. Wozniak spent the 1977 Christmas holidays designing a disk controller that reduced the number of chips used by a factor of 10 compared to existing controllers. Still lacking a DOS, and with Wozniak inexperienced in operating system design, Jobs approached Shepardson Microsystems with the project. On April 10, 1978, Apple signed a contract for $13,000 with Sheperdson to develop the DOS.


title: Apple II series

text: Even after disk drives made the cassette tape interfaces obsolete they were still used by enthusiasts as simple one-bit audio input-output ports. Ham radio operators used the cassette input to receive slow scan TV (single frame images). A commercial speech recognition Blackjack program was available, after some user-specific voice training it would recognize simple commands (Hit, stand). Bob Bishop's "Music Kaleidoscope" was a simple program that monitored the cassette input port and based on zero-crossings created color patterns on the screen, a predecessor to current audio visualization plug-ins for media players. Music Kaleidoscope was especially popular on projection TV sets in dance halls.


title: Apple II series

text: Apple and many third-party developers made software available on tape at first, but after the Disk II became available in 1978, tape-based Apple II software essentially disappeared from the market. The initial price of the Disk II drive and controller was US$595, although a $100 off coupon was available through the Apple newsletter "Contact". The controller could handle two drives and a second drive (without controller) retailed for $495.


title: Apple II series

text: The Disk II single-sided floppy drive used 5.25-inch floppy disks; double-sided disks could be used, one side at a time, by turning them over and notching a hole for the write protect sensor. The first disk operating systems for the were and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 KB on each disk, organized into 35 tracks of 13 256-byte sectors each. After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 KB thanks to a minor firmware change on the disk controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable as two PROMs on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare; however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track, a program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks. It was possible for software developers to create a DOS 3.2 disk which would also boot on a system with firmware.


title: Apple II series

text: Later, double-sided drives, with heads to read both sides of the disk, became available from third-party companies. (Apple only produced double-sided 5.25-inch disks for the Lisa 1 computer).


title: Apple II series

text: On a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. (It was possible, with a special utility, to reclaim most of this space for data if a disk did not need to be bootable.) A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic "chattering" sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail – and read and execute code from sector 0. The code contained in there would then pull in the rest of the operating system. DOS stored the disk's directory on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average seek time to the frequently used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported.


title: Apple II series

text: Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage "crackers" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk was not in files that could be accessed easily.


title: Apple II series

text: Some third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5.25-inch disks, yielding 160 KB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known commercial software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; a two byte modification to DOS to format the extra track was common.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple Disk II stored 140 KB on single-sided, "single-density" floppy disks, but it was very common for Apple II users to extend the capacity of a single-sided floppy disk to 280 KB by cutting out a second write-protect notch on the side of the disk using a "disk notcher" or hole puncher and inserting the disk flipped over. Double-sided disks, with notches on both sides, were available at a higher price, but in practice the magnetic coating on the reverse of nominally single-sided disks was usually of good enough quality to be used (both sides were coated in the same way to prevent warping, although only one side was certified for use). Early on, diskette manufacturers routinely warned that this technique would damage the read/write head of the drives or wear out the disk faster, and these warnings were frequently repeated in magazines of the day. In practice, however, this method was an inexpensive way to store twice as much data for no extra cost, and was widely used for commercially released floppies as well.


title: Apple II series

text: Later, Apple IIs were able to use 3.5-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 KB and hard disks. did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 KB had to be split up into multiple "virtual disk volumes."


title: Apple II series

text: DOS 3.3 was succeeded by ProDOS, a 1983 descendant of the Apple ///'s SOS. It added support for subdirectories and volumes up to 32 MB in size. ProDOS became the DOS of choice; AppleWorks and other newer programs required it.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II series of computers had an enormous impact on the technology industry and expanded the role of microcomputers in society. The Apple II was the first personal computer many people ever saw. Its price was within the reach of many middle-class families, and a partnership with MECC helped make the Apple II popular in schools. By the end of 1980 Apple had already sold over 100,000 Apple IIs. Its popularity bootstrapped the computer game and educational software markets and began the boom in the word processor and computer printer markets. The first spreadsheet application, VisiCalc, was initially released for the Apple II, and many businesses bought them just to run VisiCalc. Its success drove IBM in part to create the IBM PC, which many businesses purchased to run spreadsheet and word processing software, at first ported from Apple II versions.


title: Apple II series

text: The Apple II's slots, allowing any peripheral card to take control of the bus and directly access memory, enabled an independent industry of card manufacturers who together created a flood of hardware products that let users build systems that were far more powerful and useful (at a lower cost) than any competing system, most of which were not nearly as expandable and were universally proprietary. The first peripheral card was a blank prototyping card intended for electronics enthusiasts who wanted to design their own peripherals for the Apple II.


title: Apple II series

text: Specialty peripherals kept the Apple II in use in industry and education environments for many years after Apple Computer stopped supporting the Apple II. Well into the 1990s every clean-room (the super-clean facility where spacecraft are prepared for flight) at the Kennedy Space Center used an Apple II to monitor the environment and air quality. Most planetariums used Apple IIs to control their projectors and other equipment.


title: Apple II series

text: Even the game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output. The early manuals included instructions for how to build a circuit with only four commonly available components (one transistor and three resistors) and a software routine to drive a common Teletype Model 33 machine. Don Lancaster used the game I/O to drive a LaserWriter printer.


title: Apple II series

text: Today, emulators for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on macOS, Linux, Microsoft Windows, homebrew enabled Nintendo DS and other operating systems. Numerous disk images of Apple II software are available free over the Internet for use with these emulators. AppleWin and MESS are among the best emulators compatible with most Apple II images. The MESS emulator supports recording and playing back of Apple II emulation sessions, as does Home Action Replay Page (a.k.a. HARP).


title: Apple II series

text: In addition, an active retrocomputing community of vintage Apple II collectors and users, continue to restore, maintain and develop hardware and software for daily use of these original computers. There is still a small annual convention, KansasFest, dedicated to the platform.


title: Apple II series

text: In 2017, the band 8 Bit Weapon released the world's first 100% Apple II based music album entitled, "Class Apples." The album featured dance-oriented cover versions of classical music by Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart recorded directly off the Apple II motherboard.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: The Road to Serfdom (German: "Der Weg zur Knechtschaft") is a book written between 1940 and 1943 by Austrian-British economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek. Since its publication in 1944, "The Road to Serfdom" has been popular among liberal (especially classical) and conservative thinkers, and remains referenced in modern discourse. It has been translated into more than 20 languages and sold over two million copies (as of 2010). The book was first published in Britain by Routledge in March 1944, during World War II, and was quite popular, leading Hayek to call it "that unobtainable book", also due in part to wartime paper rationing. It was published in the United States by the University of Chicago Press in September 1944 and achieved great popularity. At the arrangement of editor Max Eastman, the American magazine "Reader's Digest" published an abridged version in April 1945, enabling "The Road to Serfdom" to reach a wider non-academic audience.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: "The Road to Serfdom" was to be the popular edition of the second volume of Hayek's treatise entitled "The Abuse and Decline of Reason", and the title was inspired by the writings of the 19th century French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville on the "road to servitude". In the book, Hayek of the danger of tyranny that inevitably results from government control of economic decision-making through central planning." He further argues that the abandonment of individualism and classical liberalism inevitably leads to a loss of freedom, the creation of an oppressive society, the tyranny of a dictator, and the serfdom of the individual. Hayek challenged the view, popular among British Marxists, that fascism (including Nazism) was a capitalist reaction against socialism. He argued that fascism, Nazism and state-socialism had common roots in central economic planning and empowering the state over the individual.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Initially written as a response to the report written by William Beveridge, the Liberal politician and dean of the London School of Economics where Hayek worked at the time, the book made a significant impact on 20th-century political discourse, especially American conservative and libertarian economic and political debate, being often cited today by commentators. Subject to much attention, the ideas advocated in "The Road to Serfdom" have been criticized and defended by many academics since the book was published.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: While a professor at the London School of Economics in the early 1930s – in the era of the Great Depression, the rise of autocracies in Russia, Italy and Germany, and World War II – Hayek wrote a memo to William Beveridge, then the director there, to dispute the then-popular claim that fascism represented the dying gasp of a failed capitalist system. The memo grew into a magazine article, and he intended to incorporate elements of the article into a book much larger than "The Road to Serfdom". However, he ultimately decided to write "The Road to Serfdom" as its own book.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: The book was originally published for a British audience by Routledge Press in March 1944 in the United Kingdom. The book was subsequently rejected by three publishers in the United States, and it was only after economist Aaron Director spoke to friends at the University of Chicago that the book was published in the U.S by the University of Chicago Press on September 18, 1944. The American publisher’s expectation was that the book would sell between 900 and 3,000 copies. But the initial printing run of 2,000 copies was quickly sold out, and 30,000 copies were sold within six months. , the University of Chicago Press estimated that more than 350,000 copies had been sold.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: A 20-page version of the book was then published in the April 1945 issue of "Reader's Digest", with a press run of several million copies. A 95-page abridged version was also published in 1945 and 1946. In February 1945, a picture-book version was published in "Look" magazine, later made into a pamphlet and distributed by General Motors. The book has been translated into approximately 20 languages and is dedicated "To the socialists of all parties". The introduction to the 50th anniversary edition is written by Milton Friedman (another recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics 1976).


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: In 2007, the University of Chicago Press issued a "Definitive Edition", Volume 2 in the "Collected Works of F. A. Hayek" series. In June 2010, the book achieved new popularity by rising to the top of the Amazon.com bestseller list following extended coverage of the book on "The Glenn Beck Program". Since that date, it has sold another 250,000 copies in its print and digital editions.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Hayek argues that Western democracies, including the United Kingdom and the United States, have "progressively abandoned that freedom in economic affairs without which personal and political freedom has never existed in the past". Society has mistakenly tried to ensure continuing prosperity by centralized planning, which inevitably leads to totalitarianism. "We have in effect undertaken to dispense with the forces which produced unforeseen results and to replace the impersonal and anonymous mechanism of the market by collective and ‘conscious’ direction of all social forces to deliberately chosen goals." Socialism, while presented as a means of assuring equality, does so through "restraint and servitude", while "democracy seeks equality in liberty". Planning, because it is coercive, is an inferior method of regulation, while the competition of a free market is superior "because it is the only method by which our activities can be adjusted to each other without coercive or arbitrary intervention of authority".


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Centralized planning is inherently undemocratic in Hayek's view, because it requires "that the will of a small minority be imposed upon the people". The power of these minorities to act by taking money or property in pursuit of centralized goals, destroys the Rule of Law and individual freedoms. Where there is centralized planning, "the individual would more than ever become a mere means, to be used by the authority in the service of such abstractions as the 'social welfare' or the 'good of the community'". Even the very poor have more personal freedom in an open society than a centrally planned one. "While the last resort of a competitive economy is the bailiff, the ultimate sanction of a planned economy is the hangman." Socialism is a hypocritical system, because its professed humanitarian goals can only be put into practice by brutal methods "of which most socialists disapprove". Such centralized systems also require effective propaganda, so that the people come to believe that the state's goals are theirs.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Hayek argues that the roots of National Socialism lie in socialism, and then draws parallels to the thought of British leaders:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: The increasing veneration for the state, the admiration of power, and of bigness for bigness' sake, the enthusiasm for "organization" of everything (we now call it "planning") and that "inability to leave anything to the simple power of organic growth" ... are all scarcely less marked in England now than they were in Germany.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Hayek believed that after World War II, "wisdom in the management of our economic affairs will be even more important than before and that the fate of our civilization will ultimately depend on how we solve the economic problems we shall then face". The only chance to build a decent world is "to improve the general level of wealth" via the activities of free markets. He saw international organization as involving a further threat to individual freedom. He concluded: "The guiding principle that a policy of freedom for the individual is the only truly progressive policy remains as true today as it was in the nineteenth century."


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Although Hayek believed that government intervention in markets would lead to a loss of freedom, he recognized a limited role for government to perform tasks for which he believed free markets were not capable:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: The successful use of competition as the principle of social organization precludes certain types of coercive interference with economic life, but it admits of others which sometimes may very considerably assist its work and even requires certain kinds of government action.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: While Hayek is opposed to regulations that restrict the freedom to enter a trade, or to buy and sell at any price, or to control quantities, he acknowledges the utility of regulations that restrict legal methods of production, so long as these are applied equally to everyone and not used as an indirect way of controlling prices or quantities, and without forgetting the cost of such restrictions:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: To prohibit the use of certain poisonous substances, or to require special precautions in their use, to limit working hours or to require certain sanitary arrangements, is fully compatible with the preservation of competition. The only question here is whether in the particular instance the advantages gained are greater than the social costs they impose.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: He notes that there are certain areas, such as the environment, where activities that cause damage to third parties (known to economists as "negative externalities") cannot effectively be regulated solely by the marketplace:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Nor can certain harmful effects of deforestation, of some methods of farming, or of the smoke and noise of factories, be confined to the owner of the property in question, or to those willing to submit to the damage for an agreed compensation.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Even the most essential prerequisite of its [the market's] proper functioning, the prevention of fraud and deception (including exploitation of ignorance), provides a great and by no means fully accomplished object of legislative activity.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: some minimum of food, shelter and clothing, sufficient to preserve health. Nor is there any reason why the state should not help to organize a comprehensive system of social insurance in providing for those common hazards of life against which few can make adequate provision.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Since publication, Hayek has offered a number of clarifications on words that are frequently misinterpreted:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: , the University of Chicago Press estimated that more than 350,000 copies of "The Road to Serfdom" have been sold. It appears on Martin Seymour-Smith's list of the "100 Most Influential Books Ever Written", and it made number 1 on Human Events: Top Ten Books Every Republican Congressman Should Read in 2006. It was influential enough to warrant mention during the 1945 British general election, when according to Harold Macmillan, Winston Churchill was "fortified in his apprehensions [of a Labour government] by reading Professor Hayek's "The Road to Serfdom"" when he warned in an election broadcast in 1945 that a socialist system would "have to fall back on some form of Gestapo". The Labour leader Clement Attlee responded in his election broadcast by claiming that what Churchill had said was the "second-hand version of the academic views of an Austrian professor, Friedrich August von Hayek". The Conservative Central Office sacrificed 1.5 tons of their precious paper ration allocated for the 1945 election so that more copies of "The Road to Serfdom" could be printed, although to no avail, as Labour won a landslide victory.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: The publication of two books ... helped to galvanize the concerns that were beginning to emerge among intellectuals (and many others) about the implications of totalitarianism. One was James Burnham’s The Managerial Revolution ... [A second] Friedrich A. Hayek’s "The Road to Serfdom" ... was far more controversial—and influential. Even more than Burnham, Hayek forced into public discourse the question of the compatibility of democracy and statism ... In responding to Burnham and Hayek ... liberals [in the statist sense of this term as used by some in the United States] were in fact responding to a powerful strain of Jeffersonian anti-statism in American political culture ... The result was a subtle but important shift in liberal [i.e. American statist] thinking.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: "The Road to Serfdom" has been the subject of much praise and much criticism. It was placed fourth on the list of the 100 best non-fiction books of the 20th century compiled by "National Review" magazine, was ranked number 16 in reader selections of the hundred best non-fiction book of the twentieth century administered by Modern Library, and appears on a recommended reading list for the libertarian right hosted on the Political Compass test website.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: John Maynard Keynes said of it: "In my opinion it is a grand book ... Morally and philosophically I find myself in agreement with virtually the whole of it: and not only in agreement with it, but in deeply moved agreement." However, Keynes did not think Hayek's philosophy was of "practical" use; this was explained later in the same letter, commenting: "What we need therefore, in my opinion, is not a change in our economic programmes, which would only lead in practice to disillusion with the results of your philosophy; but perhaps even the contrary, namely, an enlargement of them. Your greatest danger ahead is the probable practical failure of the application of your philosophy in the United States."


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: George Orwell responded with both praise and criticism, stating, "in the negative part of Professor Hayek's thesis there is a great deal of truth. It cannot be said too often – at any rate, it is not being said nearly often enough – that collectivism is not inherently democratic, but, on the contrary, gives to a tyrannical minority such powers as the Spanish Inquisitors never dreamt of." Yet he also warned, "[A] return to 'free' competition means for the great mass of people a tyranny probably worse, because more irresponsible, than that of the state."


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Milton Friedman described "The Road to Serfdom" as "one of the great books of our time," and said of it:


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: I think the Adam Smith role was played in this cycle [i.e. the late twentieth century collapse of socialism in which the idea of free-markets succeeded first, and then special events catalyzed a complete change of socio-political policy in countries around the world] by Friedrich Hayek’s "The Road to Serfdom".


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Herman Finer, a Fabian socialist, published a rebuttal in his "The Road to Reaction" in 1946. Hayek called Finer's book "a specimen of abuse and invective which is probably unique in contemporary academic discussion".


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: In his review (collected in "The Present as History", 1953) Marxist Paul Sweezy joked that Hayek would have you believe that if there was an over-production of baby carriages, the central planners would then order the population to have more babies instead of simply warehousing the temporary excess of carriages and decreasing production for next year. The cybernetic arguments of Stafford Beer in his 1973 CBC Massey Lectures, "Designing Freedom" – that intelligent adaptive planning can increase freedom – are of interest in this regard, as is the technical work of Herbert A. Simon and Albert Ando on the dynamics of hierarchical nearly decomposable systems in economics – namely, that everything in such a system is not tightly coupled to everything else.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Mises Institute economist Walter Block has observed critically that while "The Road to Serfdom" makes a strong case against centrally planned economies, it appears only lukewarm in its support of a free market system and "laissez-faire" capitalism, with Hayek even going so far as to say that "probably nothing has done so much harm to the liberal cause as the wooden insistence of some liberals on certain rules of thumb, above all the principle of laissez-faire capitalism". In the book, Hayek writes that the government has a role to play in the economy through the monetary system (a view that he later withdrew), work-hours regulation, social welfare, and institutions for the flow of proper information. Through analysis of this and many other of Hayek's works, Block asserts that: "in making the case against socialism, Hayek was led into making all sort of compromises with what otherwise appeared to be his own philosophical perspective – so much so, that if a system was erected on the basis of them, it would not differ too sharply from what this author explicitly opposed".


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Jeffrey Sachs argues that empirical evidence suggests welfare states, with high rates of taxation and social outlays, outperform the comparatively free-market economies. William Easterly wrote a rebuttal criticizing Sachs for misrepresenting Hayek's work and for criticizing the book on issues it did not actually address, such as welfare programs for the elderly or sick, something Hayek was not entirely opposed to. Easterly noted that "The Road to Serfdom" was about the dangers of centralized planning and nationalization of industry, including the media. In Sachs' counter-rebuttal, he argued that he was addressing Hayek's foreword in the 1976 adaptation which stated that efforts to bring about large-scale welfare states would bring about serfdom, although much more slowly than under centralized planning. Sachs cited the Nordic states which remained economically free and relatively capitalist, despite a large welfare state that Hayek was wrong about such programs leading to serfdom.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Gordon Tullock has argued Hayek's analysis incorrectly predicted governments in much of Europe in the late 20th century would descend into totalitarianism. He uses Sweden, in which the government at that time controlled 63 percent of GNP, as an example to support his argument that the basic problem with "The Road to Serfdom" is "that it offered predictions which turned out to be false. The steady advance of government in places such as Sweden has not led to any loss of non-economic freedoms." While criticizing Hayek, Tullock still praises the classical liberal notion of economic freedom, saying, "Arguments for political freedom are strong, as are the arguments for economic freedom. We needn’t make one set of arguments depend on the other." However, according to Robert Skidelsky, Hayek "safeguarded himself from such retrospective refutation". Skidelsky argues that Hayek's argument was contingent, and that, "By the 1970s there was some evidence of the slippery slope ... and then there was Thatcher. Hayek's warning played a critical part in her determination to 'roll back the state.'"


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Economic sociologist Karl Polanyi made a case diametrically opposed to Hayek, arguing that unfettered markets had undermined the social order and that economic breakdown had paved the way for the emergence of dictatorship.


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Barbara Wootton wrote "Freedom under Planning" after reading an early copy of "The Road to Serfdom", provided to her by Hayek. In the introduction to her book, Wootton mentioned "The Road to Serfdom" and claimed that "Much of what I have written is devoted to criticism of the views put forward by Professor Hayek in this and other books." The central argument made in "Freedom under Planning" is that "there is nothing in the conscious planning of economic priorities which is inherently incompatible with the freedoms which mean most to the contemporary Englishman or American. Civil liberties are quite unaffected. We can, if we wish, deliberately plan so as to give the fullest possible scope for the pursuit by individuals and social groups of cultural ends which are in no way state-determined." Wootton criticizes Hayek for claiming that planning "must" lead to oppression, when, in her view, that is merely one "possibility" among many. She argues that "there seems hardly better case for taking for granted that planning will bring the worst to the top than for the opposite assumption that the seats of office will be filled with angels". Thus, Wootton acknowledges the possibility that planning may exist alongside tyranny, but claims that it is equally possible to combine planning with freedom. She concludes that "A happy and fruitful marriage between freedom and planning can, in short, be arranged." However, Frank Knight, founder of the Chicago school of economics, disputes the claim that "Freedom under Planning" contradicts "The Road to Serfdom". He wrote in a scholarly review of the Wootton book: "Let me repeat that the Wootton book is in no logical sense an answer to "The Road to Serfdom", whatever may be thought of the cogency of Hayek's argument, or the soundness of his position."


title: The Road to Serfdom

text: Eric Zencey wrote that the free market economy Hayek advocated is designed for an infinite planet, and when it runs into physical limits (as any growing system must), the result is a need for centralized planning to mediate the problematic interface of economy and nature. "Planning is planning, whether it's done to minimize poverty and injustice, as socialists were advocating then, or to preserve the minimum flow of ecosystem services that civilization requires, as we are finding increasingly necessary today."


title: Grayson Waller

text: Matthew Farrelly (born 21 March 1990) is an Australian professional wrestler. He is currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the NXT brand under the ring name Grayson Waller. Before signing to WWE, he previously wrestled on the independent circuit under the ring name Matty Wahlberg. During his wrestling career, he was a history teacher in New South Wales. He was also a part of the Australian Survivor TV series.


title: Grayson Waller

text: On 15 April 2017, at a Newcastle Pro Wrestling event, Farrelly made his debut under the ring name Matty Wahlberg, losing to SnapChad. Wahlberg would form a tag team with Carter Deams, known as The BABES (Blonde And Blue Eyed Squad), managed by Harley Wonderland. Wahlberg then returned to singles competition and he would receive a PWA Heavyweight Championship match against Caveman Ugg, but lost to Ugg at the PWA Black Label: Wahlberg Vs. Ugg event in March 2019. At the PWA Black Label: Break Their Back & Make Them Rumble event, Wahlberg lost to TJ Perkins. At the PWA Black Label: Colosseum event, Wahlberg won the 2019 Colosseum tournament by defeating Chris Basso in the first round, Orange Cassidy in the semi-finals, and Travis Banks in the final. After the PWA Black Label: It Started Out With A Kiss event went off the air, Wahlberg addressed the live crowd, informing them that he was leaving PWA.


title: Grayson Waller

text: On 14 March 2021, it was reported that Farrelly had signed with WWE. On 11 June episode of "205 Live", he made his WWE debut under the ring name Grayson Waller, defeating Sunil Singh. On 28 September episode "NXT", Waller unsuccessfully challenged Roderick Strong for the NXT Cruiserweight Championship. On 9 November episode of "NXT", he lost to Solo Sikoa in a triple threat match which also included LA Knight.


title: Grayson Waller

text: On 23 November episode of "NXT", Waller berated the fans, thus turning heel. At NXT WarGames, he teamed up with Bron Breakker, Carmelo Hayes, and Tony D'Angelo as Team 2.0, where they defeated Team Black & Gold (Johnny Gargano, LA Knight, Pete Dunne, and Tommaso Ciampa) in a WarGames match. On the following episode of "NXT", Waller brutally attacked Johnny Gargano during his farewell promo where he thanked his fans and friends, thus cementing his heel turn. On 21 December episode of "NXT", he attacked Dexter Lumis after the latter's match and announces that he will dismantle the old NXT one by one, and he then confronted AJ Styles whom he had criticized on social networks a few days before. At , Styles once again confronted Waller, resulting into a brawl between the pair. The following week on the 11 January episode of "NXT 2.0", Waller lost to Styles. After the match, he was attacked by the returning LA Knight.


title: Grayson Waller

text: On the 1 February episode of "NXT 2.0", Waller alongside his new "insurance policy" Sanga interfered in Knight's match against Joe Gacy, causing Knight to lose the match. At NXT Roadblock Waller defeated Knight in a Last Man Standing match needing help from Sanga to beat the 10-Count and get back to his feet. At NXT Stand & Deliver, Waller failed the win the NXT North American Championship in a ladder match. Waller and Sanga would enter the tag team gauntlet match for the vacant NXT Tag Team Championships which they were eliminated by the Creed Brothers. Waller then turned on Sanga and defeated him a week later on the April 19 episode of NXT. Waller then briefly feuded with the debuting Nathan Frazer which he lost at NXT Spring Breakin'. Waller would then pursue the NXT North American Championship by tricking Carmelo Hayes into signing the contract. At , Waller lost to Hayes due to interference from Trick Williams and Wes Lee. Despite this, Waller blamed his loss on Wes Lee and defeated him on the July 26 episode of NXT due to interference from Williams. At NXT Deadline on December 10, Waller won the inaugural Iron Survivor Challenge to become the #1 contender for Bron Breakker's NXT Championship.


title: Grayson Waller

text: In 2019, Farrelly appeared on "". He competed on the Contenders team, and garnered attention for his outspoken personality, essentially playing a version of his Matty Wahlberg wrestling character on reality television. He would be eliminated from the competition after several weeks on the island.


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: Tammy Blanchard (born December 14, 1976) is an American actress. She rose to prominence for her role as teenage Judy Garland in the critically acclaimed television film "" (2001), for which she received a Golden Globe Award nomination and a Primetime Emmy Award. Her other notable film roles were in "The Good Shepherd" (2006), "Sybil" (2007), "Into the Woods" (2014) and "The Invitation" (2015).


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: Blanchard has been nominated for two Tony Awards: one for her role as Louise in the 2003 Broadway revival of the musical "Gypsy", and the other as Hedy LaRue in the 2011 Broadway revival of the musical "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying".


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: She made her professional acting debut on the soap opera "Guiding Light" in 1997, where she played spoiled rich girl Drew Jacobs. Her first scene was with Taye Diggs, who briefly played a record producer on the show. The character of Drew became more prominent over the years, and by the time of her departure in 2000, had become an audience favorite.


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: Soon after leaving "GL", Blanchard was cast as the younger version of Judy Davis's Judy Garland in the 2001 ABC television docudrama "Life with Judy Garland: Me and My Shadows". She received glowing reviews for her performance and earned an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: She played Marianne Mulvaney in the Lifetime television film "We Were the Mulvaneys" (2002), and was noted for her "fragile strength" by "The New York Times" reviewer. In 2004, she played Sally Reid in the CBS made-for-television film "When Angels Come to Town", with Peter Falk.


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: Blanchard earned a Tony Award nomination and a Theatre World Award for her work in her Broadway debut in the 2003 revival of the musical "Gypsy", in which she played the title role opposite Bernadette Peters.


title: Tammy Blanchard

text: Blanchard's film roles include "The Good Shepherd" (2006), starring as the deaf lover of Matt Damon's character; "Bella" (2006), which took the top prize at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival; and "The Ramen Girl" (2008) and "Deadline" (2009), both working with Brittany Murphy. She co-starred with Jessica Lange in the CBS television remake of the 1976 television film "Sybil", in which she portrays a woman with dissociative identity disorder (DID). In 2008, she appeared in the multi-star cast of the television docudrama "Living Proof" as the first woman to have been treated with the breast cancer drug Herceptin.