title: Calibration

text: An example is in high pressure (up to 50 psi) steam engines, where mercury was used to reduce the scale length to about 60 inches, but such a manometer was expensive and prone to damage. This stimulated the development of indirect reading instruments, of which the Bourdon tube invented by Eugène Bourdon is a notable example.


title: Calibration

text: In the front and back views of a Bourdon gauge on the right, applied pressure at the bottom fitting reduces the curl on the flattened pipe proportionally to pressure. This moves the free end of the tube which is linked to the pointer. The instrument would be calibrated against a manometer, which would be the calibration standard. For measurement of indirect quantities of pressure per unit area, the calibration uncertainty would be dependent on the density of the manometer fluid, and the means of measuring the height difference. From this other units such as pounds per square inch could be inferred and marked on the scale.


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: Rupert Nicholas Vansittart (born 10 February 1958) is an English character actor. He has appeared in a variety of roles in film, television, stage and radio, often playing comic characters. He is best known for his role as Lord Ashfordly in the ITV drama "Heartbeat" and for playing Lord Yohn Royce in the HBO series "Game of Thrones" (2014–2019).


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: Vansittart is known to fans of the 1995 "Pride and Prejudice" serial as the actor who portrayed Mr Hurst, the brother-in-law of Charles and Caroline Bingley. He has also worked with Rowan Atkinson on a number of occasions, appearing as a guest star in two episodes of "Mr. Bean" in addition to "The Thin Blue Line", and "Johnny English Reborn".


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: In 1993, he appeared in "Remains of the Day" as Sir Geoffrey Wren, a character based on the 1930s British fascist Sir Oswald Mosley.


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: In 1994, he appeared in the film "Braveheart" as Lord Bottoms. He worked in "Four Weddings and a Funeral" as George the Boor at the Boatman in 1995. In 2003, he appeared in the West End adaptation of "Arsenic and Old Lace".


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: In 2002, he appeared in the "Midsomer Murders" episode "Market for Murder". He also portrayed General Asquith in the "Doctor Who" episodes "Aliens of London" and "World War Three". In 2006, Vansittart portrayed Thomas J. Dodd in the BBC three-part drama documentary "". In 2007, he appeared in another episode of "Midsomer Murders," "The Axeman Cometh". He also appeared in the 2008 BBC serial "Spartacus" as Consul Lentulus.


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: In 2009, he was asked to play Peter Morrison in "Margaret". Two years later in the critically acclaimed "The Iron Lady" with Meryl Streep he played Cabinet minister John Biffen. He has also played political characters on stage: in 2014 he was one of the main actors in the cast of "Great Britain" at the National Theatre. He also appeared in "This House" at the National Theatre.


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: 2009 also saw his third appearance in "Midsomer Murders", in the episode "The Dogleg Murders". In 2010, he appeared in "Doctors" as Anthony Chippington, a friend of Charlie's. He played Harrison Ashton Lard, the "posh girl's father", in "How Not to Live Your Life". He provided additional voice-over for "World's Craziest Fools". He appeared in the final two seasons of "Foyle's War" as Sir Alec Myerson, the title character's boss at MI5. Vansittart also appeared in the BBC Three comedy Bad Education, playing Mr. Humpage. In 2014, Vansittart started playing Lord Yohn Royce in the HBO series "Game of Thrones", making recurring appearances in season 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8.


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: In 2016, he appears in the BBC TV series "Father Brown" as Arthur Le Broc in episode 4.7 "The Missing Man". In January 2016, he played Peter Jennings in an episode of the BBC series "Casualty".


title: Rupert Vansittart

text: Vansittart has been married to Emma Kate, daughter of the actor Moray Watson, since 1987. They have two children. When Emma Watson was cast for "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", Emma Kate Watson changed her name to Emma Vansittart, adopting her husband's surname as her new stage name, to avoid being confused with the young actress.


title: Spectral line

text: A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. Spectral lines are often used to identify atoms and molecules. These "fingerprints" can be compared to the previously collected ones of atoms and molecules, and are thus used to identify the atomic and molecular components of stars and planets, which would otherwise be impossible.


title: Spectral line

text: Spectral lines are the result of interaction between a quantum system (usually atoms, but sometimes molecules or atomic nuclei) and a single photon. When a photon has about the right amount of energy (which is connected to its frequency) to allow a change in the energy state of the system (in the case of an atom this is usually an electron changing orbitals), the photon is absorbed. Then the energy will be spontaneously re-emitted, either as one photon at the same frequency as the original one or in a cascade, where the sum of the energies of the photons emitted will be equal to the energy of the one absorbed (assuming the system returns to its original state).


title: Spectral line

text: A spectral line may be observed either as an emission line or an absorption line. Which type of line is observed depends on the type of material and its temperature relative to another emission source. An absorption line is produced when photons from a hot, broad spectrum source pass through a cooler material. The intensity of light, over a narrow frequency range, is reduced due to absorption by the material and re-emission in random directions. By contrast, a bright emission line is produced when photons from a hot material are detected, perhaps in the presence of a broad spectrum from a cooler source. The intensity of light, over a narrow frequency range, is increased due to emission by the hot material.


title: Spectral line

text: Spectral lines are highly atom-specific, and can be used to identify the chemical composition of any medium. Several elements, including helium, thallium, and caesium, were discovered by spectroscopic means. Spectral lines also depend on the temperature and density of the material, so they are widely used to determine the physical conditions of stars and other celestial bodies that cannot be analyzed by other means.


title: Spectral line

text: Depending on the material and its physical conditions, the energy of the involved photons can vary widely, with the spectral lines observed across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.


title: Spectral line

text: Strong spectral lines in the visible part of the spectrum often have a unique Fraunhofer line designation, such as K for a line at 393.366 nm emerging from singly-ionized Ca, though some of the Fraunhofer "lines" are blends of multiple lines from several different species. In other cases, the lines are designated according to the level of ionization by adding a Roman numeral to the designation of the chemical element. Neutral atoms are denoted with the Roman numeral I, singly ionized atoms with II, and so on, so that, for example, Fe IX represents eight times ionized iron.


title: Spectral line

text: More detailed designations usually include the line wavelength and may include a multiplet number (for atomic lines) or band designation (for molecular lines). Many spectral lines of atomic hydrogen also have designations within their respective series, such as the Lyman series or Balmer series. Originally all spectral lines were classified into series: the "Principal series", "Sharp series", and "Diffuse series". These series exist across atoms of all elements, and the patterns for all atoms are well-predicted by the Rydberg-Ritz formula. These series were later associated with suborbitals.


title: Spectral line

text: There are a number of effects which control spectral line shape. A spectral line extends over a range of frequencies, not a single frequency (i.e., it has a nonzero linewidth). In addition, its center may be shifted from its nominal central wavelength. There are several reasons for this broadening and shift. These reasons may be divided into two general categories – broadening due to local conditions and broadening due to extended conditions. Broadening due to local conditions is due to effects which hold in a small region around the emitting element, usually small enough to assure local thermodynamic equilibrium. Broadening due to extended conditions may result from changes to the spectral distribution of the radiation as it traverses its path to the observer. It also may result from the combining of radiation from a number of regions which are far from each other.


title: Spectral line

text: The lifetime of excited states results in natural broadening, also known as lifetime broadening. The uncertainty principle relates the lifetime of an excited state (due to spontaneous radiative decay or the Auger process) with the uncertainty of its energy.


title: Spectral line

text: Some authors use the term "radiative broadening" to refer specifically to the part of natural broadening caused by the spontaneous radiative decay.


title: Spectral line

text: A short lifetime will have a large energy uncertainty and a broad emission. This broadening effect results in an unshifted Lorentzian profile. The natural broadening can be experimentally altered only to the extent that decay rates can be artificially suppressed or enhanced.


title: Spectral line

text: The atoms in a gas which are emitting radiation will have a distribution of velocities. Each photon emitted will be "red"- or "blue"-shifted by the Doppler effect depending on the velocity of the atom relative to the observer. The higher the temperature of the gas, the wider the distribution of velocities in the gas. Since the spectral line is a combination of all of the emitted radiation, the higher the temperature of the gas, the broader the spectral line emitted from that gas. This broadening effect is described by a Gaussian profile and there is no associated shift.


title: Spectral line

text: The presence of nearby particles will affect the radiation emitted by an individual particle. There are two limiting cases by which this occurs:


title: Spectral line

text: "Inhomogeneous broadening" is a general term for broadening because some emitting particles are in a different local environment from others, and therefore emit at a different frequency. This term is used especially for solids, where surfaces, grain boundaries, and stoichiometry variations can create a variety of local environments for a given atom to occupy. In liquids, the effects of inhomogeneous broadening is sometimes reduced by a process called "motional narrowing".


title: Spectral line

text: Certain types of broadening are the result of conditions over a large region of space rather than simply upon conditions that are local to the emitting particle.


title: Spectral line

text: Opacity broadening is an example of a non-local broadening mechanism. Electromagnetic radiation emitted at a particular point in space can be reabsorbed as it travels through space. This absorption depends on wavelength. The line is broadened because the photons at the line center have a greater reabsorption probability than the photons at the line wings. Indeed, the reabsorption near the line center may be so great as to cause a self reversal in which the intensity at the center of the line is less than in the wings. This process is also sometimes called self-absorption.


title: Spectral line

text: Radiation emitted by a moving source is subject to Doppler shift due to a finite line-of-sight velocity projection. If different parts of the emitting body have different velocities (along the line of sight), the resulting line will be broadened, with the line width proportional to the width of the velocity distribution. For example, radiation emitted from a distant rotating body, such as a star, will be broadened due to the line-of-sight variations in velocity on opposite sides of the star (this effect usually referred to as rotational broadening). The greater the rate of rotation, the broader the line. Another example is an imploding plasma shell in a Z-pinch.


title: Spectral line

text: Each of these mechanisms can act in isolation or in combination with others. Assuming each effect is independent, the observed line profile is a convolution of the line profiles of each mechanism. For example, a combination of the thermal Doppler broadening and the impact pressure broadening yields a Voigt profile.


title: Spectral line

text: However, the different line broadening mechanisms are not always independent. For example, the collisional effects and the motional Doppler shifts can act in a coherent manner, resulting under some conditions even in a collisional "narrowing", known as the Dicke effect.


title: Spectral line

text: The phrase "spectral lines", when not qualified, usually refers to lines having wavelengths in the visible band of the full electromagnetic spectrum. Many spectral lines occur at wavelengths outside this range. At shorter wavelengths, which correspond to higher energies, ultraviolet spectral lines include the Lyman series of hydrogen. At the much shorter wavelengths of X-rays, the lines are known as characteristic X-rays because they remain largely unchanged for a given chemical element, independent of their chemical environment. Longer wavelengths correspond to lower energies, where the infrared spectral lines include the Paschen series of hydrogen. At even longer wavelengths, the radio spectrum includes the 21-cm line used to detect neutral hydrogen throughout the cosmos.


title: Spectral line

text: For each element, the following table shows the spectral lines which appear in the visible spectrum at about 400-700 nm.


title: NetherRealm Studios

text: NetherRealm Studios (stylized as NetheЯRealm Studios) is an American video game developer based in Chicago and owned by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. Led by video game industry veteran and "Mortal Kombat" co-creator Ed Boon, the studio is in charge of developing the "Mortal Kombat" and "Injustice" series of fighting games.


title: NetherRealm Studios

text: On February 12, 2009, Midway Games filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the United States. Warner Bros. subsequently acquired "substantially all of the assets", including "Mortal Kombat", "This Is Vegas" and the Midway Games company structure, on July 10, 2009. While Warner Bros. went on to close most of Midway Games' Chicago headquarters and San Diego, California and Liverpool, England, development studios, they retained the Midway Games Chicago development studio, which became part of Interactive Entertainment. The remaining studio was renamed WB Games Chicago several days later. On April 20, 2010, the studio was reincorporated as NetherRealm Studios, replacing WB Games Chicago.


title: NetherRealm Studios

text: NetherRealm Studios' first game, was the ninth installment in the "Mortal Kombat" series, the title was released in April 2011. Their first game original intellectual property, "", based on the DC Universe, was released in 2013. The success of the two games allowed the development of respective sequels; "Mortal Kombat X" in 2015 and" Injustice 2" in 2017. Also, NetherRealm developed Android and iOS versions for "", "", and "WWE Immortals". The company's latest release, "Mortal Kombat 11", was released on April 23, 2019. On October 18, 2022, NetherRealm announced that, they are working on Mortal Kombat: Onslaught. It's a cinematic collection role-playing mobile game and will be released in 2023.


title: NetherRealm Studios

text: Shortly after the launch of "Mortal Kombat 11", several independent declarations from former employees came through about the studio's alleged practices and general working conditions during the development of their last four games. In May 2019, NetherRealm released a statement saying "At NetherRealm Studios, we greatly appreciate and respect all of our employees and prioritize creating a positive work experience. As an equal opportunity employer, we encourage diversity and constantly take steps to reduce crunch time for our employees. We are actively looking into all allegations, as we take these matters very seriously and are always working to improve our company environment. There are confidential ways for employees to raise any concerns or issues." Following the statement, NetherRealm gave the studio the weekend off.


title: NetherRealm Studios

text: The same month, another article by Kotaku reported on the mental toll the developers were taking on by developing such excessively violent video games—one developer detailed stories about how the team would view pictures and videos of murders or animal slaughter as reference material, which would cause nightmares and eventual insomnia, with a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: James Marion Sims (January 25, 1813November 13, 1883) was an American physician in the field of surgery, known as the "father of gynecology". His most famous work was the development of a surgical technique for the repair of vesicovaginal fistula, a severe complication of obstructed childbirth. He is also remembered for inventing Sims speculum, Sims sigmoid catheter, and the Sims position. Against significant opposition, he established, in New York, the first hospital specifically for women. He was forced out of the hospital he founded because he insisted on treating cancer patients; he played a small role in the creation of the nation's first cancer hospital, which opened after his death.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: He was one of the most famous and venerated physicians in the country. In 1876, he was elected President of the American Medical Association. He was one of the first American physician to become famous in Europe. He openly boasted that he was the second-wealthiest doctor in the country.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: However, as medical ethicist Barron H. Lerner states, "one would be hard pressed to find a more controversial figure in the history of medicine." A statue in his honor, the first statue in the United States in honor of a physician, was erected in 1894 in Bryant Park in New York City, but removed in 2018.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: He operated without anesthesia on enslaved black women, who, like prisoners, could not meaningfully consent because they could not refuse. In the 20th century, this was condemned as an improper use of human experimental subjects and Sims was described as "a prime example of progress in the medical profession made at the expense of a vulnerable population". He has been called a "butcher" and compared to Nazi physician Josef Mengele. Sims' practices were defended as consistent with the US in the era in which he lived by physician and anthropologist L. Lewis Wall, and other medical historians. According to Sims, the enslaved black women were "willing" and had no better option.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims was a voluminous writer and his published reports on his medical experiments, together with his own 471-page autobiography (summarized in an address just after his death), are the main sources of knowledge about him and his career. His positive self-presentation has, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, been subject to revision.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: James Marion Sims, who preferred to be called "Marion", was born in Lancaster County, South Carolina, the son of John and Mahala (Mackey) Sims. His father, Col. John Sims, "now [1856] of Texas," participated in the War of 1812, being stationed at Charleston. His paternal grandfather was one of Marion's men; his great-grandfather was with Washington at Braddock's defeat. His maternal grandfather, Charles Mackey, was taken prisoner by Banastre Tarleton, and would have been hanged, but for the intervention of his wife.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: For his first 12 years, Sims' family lived in Lancaster Village, north of Hanging Rock Creek, where his father owned a store. Sims later wrote of his early school days there.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: After his father was elected sheriff of Lancaster County, he sent Sims in 1825 to the newly established Franklin Academy, in Lancaster. In 1832, after two years of study at the predecessor of the University of South Carolina, South Carolina College, where he was a member of the Euphradian Society, Sims worked with Dr. Churchill Jones in Lancaster, South Carolina. He took a three-month course at the Medical College of Charleston (predecessor of the Medical University of South Carolina), but found it too rigorous.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: He moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1834 and enrolled at the Jefferson Medical College, where he graduated in 1835, "a lackluster student who showed little ambition after receiving his medical degree". As he put it:


title: J. Marion Sims

text: I felt no particular interest in my profession at the beginning of it apart from making a living... I was really ready at any time and at any moment to take up anything that offered, or that held out any inducement of fortune, because I knew that I could never make a fortune out of the practice of medicine.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: He returned to Lancaster to practice. As of that date "he had had no clinical experience, logged no actual hospital time, and had no experience diagnosing illnesses." After his first two patients (infants) died, Sims was despondent. He left and set up a practice in Mount Meigs, near Montgomery, Alabama. He described the settlement in a letter to his future wife Theresa Jones as "nothing but a pile of gin-houses, stables, blacksmith-shops, grog-shops, taverns and stores, thrown together in one promiscuous huddle". He was in Mount Meigs from 1835 to 1837. Sims visited Lancaster in 1836 to marry Theresa, whom he had met many years earlier, when a student in Lancaster. She was the daughter of B.C. Jones, and the niece of Churchill Jones, and had studied at the South Carolina Female Collegiate Institute.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1837 Sims and his wife moved to Cubahatchee, Alabama, where they remained until 1840. He was a "plantation physician", who had "a partnership in a large practice among rich plantations." "Sims became known for operations on clubfeet, cleft palates and crossed eyes." This was his first experience treating enslaved black women, whose owners summoned Sims to treat them. Being a "plantation physician" was not as lucrative as Sims hoped a life as a doctor would be.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1840 the couple moved to Montgomery, Alabama, where they lived until 1853. There Sims had what he described as the "most memorable time" of his career. Within a few years he "had the largest surgical practice in the State", the largest practice that any doctor in Montgomery had ever had, up to that time. "He was immensely popular, and greatly beloved." When he returned to the city for a visit in 1877, he was treated as a hero.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In Montgomery, Sims continued with what he had done as a plantation physician: treating the enslaved, who made up two thirds of the city's population. He built a hospital or "Surgical Infirmary for Negroes", for those women their owners brought him for treatment. It began with four beds, but it was so successful he added a second floor, doubling capacity to eight beds. Once source says it expanded to twelve beds. It has been called "the first woman's hospital in history". It was also the first hospital specifically for Blacks in the United States.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1840, the field of gynecology did not exist; there was no training on the subject, for Sims or anyone else. The only books were on midwifery. Medical students did not study pregnancy, childbirth, or gynecological diseases. Student doctors were often trained on dummies to deliver babies. They did not see their first clinical cases of women until beginning their practices. "The practice of examining the female organs was considered repugnant by doctors." Sims shared this view, remarking in his autobiography that "if there was anything I hated, it was investigating the organs of the female pelvis".


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1845 he was brought a woman with a condition he had not seen before: vesicovaginal fistula. In the 19th century, vesicovaginal fistulas, "one of the most loathsome and disagreeable maladies to which females are subject," though not fatal, were a common, socially destructive, and "catastrophic complication of childbirth", that affected many women. There was no effective cure or treatment. Lacking adequate birth control, women generally had a high rate of childbirth, which increased their rate of complications. Vesicovaginal fistulas occur when the woman's bladder, cervix, and vagina become trapped between the fetal skull and the woman's pelvis, cutting off blood flow and leading to tissue death. The necrotic tissue later sloughs off, leaving a hole. Following this injury, as urine forms, it leaks out of the vaginal opening, leading to a form of incontinence. Because a continuous stream of urine leaks from the vagina, it is difficult to care for. The victim suffers personal hygiene issues that may lead to marginalization from society, and vaginal irritation, scarring, and loss of vaginal function. Sims also worked to repair rectovaginal fistulas, a related condition in which flatulence and feces escape through a torn vagina, leading to fecal incontinence.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: When he went to see a patient with an injured pelvis from a fall from a horse, he placed her in a knee-chest position and inserted his finger into the vagina. This allowed Sims to see the vagina clearly, and inspired him to investigate fistula treatment. Soon after, he developed a precursor to the modern speculum, using a pewter spoon and strategically placed mirrors. Sims was not the first to successfully treat a vesicovaginal fistula however. He was preceded by Dr. George Hayward in 1839 and John Peter Mettauer in 1838. Henry van Roonhuyse's clinical treatise entitled "Medico-Chirurgical Observations" (1676) outlined essential repair steps that are recognizable today.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: From 1845 to 1849, Sims started doing experiments on enslaved black women to treat vaginal problems. He added a second story to his hospital, for a total of eight beds. He developed techniques that have been the basis of modern vaginal surgery. A key component was silver wire, which he had a jeweler prepare. The Sims' vaginal speculum aided in vaginal examination and surgery. The rectal examination position, in which the patient is on the left side with the right knee flexed against the abdomen and the left knee slightly flexed, is also named for him.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In Montgomery, between 1845 and 1849, Sims occasionally conducted experimental surgery on white women, but his main subjects were 12 enslaved black women with fistulas, which he treated at his own expense in his backyard hospital. They were brought to him by their owners. Sims asked for patients with this fistula, and "succeeded in finding six or seven women". Sims took responsibility for their care on the condition that the owners provide clothing and pay any taxes; Sims provided food. One he purchased "expressly for the purpose of experimentation when her master resisted Sims' solicitations."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: He named three enslaved black women in his autobiography: Anarcha, Betsy, and Lucy. Each suffered from fistula, and all were subjects of his surgical experimentation. From 1845 to 1849 he conducted experimental surgery on each of them several times, operating on Anarcha 30 times before the repair of her fistulas was declared a success. She had both vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulas, which he struggled to repair. Sims ignored the AMA's Code of Ethics and Jones counsel. "Notwithstanding repeated failures during four years' time, he kept his six patients and operated until he tired out his doctor assistants, and finally had to rely upon his patients to assist him to operate." Unlike his previous essays, which included at least a brief description of his patients, the article issued in "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences" is devoid of any identifying characteristics of Anarcha, Betsy, and Lucy.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims' one-time collaborator, Nathan Bozeman, supplied the names of other African-American women treated by Sims during this period:


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Although anesthesia had very recently been used experimentally, Sims did not use any anesthetic during his procedures on these three women. According to Sims, who later published a history of anesthesia, it was not generally known ("popularized") until 1846, and he was unaware of the use of diethyl ether. Experimental use of ether as an anesthetic was performed as early as 1842, however it was not published or demonstrated until 1846. A 2006 review of Sims' work in the "Journal of Medical Ethics" said that ether anesthesia was first publicly demonstrated in Boston in 1846, a year after Sims began his experimental surgery. The article notes that, while ether's use as an anesthetic spread rapidly, it was not universally accepted at the time of Sims' experimental surgery.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In addition, a common belief at the time was that black people did not feel as much pain as white people.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Given this, Sims did not anesthetize the women he operated on while developing his fistula repair technique. Anesthesia was itself still experimental; early anesthetic agents were much more dangerous than the replacements developed in the 20th century. Dosing was experimental. Underdosing did not kill the pain; overdosing could and sometimes did kill the patient. Chloroform could be obtained from a druggist, but nitrous oxide and the highly flammable ether had to be manufactured by the surgeon, on the spot. In Sims' day, surgeons were trained to operate quickly on unanesthetized patients. Anesthesia was first used in dentistry, and was just being announced as an exciting novelty in privately published pamphlets, some claiming credit for the anesthetic's first use, at the same time as Sims' fistula repair experiments.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims was well informed and subscribed to medical journals. He must have read one of the many reports about research into anesthesia; religious objections to anesthesia were brought up. As late as 1853, when Sims's fistula experiments were concluded and reports on them were being published, many "still doubted" chloroform's safety, and "the rules of its administration are [yet] to be formalized."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims later became an expert on anesthesia, publishing on nitrous oxide in 1868, and in 1874 on chloroform. In 1874 Sims addressed the New York State Medical Society on "The Discovery of Anaesthesia", in which he claimed American precedence over the British, and in 1880 read to the New York Academy of Medicine a paper, soon published, about a death from anesthesia.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: One patient, named Lucy, nearly died from sepsis. He had operated on her without anesthetics in the presence of twelve doctors, following the experimental use of a sponge to wipe urine from the bladder during the procedure. She contracted sepsis because he left a sponge in her urethra and bladder. He did administer opium to the women after their surgery, which was accepted therapeutic practice of the day.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: After the extensive experimental surgery, and complications, Sims finally perfected his technique. He repaired the fistulas successfully in Anarcha. He was the first to use silver as a suture, thus avoiding the infections associated with silk sutures. The silver-wire sutures, developed in 1849, were what allowed him to finally repair Anarcha's fistulas. Sims published an account of this in his surgical reports of 1852. He proceeded to repair fistulas in several other enslaved black women.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: According to Durrenda Ojanuga, "Many white women came to Sims for treatment of vesicovaginal fistula after the successful operation on Anarcha. However, none of them, due to the pain, were able to endure a single operation." The "Journal of Medical Ethics" reports a case study of one white woman, whose fistula was repaired by Sims without the use of anesthesia, in a series of three operations carried out in 1849.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims later moved to New York to found a Woman's Hospital, where he performed the operation on white women. According to Ojanuga, Sims used anesthesia when conducting fistula repair on white women. But L. L. Wall, also writing for the "Journal of Medical Ethics", states that as of 1857, Sims did not use anesthesia to perform fistula surgery on white women, citing a public lecture where Sims spoke to the New York Academy of Medicine on November 18, 1857. During this lecture, Sims said that he never used anesthesia for fistula surgery "because they are not painful enough to justify the trouble and risk attending their administration". While acknowledging this as shocking to modern sensibilities, Wall noted that Sims was expressing the contemporary sensibilities of the mid-1800s, particularly among surgeons who began their practice in the pre-anesthetic era.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Anarcha, Lucy, and Betsy, three of the enslaved black women experimented upon by Sims without consent, are memorialized in a statue entitled "Mothers of Gynecology", erected in Montgomery, Alabama, on September 24, 2021.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: During his early medical years, Sims also became interested in "trismus nascentium", also known as neonatal tetanus, that occurs in newborns. A 19th century doctor described it as "a disease that has been almost constantly fatal, commonly in the course of a few days; the women are so persuaded of its inevitable fatality that they seldom or ever call for the assistance of our art."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: "Trismus nascentium" is a form of generalised tetanus. Infants who have not acquired passive immunity from the mother having been immunised are at risk for this disease. It usually occurs through infection of the unhealed umbilical stump, particularly when the stump is cut with a non-sterile instrument. In the 21st century, neonatal tetanus mostly occurs in developing countries, particularly those with the least developed health infrastructure. It is rare in developed countries.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: "Trismus nascentium" is now recognized to be the result of unsanitary practices and nutritional deficiencies. In the 19th century its cause was unknown, and many enslaved African children contracted this disease. Medical historians believe that the conditions of the quarters of enslaved people were the cause. Sims alluded to the idea that sanitation and living conditions played a role in its contraction.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Whenever there are poverty, and filth, and laziness, or where the intellectual capacity is cramped, the moral and social feelings blunted, there it will be oftener found. Wealth, a cultivated intellect, a refined mind, an affectionate heart, are comparatively exempt from the ravages of this unmercifully fatal malady. But expose this class to the same physical causes, and they become equal sufferers with the first.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims also thought "trismus nascentium" developed from skull bone movement during protracted births. To test this, Sims used a shoemaker's awl to pry the skull bones of enslaved infants into alignment. These experiments had a 100% fatality rate. Sims often performed autopsies on the corpses, which he kept for further research on the condition. He blamed these fatalities on "the sloth and ignorance of their mothers and the black midwives who attended them", as opposed to the extensive experimental surgeries that he conducted upon the babies.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: The use of enslaved people for medical research was uncontroversial in the Antebellum South. A prospectus from the 1830s of the South Carolina Medical College, the leading medical school in the South, pointed out to prospective students that it had an advantage of a "peculiar" character:


title: J. Marion Sims

text: The college announced, in advertisements in the Charleston papers, that it had set up a surgery (operating room) for negroes, and offered to treat without charge, while it was in session, any "interesting cases" sent by their owners, "for the "benefit" and "instruction" of their pupils". They extended the offer to free "persons of color". The advertisement ends by pointing out that their sole objective was "to promote the interest of Medical Education. "


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims' experimental surgeries without anesthesia on enslaved women, who could not consent, have been described since the late 20th century as an example of racism in the medical profession. This is seen as part of the historical oppression of black people and vulnerable populations in the United States. Patients of Sims' fistula and "trismus nascentium" operations were not given available anesthetics. He caused the deaths of babies on whom he operated for the trismus nascentium condition.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Terri Kapsalis writes, in "Mastering the Female Pelvis", that "Sims' fame and wealth are as indebted to slavery and racism as they are to innovation, insight, and persistence, and he has left behind a frightening legacy of medical attitudes toward and treatments of women, particularly women of color."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Drawing on Sims' published autobiography, case-histories, and correspondence, historian Stephen C. Kenny highlights how Sims' surgical treatment of enslaved infants suffering from neonatal tetanus was a typical, but tragically distinctive, feature in the career of an ambitious medical professional in the slave south. Individual doctors like Sims and the profession were incentivized in multiple ways through the system of chattel slavery, many were not only enslaver-physicians, but also traded in enslaved people, while at the same time their medical research was advanced directly and significantly through the exploitation of the enslaved population. In a related article exploring the types, frequency and functions of slave hospitals in the American South, Kenny identifies Sims' private 'negro infirmary' located behind his office on South Perry as an example of a 'hospital-for-experimentation', where Sims also undertook a series of gruelling and dangerous invasive surgeries on enslaved men. Sims used the surgical opportunities presented by long neglected chronic – and often incurable – cases of illness and injuries among the enslaved to sharpen his skills and stake a claim for professional celebrity – all in the context of the profits to be made from human trafficking one of the South's busiest slave markets.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Author Harriet A. Washington, in her 2007 book "Medical Apartheid", writes of Sims' experiments: "Each naked, unanesthetized slave woman had to be forcibly restrained by other physicians through her shrieks of agony as Sims determinedly sliced, then sutured her genitalia." "Facing South", a publication of the Institute for Southern Studies, wrote that slaves were forced to hold each other down during surgery.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Physician L. L. Wall, writing in the "Journal of Medical Ethics", says fistula surgery on non-anesthetized patients would require cooperation from the patient, and would not be possible if there were any active resistance from the patient. Wall writes that surviving documentation from the time says the women were trained to assist in their own surgical procedures. Wall also argues the documentation suggests the women consented to the surgeries, as the women were motivated to have their fistulas repaired, due to the serious medical and social nature of vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulas.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In his autobiography, J. Marion Sims said he was indebted to the enslaved black women on whom he experimented. After multiple failed operations he was discouraged, and the enslaved women encouraged him to proceed, because they were determined to have their medical afflictions cured. Shortly after Sims' successful repair of Anarcha's vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistulas in 1849, he successfully repaired the fistulas of the other enslaved women. They returned to their owners' plantations.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims has been criticized for operating on the enslaved black women without their consent. Wall writes in the "Journal of Medical Ethics" that legally, consent was granted by the slaves' owners. He noted that enslaved black women were a "vulnerable population" with respect to medical experimentation. Wall also writes that Sims obtained consent from the women themselves.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: For this purpose [therapeutic surgical experimentation] I was fortunate in having three young healthy colored girls given to me by their owners in Alabama, I agreeing to perform no operation without the full consent of the patients, and never to perform any that would, in my judgment, jeopard life, or produce greater mischief on the injured organs—the owners agreeing to let me keep them (at my own expense) till I was thoroughly convinced whether the affection could be cured or not.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Deirdre Cooper Owens wrote: "Sims has been painted as either a monstrous butcher or a benign figure who, despite his slaveowning status, wanted to cure all women from their distinctly gendered suffering." She describes these opposing views as overly reductionist, saying his history is more nuanced. He lived in a slave-holding society and expressed the racism and sexism that were considered normal during his time.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims moved to New York in 1853, reluctantly, because of his health. He decided to focus on diseases of women. He had an office at 267 Madison Avenue. In 1860 a newspaper described his success as "splendid," and called him "the happiest man in New York."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1855 he founded the Woman's Hospital, which, not counting his backyard infirmary, was the first hospital for women in the United States. At its inception, Woman's Hospital's purpose was to repair vesico-vaginal fistulas using Sims' technique, in service to the poor. There were no "pay patients" admitted. Located on Madison Avenue and 29th Street in a rented, four-story house, location deliberately chosen to be near Sims' home, the hospital's 30 beds were quickly filled. In those early days, Sims operated without assistance from other doctors, performing one fistula repair each day.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: His project met with "universal opposition" from the New York medical community; it was due to prominent women that he established it. They were visited by "prominent doctors, who endeavored to convince them that they were making a mistake, that they had been deceived, that no such hospital was needed, etc." "I was called a quack and a humbug, and the hospital was pronounced a fraud. Still it went on with its work." In the Woman's Hospital, he performed operations on indigent women, often in an operating theatre so that medical students and other doctors could view it, as was considered fundamental to medical education at the time. Some patients remained in the hospital indefinitely and underwent repeated procedures.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: When Sims addressed the American Medical Association in 1858 on the topic "Treatment of the results of obstructed labor", the "charts" which illustrated it "caused the lady auditors to vacate the gallery."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims' Southern sympathies were no secret—he was no abolitionist—and even in New York, many of his patients were Southern ladies. As the American Civil War drew near, this practice fell away, and he did not feel comfortable remaining in New York.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1861 Sims, who considered himself "a loyal Southerner", moved to Europe, where he toured hospitals and worked on fistula patients in London, Paris, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Brussels. He simultaneously ran consulting rooms in Paris, Berlin, and London.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: However, according to J.C. Hallman, he was there as one of several government agents of the Confederacy, who were seeking money (loans), diplomatic recognition of their new government (no country ever recognized it), and supplies and ships. An intercepted letter informed Lincoln's Secretary of State, William H. Seward, that Sims was "secessionist in sentiment", and that his "purpose in going abroad at this time is believed to be hostile to the government", as Seward reported to U.S. diplomats in Europe. According to the U.S. Minister in Brussels Henry Shelton Sanford, Sims was a "violent secessionist", and his "movements in Europe had 'given color to (the) opinion' that he was a spy".


title: J. Marion Sims

text: The most celebrated episode in Sims' life was his summons, in 1863, to treat Empress Eugénie for a fistula. This widely reported episode helped Sims to solidify his worldwide reputation as a surgeon. But according to Hallman, no source confirms that Eugénie had any medical problem at all. Sims' visits to the palace were semi-diplomatic Confederate visits, and the illness an invention to escape the vigilance of the U.S. diplomats, who had their eyes on Sims. Eugénie became an "ardent disciple" of the Confederacy.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims later said that it was a "dreadful mistake ... to give the negro the franchise." Two years later, offering a toast on board the steamer "Atlantic", returning to Europe, he claimed that in the aftermath of the war, the South had been degraded "beyond the level of the meanest slave that ever wore a shackle."


title: J. Marion Sims

text: At the same time, Sims argued that it was puerile for the South to sulk in its loss. He called for an acceptance of the issues of the war, including the Fifteenth Amendment. "It is folly to talk of the lost cause," he said.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Having treated royalty, after his return to the United States, Sims raised his charges in his private practice. He effectively limited it to wealthy women, although "he always had a long roll of charity patients". He became known for the Battey surgery, which contributed to his "honorable reputation". This involved the removal of both ovaries. It became a popular treatment to relieve insanity, epilepsy, hysteria (diseased uterus), and other "disorders of the nerves" (as mental illness was called at the time). At the time, these were believed to be caused by disorders of the female reproductive system.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims received honors and medals for his successful operations in many countries. Since the 20th century, the necessity of many of these surgeries has been questioned. He performed surgery for what were considered gynecological issues: such as clitoridectomies, then believed to control hysteria or improper behavior related to sexuality. These were done at the requests of the women's husbands or fathers, who were permitted under the law to commit the women to surgery involuntarily.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Under the patronage of Napoleon III, Sims organized the American-Anglo Ambulance Corps, which treated wounded soldiers from both sides at the Battle of Sedan.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1871, Sims returned to New York and resumed working at the Woman's Hospital, during which he provided surgical treatment for women with cancer. At the time, cancer was a disreputable disease, feared by some to be contagious or even sexually transmitted. In response to Sims' efforts, the highly influential Ladies' Board of the Woman's Hospital strongly argued against the treatment of cancer patients, which resulted in the hospital prohibiting the admission of cancer patients. At a meeting of the hospital's Board of Governors in 1874, Sims gave a speech rebuking the Board for denying the treatment of cancer even in its earliest stages. In addition, he criticized the restriction imposed by the Ladies' Board limiting the number of spectators to fifteen on operating days. Previously, as many as sixty could observe any given operation, but this had been changed because the Ladies' Board considered it an affront to a woman's modesty to have more than fifteen male surgeons observe a woman's sexual organs under treatment. Sims argued that this restriction impaired the distribution of knowledge to the many surgeons who came to New York to study gynecological diseases.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: The controversial nature of Sims' speech within the Woman's Hospital resulted in the acceptance of his resignation by the Board of Governors a month later, as well as accusations of being "reckless" and "lethal" by a member of the Board of Governors, who argued Sims should be fired for his insubordination, and a conflict with some other doctors of the Woman's Hospital, with whom Sims carried on a dialogue by means of published pamphlets.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: After quarreling with the board of the Woman's Hospital over the admission of cancer patients, Sims became instrumental in establishing America's first cancer institute, New York Cancer Hospital.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In reply to the treatment he received from the Woman's Hospital, Sims was unanimously elected president of the American Medical Association, an office he held from 1876 to 1877.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Sims suffered two angina attacks in 1877, and in 1880, contracted a severe case of typhoid fever. W. Gill Wylie, an early 20th-century biographer, said that although Sims suffered delirium, he was "constantly contriving instruments and conducting operations". After several months and a move to Charleston to aid his convalescence, Sims recovered in June 1881. He traveled to France. After his return to the United States in September 1881, he began to complain of an increase in heart problems.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: In 1881, Sims was one of four physicians asked for an opinion about whether medical errors had contributed to the recent death of President Garfield.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: According to Wylie, Sims consulted with doctors for his unknown cardiac condition both in the United States and in Europe. He was "positive that he had a serious disease of the heart and it caused deep mental depression". He was halfway through writing his autobiography and planning a return visit to Europe when he died of a heart attack on November 13, 1883, in New York City (Manhattan). He had just visited a patient with his son, H. Marion Sims. He is buried at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York.


title: J. Marion Sims

text: Papers of Dr. Sims—about 150 items— are held by the Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The collection has been microfilmed and some is available online. A small number of letters are in the libraries of the Medical University of South Carolinaf and Duke University.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Michelle de Paula Firmo Reinaldo Bolsonaro (born 22 March 1982) is the current First Lady of Brazil since 2019, being the third wife of the 38th President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro. She succeeded Marcela Temer, wife of former president Michel Temer, and will be succeeded by Rosângela Lula da Silva, wife of President-elect Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Born and raised in Ceilândia, administrative region of the Federal District, Michelle de Paula is daughter of Maria das Graças Pereira de Paula Reinaldo and Vicente de Castro Reinaldo. Her father, born in Crateús, Ceará, is a retired bus driver, whose nickname, "Paulo Negão", became nationally known in Jair Bolsonaro speeches to defend himself from accusations of racism. She has a younger stepbrother, Diego de Paula Reinaldo (b. 1988), who is a member of the Brazilian Air Force. Michelle's father and stepmother Maísa are owners of an event confection and production small business.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: She has a high school diploma attained through adult education. She enrolled in university as a pharmacy student, but never took classes. She worked as a salesperson in a clothing store and as a supermarket cashier before working as parliamentary secretary.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Michelle de Paula Firmo Reinaldo worked as an employee of the Chamber of Deputies between 2006 and 2008. She began at the parliamentary office of Deputy Vanderlei Assis (PP-SP), whose term was recommended to be annulled by the Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry for the "Escândalo dos sanguessugas" in August 2006 Later, he became secretary of Deputy Marco Aurélio Ubiali (PSB-SP). In June 2007, Michelle was nominated for the same position in the leadership of the Progressive Party (PP), remaining until September.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: During this period, she had her first contact with her future husband, then federal deputy for the progressives. On September 18, 2007, Michelle became Parliamentary Secretary of Bolsonaro. Just 9 days later, they signed a prenuptial agreement at the 1st Public Registry of Brasilia. After about 6 months of relationship they registered their civil union on November 28, 2007. In 2008, he was dismissed from the position of Parliamentary Secretary after the STF (Supreme Federal Court) understood that the 1988 Constitution prohibited nepotism in Public Administration.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Questions have been raised about checks deposited into Michelle's bank account by Fabricio Queiroz who has been arrested for allegedly defrauding the government.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Michelle, who prefers to be called by her composite name, Michelle de Paula, has two daughters: Letícia Aguiar, from a previous relationship, and Laura, from her marriage with Jair Bolsonaro.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: In 2010, Michelle gave birth to the couple's daughter, Laura. Her wedding with Bolsonaro, which happened on November 28, 2007, occurred in a party house in Alto da Boa Vista, Rio de Janeiro. At the request of the bride herself, the 150 guest-ceremony was conducted by pastor Silas Malafaia, one of the leaders of the Assembly of God Victory in Christ (Advec), which Bolsonaro was an active member and attendant of until 2016.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: The Bolsonaro family lives in a gated community house in Barra da Tijuca, in Rio de Janeiro. In this neighborhood, Bolsonaro has been attending and helping Attitude Baptist Church since she left Advec in 2016, after a temporary misunderstanding between Malafaia and Jair Bolsonaro in the electoral campaign. Despite being a Catholic, Bolsonaro attended the same church with his wife.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: On 30 July 2020, Michelle Bolsonaro tested positive for COVID-19, days after her husband said he had recovered from the disease.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: During most part of the Bolsonaro's electoral campaign, Bolsonaro didn't get involved herself actively in rallies supporting her husband candidacy, keeping herself discreet and reserved to the media coverage, but following her husband's path in the backstage.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Her first public appearance in an electoral ad happened on 25 October 2018, three days before the second round of the 2018 election between Bolsonaro and Fernando Haddad. In the ad, she praised her husband as a "wonderful human being" and "playful". After the attack against Bolsonaro in Juiz de Fora, on 6 September 2018, Bolsonaro followed her husband during his surgical recovery in Albert Einstein Israeli Hospital, in São Paulo.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: After the disclosure of the results of the second round of the presidential election, on the night of 28 October 2018, Jair Bolsonaro finished his victory speech by thanking Michelle Bolsonaro for her support, for having provided "peace, security and strength" for him to reach his objective, pointing out that he couldn't have made it without her. He also offered her a minute to speak, but she refused.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: The same night of 28 October, the first interview of Michelle Bolsonaro for RecordTV was broadcast, made exclusively by journalist Eduardo Ribeiro, In it, the new First Lady affirmed she wanted to "make a difference" in favour of the country, that she "will keep doing her job helping disabled people" and demonstrated her will to "do missions in the Northeast sertão".


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Bolsonaro has highlighted social causes related to people with disabilities, with visibility for rare diseases, digital inclusion, awareness of autism, inclusion of sign language in schools and other social projects.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: Michelle became the first Brazilian first lady to speak at the Palácio do Planalto parliamentary office during a presidential inauguration which she did in sign language. She is a member of the Ministry of the Deaf of the Baptist Church, where she acted as an interpreter of Brazilian Sign Language in services.


title: Michelle Bolsonaro

text: In the traditional statement by the President of the Republic on Christmas Eve, on the night of 24 December 2019, for the first time, a First Lady spoke alongside the President on national radio and television broadcast. Michelle, who wore a red shirt with the name "Jesus", wished a blessed Christmas to all Brazilians and highlighted that "together, with love and dedication, we can build a more just, more inclusive and more supportive Brazil for all".


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The 2021 season was the Dallas Cowboys' 62nd season in the National Football League, the 33rd under the ownership of Jerry Jones, the thirteenth playing home games at AT&T Stadium.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: For the first time since 2004, long-time long snapper L. P. Ladouceur was not on the opening day roster, as he was not re-signed during free agency. This is also the first time since 2010 that long-time punter Chris Jones was not on the opening day roster, as he was released on March 17, 2021. To further add to the notable departures, for the first time since 2011, defensive lineman Tyrone Crawford was not on the opening day roster, as he announced his retirement on March 25, 2021. Additionally, for the first time since 2009, linebacker Sean Lee was not on the opening day roster, as he announced his retirement on April 26, 2021.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: With their Week 10 win against the Atlanta Falcons, the Cowboys improved on their 6–10 record from the previous season. With their Week 14 win against the Washington Football Team, the Cowboys clinched their first winning season since 2018, and with the San Francisco 49ers' Week 16 loss to the Tennessee Titans, the Cowboys clinched their first playoff berth also since 2018. Following a Denver Broncos' loss to the Las Vegas Raiders, the Cowboys clinched the NFC East, based on strength-of-victory tiebreakers; this was their first division title since 2018. They swept the NFC East for the first time since 1998. The Cowboys' offense finished the regular season with 530 points, the most in the league, and a team record. But despite high expectations, the Cowboys lost in the of the playoffs to the San Francisco 49ers. The Cowboys scored 20 or more points in all but two of their regular season games.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: On July 2, 2021, the Cowboys were announced to be featured on HBO's "Hard Knocks" for the third time in franchise history.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: On February 15, the NFL announced that the Cowboys would face the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game on Thursday, August 5, at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium in Canton, Ohio. The game kicked off at 7:00 p.m. CDT, and was televised by Fox. The Cowboys were represented by head coach Jimmy Johnson and safety Cliff Harris. The Cowboys and Steelers were scheduled to play in the 2020 Hall of Fame game; however, the game, the annual Hall of Fame enshrinement, along with the entire 2020 preseason, were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the Hall of Fame game between the Cowboys and Steelers was rescheduled for 2021.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The remainder of the Cowboys' preseason opponents are listed below; the schedule was announced on May 13.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: Dak Prescott played his first game since he suffered compound fracture and dislocation injuries to his right ankle during a Week 5 game against the Giants the previous season. The Cowboys defense forced four turnovers but Greg Zuerlein missed crucial field goals, including a 60-yarder and an extra point. The Cowboys would fall to 0–1. This was the only time this season that the Cowboys had a lead at one point but ended up losing the game.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys started the game with a 14–3 lead, from touchdown runs by Tony Pollard and Ezekiel Elliott. The Chargers later tied the game. The Cowboys and Chargers each scored a field goal in their next scoring drives. In the last seconds of the game, the Cowboys marched down the field to the Chargers' 38-yard line. Greg Zuerlein kicked a 56-yard field goal as time expired to give Dallas a crucial win. The win improved the Cowboys to 1–1. This was the Cowboys' first win over the Chargers since 2005.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys continued their home streak against the Eagles. Despite Dak Prescott's early hiccup by fumbling to allow the Eagles to score, Prescott responded by leading his team to torch the Eagles defense. Trevon Diggs recorded a pick-six off Jalen Hurts to tighten the Cowboys' lead. It was the first time since Week 8 of 2017 that the Cowboys recorded a pick-six. With the win, the Cowboys improved to 2–1.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys continued to roll. The Cowboys trailed 14–13 at halftime, but they exploded in the second half. The third quarter began with Panthers' kicker Zane Gonzalez missing a field goal try, which the Cowboys took advantage by marching down the field to score a touchdown on the next drive. The Cowboys scored 23 unanswered points to take a 36–14 lead. Trevon Diggs recorded two interceptions off Panthers' Sam Darnold, giving Diggs a recorded 5 interceptions in the first 4 games. The Panthers scored the final 14 points, but the Cowboys picked up a first down in the last minutes to run out the clock. This win improved the Cowboys to 3–1. This was the Cowboys' first win over the Panthers since 2012.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: Dak Prescott and the Cowboys played their second consecutive Week 5 home game against the Giants. Unlike the previous season's matchup, Dak Prescott finished the game without suffering an injury. The game began with Dak Prescott throwing an interception and losing a fumble, neither turnover of which the Cowboys would allow the Giants to score. The Cowboys never once trailed despite allowing New York to tie the game. After this, the game was all Dallas. The Cowboys scored two more takeaways, one of which was a pick six collected by Anthony Brown to seal the win for the Cowboys. This win improved the Cowboys to 4–1. This was the first time since 2018 that they won 4 or more consecutive games.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys scored the 2,500th touchdown in franchise history with Dak Prescott's 1-yard pass to CeeDee Lamb in the third quarter to take their first lead of the game, their first touchdown against the Patriots since 2011. During overtime, the Cowboys forced a Patriots punt, putting the Cowboys in position to score. During the final play, Dak Prescott threw a game-winning touchdown pass to CeeDee Lamb to seal the Cowboys' win. With the win the Cowboys improved to 5–1, as well as getting their first win over the Patriots since 1996, and their first on the road since 1987.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: Dak Prescott was benched for the game due to a grade 1 calf strain. Backup Cooper Rush got his first career start in place of Prescott. The Cowboys' defense allowed an opening-drive touchdown and was not able to collect any takeaways, but they gave the Vikings' offense a hard time all game and only allowed three field goals the rest of the game. The Cowboys won the game in the final minute when Cooper Rush connected with Amari Cooper for a five-yard touchdown pass. With the win, the Cowboys improved to 6–1. This was the Cowboys' second consecutive win over the Vikings, as well as the third at U.S. Bank Stadium. This was the first time the Cowboys won six in a row since 2016.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys returned home to face the Denver Broncos. Dallas entered the game as 10-point home favorites, seeking their first win against Denver since the 1995 season. However, the Cowboys' offense was stymied by the Broncos defense the entire game. The Cowboys recorded their second blocked punt of the season, but the Broncos recovered to retain possession. Dallas' only points came on two touchdowns to Malik Turner, but the outcome was already decided in favor of the Broncos. The 30-16 loss dropped the Cowboys to 6–2 on the season, and 0–7 in their last 7 matchups against the Broncos. Dallas never held a lead against Denver, and was held under twenty points, both firsts for the season.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys rebounded in a considerable way. The Cowboys offense combined for 43 points off of 431 yards. The scoring began with CeeDee Lamb hauling in Dak Prescott's pass for a touchdown to give the Cowboys the early lead. The Falcons responded with a field goal for their lone scoring play of the game. Afterwards, the Cowboys put up 36 unanswered points, 29 of which came in the second quarter. Ezekiel Elliott scored two touchdown runs to extend Dallas' lead to 21-3, before Lamb caught his second touchdown to make it 28-3. The special teams would also contribute with Nahshon Wright returning a blocked punt for a touchdown. As the Cowboys led 36–3 at halftime, their defense intercepted the Falcons three times in three drives. One of those interceptions was by Trevon Diggs, who had not intercepted a pass since Week 6 against the Patriots. With this win, the Cowboys improved to 7–2.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys traveled to Kansas City to take on the Chiefs, whom the Cowboys have not beaten on the road since 2009. The Cowboys fell behind quickly when the defense allowed 2 scoring plays, and was never able to catch up. The Cowboys noticed the absence of Amari Cooper, who was ruled out due to COVID-19 protocols. Cooper's absence would contribute largely to Dallas' subsequent struggles on offense, as they failed to score a single touchdown despite their defense holding Kansas City's high-powered offense under 20 points. The 19–9 loss dropped the Cowboys to 7–3. This was the only time the Cowboys failed to put a double-digit number on the board the entire season.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: After their humiliating loss to the Chiefs, the Cowboys looked to win their first game on Thanksgiving since they beat the Washington Football Team in 2018, who were then known as the Redskins. The Cowboys were already in trouble after several pass interference plays. The Cowboys sent the game to overtime, but their comeback bid was blown after a controversial pass interference call on Anthony Brown. The Cowboys fell to 7–4, and lost their third consecutive game on Thanksgiving Day.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: With Mike McCarthy in COVID-19 protocols, Dan Quinn took the interim head coaching position in place of McCarthy. The Cowboys ended their losing streak against the Saints in New Orleans with the win, as well as improving to 8–4.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys continued their road trip against the Washington Football Team. Dallas would jump out to a 24-0 lead by halftime. One of those scoring plays involved Micah Parsons forcing a fumble, which was recovered by Dorance Armstrong for a touchdown. In the second half, Washington would awaken from their slump and score three touchdowns of their own, including a pick-six by Cole Holcomb. However, Dallas was able to stave off the late rally and keep the game out of Washington's reach by forcing a game-ending fumble. The win improved the Cowboys to 9–4.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys continued their dominance against the Giants. The Cowboys defense continued to be superior to the Giants offense, as the Cowboys held the Giants without a touchdown. The win improved the Cowboys to 10–4. Several days later, the Cowboys clinched a postseason berth after the 49ers lost to the Titans.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: Having already clinched the NFC East after the Broncos lost to the Raiders, the Cowboys looked to add to their momentum as they returned home to play against the Washington Football Team. The Cowboys dominated the game in every way. The Cowboys defense continued to shine with an additional 2 takeaways, one of which was a pick six. Dak Prescott became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw touchdown passes to a wide receiver, running back, offensive tackle, and a tight end in a single game. The Cowboys scored their most points since 1980 when they romped the 49ers, 59–14. This win improved the Cowboys to 11–4 and swept Washington for the first time since 2019.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys stayed home for the second straight week to take on the Arizona Cardinals. Dallas struggled in the first half and could not keep pace with Arizona. They later fought back in the fourth quarter to pull within 3 points, but a controversial fumble call ended the Cowboys' momentum. This loss dropped the Cowboys to 11–5 on the season.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: Wide receiver Michael Gallup left the game with a knee injury in the second quarter after a touchdown reception. It was confirmed to be a torn ACL, ending his season.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys traveled to Philadelphia to play the backup-laden Eagles, who had also already clinched a playoff spot. Dak Prescott threw for 5 touchdowns, a career high. He also surpassed Tony Romo's single-season touchdown pass record. It was the first time in history the Cowboys would score 50+ points on the road. This was the first time since 1998 that the Cowboys completed a season sweep of the NFC East. The Cowboys finished the regular season 12–5 in the first ever 17-game NFL season.


title: 2021 Dallas Cowboys season

text: The Cowboys welcomed the red-hot San Francisco 49ers to town for the Wild Card Playoffs. However, the Cowboys were plagued by miscues and penalties throughout the game, and a late fourth-quarter rally fell short in a heartbreaking loss. San Francisco drew first blood with a touchdown run by Elijah Mitchell on the game's opening drive, and built their lead to 23–7 by the start of the fourth quarter. Dallas started their rally with a long field goal by Greg Zuerlein, followed by a touchdown run by Dak Prescott. On the game's final drive, Prescott led the Cowboys deep into San Francisco territory, but with seconds remaining and no time-outs, he was stopped in bounds on a run up the middle as the game clock continued running. The Cowboys had a first down at the 49ers 24-yard line, but the clock expired before Prescott could stop it by spiking the ball, ending the game and Dallas's season. The 23–17 loss marked the second time in their past three postseason appearances, and the seventh time in their past ten, that Dallas went one-and-done in the playoffs. The Cowboys finished the season with a total record of 12–6.


title: Apollo 9

text: Apollo 9 (March 313, 1969) was the third human spaceflight in NASA's Apollo program. Flown in low Earth orbit, it was the second crewed Apollo mission that the United States launched via a Saturn V rocket, and was the first flight of the full Apollo spacecraft: the command and service module (CSM) with the Lunar Module (LM). The mission was flown to qualify the LM for lunar orbit operations in preparation for the first Moon landing by demonstrating its descent and ascent propulsion systems, showing that its crew could fly it independently, then rendezvous and dock with the CSM again, as would be required for the first crewed lunar landing. Other objectives of the flight included firing the LM descent engine to propel the spacecraft stack as a backup mode (as would be required on the Apollo 13 mission), and use of the portable life support system backpack outside the LM cabin.


title: Apollo 9

text: The three-man crew consisted of Commander James McDivitt, Command Module Pilot David Scott, and Lunar Module Pilot Rusty Schweickart. During the ten-day mission, they tested systems and procedures critical to landing on the Moon, including the LM engines, backpack life support systems, navigation systems and docking maneuvers.


title: Apollo 9

text: After launching on March 3, 1969, the crew performed the first crewed flight of a lunar module, the first docking and extraction of the same, one two-person spacewalk (EVA), and the second docking of two crewed spacecraft—two months after the Soviets performed a spacewalk crew transfer between and . The mission concluded on March 13 and was a complete success. It proved the LM worthy of crewed spaceflight, setting the stage for the dress rehearsal for the lunar landing, Apollo 10, before the ultimate goal, landing on the Moon.


title: Apollo 9

text: In April 1966, McDivitt, Scott, and Schweickart were selected by Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton as the second Apollo crew. Their initial job was as backup to the first Apollo crew to be chosen, Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, for the first crewed Earth orbital test flight of the block I command and service module, designated AS-204. Delays in the block I CSM development pushed AS-204 into 1967. The revised plan had the McDivitt crew scheduled for the second crewed CSM, which was to rendezvous in Earth orbit with an uncrewed LM, launched separately. The third crewed mission, to be commanded by Frank Borman, was to be the first launch of a SaturnV with a crew.


title: Apollo 9

text: On January 27, 1967, Grissom's crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, which they named Apollo 1, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men. A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed. During this time Apollo 5 took place, an uncrewed launch to test the first lunar module (LM-1).


title: Apollo 9

text: Under the new schedule, the first Apollo crewed mission to go into space would be Apollo 7, planned for October 1968. This mission, which was to test the block II command module, did not include a lunar module. In 1967, NASA had adopted a series of lettered missions leading up to the crewed lunar landing, the "G mission", completion of one being a prerequisite to the next. Apollo7 would be the "Cmission", but the "Dmission" required testing of the crewed lunar module, which was running behind schedule and endangering John F. Kennedy's goal of Americans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. McDivitt's crew had been announced by NASA in November 1967 as prime crew for the Dmission, lengthy testing of the command and lunar modules in Earth orbit.


title: Apollo 9

text: Seeking to keep Kennedy's goal on schedule, in August 1968, Apollo Program Manager George M. Low proposed that if Apollo7 in October went well, Apollo8 would go to lunar orbit without a LM. Until then, Apollo8 was the Dmission with Apollo9 the "E mission", testing in medium Earth orbit. After NASA approved sending Apollo8 to the Moon, while making Apollo9 the Dmission, Slayton offered McDivitt the opportunity to stay with Apollo8 and thus go to lunar orbit. McDivitt turned it down on behalf of his crew, preferring to stay with the Dmission, now Apollo9.


title: Apollo 9

text: Apollo7 went well, and the crews were switched. The crew swap also affected who would be the first astronauts to land on the Moon, for when the crews for Apollo8 and9 were swapped, so were the backup crews. Since the rule of thumb was for backup crews to fly as prime crew three missions later, this put Neil Armstrong's crew (Borman's backup) in position to make the first landing attempt on Apollo 11 instead of Pete Conrad's crew, who made the second landing on Apollo 12.


title: Apollo 9

text: McDivitt was in the Air Force; selected as a member of the second group of astronauts in 1962, he was command pilot of Gemini 4 (1965). Scott, also Air Force, was selected in the third astronaut group in 1963 and flew alongside Neil Armstrong in Gemini 8, on which the first spacecraft docking was performed. Schweickart, a civilian who had served in the Air Force and Massachusetts Air National Guard, was selected as a Group3 astronaut but was not assigned to a Gemini mission and had no spaceflight experience.


title: Apollo 9

text: The backup crew consisted of Pete Conrad as commander, Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr., and Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean. This crew flew as prime on Apollo 12 in November 1969. The support crew for Apollo9 consisted of Stuart A. Roosa, Jack R. Lousma, Edgar D. Mitchell and Alfred M. Worden. Lousma was not an original member of the Apollo9 support crew, but was assigned after Fred W. Haise Jr. was moved to the position of backup lunar module pilot on Apollo 8—several astronauts were shifted in the wake of Michael Collins being removed from the Apollo8 prime crew because of treatment for bone spurs.


title: Apollo 9

text: The flight directors were Gene Kranz, first shift, Gerry Griffin, second shift and Pete Frank, third shift. Capsule communicators were Conrad, Gordon, Bean, Worden, Roosa and Ronald Evans.


title: Apollo 9

text: The circular patch shows a drawing of a Saturn V rocket with the letters USA on it. To its right, an Apollo CSM is shown next to an LM, with the CSM's nose pointed at the "front door" of the LM rather than at its top docking port. The CSM is trailing rocket fire in a circle. The crew's names are along the top edge of the circle, with APOLLO IX at the bottom. The "D" in McDivitt's name is filled with red to mark that this was the "Dmission" in the alphabetic sequence of Apollo missions. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.


title: Apollo 9

text: Apollo 9's main purpose was to qualify the LM for crewed lunar flight, demonstrating, among other things, that it could perform the maneuvers in space that would be needed for a lunar landing, including docking with the CSM. Colin Burgess and Francis French, in their book about the Apollo Program, deemed McDivitt's crew among the best trained ever—they had worked together since January 1966, at first as backups for Apollo 1, and they always had the assignment of being the first to fly the LM. Flight Director Gene Kranz deemed the Apollo9 crew the best prepared for their mission, and felt Scott was an extremely knowledgeable CMP. Crew members underwent some 1,800 hours of mission-specific training, about seven hours for every hour they would spend in flight. Their training even started on the day before the Apollo1 fire, in the very first Block II spacecraft in which they were originally intended to fly. They took part in the vehicle checkouts for the CSM at North American Rockwell's facility in Downey, California, and for the LM at Grumman's plant in Bethpage, New York. They also participated in testing of the modules at the launch site.


title: Apollo 9

text: Among the types of the training which the crew underwent were simulations of zero-G, both underwater and in the Vomit Comet. During these exercises, they practiced for the planned extravehicular activities (EVAs). They traveled to Cambridge, Massachusetts, for training on the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) at MIT. The crew studied the sky at the Morehead Planetarium and at the Griffith Planetarium, especially focusing on the 37 stars used by the AGC. They each spent more than 300 hours in the CM and LM simulators at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and at Houston, some involving live participation by Mission Control. Additional time was spent in simulators in other locations.


title: Apollo 9

text: The first mission to use the CSM, the LM and a SaturnV, Apollo9 allowed the launch preparations team at KSC its first opportunity to simulate the launch of a lunar landing mission. The LM arrived from Grumman in June 1968 and was subjected to extensive testing including in the altitude chamber, simulating space conditions. As this occurred, other technicians assembled the SaturnV inside the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). The CM and SM arrived in October, but even the experienced KSC team from North American had trouble joining them together. When the lander was done with the altitude chamber, the CSM took its place, letting the LM be available for installation of equipment such as rendezvous radar and antennas. There were no lengthy delays, and on January 3, 1969, the launch vehicle was taken out of the VAB and moved to Launch Complex 39A by crawler. Flight readiness reviews for the CM, the LM, and the SaturnV were held and passed in the following weeks.


title: Apollo 9

text: The Saturn V (AS-504) used on Apollo9 was the fourth to be flown, the second to carry astronauts to space, and the first to bear a lunar module. Although similar in configuration to the SaturnV used on Apollo 8, several changes were made. The inner core of the F-1 engine chamber in the first (S-IC) stage was removed, thus saving weight and allowing for a slight increase in specific impulse. Weight was also saved by replacing the skins of the liquid oxygen tanks with lighter ones, and by providing lighter versions of other components. Efficiency was increased in the S-II second stage with uprated J-2 engines, and through a closed-loop propellant utilization system rather than Apollo 8's open-loop system. Of the weight reduction in the second stage, about half came from a 16 percent reduction in the thickness of the tank side walls.


title: Apollo 9

text: Apollo9 used CSM-104, the third block II CSM to be flown with astronauts aboard. Apollo 8, lacking a lunar module, did not have docking equipment; Apollo9 flew the probe-and-drogue assembly used for docking along with other equipment added near the forward hatch of the CM; this allowed for rigid docking of the two craft, and for internal transfer between CM and LM. Had the switch in missions between Apollo8 and9 not occurred, the Earth-orbit mission would have flown CSM-103, which flew on Apollo 8.


title: Apollo 9

text: The Earth-orbit mission was originally supposed to use LM-2 as its lunar module, but the crew found numerous flaws in it, many associated with it being the first flight-ready lunar module off Grumman's production line. The delay occasioned by the switch in missions allowed LM-3 to be available, a machine the crew found far superior. Neither LM-2 nor LM-3 could have been sent to the Moon as both were too heavy; Grumman's weight reduction program for the LMs only became fully effective with LM-5, designated for Apollo 11. Small cracks in LM-3's aluminum alloy structure due to stresses such as the insertion of a rivet proved an ongoing issue; Grumman's engineers continued working to fix them until the LM had to be mounted on the SaturnV in December 1968, where it was housed inside the Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter, numbered as SLA-11A. LM-2 never flew in space and is in the National Air and Space Museum.


title: Apollo 9

text: The Apollo astronauts were provided with early versions of the Sony Walkman, portable cassette recorders intended to allow them to make observations during the mission. The Apollo9 crew was the first to be allowed to bring music mixtapes, one each, that could be played in that device. McDivitt and Scott preferred easy listening and country music; Schweickart's cassette tape of classical music went missing until the ninth day of the ten-day mission, when it was presented to him by Scott.


title: Apollo 9

text: After the Gemini 3 craft was dubbed "Molly Brown" by Grissom, NASA forbade naming spacecraft. The fact that during the Apollo9 mission, the CSM and LM would separate and need different call signs caused the Apollo9 astronauts to push for a change. In simulations, they began to refer to the CSM as "Gumdrop", a name inspired by the CM's appearance while in the blue protective wrapping in which it was transported from the manufacturer, and the LM as "Spider", inspired by the LM's appearance with landing legs deployed. Personnel in NASA public relations thought the names were too informal, but the call signs ultimately gained official sanction. NASA required more formal call signs for future missions, starting with Apollo 11.


title: Apollo 9

text: The Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) backpack flew for the first time on Apollo9, used by Schweickart during his EVA. This included the Portable Life Support System (PLSS), providing oxygen to the astronaut and water for the Liquid Cooling Garment (LCG), which helped prevent overheating during extravehicular activity. Also present was the Oxygen Purge System (OPS), the "bedroll" atop the backpack, which could provide oxygen for up to roughly an hour if the PLSS failed. A more advanced version of the EMU was used for the lunar landing on Apollo 11.


title: Apollo 9

text: During his stand-up EVA, Scott did not wear a PLSS, but was connected to the CM's life support systems through an umbilical, utilizing a Pressure Control Valve (PCV). This device had been created in 1967 to allow for stand-up EVAs from the hatches of the LM or CM, or for brief ventures outside. It was later used by Scott for his lunar surface stand-up EVA on Apollo 15, and for the deep-space EVAs by the command module pilots of the final three Apollo flights.


title: Apollo 9

text: Originally scheduled to launch on February 28, 1969, the liftoff of Apollo9 was postponed because all three astronauts had colds, and NASA did not want to risk that the mission might be affected. Around-the-clock labor shifts were required to keep the spacecraft in readiness; the delay cost $500,000. The rocket launched from KSC at 11:00:00 EST (16:00:00 GMT) on March 3. This was well within the launch window, which would have remained open for another three and a quarter hours. Present in the firing control room was Vice President Spiro Agnew on behalf of the new Nixon administration.


title: Apollo 9

text: McDivitt reported a smooth ride during the launch, although there was some vibration and the astronauts were surprised to be pushed forward when the Saturn V's first stage stopped firing, before its second stage took over, when they were pushed back into their couches. Each of the first two stages slightly underperformed; a deficiency made up, more or less, by the S-IVB third stage. Once the third stage cut out at 00:11:04.7 into the mission, Apollo9 had entered a parking orbit of .


title: Apollo 9

text: The crew began their first major orbital task with the separation of the CSM from the S-IVB at 02:41:16 into the mission, seeking to turn around and then dock with the LM, which was on the end of the S-IVB, after which the combined spacecraft would separate from the rocket. If it was not possible to make such a docking, the lunar landing could not take place. It was Scott's responsibility to fly the CSM, which he did to a successful docking, as the probe-and-drogue docking assembly worked properly. After McDivitt and Schweickart inspected the tunnel connecting the CM and LM, the assembled spacecraft separated from the S-IVB. The next task was to demonstrate that two docked spacecraft could be maneuvered by one engine. The five-second burn took place at 05:59.01.1 into the mission, accomplished with the SM's Service Propulsion System (SPS), after which Scott excitedly reported the LM was still in place. Thereafter, the S-IVB was fired again, and the stage was sent into solar orbit.


title: Apollo 9

text: From 09:00:00 to 19:30:00, a sleep period was scheduled. The astronauts slept well, but complained of being woken by non-English transmissions. Scott theorized that they were possibly in Chinese. The highlight of the second day in orbit (March 4) was three SPS burns. The initial burn, at 22:12:04.1, lasted 110 seconds, and including swiveling or "gimbaling" the engine to test whether the autopilot could dampen the induced oscillations, which it did within five seconds. Two more SPS burns followed, lightening the SM's fuel load. The spacecraft and engine passed every test, sometimes proving more robust than expected. The performance of the CSM in remaining stable while the engine was being gimbaled would in 1972 help cause McDivitt, by then manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program, to approve the continuation of Apollo 16 when its CSM was experiencing an unstable gimbal after separation from its LM in lunar orbit.


title: Apollo 9

text: The flight plan for the third day in space was to have the commander and lunar module pilot enter the LM to check out its systems and use its descent engine to move the entire spacecraft. The descent engine was the backup to the SPS; the ability to use it in this manner would prove critical on Apollo 13. The flight plan was thrown into question when Schweickart, suffering from space adaptation sickness, vomited, while McDivitt felt queasy as well. They had been avoiding sudden physical motions, but the contortion-like maneuvers to don their space suits for the LM checkout caused them to feel ill. The experience would teach the doctors enough about the sickness to have the astronauts avoid it on the lunar landings, but at the time Schweickart feared his vomiting might endanger Kennedy's goal. They were well enough to continue with the day's plan, and entered the LM, thus transferring between vehicles for the first time in the US space program, and making the first ever transfer without needing to spacewalk, as Soviet cosmonauts had. The hatches were then closed, though the modules remained docked, showing that "Spider" communications and life support systems would work in isolation from those of "Gumdrop". On command, the landing legs sprang into the position they would assume for landing on the Moon.


title: Apollo 9

text: In the LM, Schweickart vomited again, causing McDivitt to request a private channel to the doctors in Houston. The first episode had not been reported to the ground because of its brief nature, and when the media learned what had happened to Schweickart, there were "repercussions and a spate of unfriendly stories". They finished the LM checkout, including the successful firing of the descent engine, and returned to Scott in "Gumdrop". The burn lasted 367 seconds and simulated the throttle pattern to be used during the landing on the Moon. After they returned, a fifth firing of the SPS was made, designed to circularize Apollo9's orbit in preparation for the rendezvous. This took place at 54:26:12.3, raising the craft's orbit to .


title: Apollo 9

text: The fourth day's program (March 6) was for Schweickart to exit the hatch on the LM and make his way along the outside of the spacecraft to the CM's hatch, where Scott would stand by to assist, demonstrating that this could be done in the event of an emergency. Schweickart was to wear the life support backpack, or PLSS, to be worn on the lunar surface EVAs. This was the only EVA scheduled before the lunar landing, and thus the only opportunity to test the PLSS in space. McDivitt initially canceled the EVA due to Schweickart's condition, but with the lunar module pilot feeling better, decided to allow him to exit the LM, and once he was there, to move around the LM's exterior using handholds. Scott stood in the CM's hatch; both men photographed each other and retrieved experiments from the exterior of their vehicles. Schweickart found moving around easier than it had been in simulations; both he and Scott were confident that Schweickart could have completed the exterior transfer if called upon to do so, but considered it unnecessary. During the EVA, Schweickart used the call sign "Red Rover", a nod to the color of his hair.


title: Apollo 9

text: On March 7, the fifth day, came "the key event of the entire mission: the separation and rendezvous of the lunar module and the command module". The lunar module lacked the capability to return the astronauts to Earth; this was the first time space travelers had flown in a vehicle that could not take them home. McDivitt and Schweickart entered the LM early, having obtained permission to do so without wearing their helmets and gloves, making it easier to set up the LM. When Scott in "Gumdrop" pushed the button to release the LM, it initially hung on the latches at the end of the docking probe, but he hit the button again and "Spider" was released. After spending about 45 minutes near "Gumdrop", "Spider" went into a slightly higher orbit, meaning that over time, the two craft would separate, with "Gumdrop" ahead. Over the next hours, McDivitt fired the LM's descent engine at several throttle settings; by the end of the day the LM was thoroughly test-flown. At a distance of , "Spider" fired to lower its orbit and thus begin to catch up with "Gumdrop", a process that would take over two hours, and the descent stage was jettisoned.


title: Apollo 9

text: The approach and rendezvous were conducted as near as possible to what was planned for the lunar missions. To demonstrate that rendezvous could be performed by either craft, "Spider" was the active party during the maneuver. McDivitt brought "Spider" close to "Gumdrop", then maneuvered the LM to show each side to Scott, allowing him to inspect for any damage. Then, McDivitt docked the craft. Due to glare from the Sun, he had trouble doing this and Scott guided him in. During the later missions, the job of docking the two spacecraft in lunar orbit would fall to the command module pilot. After McDivitt and Schweickart returned to "Gumdrop", "Spider" was jettisoned, its engine fired to fuel depletion remotely by Mission Control as part of further testing of the engine, simulating an ascent stage's climb from the lunar surface. This raised "Spider" to an orbit with apogee of over . The only major lunar module system not fully tested was the landing radar, as this could not be done in Earth orbit.


title: Apollo 9

text: Apollo 9 was to remain in space for about ten days to check how the CSM would perform over the period of time required for a lunar mission. Most major events had been scheduled for the first days so that they would be accomplished if the flight needed to be ended early. The remaining days in orbit were to be conducted at a more leisurely pace. With the main goals of the mission accomplished, the hatch window was used for special photography of Earth, using four identical Hasselblad cameras, coupled together and using film sensitive to different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such photography allowed different features of the Earth's surface to appear, for example, tracking of water pollution as it exits mouths of rivers into the sea, and the highlighting of agricultural areas using infrared. The camera system was a prototype, and would pave the way for the Earth Resources Technology Satellite, predecessor to the Landsat series. The photography was successful, as the ample time in orbit meant the crew could wait to allow cloud cover to pass, and would inform Skylab's mission planning.


title: Apollo 9

text: Scott used a sextant to track landmarks on the Earth, and turned the instrument to the skies to observe the planet Jupiter, practicing navigation techniques that were to be used on later missions. The crew was able to track the Pegasus 3 satellite (launched in 1965) as well as the ascent stage of "Spider". The sixth burn of the SPS engine took place on the sixth day, though it was postponed one orbit as the reaction control system (RCS) thruster burn needed to settle the reactants in their tanks was not properly programmed. The SPS burn lowered the perigee of Apollo9's orbit, allowing for improved RCS thruster deorbit capability as a backup to the SPS.


title: Apollo 9

text: Considerable testing of the CSM took place, but this was principally Scott's responsibility, allowing McDivitt and Schweickart leisure to observe the Earth; they alerted Scott if anything particularly noteworthy was upcoming, letting him leave his work for a moment to look at Earth too. The seventh burn of the SPS system took place on the eighth day, March 10; its purpose was again to aid RCS deorbit capability, as well as extending "Gumdrop" orbital lifetime. It shifted the apogee of the orbit to the Southern Hemisphere, allowing for a longer free-fall time to entry when Apollo9 returned to Earth. The burn was extended to allow for testing of the propellent gaging system, which had been behaving anomalously during earlier SPS burns. Once it was accomplished, Apollo9's RCS thrusters could have returned it to Earth and still allowed it to land in the primary recovery zone had the SPS engine failed. The eighth and final SPS burn, to return the vehicle to Earth, was accomplished on March 13, less than an hour after the ten-day mark of the mission, after which the service module was jettisoned. The landing was delayed one orbit because of unfavorable weather in the primary landing zone some ESE of Bermuda. Instead, Apollo9 splashed down east of the Bahamas, about from the recovery carrier, the USS "Guadalcanal", after a mission lasting 10 days, 1hour, 54 seconds. Apollo9 was the last spacecraft to splash down in the Atlantic Ocean for a half century, until the Crew Dragon Demo-1 mission in 2019, and last crewed splashdown in the Atlantic until Inspiration4 in 2021.


title: Apollo 9

text: The Apollo9 Command Module "Gumdrop" (1969-018A) is on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. "Gumdrop" was formerly displayed at the Michigan Space and Science Center, Jackson, Michigan, until April 2004, when the center closed. The service module, jettisoned shortly after the deorbit burn, reentered the atmosphere and disintegrated.