title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Ken Ralston was assigned to the flying scenes. He built a model with an articulated aluminum skeleton for a wide range of motion. Ralston shot films of birds flying in order to incorporate their movements into the model. As with the walking dragon, the flying model was filmed using go-motion techniques. The camera was programmed to tilt and move at various angles in order to convey the sensation of flight.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Peter MacNicol first met Robbins in the office of casting director, Debby Brown, who'd seen MacNicol's work as Benvolio in Romeo and Juliet at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis. She'd left a note backstage for him, encouraging him to move to New York saying, "he would do well there". He took her advice. On his first day in New York MacNicol stopped by Brown's office to tell her he was now a Manhattan resident. While there, he heard the loud voices of actors coming from Brown's audition room. He asked Brown if there was anything right for him in the project. She responded with a smile, "Well...actually, there is." An hour later, MacNicol was the front runner for the role of Galen. He was flown to England along with Caitlin Clarke for a screen test. Within a day or two, Paramount and Disney had said yes, and he was renting a flat in Chelsea. MacNicol had grown up riding horses—his first paid job was on a ranch near Arlington, Texas—so the young actor knew how to ride, even jump hurdles without a saddle but during his pre-filming he needed to learn to ride the type of trooper-style saddle they were using in the movie. And because he'd have to ride on camera during action sequences his riding skills had to be stress-tested. "They took away my stirrups, they took away my reins and whipped the horse, and then they told me to windmill my arms and turn a complete circle in the saddle. Then they took away the saddle!" The young actor had already worked for two years in classical repertory theater, and was highly trained in voice production. Nevertheless, a voice coach was hired to achieve the mid-Atlantic sound the role required. Having studied stage combat at the University of Minnesota (two years of classes in tumbling, foil, saber rapier and dagger) he was eager to do as much of the fighting as they'd allow. The role also required some juggling and magic tricks. For this he was mentored by British prestidigitator Harold Taylor, who had previously performed for the British royal family.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Caitlin Clarke was initially hesitant to involve herself in the film, as she was preparing to audition for a play in Chicago. Her agent insisted, though, and after doing an audition tape, was called back for more tests. Clarke failed them, but managed to pass after doing another test at Robbins's insistence. She got along well with Ralph Richardson, and stated that he taught her more in one rehearsal than she had learned in years of acting classes.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Elliot Scott was hired to design the sets of the film's sixth-century world. He temporarily converted the 13th-century Dolwyddelan Castle into Ulrich's ramshackle sixth-century fortress, to the surprise of the locals. He built the entire village of Swanscombe on a farm outside London. Although Scott extensively researched medieval architecture in the British Museum and his own library, he took some artistic liberties in creating the thatched roof houses, the granary, Simon's house, and smithy and Casiodorus's castle, because he was unable to find enough information on their exact look. He built the interior of the dragon's lair, using of polystyrene and 40 tons of Welsh slate and shale. The shots of the Welsh and Scottish landscapes were extended through the use of over three dozen matte paintings.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Nearly all of the outdoor scenes were shot in North Wales. The final scene was shot in Skye, Scotland.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: The costumes were designed by Anthony Mendelson, who consulted the British Museum, the London Library, and his own reference files to evoke the designs of the early Middle Ages. They are roughly stitched and use colors which would have been possible with the vegetable dyes of the time. The costumes of Casiodorus and his court were designed of fine silk, as opposed to the coarsely woven clothes of the Urlanders.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: The film's Academy Award-nominated score was composed by Alex North. The score's linear conception was developed through transparently layered; polyphonic orchestral texture dominated by a medieval-style modal harmony. The score was largely based on five major thematic concepts:


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: North had six weeks to compose the score, which featured music rejected from his score for Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A Space Odyssey". The opening sequence of "Dragonslayer" features a reworking of his original music for the opening of "2001"s "Dawn of Man" sequence—which in that final film is played without music—and a waltz representing the dragon in flight which had been a variation of the cue "Space Station Docking", which in the final cut of "2001" was replaced by "The Blue Danube". North was disappointed by the resulting dragon scenes, as they do not use the entirety of the pieces he composed for them. He later stated that he had written "a very lovely waltz for when the dragon first appears, with just a slight indication that this may not be a bad dragon". The waltz was scrapped in favor of tracks used earlier in the movie.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: The score was widely praised. Pauline Kael wrote in the "New Yorker" that the score was a "beauty", and that "at times, the music and the fiery dragon seem one". Royal S. Brown of "Fanfare Magazine" praised the soundtrack as "one of the best scores of 1981".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: The film grossed just over $14 million in the US with an estimated budget of $18 million. It later became a cult film.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: At the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an 83% score based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critic consensus reads, "An atypically dark Disney adventure, "Dragonslayer" puts a realistic spin — and some impressive special effects — on a familiar tale." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: The book "Flights of Fancy: The Great Fantasy Film" says: ""Dragonslayer" is a compelling and often brilliant fantasy film [... but] it seeks, as well, to impose modern sensibilities on its medieval characters and plot—twentieth-century political, sociological, and religious sensibilities which only serve to dilute its particular strengths."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert both gave the film three stars out of four in their respective print reviews. Siskel praised the "dazzling special effects" and the "convincing portrait by Ralph Richardson of the aged magician Ulrich", and Ebert called the scenes involving the dragon "first-rate".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" called Vermithrax "the greatest dragon yet", and praised the film for its effective evocation of the Dark Ages.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: David Denby of "New York" praised "Dragonslayer"s special effects and lauded the film as being much better than "Excalibur" and "Raiders of the Lost Ark".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: David Sterritt of "The Christian Science Monitor" praised the sets and pacing of the film, and criticized it for lack of originality, stressing that MacNicol's and Richardson's characters bore too many similarities to the heroes of "Star Wars". A similar critique was given by John Coleman of the "New Statesman", who called the film a "turgid sword-and-sorcery fable, with Ralph Richardson in a backdated kind of "Star Wars" of Alec Guinness role".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Tim Pulleine of the "Monthly Film Bulletin" criticized the film's lack of narrative drive and clarity to supplement the special effects. Upon the film's first television broadcast, Gannett News Service columnist Mike Hughes called the story "slight" and "slow-paced", but admired a "lyrical beauty to the setting and mood". Nonetheless, he warned: "In movie theaters, that came across wonderfully; on a little TV screen, this may be strictly for specialized tastes."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Alex Keneas of "Newsday" criticized the focus on superstition, and for being "bereft of any sense of medieval time, place and society".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Larry DiTillio reviewed "Dragonslayer" for "Different Worlds" magazine and stated that "Much imagination went into the re-creation of this world and fans will revel in it when they see it."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Christopher John reviewed "Dragonslayer" in "Ares Magazine" #10 and commented that "Though the dialogue is occasionally stiff, there is a believable reality. When the people and setting of a fantasy are as carefully wrought as they are here, it is easy to get an audience to accept as small and wonderful a thing as a dragon."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Guillermo del Toro has stated that along with Maleficent in "Sleeping Beauty", Vermithrax is his favorite cinematic dragon. He further stated that: "One of the best and one of the strongest landmarks [of dragon movies] that almost nobody can overcome is "Dragonslayer". The design of Vermithrax Pejorative is perhaps one of the most perfect creature designs ever made."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: "A Song of Ice and Fire" author George R. R. Martin once ranked the film the fifth best fantasy film of all time, and called Vermithrax "the best dragon ever put on film [with] the coolest dragon name". Vermithrax is mentioned as an Easter egg in a list of dragons' names in the fourth episode of that book series adaptation, "Game of Thrones". Fantasy author Alex Bledsoe stated: "...everyone has a 'first dragon', the one that awoke their sense of wonder about the creatures. For many it's Anne McCaffrey's elaborate world of Pern, where genetically-engineered intelligent dragons bond with their riders; for others it's Smaug in "The Hobbit", guarding his hoard deep in a cave. But for me, it was the awesome Vermithrax from the 1981 film, "Dragonslayer"."


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: During filming of "Return of the Jedi", in which Ian McDiarmid, who portrays minor character Brother Jacopus in "Dragonslayer", stars as the film's main antagonist, Emperor Palpatine, the ILM crew jokingly placed a model of Vermithrax in the arms of the Rancor model and took a picture. The picture was included in the book "Star Wars: Chronicles". A creature based on the appearance of this dragon appears in one of Jabba the Hutt's creature pens in "Inside the Worlds of Star Wars Trilogy".


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: A novelization "Dragonslayer" was written by Wayland Drew that delves deeper into the background of many of the characters. Expansions upon the film's plot include details such as these:


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Marvel Comics published three formats of Dragonslayer adaptations in 1981. All were by the same team. These were a magazine-size issue, a two-issue standard comic size adaptation, and a paperback format (Marvel Illustrated) of the two comic books in 160 pages, due to the smaller pages.Writer Dennis O'Neil and artists Marie Severin and John Tartaglione in "Marvel Super Special" #20.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Simulations Publications, Inc. produced the board game of the same name, designed by Brad Hessel and Redmond A. Simonsen.


title: Dragonslayer (1981 film)

text: Australian label Southern Cross initially released an unauthorized soundtrack album in 1983 on LP (a boxed audiophile pressing, at 45 rpm), and in 1990 on CD. That album appeared on iTunes for a limited time. The first official and improved CD release came in 2010 by U.S. label La-La Land Records. The new album featured newly mastered audio from the original LCR (Left-Center-Right)-mix and included previously unreleased source music and alternative takes.


title: 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup

text: The 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup was the 15th edition of the Women's FIH Hockey World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for women's national field hockey teams organized by the International Hockey Federation. It was held from 1 to 17 July 2022 at the Estadi Olímpic de Terrassa in Terrassa, Spain and at the Wagener Stadium in Amstelveen, the Netherlands.


title: 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup

text: Defending champions the Netherlands won the tournament for a record ninth time after defeating Argentina 3–1 in the final. Australia won the third place match by defeating Germany 2–1 to claim their first World Cup medal as well.


title: 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup

text: The International Hockey Federation announced in December 2018 that the 2022 FIH Hockey World Cups will be held either in July 2022 or January 2023. The FIH received the following final five bids for the Women's 2022 World Cup. In November 2019 it was announced that Spain and the Netherlands would host the tournament in July 2022.


title: 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup

text: Just as in 2018, 16 teams competed in the tournament. Alongside the hosts, Spain and the Netherlands, the five continental champions received an automatic berth. After the postponement of the 2020 Summer Olympics the quota of places available through continental championships including the World Cup hosts was increased from six to sixteen.


title: 2022 Women's FIH Hockey World Cup

text: As the hosts, Netherlands and Spain played in their countries until the quarter-final. Therefore, they were allocated in different sides of the pools but in the rows corresponding to their World Ranking. Based on that ranking, Netherlands was positioned as A1 and Spain as C2. The top four teams according to the world ranking and qualified to the event were allocated in the first row as the headers of each pool.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Song of Solomon is a 1977 novel by American author Toni Morrison, her third to be published. It follows the life of Macon "Milkman" Dead III, an :African-American man living in Michigan, from birth to adulthood.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: This novel won the National Book Critics Circle Award, was chosen for Oprah Winfrey's popular book club, and was cited by the Swedish Academy in awarding Morrison the 1993 Nobel Prize in literature. In 1998, the Radcliffe Publishing Course named it the 25th best English-language novel of the 20th century.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Robert Smith, an African-American insurance agent, jumps off a roof while trying to fly as a crowd of people gather to watch. The appearance of Smith on the roof causes a woman named Ruth Dead to go into labor. In the chaos that follows, the hospital admits her and she delivers her son, Macon Dead III—the first African-American child born in the hospital. Macon Dead III grows up stifled, alienated, and disinterested in his home life in Southside. Even at age four, Ruth still breastfeeds him. One of her husband's employees witnesses this and nicknames the boy "Milkman".


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Milkman's relationship with his family is strained, particularly towards his father. As Milkman enters his teens, his aunt Pilate, a bootlegger and conjure woman, becomes a central figure in his life. For Milkman, Pilate becomes the first glimpse into his family's past. When they were younger, Pilate and Macon Jr. found a cave filled with bags of gold, but did not take it for fear of reprisals. Milkman forms a sexual connection with his cousin Hagar, but later spurns her. Hagar becomes obsessed with him, attempting to kill him once a month, but never following through.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Milkman mentions to his father, Macon, the heavy bag that hangs from the ceiling of Pilate's modest home. Pilate mentions that the bag contains her "inheritance." Thinking it must be one of the bags of gold from the cave, Macon sends Milkman and his friend Guitar to steal the bag from Pilate. Milkman and Guitar succeed, but are arrested by the police after they discover the bag contains human bones. Macon and Pilate go to the police station to free the two young men.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Milkman makes a journey south to Pennsylvania in search of the gold. After talking to several people, Milkman deduces that Pilate must have retrieved the gold and taken it to Virginia. Milkman stumbles across Shalimar, Virginia, by accident. While out hunting with older men from Shalimar, Milkman is attacked by Guitar, who has followed him to Virginia. Guitar is under the impression that Milkman has taken the gold, and thus wants revenge. Struggling, Milkman discharges his gun, scaring away Guitar.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Milkman sees the children of the town playing and singing the "Song of Solomon." Milkman remembers that Pilate sang a similar song, and realizes that the song is about his family. He heads back to Michigan to find Pilate.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: While Milkman is gone in Virginia, Hagar has sunk into a terrible depression from him having spurned her. Thinking that Milkman would want her if she fixes herself up, Hagar buys dresses, makeup, and a haircut. The effort amounts to little, and Hagar succumbs to her grief. A collection is taken up by the community to bury Hagar, and Pilate sings a mournful song at her granddaughter's funeral.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: Milkman thinks it only appropriate that Macon Dead Sr. be laid to rest in his ancestral home in Shalimar. Milkman finds Pilate at her home, and she knocks him unconscious for the grief that caused her granddaughter to die. When he comes to, Milkman convinces her to travel with him to Virginia and bury her father. They make the journey and bury Macon Dead Sr. overlooking the ravine. After placing the bones in the grave, Pilate is killed by a gunshot from Guitar that was intended for Milkman. The novel ends with Milkman leaping toward Guitar, thus learning to "fly".


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: "Song of Solomon", Morrison's third novel, was met with widespread acclaim, and Morrison earned the National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction in 1978. Reynolds Price, reviewing the novel for "The New York Times", concluded: "Toni Morrison has earned attention and praise. Few Americans know, and can say, more than she has in this wise and spacious novel."


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: The novel has faced several challenges and bans in schools throughout the U.S. since 1993. As recently as 2010, the novel was challenged and later reinstated at Franklin Central High School in Indianapolis, Indiana.


title: Song of Solomon (novel)

text: In 2015, Robert McCrum's list of the 100 best novels written in English, which was published in "The Guardian" newspaper, named "Song of Solomon" at No, 89.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted war, resolved issues remaining since the Treaty of Paris of 1783 (which ended the American Revolutionary War), and facilitated ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain in the midst of the French Revolutionary Wars, which began in 1792. The Treaty was designed by Alexander Hamilton and supported by President George Washington. It angered France and bitterly divided Americans. It inflamed the new growth of two opposing parties in every state, the pro-Treaty Federalists and the anti-Treaty Jeffersonian Republicans.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Treaty was negotiated by John Jay and gained many of the primary American goals. This included the withdrawal of British Army units from forts in the Northwest Territory that it had refused to relinquish under the Paris Peace Treaty. The British were retaliating for the United States reneging on Articles 4 and 6 of the 1783 treaty; American state courts impeded the collection of debts owed British creditors and upheld the continued confiscation of Loyalist estates in spite of an explicit understanding that the prosecutions would be immediately discontinued. The parties agreed that disputes over wartime debts and the American–Canadian boundary were to be sent to arbitration—one of the first major uses of arbitration in modern diplomatic history. This set a precedent used by other nations. The Americans were granted limited rights to trade with British colonies in the Caribbean in exchange for some limits on the American export of cotton.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Jay treaty was signed on November 19, 1794, during the Thermidorian Reaction in France, and submitted to the United States Senate for its advice and consent the following June. It was ratified by the Senate on June 24, 1795, by a two-thirds majority vote of 20–10 (exactly the minimum number necessary for concurrence). It was also ratified by the British government, and took effect February 29, 1796, the day when ratifications were officially exchanged.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The treaty was hotly contested by Jeffersonians in each state. An effort was made to block it in the House, which ultimately failed. The Jeffersonians feared that closer economic or political ties with Great Britain would strengthen Hamilton's Federalist Party, promote aristocracy, and undercut republicanism. This debate crystallized the emerging partisan divisions and shaped the new "First Party System", with the Federalists favoring the British and the Jeffersonian republicans favoring France. The treaty was for ten years' duration. Efforts failed to agree on a replacement treaty in 1806 when Jefferson rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty, as tensions escalated toward the War of 1812.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The outbreak of war between France and Great Britain (and other countries) in 1793 ended the long peace that had enabled the new nation to flourish in terms of trade and finance. The United States now emerged as an important neutral country with a large shipping trade. From the British perspective, improving relations with the United States was a high priority lest it move into the French orbit. British negotiators ignored elements that wanted harsher terms in order to get a suitable treaty. From the American viewpoint, the most pressing foreign policy issues were normalizing the trade relations with Britain, the United States' leading trading partner, and resolving issues left over from the Treaty of Paris. As one observer explained, the British government was "well disposed to America. ... They have made their arrangements upon a plan that comprehends the neutrality of the United States, and are anxious that it should be preserved."


title: Jay Treaty

text: Without warning American officials, the British government used the Royal Navy to capture nearly 300 neutral American merchant ships carrying goods from French colonies in the West Indies. Americans were outraged and Republicans in Jefferson's coalition demanded a declaration of war, but James Madison instead called for an embargo on trade with Britain. British officials told First Nations near the Canada–U.S. border that the border no longer existed and sold weapons to them. Congress voted on a trade embargo against Britain in March 1794. It was approved in the House of Representatives but defeated in the Senate when Vice President John Adams cast a tie-breaking vote against it.


title: Jay Treaty

text: At the national level American politics was divided between the factions of Jefferson and Madison, which favored the French, and the Federalists led by Hamilton, who saw Britain as a natural ally and thus sought to normalize relations with Britain, especially in the area of trade. Washington sided with Hamilton. Hamilton devised a framework for negotiations, and President George Washington sent Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay to London to negotiate a comprehensive treaty.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Both sides achieved many objectives. Several issues were sent to arbitration, which (after years of discussion) were resolved amicably mostly in favor of the U.S. Britain paid $11,650,000 for damages to American shipping and received £600,000 for unpaid pre-1775 debts. While international arbitration was not entirely unknown, the Jay Treaty gave it a strong impetus and is generally taken as the start of modern international arbitration.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The British agreed to vacate its forts in United States territory—six in the Great Lakes region and two at the north end of Lake Champlain—by June 1796; which was done. They were:


title: Jay Treaty

text: The treaty was "surprisingly generous" in allowing Americans to trade with Great Britain on a most-favored-nation basis. In return, the United States gave most favored nation trading status to Britain, and acquiesced in British anti-French maritime policies. American merchants obtained limited rights to trade in the British West Indies. Two joint boundary commissions were set up to establish the boundary line in the Northeast (it agreed on one) and in the Northwest (this commission never met and the boundary was settled after the War of 1812).


title: Jay Treaty

text: Jay, a strong opponent of slavery, dropped the issue of compensation for slaves, which angered Southern slaveholders and was used as a target for attacks by Jeffersonians. Jay was unsuccessful in negotiating an end to the impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, which later became a key issue leading to the War of 1812.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Article III states, "It is agreed, that it shall at all times be free to His Majesty's subjects, and to the citizens of the United States, and also to the Indians dwelling on either side of the said boundary line, freely to pass and repass, by land or inland navigation into the respective territories and countries of the two parties on the continent of America, (the country within the limits of the Hudson's Bay Company only excepted) ... and freely carry on trade and commerce with each other." Article III of the Jay Treaty declared the right of Indians, American citizens, and Canadian subjects to trade and travel between the United States and Canada, which was then a territory of Great Britain. Some legal experts dispute whether the treaty rights were abrogated by the War of 1812. Nevertheless, the United States has codified this right in the provisions of Section 289 of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and as amended in 1965. As a result of the Jay Treaty, "Native Indians born in Canada are therefore entitled to enter the United States for the purpose of employment, study, retirement, investing, and/or immigration" if they can prove that they have at least 50% blood quantum, and cannot be deported for any reason. Article III of the Jay Treaty is the basis of most Indian claims. Unlike other legal immigrants, Canadian-born Native Americans residing in the US are entitled to public benefits and domestic tuition fees on the same basis as citizens.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Washington submitted the treaty to the United States Senate for its consent in June 1795; a two-thirds vote was needed. The treaty was unpopular at first and gave the Jeffersonians a platform to rally new supporters. As historian Paul Varg explains,


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Jay Treaty was a reasonable give-and-take compromise of the issues between the two countries. What rendered it so assailable was not the compromise spelled out between the two nations but the fact that it was not a compromise between the two political parties at home. Embodying the views of the Federalists, the treaty repudiated the foreign policy of the opposing party.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Jeffersonians were opposed to Britain, preferring support for France in the wars raging in Europe, and they argued that the treaty with France from 1778 was still in effect. They considered Britain as the center of aristocracy and the chief threat to the United States' Republican values. They denounced Hamilton and Jay (and even Washington) as monarchists who betrayed American values. They organized public protests against Jay and his treaty; one of their rallying cries said: "Damn John Jay! Damn everyone that won't damn John Jay! Damn every one that won't put lights in his window and sit up all night damning John Jay!"


title: Jay Treaty

text: The treaty was one of the major catalysts for the advent of the First Party System in the United States by further dividing the two major political factions within the country. The Federalist Party, led by Hamilton, supported the treaty. On the contrary, the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson and Madison, opposed it. Jefferson and his supporters had a counter-proposal to establish "a direct system of commercial hostility with Great Britain", even at the risk of war. The Jeffersonians raised public opinion to fever pitch by accusing the British of promoting Indian atrocities on the frontier. The fierce debates over the Treaty in 1794–95, according to one historian, "transformed the Republican movement into a Republican party". To fight the treaty, the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns". Jay's failure to obtain compensation for "lost" slaves galvanized the South into opposition.


title: Jay Treaty

text: With his support of the Jay Treaty President Washington sacrificed everything regarding the unanimous respect and goodwill that the whole country gave him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, president of the Constitutional Convention, and the successful first term of his presidency to get the Jay Treaty passed because he did not want American ships to be constantly attacked and captured by the powerful British navy, and he decided to take his chances with a hostile French navy that would mostly be bottled up in Europe by the British blockade. He was brutally criticized in Democratic-Republican areas of the country like his home state of Virginia. Numerous protestors would picket Mount Vernon and show their anger towards him. Newspapers and cartoons showed Washington being sent to the guillotine. A common protest rally cry was, "A speedy death to General Washington." Some protestors even wanted Washington to be impeached. It was only after Washington's death in 1799 when the whole country reunited and wholeheartedly respected him again.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The Federalists fought back and Congress rejected the Jefferson–Madison counter-proposals. Washington threw his great prestige behind the treaty, and Federalists rallied public opinion more effectively than did their opponents. Hamilton convinced President Washington that it was the best treaty that could be expected. Washington insisted that the U.S. must remain neutral in the European wars; he signed it, and his prestige carried the day in Congress. The Federalists made a strong, systematic appeal to public opinion, which rallied their own supporters and shifted the debate. Washington and Hamilton outmaneuvered Madison, who was opposition leader. Hamilton by then was out of the government, and he was the dominant figure who helped secure the treaty's approval by the needed 2/3 vote in the Senate. The Senate passed a resolution in June, advising the President to amend the treaty by suspending the 12th article, which concerned trade between the U.S. and the West Indies. In mid-August, the Senate ratified the treaty 20–10, with the condition that the treaty contain specific language regarding the June 24 resolution. President Washington signed it in late August. The Treaty was proclaimed in effect on February 29, 1796, but there remained one final, bitter legislative battle. The House of Representatives, which had a Democratic-Republican majority, had to agree to appropriate the funds needed to fulfill the Jay Treaty's terms. In April 1796, after two months of bitter fighting that could have doomed the treaty if the House refused to pass the funding related to the Jay Treaty, Federalist Representative Fisher Ames limped to the podium despite being gravely sick and gave an impassioned speech that was later described as one of the greatest speeches in American history in defense of the Jay Treaty. After the 90 minute speech he fell exhausted in his chair and there was an emotional silence in a sign of bipartisan respect for his speech. In the final vote on April 29, 1796, the impasse was stuck in a 49 to 49 tie. The first Speaker of the House (now former speaker in 1796), Democratic-Republican Representative Frederick Muhlenberg, was chairman of the Committee of the Whole that was responsible for this funding bill. The year before he was leading protests that included burning copies of the Jay Treaty in front of the home of the British Minister to the United States George Hammond. Everyone in the House chamber believed Muhlenberg was going to kill the Jay Treaty. He shockingly voted yes to fund the Jay Treaty. The final vote after one representative flipped his vote to support Muhlenberg after Muhlenberg's tiebreaking decision was 51 to 48. As a symbol of how chaotic and violent the anti-Jay Treaty protests were from 1794 to 1796 Muhlenberg not only killed his political career with his decision but he was stabbed by his brother-in-law who believed he had committed treason when he voted in support of the funding of the Jay Treaty. Muhlenberg survived the attack but faded into obscurity for the rest of his life, never winning another election.


title: Jay Treaty

text: James Madison, then a member of the House of Representatives, argued that the treaty could not, under Constitutional law, take effect without approval of the House, since it regulated commerce and exercised legislative powers granted to Congress. The debate which followed was an early example of originalism, in which Madison, the "Father of the Constitution", lost. One interesting feature of this nationwide constitutional debate was an advisory opinion on the subject written by Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth, in which he rejected any alleged right of the House of Representatives to decide upon the merits of the treaty. After defeat on the treaty in Congress, the Jeffersonian Republicans lost the 1796 presidential election on the issue.


title: Jay Treaty

text: When Thomas Jefferson became president in 1801, he did not repudiate the treaty. He kept the Federalist minister, Rufus King, in London to negotiate a successful resolution to outstanding issues regarding cash payments and boundaries. The amity broke down when the treaty expired in 1805. Jefferson rejected a renewal of the Jay Treaty in the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty of 1806 as negotiated by his diplomats and agreed to by London. Relations turned increasingly hostile as a prelude to the War of 1812. In 1815, the Treaty of Ghent superseded the Jay Treaty.


title: Jay Treaty

text: The treaty led to the permanent rupture of decades of close friendship and camaraderie between President Washington and the anti-Jay Treaty Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Jefferson wrote a scathing private letter that secretly called Washington senile and an “apostate” who subverted American liberty to “the harlot England”. He also secretly financed and ordered newspapers to personally attack Washington with accusations of mental illness and treason. Madison, even though he wrote the Constitution, claimed as a partisan Democratic-Republican member of the House of Representatives that the House also has an equal role in the treaty-making process. Washington had to personally find the secret minutes of the 1787 Constitutional Convention where Madison himself said treaties are conducted by only the Senate and President, and he had to argue against Madison with Madison's own words from the Constitutional Convention. Madison forced Washington to invoke executive privilege over this issue. Washington never saw or spoke to Jefferson and Madison ever again after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. Martha Washington said that the election of Jefferson as president in 1800 was the second worst day of her life after the death of her husband, and she believed the shocking words and actions by them towards Washington hastened his death only 2 years after leaving office.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick note that, in conventional diplomatic terms and as a "piece of adversary bargaining", Jay "got much the worst of the 'bargain'. Such a view has to a great degree persisted ever since." They conclude that Jay did not succeed in asserting neutral rights, but he did obtain "his other "sine qua nons""; he got none of things that were "desirable, but not indispensable". They add that Jay's record on the symbolic side was open to many objections. However, on the "hard" (or realistic) side, "it was a substantial success, which included the prevention of war with Great Britain".


title: Jay Treaty

text: Historian Marshall Smelser argues that the treaty effectively postponed war with Britain, or at least postponed it until the United States was strong enough to handle it.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Bradford Perkins argued in 1955 that the treaty was the first to establish a special relationship between Britain and the United States, with a second installment under Lord Salisbury. In his view, the treaty worked for ten years to secure peace between Britain and America: "The decade may be characterized as the period of 'The First Rapprochement'." As Perkins concludes,


title: Jay Treaty

text: For about ten years there was peace on the frontier, joint recognition of the value of commercial intercourse, and even, by comparison with both preceding and succeeding epochs, a muting of strife over ship seizures and impressment. Two controversies with France ... pushed the English-speaking powers even more closely together.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Starting at swords' point in 1794, the Jay treaty reversed the tensions, Perkins concludes: "Through a decade of world war and peace, successive governments on both sides of the Atlantic were able to bring about and preserve a cordiality which often approached genuine friendship." Perkins suggests that, except perhaps the opening of trade with British India, "Jay did fail to win anything the Americans were not obviously entitled to, liberation of territory recognized as theirs since 1782, and compensation for seizures that even Britain admitted were illegal". He also speculates that a "more astute negotiator than the Chief Justice" would have gotten better terms than he did. He quoted the opinion of "great historian" Henry Adams that the treaty was a "bad one":


title: Jay Treaty

text: No one would venture on its merits to defend it now. There has been no time since 1810 when the United States would not prefer war to peace on such terms.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Perkins gave more weight than other historians to valuable concessions regarding trade in India and the concession on the West Indies trade. In addition, Perkins noted that the Royal Navy treated American commerce with "relative leniency" during the wars, and many impressed seamen were returned to America. As Spain assessed the informal British-American alliance, it softened its previous opposition to the United States' use of the Mississippi River and signed Pinckney's Treaty, which the Americans wanted. When Jefferson took office, he gained renewal of the commercial articles that had greatly benefited American shipping.


title: Jay Treaty

text: Elkins and McKitrick find this more positive view open to "one big difficulty": it requires that the British negotiated in the same spirit. Unlike Perkins, they find "little indication of this".


title: Jay Treaty

text: George Herring's 2008 history of US foreign policy says that, in 1794, "the United States and Britain edged toward war" and concludes, "The Jay Treaty brought the United States important concessions and served its interests well." Joseph Ellis finds the terms of the treaty "one-sided in Britain's favor", but asserts with a consensus of historians that it was


title: Jay Treaty

text: a shrewd bargain for the United States. It bet, in effect, on England rather than France as the hegemonic European power of the future, which proved prophetic. It recognized the massive dependence of the American economy on trade with England. In a sense it was a precocious preview of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), for it linked American security and economic development to the British fleet, which provided a protective shield of incalculable value throughout the nineteenth century. Mostly, it postponed war with England until America was economically and politically more capable of fighting one.


title: Jay Treaty

text: In the HBO miniseries "John Adams", Vice President John Adams is shown casting the tiebreaker vote in favor of ratifying the Jay Treaty. In reality, his vote was never required as the Senate passed the resolution by 20–10. Furthermore, the Vice President would never be required to cast a vote in a treaty ratification, because the Vice President votes only in case of a tie, and Article II of the Constitution requires that treaties receive a two-thirds vote for approval. Vice President Adams had however earlier cast a tie-breaking vote in opposition to a trade embargo on the British in 1794.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job! is an American sketch comedy series created by and starring Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim, which premiered February 11, 2007 on Adult Swim and ran until May 2010. The show features surreal and often satirical humor (at points anti-humor and cringe comedy), public-access television-style musical acts, bizarre faux-commercials with a unique editing and special effects style by Doug Lussenhop to make the show appear off-kilter.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: The program featured a wide range of performers, including regular guests Zach Galifianakis, John C. Reilly, Ray Wise, Bob Odenkirk, Will Forte, Maria Bamford, Jeff Goldblum, and "Weird Al" Yankovic, as well as an ensemble of alternative performers like Neil Hamburger, Tommy Wiseau, and David Liebe Hart, once popular stars like Karen Black, Frank Stallone, and Alan Thicke, porn stars, celebrity look-alikes, impressionists, and amateur actors found through Craigslist. The show also attracted a wide range of popular Hollywood talent for brief appearances, including Will Ferrell, Elisha Cuthbert, Andy Samberg, Jonah Hill, Ben Stiller, Paul Rudd, Ted Danson, and Josh Groban, among others. The creators of the show have described it as "the nightmare version of television". On August 27, 2017, Adult Swim broadcast a ten-year anniversary special, known as "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job! Awesome 10 Year Anniversary Version, Great Job?", including new sketches as well as a best-of from older broadcasts.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: The show, which expands the genre of the live-action material featured in Heidecker and Wareheim's previous show, "Tom Goes to the Mayor", consists of sketches, songs, and commercials. It features several characters and segments seen in "Tom Goes to the Mayor", such as Gibbons, the "Channel 5 Married News Team," and the Cinco Corporation with its variety of inefficient and tasteless products. New recurring characters and sketches include "Uncle Muscles Hour," a public-access television variety program hosted by a gravelly-voiced "Weird Al" Yankovic and Channel 5 News Correspondent Dr. Steve Brule, played by John C. Reilly. The show featured a variety of celebrity cameos from actors, comedians, and musicians. The editing style takes its influence from such elements as infomercials, corporate training videos, and TV shopping channels, which are all satirized. The show gets darker in season 5, or "Season Cinco", which has a TV MA rating.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: In Canada, "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!" previously aired on CTV Comedy Channel (formerly The Comedy Network) and later G4's Adult Digital Distraction block. The series currently airs on the Canadian version of Adult Swim.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Halfway through the broadcasting of the first season, Adult Swim picked up "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!" for another season ordering as many as 30 new episodes. The second season began airing on November 18, 2007. Season one was released on DVD in April, 2008. The third season began on July 27, 2008, and ended on September 28, 2008. Eric posted a MySpace bulletin Oct 1, 2008, announcing that as a "holiday surprise" season four would be airing in January 2009. The show was later renewed for a fifth season.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Speaking with "Vanity Fair" in July 2009, Wareheim said that season five (or "Season Cinco") would represent "a very dark side of the "Awesome Show" series. I think people are going to be very scared and very disturbed by it." He also noted that the pair draw equal humor from the awkwardness of "The Office" as they do from the awkwardness of David Lynch's films. The duo went on to state that they had begun an unconscious tradition by starting the first episode of seasons two, three, and four each with fecal-related fake commercials; they plan to "outdo" themselves on season five with a "diarrhea disease"-based commercial. The fifth season premiered on February 28, 2010. The series finale aired on May 2, 2010. On May 16, 2010, the spin-off "Check it Out!" premiered.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Tim and Eric acquired funding to shoot and air a one-hour special that aired on December 5, 2010, called "The Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job Chrimbus Special". Simultaneous to this announcement, the duo also released a list of dates and cities for their upcoming 2010 tour. Tim and Eric also announced plans for a movie, entitled "Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie"; in the film, released online and on pay-per-view on January 27, 2012, the pair try to revitalize a run-down mall in order to pay a billion-dollar debt.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: The duo's Abso Lutely Productions signoff bumper features a video clip of Heidecker's father during a family vacation in 1991; when asked to sum the trip up in two words, he responded "Abso-lutely". The full clip can be found on their website, DVD, and also on YouTube.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: The series' theme music was composed by Davin Wood, who had also composed the theme music for the earlier "Tom Goes to the Mayor", and for related series "Derek & Simon", "American Misfits", "Stupidface", and "Check It Out! with Dr. Steve Brule".


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: On May 6, 2008, Williams Street Records released "Awesome Record, Great Songs! Volume One", a compilation of songs from the first two seasons, and some covers and remixes by other artists. Williams Street also released "Uncle Muscles Presents Casey and His Brother" in July of that year, an EP featuring 11 songs sung by Heidecker in character as Casey Tatum.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: One of Tim and Eric's first live performances incorporating characters from "Awesome Show" was "Muscles for Bones", a spoof telethon seeking bones for Richard Dunn. This was performed at Troubadour nightclub in West Hollywood, California. Major portions of this live performance were incorporated into season 3, episode 8 "Muscles for Bones". An extended version of this show can be found as an extra on the Season 3 DVD. The extended version features performances not seen on the original TV episode, from performers such as Pierre and Michael Q. Schmidt. Prior to the beginning of seasons two and three, Tim and Eric combined "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!" Live in Vegas (2007). The second of these, listed as season 3 episode 0, shared their 2008 cross-country tour and was titled "Awesome Tour Live 2008".


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: "Tim and Eric Awesome Show Great Job!" has had a wide range of reviews with many differing in opinion. Columnist for "The New York Times" Dave Itzkoff writes,


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Awesome Show' revels in an aesthetic of awkwardness." And also adds, "To populate their twisted universe they frequently cast average-looking actors (and nonactors) recruited from Web sites like Craigslist, who bring an additional layer of deliberate amateurishness to their skits."


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: James Norton from "Flak Magazine" says, "If Adult Swim is the bleeding edge of TV comedy, "Tim and Eric's Awesome Show, Great Job!" is the bleeding edge of the bleeding edge."


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: He adds, "The program has been much hated-upon by the Adult Swim fan base ... But the program also represents a foray into one of the most dangerous and exciting realms of the comedy world: sheer individualistic creativity."


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: A reappraisal of the show in a 2020 "New York Times" column dubbed the show "sketch comedy at its most abrasive, bizarre and, for some reason, endearing."


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: While doing press for the first season of the program, Heidecker and Wareheim told an interviewer that they had aspirations to create a spinoff featuring "Awesome Show" regular Richard Dunn: "It's just him interviewing people like "The Charlie Rose Show". We would love to produce that. No one would ever watch it."


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: Using characters and skits from "Awesome Show", Heidecker and Wareheim (via their Absolutely production company) created an online-only show called "Tim and Eric Nite Live!", originally broadcast in 2007 on the website SuperDeluxe.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: In July 2008, the "New York Times" reported that an "Awesome Show" spin-off, "Check It Out!, with Steve Brule", would air on Adult Swim beginning sometime in 2009. The show parodies local newscasts, and as Heidecker briefly described it: "It's like his half-hour to go around town and interview the local beer-maker or whatever." The show will have an episode run time of approximately 11 minutes, and it will feature John C. Reilly reprising his role as Dr. Steve Brule. According to Heidecker, Reilly had the original idea of giving the Dr. Steve character an entire show. "Vanity Fair" reported that the program would begin airing on August 23, 2009; however, the program did not air on that date, and "LA Weekly" reported in September 2009 that "Check It Out!" was "forthcoming." The first episode aired May 16, 2010, and the last on June 20, 2010, with a total of six episodes. The show returned with six more episodes, the first airing March 18, 2012, and the last on April 12, 2012. The show has managed two more seasons also consisting of six episodes, which aired in 2014 and 2016.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: In the same July 2008 "New York Times" article, it was reported that the duo was in the process of developing a surreal game show series starring Neil Hamburger, titled "The New Big Ball with Neil Hamburger". Wareheim described it as a mix between "bizarre Japanese game shows and "The Price Is Right"." In late July 2009, Neil Hamburger posted a blog on Myspace stating that a pilot had been filmed, but that Adult Swim was not satisfied and had "pulled the plug on the project." As of November 8, 2013, the pilot has been uploaded to the official Adult Swim website.


title: Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!

text: All five seasons and the Chrimbus Special have been released on DVD in Region 1 and 4 with distribution for the latter being handled by Madman Entertainment. The Chrimbus Special was released as a standalone DVD, and like seasons four and five, have become a rarity due to them no longer being in print.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: The golden mean or golden middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. It appeared in Greek thought at least as early as the Delphic maxim "nothing in excess", was discussed in Plato's Philebus. Aristotle analyzed the golden mean in the . It was subsequently emphasized in Aristotelian virtue ethics.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: For example, in the Aristotelian view, courage is a virtue, but if taken to excess would manifest as recklessness, and, in deficiency, cowardice.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: The earliest representation of this idea in culture is probably in the mythological Cretan tale of Daedalus and Icarus. Daedalus, a famous artist of his time, built feathered wings for himself and his son so that they might escape the clutches of King Minos. Daedalus warns his beloved son whom he loved so much to ""fly the middle course"", between the sea spray and the sun's heat. Icarus did not heed his father; he flew up and up until the sun melted the wax off his wings. For not heeding the middle course, he fell into the sea and drowned.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Another early elaboration is the Doric saying carved on the front of the temple at Delphi: "Nothing in excess" ("Μηδὲν ἄγαν").


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Socrates teaches that a man must know "how to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side, as far as possible."


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: In education, Socrates asks us to consider the effect of either an exclusive devotion to gymnastics or an exclusive devotion to music. It either "produced a temper of hardness and ferocity, (or) the other of softness and effeminacy." Having both qualities, he believed, produces harmony; i.e., beauty and goodness.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Proportion's relation to beauty and goodness is stressed throughout Plato's dialogues, particularly in the "Republic" and "Philebus". He writes ("Phlb." 64d–65a):


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: In the "Laws", Plato applies this principle to electing a government in the ideal state: "Conducted in this way, the election will strike a mean between monarchy and democracy …"


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: In the "Eudemian Ethics", Aristotle writes on the virtues. Aristotle’s theory on virtue ethics is one that does not see a person’s actions as a reflection of their ethics but rather looks into the character of a person as the reason behind their ethics. His constant phrase is, "… is the Middle state between …". His psychology of the soul and its virtues is based on the golden mean between the extremes. In the "Politics", Aristotle criticizes the Spartan Polity by critiquing the disproportionate elements of the constitution; e.g., they trained the men and not the women, and they trained for war but not peace. This disharmony produced difficulties which he elaborates on in his work. See also the of the golden mean, and Aristotelian ethics in general.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Gautama Buddha (fl. 6th century BC) taught of the Middle Way, a path between the extremes of religious asceticism and worldly self-indulgence.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Confucius in "The Analects", written through the Warring States period of Ancient China (c. 479 BC – 221 BC), taught excess is similar to deficiency. A way of living in the mean is the way of Zhongyong.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Tiruvalluvar (2nd century BC and the 8th century AD; date disputed) in his Tirukkural of the Sangam period of Tamizhagam writes of the middle state which is to preserve equity. He emphasises this principle and suggests that the two ways of preserving equity is to be impartial and avoid excess. Parimelazhagar was the historical commentator of the Tirukkural.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Rambam in Mishneh Torah attributes this method to the first scholars (Chazal), and to Abraham. Indeed, a similar concept exists even in the Rabbinic literature, Tosefta and the Yerushalmi. Yitzhak Arama finds references even in the Bible.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: One such instance is Ecclesiastes 7:15-16 , where the preacher admonishes his audience to "be not righteous over much" and to "be not over much wicked." Adam Clarke takes the phrase "righteous over much" to mean indulging in too much "austerity and hard study," and concludes that “there is no need of all this watching, fasting, praying, self-denial, etc., you carry things to extremes. Why should you wish to be reputed singular and precise?” Thus, the ideal of the golden mean may have existed as long as six hundred years before Aristotle. However, some scholars, such as Albert Barnes, hold a slightly different interpretation of Ecclesiastes 7:16-17.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Ahead of the times Rambam, 1138-1204 AD (probably due to Plato's and Aristotle’s engagement with Ethics), determined that a person has to take care of his soul as well as his body, and just as a person who is sick in his body turns to the doctor, a person who has mental illness needs to go to the doctor of the soul, which is, according to him, the philosopher or the sage. Rambam opposed the deterministic approach, arguing that a person has free will and the ability to change its properties.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: The golden mean is also a core principle in Musar literature in which practitioners are encouraged to bring every character trait ("middah"; plural "middot") into a balanced place between extremes. For example, it is not good to have too much patience, but it is not good to live without any patience at all. Musar can be said to involve being mindful enough to bring one's character traits, thoughts and desires into a balanced state in real time; living one's life in accord with the golden mean.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Saint Thomas Aquinas, OP, the medieval Catholic philosopher and theologian, in his "Summa Theologiae", Prima Secundæ Partis, Question 64, argued that Christian morality is consistent with the mean: "evil consists in discordance from their rule or measure. Now this may happen either by their exceeding the measure or by their falling short of it[.] ... Therefore it is evident that moral virtue observes the mean."


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Islam promotes the golden mean in many instances. The Quran states an example in finance, in that a person should not spend all he makes as not to be caught needing, and not to be stingy as to not live a comfortable life. Muhammad also had a saying "خير الأمور أوسطها" meaning the best choice is the middle ground/golden mean one. In Quran (Chapter 'The Cow', verse number 143) it is said that, "We have made you a balanced, moderate nation".


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Quran quotes the example of two groups of people, calling one of them extremely greedy (Chasing the wealth of the world) in Chapter 'The Cow' verse 96 and to the others as inventors of monasticism (over-zealousness in religion) in Chapter Al-Hadeed verse number 27. Islam counsels its followers to abstain from both these paths of extremities and adopt moderation in chasing the world and practicing religion alike.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Not the least the Quran emphasises that the Muslim community ( Umma) is a ’middle nation’ / a 'just community' / an Umma justly balanced / a moderate nation / a midmost nation (ummatan wasaTan) in verse 2-143: a middle between extremism and sloppiness.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Many Hindu texts emphasize middle path. For example in verse 6:16 of Gita warrior Arjuna is told by Sri Krishna that ""Yoga is not for one who eats too much, or eats too little, sleeps too much or does not sleep enough".


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Rajo guna (Hyper), Satva guna (Balanced) and Tamas (Inactive) are 3 traits of matter. All food, things, feelings, thoughts actions many more are classified under these three.. eons old philosophy.


title: Golden mean (philosophy)

text: Jacques Maritain, throughout his "Introduction to Philosophy" (1930), uses the idea of the golden mean to place Aristotelian-Thomist philosophy between the deficiencies and extremes of other philosophers and systems.


title: Free the nipple

text: Free the Nipple is a topfreedom campaign created in 2012 during pre-production of a 2014 film of the same name. The campaign highlights the general convention of allowing men to appear topless in public while considering it sexual or indecent for women to do the same, and asserts that this difference is an unjust treatment of women. The campaign argues that it should be legally and culturally acceptable for women to bare their nipples in public.


title: Free the nipple

text: In 2012, filmmaker Lina Esco started this campaign in New York City. She created a documentary of herself running through the streets of New York topless. As the documentary was being made, she posted teaser clips with the hashtag #FreeTheNipple. In 2013, Facebook removed these clips from its website for violating its guidelines. In 2014, several celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Lena Dunham, Chelsea Handler, Rihanna and Chrissy Teigen posted photos on social media to show their support of Esco's initiative.


title: Free the nipple

text: were arrested for indecent exposure outside of a campaign appearance for Senator Bernie Sanders on March 23, 2016. They appeared topless except for pieces of tape over their nipples, and had the words "Free the Nipple", "Equality", and "Feel the Bern" written on their chests. Los Angeles Police officers asked them to cover their breasts, and the two women refused and were arrested. They were held for 25 hours in jail but were not charged with any crime. After being released, Ma filed a federal lawsuit against the Los Angeles Police Department. Ma said that her action was not lewd because mammary glands are not sexual organs, but rather have the purpose of breastfeeding children, and said she believed she did not at any point show her "genitals" or "private parts". Her attorney claims she was never "nude" and that California's indecent exposure law applies only to genitals, not breasts. Her lawsuit also alleged that her constitutional rights had been violated, that she had been subject to unlawful gender discrimination, and that federal civil rights laws had been violated. She was topless at a Bernie Sanders campaign rally, March 19, 2016, in Phoenix, Arizona, and she was led to the back of the venue without incident. On 23 January 2016, Anni Ma, as a FEMEN activist, Carly Mitchell, Chelsea Ducote and Marston protested at a "Walk For Life" event at the San Francisco City Hall and the Civic Center.


title: Free the nipple

text: Historically, women have sometimes been arrested or charged with public indecency, disturbing the peace, or lewd behavior for baring their breasts in public, even in jurisdictions where there was no law explicitly prohibiting doing so. In New York state, female toplessness was made legal around 1990, and when a woman was arrested there in 2005 for appearing topless in public, a court ruled in her favor and she later received US$29,000 in damages.


title: Free the nipple

text: In 2015, the campaign received attention in Iceland after a teenage student activist posted a photo of herself topless and was harassed for doing so. In support of the student and the initiative, Björt Ólafsdóttir, a Member of Parliament, posted a topless photo of herself in solidarity.


title: Free the nipple

text: Free the Nipple events were held in Brighton, England, in 2016, 2017 and 2018. The Free the Nipple Brighton group is headed up by Bee Nicholls and Mickey F, both of Brighton.


title: Free the nipple

text: In 2017 a Free The Nipple event was held in Hull, England, on the day also celebrated as Women's Equality Day and Go Topless Day, the anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920 which gave US women the right to vote.


title: Free the nipple

text: Various court cases in the United States have involved the question of whether women may publicly expose female breasts. Two examples are Erie v. Pap's A. and Barnes v. Glen Theatre. These involved ordinances that placed restrictions on how women were legally permitted to appear in public, focusing on banning any public exposure of the female breasts. A lawsuit was filed as Free the Nipple v. City of Fort Collins, which was an attempt to remove the provision in the municipal code of Fort Collins, Colorado, that prohibits women from revealing their breasts. The federal lawsuit was won at the appellate level. In September 2019, after spending over $300,000, Fort Collins decided to stop defending their ordinance and repeal it. That effectively gave women of all ages the right to go topless wherever men can in the jurisdiction of the 10th Circuit (the states of Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas and Oklahoma, including all their cities).


title: Free the nipple

text: There are two U.S. states where the mere showing of women's breasts is illegal: Indiana and Tennessee. Fourteen states and many other cities have laws with ambiguous implications on how much a woman is allowed to expose her body.


title: Free the nipple

text: Every major social media platform has their own guideline and policy in regards to nudity and revealing nipples. Facebook only allows photos of nipples to be posted when it is "in the context of breastfeeding, birth giving and after-birth moments, health (for example, post-mastectomy, breast cancer awareness, or gender reassignment surgery), or an act of protest."


title: Free the nipple

text: Instagram generally censors nipples on women’s bodies. Instagram's guideline for nudity states "We know that there are times when people might want to share nude images that are artistic or creative in nature, but for a variety of reasons, we don't allow nudity on Instagram. This includes photos, videos, and some digitally-created content that show sexual intercourse, genitals, and close-ups of fully-nude buttocks. It also includes some photos of female nipples, but photos of post-mastectomy scarring and women actively breastfeeding are allowed. Nudity in photos of paintings and sculptures is OK, too." This is an update from Instagram's historic community guidelines, which included the ambiguous phrase "keep your clothes on." Instagram's CEO Kevin Systrom said that because of the Apple's App Store regulations, every app needs an age rating. If an app contains nudity, it has to be rated 17+. The CEO would prefer Instagram remain at its current rating of 12+, to attract a younger audience.


title: Free the nipple

text: Pinterest allows artistic and non-sexualized nudity. Their reasoning on why they allow nudity and mature content is for "art, safe sex education or advocacy for political protests".


title: Free the nipple

text: Differing rules are applied by other social media and these change with time. In 2014, YouTube had no specific policy that barred nipples but the platform did not allow sexually explicit material. Google+ had a policy of not allowing nipples to be shown unless they were in cartoons. Flickr and Tumblr allowed users to control how much nudity they wanted to see, but when the filtering was switched off there were no restrictions. Twitter placed no restrictions on female nudity. In 2018, Tumblr changed its rules to ban "female-presenting nipples" and other nudity, though these restrictions that were relaxed in 2022. Google+ was shut down in 2019.


title: Free the nipple

text: A tactic that activists have taken up is the use of the hashtag #FreeTheNipple. This tag has been used on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter, where it can be used for searching the databases for posts with the same tag.


title: Free the nipple

text: Some celebrities have expressed support for the #FreeTheNipple movement on social media, including Miley Cyrus, Lena Dunham, Jennifer Aniston, Scout Willis, Rihanna, Cara Delevingne, and Naomi Campbell. Miley Cyrus said, "The nipple, what you can't show, is what everyone has. But the jug part that everybody doesn't, you're allowed to show underboob. I've never understood the way it works" on "Jimmy Kimmel Live" where she spoke about the campaign.


title: Free the nipple

text: In 2014, director Lina Esco released her American feature film "Free the Nipple". The film is centered around a group of young women who take to the streets of New York City as they protest the legal and cultural taboos regarding female breasts by way of publicity stunts, graffiti installations, and First Amendment lawyers. After shooting the film in 2012, Esco found it difficult to get the film widely released, motivating her to start the campaign in December 2013.


title: Free the nipple

text: In episode 106 of "The Bold Type", the main character, Kat, participates in the campaign on social media by going against Instagram's guidelines by posting pictures with male nipples pasted onto women's bodies. The character said that freeing the nipple is more than just about Instagram and more about equality.


title: Experimental film

text: Experimental film or avant-garde cinema is a mode of filmmaking that rigorously re-evaluates cinematic conventions and explores non-narrative forms or alternatives to traditional narratives or methods of working. Many experimental films, particularly early ones, relate to arts in other disciplines: painting, dance, literature and poetry, or arise from research and development of new technical resources.


title: Experimental film

text: While some experimental films have been distributed through mainstream channels or even made within commercial studios, the vast majority have been produced on very low budgets with a minimal crew or a single person and are either self-financed or supported through small grants.


title: Experimental film

text: Experimental filmmakers generally begin as amateurs, and some use experimental films as a springboard into commercial film-making or transition into academic positions. The aim of experimental filmmaking may be to render the personal vision of an artist, or to promote interest in new technology rather than to entertain or to generate revenue, as is the case with commercial films.


title: Experimental film

text: The term experimental film describes a range of filmmaking styles that frequently differ from, and are often opposed to, the practices of mainstream commercial and documentary filmmaking. "Avant-garde" is also used, for the films of the sort shot in the twenties in France, Germany or Russia, to describe this work, and "underground" was used in the sixties, though it has also had other connotations. Today the term "experimental cinema" prevails, because it's possible to make experimental films without the presence of any avant-garde movement in the cultural field.


title: Experimental film

text: While "experimental" covers a wide range of practice, an experimental film is often characterized by the absence of linear narrative, the use of various abstracting techniques—out-of-focus, painting or scratching on film, rapid editing—the use of asynchronous (non-diegetic) sound or even the absence of any sound track. The goal is often to place the viewer in a more active and more thoughtful relationship to the film. At least through the 1960s, and to some extent after, many experimental films took an oppositional stance toward mainstream culture.


title: Experimental film

text: Most experimental films are made on very low budgets, self-financed or financed through small grants, with a minimal crew or, often a crew of only one person, the filmmaker. Some critics have argued that much experimental film is no longer in fact "experimental" but has in fact become a mainstream film genre. Many of its more typical features—such as a non-narrative, impressionistic, or poetic approaches to the film's construction—define what is generally understood to be "experimental".


title: Experimental film

text: In the 1920s, two conditions made Europe ready for the emergence of experimental film. First, the cinema matured as a medium, and highbrow resistance to the mass entertainment began to wane. Second, avant-garde movements in the visual arts flourished. The Dadaists and Surrealists in particular took to cinema. René Clair's "Entr'acte" (1924) featuring Francis Picabia, Marcel Duchamp, and Man Ray, and with music by Erik Satie, took madcap comedy into nonsequitur.


title: Experimental film

text: Artists Hans Richter, Jean Cocteau, Marcel Duchamp, Germaine Dulac, and Viking Eggeling all contributed Dadaist/Surrealist shorts. Fernand Léger, Dudley Murphy, and Man Ray created the film "Ballet Mécanique" (1924), which has been described as Dadaist, Cubist, or Futurist. Duchamp created the abstract film "Anémic Cinéma" (1926).


title: Experimental film

text: Alberto Cavalcanti directed "Rien que les heures" (1926), Walter Ruttmann directed "" (1927), and Dziga Vertov filmed "Man With a Movie Camera" (1929), experimental "city symphonies" of Paris, Berlin, and Kiev, respectively.


title: Experimental film

text: One famous experimental film is Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí's "Un chien andalou" (1929). Hans Richter's animated shorts, Oskar Fischinger's abstract films, and Len Lye's GPO films are examples of more abstract European avant-garde films.


title: Experimental film

text: Working in France, another group of filmmakers also financed films through patronage and distributed them through cine-clubs, yet they were narrative films not tied to an avant-garde school. Film scholar David Bordwell has dubbed these French Impressionists and included Abel Gance, Jean Epstein, Marcel L'Herbier, and Dimitri Kirsanoff. These films combine narrative experimentation, rhythmic editing and camerawork, and an emphasis on character subjectivity.


title: Experimental film

text: In 1952, the Lettrists avant-garde movement, in France, caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou's "Traité de bave et d'éternité" (also known as "Venom and Eternity") was screened. After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin at the 1952 press conference in Paris for Chaplin's "Limelight", there was a split within the movement. The Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they announced the death of cinema and showed their new hypergraphical techniques; the most notorious example is Guy Debord's "Howlings in favor of de Sade" ("Hurlements en Faveur de Sade") from 1952.


title: Experimental film

text: The Soviet filmmakers, too, found a counterpart to modernist painting and photography in their theories of montage. The films of Dziga Vertov, Sergei Eisenstein, Lev Kuleshov, Alexander Dovzhenko, and Vsevolod Pudovkin were instrumental in providing an alternative model from that offered by classical Hollywood. While not experimental films per se, they contributed to the film language of the avant-garde.


title: Experimental film

text: Italy had an historically difficult relationship with its avant-garde scene, although, the birth of cinema coincided with the emerging of Italian Futurism.


title: Experimental film

text: Potentially the new medium of cinema was a perfect match for the concerns of futurism, a renowned for promoting new aesthetics, motion, and modes of perception. Especially, given the futurist fascination with the sensation of speed and the dynamism of modern life. However, what is left of futurist cinema is mostly on paper, many films very lost, and other never got made. Amongst those literatures it is worth noting "The Futurist Cinema" (Marinetti et al., 1916), Technical Manifesto of Futurist Literature (1912), The Variety Theatre (1913), The Futurist Synthetic Theatre (1915), and The New Religion – Morality of Speed (1916). Perhaps, the futurists were amongst the first avant-garde filmmakers group devoted to the potential of the image, praising motion and aiming towards an anti-narrative aesthetic. As an example, Marinetti's quote: "The cinema is an autonomous art. The cinema must therefore never copy the stage. The cinema, being essentially visual, must above all fulfil the evolution of painting, detach itself from reality, from photography, from the graceful and solemn..." As exemplified in the quote, the image is the real subject, not the story or the acting, an approach and attitude that remain true for the whole history of experimental filmmaking.


title: Experimental film

text: The United States had some avant-garde films before World War II, such as "Manhatta" (1921), by Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand, and "" (1928), by Slavko Vorkapich and Robert Florey. However, much pre-war experimental film culture consisted of artists working, often in isolation, on film projects. In the early 1930s, Painter Emlen Etting (1905–1993) directed dance films that are considered experimental. Commercial artist ("Saturday Evening Post") and illustrator Douglass Crockwell (1904–1968) made animations with blobs of paint pressed between sheets of glass in his studio at Glens Falls, New York.


title: Experimental film

text: In Rochester, New York, medical doctor and philanthropist James Sibley Watson and Melville Webber directed "The Fall of the House of Usher" (1928) and "Lot in Sodom" (1933). Harry Smith, Mary Ellen Bute, artist Joseph Cornell, and Christopher Young made several European-influenced experimental films. Smith and Bute were both influenced by Oskar Fischinger, as were many avant garde animators and filmmakers. In 1930, the magazine "Experimental Cinema" appeared. The editors were Lewis Jacobs and David Platt. In October 2005, a large collection of films of that period were restored and re-released on DVD, titled "Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant Garde Film 1894-1941".


title: Experimental film

text: With Slavko Vorkapich, John Hoffman made two visual tone poems, "Moods of the Sea" (aka "Fingal's Cave", 1941) and "Forest Murmurs" (1947). The former film is set to Felix Mendelssohn's "Hebrides Overture" and was restored in 2004 by film preservation expert David Shepard.


title: Experimental film

text: "Meshes of the Afternoon" (1943) by Maya Deren and Alexander Hammid is an early American experimental film. It provided a model for self-financed 16 mm production and distribution, one that was soon picked up by Cinema 16 and other film societies. Just as importantly, it established an aesthetic model of what experimental cinema could do. "Meshes" had a dream-like feel that hearkened to Jean Cocteau and the Surrealists, but equally seemed personal, new and American. Early works by Kenneth Anger, Stan Brakhage, Shirley Clarke, Gregory Markopoulos, Jonas Mekas, Willard Maas, Marie Menken, Curtis Harrington, Sidney Peterson, Lionel Rogosin, and Earle M. Pilgrim followed in a similar vein. Significantly, many of these filmmakers were the first students from the pioneering university film programs established in Los Angeles and New York. In 1946, Frank Stauffacher started the "Art in Cinema" series of experimental films at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, where Oskar Fischinger's films were featured in several special programs, influencing artists such as Jordan Belson and Harry Smith to make experimental animation.


title: Experimental film

text: They set up "alternative film programs" at Black Mountain College (now defunct) and the San Francisco Art Institute. Arthur Penn taught at Black Mountain College, which points out the popular misconception in both the art world and Hollywood that the avant-garde and the commercial never meet. Another challenge to that misconception is that late in life, after their Hollywood careers had ended, both Nicholas Ray and King Vidor made avant-garde films.


title: Experimental film

text: Film theorist P. Adams Sitney offers a concept of "visionary film", and he invented a few genre categories, including the mythopoetic film, the structural film, the trance film and the participatory film, in order


title: Experimental film

text: to describe the historical morphology of experimental cinema in the American avant-garde from 1943 to the 2000s.


title: Experimental film

text: The film society and self-financing model continued over the next two decades, but by the early 1960s, a different outlook became perceptible in the work of American avant-garde filmmakers. Filmmakers like Michael Snow, Hollis Frampton, Ken Jacobs, Paul Sharits, Tony Conrad, and Ernie Gehr, are considered by P. Adams Sitney to be key models for what he calls "structural film". Sitney says that the key elements of structural film are a fixed camera position, flicker effect, re-photography off screen, and loop printing. Artist Bruce Conner created early examples such as "A Movie" (1958) and "Cosmic Ray" (1962). As Sitney has pointed out, in the work of Stan Brakhage and other American experimentalists of early period, film is used to express the individual consciousness of the maker, a cinematic equivalent of the first person in literature. Brakhage's "Dog Star Man" (1961–64) exemplified a shift from personal confessional to abstraction, and also evidenced a rejection of American mass culture of the time. On the other hand, Kenneth Anger added a rock sound track to his "Scorpio Rising" (1963) in what is sometimes said to be an anticipation of music videos, and included some camp commentary on Hollywood mythology. Jack Smith and Andy Warhol incorporated camp elements into their work, and Sitney posited Warhol's connection to structural film.


title: Experimental film

text: Some avant-garde filmmakers moved further away from narrative. Whereas the New American Cinema was marked by an oblique take on narrative, one based on abstraction, camp and minimalism, Structural-Materialist filmmakers like Hollis Frampton and Michael Snow created a highly formalist cinema that foregrounded the medium itself: the frame, projection, and most importantly, time. It has been argued that by breaking film down into bare components, they sought to create an anti-illusionist cinema, although Frampton's late works owe a huge debt to the photography of Edward Weston, Paul Strand, and others, and in fact celebrate illusion. Further, while many filmmakers began making rather academic "structural films" following "Film Culture"'s publication of an article by P. Adams Sitney in the late 1960s, many of the filmmakers named in the article objected to the term.


title: Experimental film

text: A critical review of the structuralists appeared in a 2000 edition of the art journal "Art in America". It examined structural-formalism as a conservative philosophy of filmmaking.


title: Experimental film

text: In the 1970s, Conceptual art pushed even further. Robert Smithson, a California-based artist, made several films about his earthworks and attached projects. Yoko Ono made conceptual films. The most notorious of these is "Rape," which centers on a woman's life being invaded with cameras, as she attempts to flee. Around this time, a new generation was entering the field, many of whom were students of the early avant-gardists. Leslie Thornton, Peggy Ahwesh, and Su Friedrich expanded upon the work of the structuralists, incorporating a broader range of content while maintaining a self-reflexive form.


title: Experimental film

text: Andy Warhol, the man behind Pop Art and a variety of other oral and art forms, made over 60 films throughout the 1960s, most of them experimental. In more recent years, filmmakers such as Craig Baldwin and James O'Brien ("Hyperfutura") have made use of stock footage married to live action narratives in a form of mash-up cinema that has strong socio-political undertones. Chris Marker's "La Jetée" (1962) consists almost entirely of still photographs accompanied by narration, while Jonás Cuarón's "Year of the Nail" (2007) uses unstaged photographs which the director took of his friends and family combined with voice acting to tell a fictional story. Other examples of films created in the 21st Century with this technique are Lars von Trier's "Dogville" and David Lynch's entire filmography.


title: Experimental film

text: Laura Mulvey's writing and filmmaking launched a flourishing of feminist filmmaking based on the idea that conventional Hollywood narrative reinforced gender norms and a patriarchal gaze. Their response was to resist narrative in a way to show its fissures and inconsistencies. Chantal Akerman and Sally Potter are just two of the leading feminist filmmakers working in this mode in the 1970s. Video art emerged as a medium in this period, and feminists like Martha Rosler and Cecelia Condit took full advantage of it.


title: Experimental film

text: In the 1980s feminist, gay and other political experimental work continued, with filmmakers like Barbara Hammer, Su Friedrich, Tracey Moffatt, Sadie Benning and Isaac Julien among others finding experimental format conducive to their questions about identity politics.


title: Experimental film

text: The queercore movement gave rise to a number experimental queer filmmakers such as G.B. Jones (a founder of the movement) in the 1990s and later Scott Treleaven, among others.


title: Experimental film

text: With very few exceptions, Curtis Harrington among them, the artists involved in these early movements remained outside the mainstream commercial cinema and entertainment industry. A few taught occasionally, and then, starting in 1966, many became professors at universities such as the State Universities of New York, Bard College, California Institute of the Arts, the Massachusetts College of Art, University of Colorado at Boulder, and the San Francisco Art Institute.


title: Experimental film

text: Many experimental-film practitioners do not in fact possess college degrees themselves, although their showings are prestigious. Some have questioned the status of the films made in the academy, but longtime film professors such as Stan Brakhage, Ken Jacobs, Ernie Gehr, and many others, continued to refine and expand their practice while teaching. The inclusion of experimental film in film courses and standard film histories, however, has made the work more widely known and more accessible.


title: Experimental film

text: Beginning in 1946, Frank Stauffacher ran the "Art in Cinema" program of experimental and avant-garde films at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.


title: Experimental film

text: From 1949 to 1975, the —located in Knokke-Heist, Belgium—was the most prominent festival of experimental cinema in the world. It permits the discovery of American avant-garde in 1958 with Brakhage's films and many others European and American filmmakers.


title: Experimental film

text: From 1947 to 1963, the New York-based Cinema 16 functioned as the primary exhibitor and distributor of experimental film in the United States. Under the leadership of Amos Vogel and Marcia Vogel, Cinema 16 flourished as a nonprofit membership society committed to the exhibition of documentary, avant-garde, scientific, educational, and performance films to ever-increasing audiences.


title: Experimental film

text: In 1962, Jonas Mekas and about 20 other film makers founded The Film-Makers' Cooperative in New York City. Soon similar artists cooperatives were formed in other places: Canyon Cinema in San Francisco, the London Film-Makers' Co-op, and Canadian Filmmakers Distribution Center.


title: Experimental film

text: Following the model of Cinema 16, experimental films have been exhibited mainly outside of commercial theaters in small film societies, microcinemas, museums, art galleries, archives and film festivals.


title: Experimental film

text: Several other organizations, in both Europe and North America, helped develop experimental film. These included Anthology Film Archives in New York City, The Millennium Film Workshop, the British Film Institute in London, the National Film Board of Canada and the Collective for Living Cinema.


title: Experimental film

text: Some of the more popular film festivals, such as Ann Arbor Film Festival, the New York Film Festival's "Views from the Avant-Garde" Side Bar, the International Film Festival Rotterdam, and Media City Film Festival prominently feature experimental works.


title: Experimental film

text: The New York Underground Film Festival, Chicago Underground Film Festival, the LA Freewaves Experimental Media Arts Festival, MIX NYC the New York Experimental Lesbian and Gay Film Festival, and Toronto's Images Festival also support this work and provide venues for films which would not otherwise be seen. There is some dispute about whether "underground" and "avant-garde" truly mean the same thing and if challenging non-traditional cinema and fine arts cinema are actually fundamentally related.


title: Experimental film

text: Venues such as Anthology Film Archives, San Francisco Cinematheque, Pacific Film Archive in Berkeley, California, Tate Modern, London and the Centre Pompidou in Paris often include historically significant experimental films and contemporary works. Screening series no longer in New York that featured experimental work include the Robert Beck Memorial Cinema, Ocularis and the Collective for Living Cinema.


title: Experimental film

text: All these associations and movements have permitted the birth and development of national experimental films and schools like “body cinema” ("Écoles du corps" or "Cinéma corporel") and “post-structural” movements in France, and “structural/materialism" in England for example.


title: Experimental film

text: Though experimental film is known to a relatively small number of practitioners, academics and connoisseurs, it has influenced and continues to influence cinematography, visual effects and editing.


title: Experimental film

text: The genre of music video can be seen as a commercialization of many techniques of experimental film. Title design and television advertising have also been influenced by experimental film.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Kirill Nikolayevich Shamalov (; born 22 March 1982) is a Russian businessman, the ex-husband of Katerina Tikhonova and the ex-son-in-law of the Russian President Vladimir Putin. He was the former economic advisor to the Russian government.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: After marrying Putin's daughter in 2013, Shamalov was offered numerous lucrative and preferential business deals worth billions of dollars. He became Russia's youngest billionaire at the age of 32. Shamalov is a director and part-owner of Sibur, a Russian petrochemicals company. Shamalov's 21% stake in the company is reportedly worth $2 billion. The price for the stake and the circumstances behind the acquisition of the stake are unclear. Immediately after marrying Putin's daughter, he obtained a 3.8% stake (valued at $388 million) in the company for $100.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: In 2018, the United States sanctioned him. After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Shamalov was sanctioned by the United Kingdom.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Shamalov was educated at Saint Petersburg State University, where he obtained a degree in jurisprudence.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: After graduating at the age of 25, Shamalov was given an executive position at Gazprom-Media, Russia's largest media holding company.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Shamalov became an industry leader in 2012 when the owners of Sibur promoted him from Vice President of Business Administration to Deputy CEO. Shamalov owned 0.5% stake in the company, while in June 2013 his offshore company Kylsyth Investments Limited based in Belize acquired 3.8% stake in the company for only US$100. In August 2014, his Russian company Yauza 12, with the help of a loan from Gazprombank, purchased an additional 17% of Sibur from Gennady Timchenko, owner of Sibur, for roughly $2.2 billion.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: In April 2017, Bloomberg reported that Shamalov sold his shares of Sibur that he purchased from Timchenko to Leonid Mikhelson, the other owner of Sibur.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: In April 2018, the United States imposed sanctions on him and 23 other Russian nationals. Since his February 2013 marriage to Vladimir Putin's daughter Katerina and to join the elite billionaires group close to Vladimir Putin, Shamalov had become a major shareholder in Sibur in less than 18 months and a year later had received a billion dollar loan from Gazprombank, which was under United States sanctions (EO 13662), and had purchased a 17% stake in Sibur from Gennady Timchenko, who was under United States sanctions (EO 13661).


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Shamalov was also sanctioned by the British government on 24 February 2022, for his role at PAO SIBUR Holding, which was judged to have aided in the invasion of Ukraine.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: In February 2013, Shamalov married Katerina Tikhonova, Putin's second daughter, at , a small ski resort near Sosnovo in the Leningrad Oblast. In January 2018, Shamalov and Tikhonova separated. He allegedly lost 50% of his wealth due to this separation.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Later in 2018, Shamalov reportedly married Zhanna Volkova (). They have a daughter. The couple separated in mid-2021 and are in the midst of divorce proceedings. Shamalov filed a lawsuit to dismiss their marriage as invalid.


title: Kirill Shamalov

text: Shamalov owns millions of dollars worth of real estate in Russia and France. On 14 March 2022, two Russian activists were arrested for breaking into and occupying Shamalov's villa in Biarritz, France; the activists had announced they intended to use the property to house Ukrainian refugees from the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: SCSI

text: Small Computer System Interface (SCSI, ) is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, electrical, optical and logical interfaces. The SCSI standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the presence of "unknown" as one of these types means that in theory it can be used as an interface to almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward commercial requirements. The initial Parallel SCSI was most commonly used for hard disk drives and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives, although not all controllers can handle all devices.


title: SCSI

text: The ancestral SCSI standard, X3.131-1986, generally referred to as SCSI-1, was published by the X3T9 technical committee of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986. SCSI-2 was published in August 1990 as X3.T9.2/86-109, with further revisions in 1994 and subsequent adoption of a multitude of interfaces. Further refinements have resulted in improvements in performance and support for ever-increasing data storage capacity.


title: SCSI

text: SCSI is derived from "SASI", the "Shugart Associates System Interface", developed beginning 1979 and publicly disclosed in 1981. Larry Boucher is considered to be the "father" of SASI and ultimately SCSI due to his pioneering work first at Shugart Associates and then at Adaptec.


title: SCSI

text: A SASI controller provided a bridge between a hard disk drive's low-level interface and a host computer, which needed to read blocks of data. SASI controller boards were typically the size of a hard disk drive and were usually physically mounted to the drive's chassis. SASI, which was used in mini- and early microcomputers, defined the interface as using a 50-pin flat ribbon connector which was adopted as the SCSI-1 connector. SASI is a fully compliant subset of SCSI-1 so that many, if not all, of the then-existing SASI controllers were SCSI-1 compatible.


title: SCSI

text: Until at least February 1982, ANSI developed the specification as "SASI" and "Shugart Associates System Interface" however, the committee documenting the standard would not allow it to be named after a company. Almost a full day was devoted to agreeing to name the standard "Small Computer System Interface", which Boucher intended to be pronounced "sexy", but ENDL's Dal Allan pronounced the new acronym as "scuzzy" and that stuck.


title: SCSI

text: A number of companies such as NCR Corporation, Adaptec and Optimem were early supporters of SCSI. The NCR facility in Wichita, Kansas is widely thought to have developed the industry's first SCSI controller chip; it worked the first time.


title: SCSI

text: The "small" reference in "small computer system interface" is historical; since the mid-1990s, SCSI has been available on even the largest of computer systems.


title: SCSI

text: Since its standardization in 1986, SCSI has been commonly used in the Amiga, Atari, Apple Macintosh and Sun Microsystems computer lines and PC server systems. Apple started using the less-expensive parallel ATA (PATA, also known as "IDE") for its low-end machines with the Macintosh Quadra 630 in 1994, and added it to its high-end desktops starting with the Power Macintosh G3 in 1997. Apple dropped on-board SCSI completely in favor of IDE and FireWire with the (Blue & White) Power Mac G3 in 1999, while still offering a PCI SCSI host adapter as an option on up to the Power Macintosh G4 (AGP Graphics) models. Sun switched its lower-end range to Serial ATA (SATA). Commodore included SCSI on the Amiga 3000/3000T systems and it was an add-on to previous Amiga 500/2000 models. Starting with the Amiga 600/1200/4000 systems Commodore switched to the IDE interface. Atari included SCSI as standard in its Atari MEGA STE, Atari TT and Atari Falcon computer models. SCSI has never been popular in the low-priced IBM PC world, owing to the lower cost and adequate performance of ATA hard disk standard. However, SCSI drives and even SCSI RAIDs became common in PC workstations for video or audio production.