title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: In March 2019, the U.S. Army selected Martin UAV and AAI Corporation to "provide unmanned aircraft systems for platoons to try out as candidates to replace the Shadow tactical UAS." The Army seeks better acoustics and runway independence as compared to the old Shadow, as well as lower equipment requirements. Shortly after the selection of the first teams, L3Harris Technologies and Arcturus-UAV (later under AeroVironment) were also picked to submit candidates. The four aircraft were used to evaluate requirements and assess new capabilities, and in August 2021 the Army decided to proceed with a competition for the Future Tactical Unmanned Aircraft System (FTUAS); a fielding decision is planned for 2025. The Army chose the AeroVironment Jump 20 in August 2022. The procurement will inform requirements for a second program increment, which will rely on a separate competitive acquisition. Although the Army plans to replace the Shadow in brigade combat teams, it will continue to be used by combat aviation brigades and special forces units into the mid-2030s.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: The RQ-7A was the initial version of the Shadow 200 UAS developed by AAI. The first low-rate initial-production systems were delivered to the US Army in 2002 with the first full-scale production systems being delivered in September 2003. The RQ-7A was long and had a wingspan of with a max takeoff weight. The aircraft's endurance ranged between 4 and 5.5 hours depending on mission. The "A" model aircraft also had the AR741-1100 engine which could use either 87 octane automotive gasoline or 100LL aviation fuel. The "A" model also featured IAI's POP200 payload.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: Production of Shadow aircraft shifted to a generally improved RQ-7B variant in the summer of 2004. The RQ-7B features new wings increased in length to . The new wings are not only more aerodynamically efficient, they are "wet" to increase fuel storage up to 44 liters for an endurance of up to 6 hours. The payload capability has been increased to .


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: After reports from Iraq that engines were failing, in 2005, the Army's UAV project manager called for the use of 100LL, an aviation fuel, rather than the conventional 87 octane mogas. Avionics systems have been generally improved, and the new wing is designed to accommodate a communications relay package, which allows the aircraft to act as a relay station. This allows commanders or even the aircraft operators themselves to communicate via radio to the troops on ground in locations that would otherwise be "dead" to radio traffic.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: The Shadow can operate up to from its brigade tactical operations center, and recognize tactical vehicles up to above the ground at more than slant range.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: Other incremental improvements to the system include replacing the AR741-1100 engine with the AR741-1101 which increases reliability through the use of dual spark plugs as well as limiting the fuel to 100LL. Also, the older POP200 payload was replaced with the newer POP300 system. In February 2010, AAI began a fleet update program to improve the Shadow system. The improvements include installing the wiring harnesses and software updates for IAI's POP300D payload which includes a designator for guiding laser-guided bombs.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: Other improvements in the program will include an electronic fuel injection engine and fuel system to replace the AR741-1101's carburetted engine. The most visible improvement to the system will be a wider wing of in span which is designed to increase fuel capacity and allow for mission endurance of almost 9 hours. The new wings will also include hardpoints for external munitions.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: A joint Army-Marine program is testing IED jamming on a Shadow at MCAS Yuma. Another joint effort is to view a ground area from 3,650 m (12,000 feet).


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: The Army is now proposing the upgraded Shadow 152A, which includes Soldier Radio Waveform software, which allows both the command post and their troops to see the images that the UAV is projecting, as long as they are on the same frequency. It also increases the distance and area of communication.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: Preliminary TCDL testing conducted at Dugway Proving Ground was a success. This led to an estimated fielding date of May 2010 for TCDL. In March 2015, the first Shadow unit was equipped with the upgraded RQ-7BV2 Shadow version. New capabilities for the BV2 include the TCDL, encryption of video and control data-links, software that allows interoperability between other UAS platforms, integration of a common control station and control terminal for all Army UAS platforms, an electronic fuel-injection engine, and increased endurance to nine hours through a lengthened wingspan of , with weight increased to . Shadow systems are being upgraded at a rate of 2-3 per month, with all Army Shadows planned to become BV2s by 2019.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: In 2020, the Army introduced the Shadow Block III. The configuration allows the Shadow to fly in rainy conditions of up to two inches per hour, a four-fold increase over previous versions, carries the L3 Wescam MX-10 EO/IR camera with enhanced image collection, has a Joint Tactical Radio System to enable communications relay, and uses a more reliable and powerful engine configuration with reduced noise.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: On 19 April 2010 the Army issued a "solicitation for sources sought" from defense contractors for a munition for the Shadow system with a deadline for proposals due no later than 10 May 2010. Although no specific munition has been chosen yet, some possible munitions include the Raytheon Pyros bomb, the General Dynamics 81 mm 4.5 kg (10-pound) air-dropped guided mortar, as well as the QuickMEDS system for delivering medical supplies to remote and stranded troops.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: The Army subsequently slowed work, and the Marine Corps then took the lead on arming the RQ-7 Shadow. Raytheon has conducted successful flight tests with the Small Tactical Munition, and Lockheed Martin has tested the Shadow Hawk glide weapon from an RQ-7. On 1 November 2012, General Dynamics successfully demonstrated their guided 81 mm Air Dropped Mortar, with three launches at hitting within seven meters of the target grid.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: As of August 2011, the Marine Corps has received official clearance to experiment with armed RQ-7s, and requires AAI to select a precision munition ready for deployment. AAI was awarded $10 million for this in December 2011, and claims a weapon has already been fielded by the Shadow. In 2014, Textron launched the Fury precision weapon from a Shadow 200.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: By May 2015, the Marine Corps had run out of funding for weaponizing the RQ-7, and the Army had shown little interest in continuing the effort. The Army's stance is that the Shadow's primary capability is persistent surveillance, while there are many other ways to drop bombs on targets and adding that to the Shadow would add weight and decrease endurance.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: A test version called STTB flew in summer 2011. AAI is developing a bigger version called M2 with a blended wing to include a 3-cylinder Lycoming heavy fuel engine, and began flight testing in August 2012. The Shadow M2 has a conformal blended body that reduces drag, wingspan increased to , and is heavier. It can fly for 16 hours at altitudes up to . Its endurance and service ceiling are comparable to Group 4 UASs like the MQ-1 Predator, so the company is pitching the M2 as a budget-conscious alternative to larger unmanned aircraft.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: It has a greater payload to carry synthetic aperture radar (SAR), wide-area surveillance, navigation, signals intelligence, and electronic warfare packages. It also has the ability to be controlled beyond line-of-sight through a SATCOM link. Although the M2 uses the same internal components as the RQ-7B Shadow 200 and is compatible with existing support equipment and ground infrastructure, its greater weight necessitates changes to the existing launcher. The Shadow M2 uses 80-85 percent of the components of the Shadow V2, while allowing for an additional of capability with total airframe weight increased to .


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: In June 2017, Textron introduced the Nightwarden TUAS as a production-ready model of the developmental Shadow M2, the change in name due to significant improvements and enhancements to the system such as greater flexibility and combat capability, SATCOM features, and enhanced command-and-control. The aircraft has a range of , maximum speed of , endurance of 15 hours, can fly at an altitude of , and has a maximum takeoff weight of with a dual-payload bay with a capacity of .


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: AAI has also built a scaled-up Pioneer derivative known as the "Shadow 600". It also resembles a Pioneer, except that the outer panels of the wings are distinctively swept back, and it has a stronger Wankel engine, the UAV EL 801, with . A number of Shadow 600s are in service in several nations, including Romania.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: AAI, in conjunction with Textron sister company Bell Helicopter, intends to modify two Shadows with a Carter rotor on top for vertical take-off and landing, eliminating the need for the recovery and pneumatic launcher systems, while increasing payload and endurance. , it is expected to fly in 2012. AAI also expected to use the SR/C technology for the Shadow Knight, a powered-rotor two-propeller surveillance aircraft for the US Navy MRMUAS program; however, the MRMUAS program was cancelled in 2012.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: On 15 August 2011, a US Air Force C-130 cargo plane collided with a RQ-7 while on approach to FOB Sharana in Paktika Province, Afghanistan. The C-130 made an emergency landing with damage to two engines and one wing, while the RQ-7 was destroyed completely. The collision caused the cargo aircraft to be grounded for several months while being fixed, while the RQ-7 wreckage was never recovered.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: On 3 April 2014, a Pennsylvania Army National Guard RQ-7 participating in training exercises at Fort Indiantown Gap crashed near an elementary school in Pennsylvania and was then hit by a civilian vehicle destroying the drone. No injuries were reported.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: On 10 July 2019, an Army RQ-7 operated by the 25th Infantry Division (United States) crashed in the Waianae mountains near Schofield Barracks.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: On 17 July 2019, a Wisconsin National Guard RQ-7 lost its link to its operator at Volk Field during a training exercise. The drone went down into trees south of Interstate 90/94 between Oakdale and Camp Douglas. No injuries or damage were reported. The drone suffered "significant" damage.


title: AAI RQ-7 Shadow

text: Note: When outfitted with IE (Increased Endurance) Wings, the CRP (Communications Relay Package) and the 1102 engine, endurance time is increased to 9 hours, wing span is increased to approx. , and the service ceiling is 5,500 m (18,000 ft) (only with authorization).


title: MNIST database

text: The MNIST database ("Modified National Institute of Standards and Technology database") is a large database of handwritten digits that is commonly used for training various image processing systems. The database is also widely used for training and testing in the field of machine learning. It was created by "re-mixing" the samples from NIST's original datasets. The creators felt that since NIST's training dataset was taken from American Census Bureau employees, while the testing dataset was taken from American high school students, it was not well-suited for machine learning experiments. Furthermore, the black and white images from NIST were normalized to fit into a 28x28 pixel bounding box and anti-aliased, which introduced grayscale levels.


title: MNIST database

text: The MNIST database contains 60,000 training images and 10,000 testing images. Half of the training set and half of the test set were taken from NIST's training dataset, while the other half of the training set and the other half of the test set were taken from NIST's testing dataset. The original creators of the database keep a list of some of the methods tested on it. In their original paper, they use a support-vector machine to get an error rate of 0.8%.


title: MNIST database

text: Extended MNIST (EMNIST) is a newer dataset developed and released by NIST to be the (final) successor to MNIST. MNIST included images only of handwritten digits. EMNIST includes all the images from NIST Special Database 19, which is a large database of handwritten uppercase and lower case letters as well as digits. The images in EMNIST were converted into the same 28x28 pixel format, by the same process, as were the MNIST images. Accordingly, tools which work with the older, smaller, MNIST dataset will likely work unmodified with EMNIST.


title: MNIST database

text: The set of images in the MNIST database was created in 1998 as a combination of two of NIST's databases: Special Database 1 and Special Database 3. Special Database 1 and Special Database 3 consist of digits written by high school students and employees of the United States Census Bureau, respectively.


title: MNIST database

text: Some researchers have achieved "near-human performance" on the MNIST database, using a committee of neural networks; in the same paper, the authors achieve performance double that of humans on other recognition tasks. The highest error rate listed on the original website of the database is 12 percent, which is achieved using a simple linear classifier with no preprocessing.


title: MNIST database

text: In 2004, a best-case error rate of 0.42 percent was achieved on the database by researchers using a new classifier called the LIRA, which is a neural classifier with three neuron layers based on Rosenblatt's perceptron principles.


title: MNIST database

text: Some researchers have tested artificial intelligence systems using the database put under random distortions. The systems in these cases are usually neural networks and the distortions used tend to be either affine distortions or elastic distortions. Sometimes, these systems can be very successful; one such system achieved an error rate on the database of 0.39 percent.


title: MNIST database

text: In 2011, an error rate of 0.27 percent, improving on the previous best result, was reported by researchers using a similar system of neural networks. In 2013, an approach based on regularization of neural networks using DropConnect has been claimed to achieve a 0.21 percent error rate. In 2016, the single convolutional neural network best performance was 0.25 percent error rate. As of August 2018, the best performance of a single convolutional neural network trained on MNIST training data using no data augmentation is 0.25 percent error rate. Also, the Parallel Computing Center (Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine) obtained an ensemble of only 5 convolutional neural networks which performs on MNIST at 0.21 percent error rate. Some images in the testing dataset are barely readable and may prevent reaching test error rates of 0%. In 2018, researchers from Department of System and Information Engineering, University of Virginia announced 0.18% error with simultaneous stacked three kind of neural networks (fully connected, recurrent and convolution neural networks).


title: MNIST database

text: This is a table of some of the machine learning methods used on the dataset and their error rates, by type of classifier:


title: Han Ji-eun

text: Han Ji-eun (; born 3 June 1987) is a South Korean actress. She made her acting debut in 2010 in the film "Ghost". She is known for her work in both film and television including "Real" (2017), "Rampant" (2018), "100 Days My Prince" (2018), "Be Melodramatic" (2019), and "Lovestruck in the City" (2020).


title: Han Ji-eun

text: Han Ji-eun was born on 3 June 1987, she graduated from Dongduk Women's University, Department of Broadcasting and Entertainment.


title: Han Ji-eun

text: In 2016, she led the cast of beauty drama "Introduction to Beauty", a web series streamed on Naver TV.


title: Han Ji-eun

text: In 2018, Han appeared in supporting roles in the films "Rampant" and "Door Lock," and the dramas "Twelve Nights" and "100 Days My Prince".


title: Han Ji-eun

text: In 2019, she landed her first lead role in the JTBC drama "Be Melodramatic", in which she portrayed a single mother in her early thirties. In the same year she collaborated with radio DJ Jung Sung-gyu for the Sunday Music Drama aired on "Good Morning FM".


title: Han Ji-eun

text: Han portrayed Lee Tae-ri in "Kkondae Intern", a MBC drama broadcast from May to June 2020. In November, she made her first appearance on the variety show "Running Man". She also appeared in KakaoTV's romantic comedy "Lovestruck in the City" as Oh Sun-young opposite Ryu Kyung-soo.


title: Han Ji-eun

text: In 2021, she did a cameo in web series "The Witch's Diner" and starred in the mystery drama "Bad and Crazy" as Hee-gyeom, a detective of the drug crime investigation team alongside Lee Dong-wook.


title: Paul Rand

text: Paul Rand (born Peretz Rosenbaum; August 15, 1914 – November 26, 1996) was an American art director and graphic designer, best known for his corporate logo designs, including the logos for IBM, UPS, Enron, Morningstar, Inc., Westinghouse, ABC, and NeXT. He was one of the first American commercial artists to embrace and practice the Swiss Style of graphic design.


title: Paul Rand

text: Rand was a professor emeritus of graphic design at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut where he taught from 1956 to 1969, and from 1974 to 1985. He was inducted into the New York Art Directors Club Hall of Fame in 1972.


title: Paul Rand

text: Paul Rand was born Peretz Rosenbaum on August 15, 1914 in Brooklyn, New York. He embraced design at a very young age, painting signs for his father's grocery store as well as for school events at P.S. 109. Rand's father did not believe art could provide his son with a sufficient livelihood, and so he required Paul to attend Manhattan's Haaren High School while taking night classes at the Pratt Institute. Rand was largely "self-taught" as a designer, learning about the works of Cassandre and Moholy-Nagy from European magazines such as "Gebrauchsgraphik"." Rand also attended Parsons School of Design and the Art Students League of New York.


title: Paul Rand

text: His career began with humble assignments, starting with a part-time position creating stock images for a syndicate that supplied graphics to various newspapers and magazines. Between his class assignments and his work, Rand was able to amass a fairly large portfolio, largely influenced by the German advertising style Sachplakat (object poster) as well as the works of Gustav Jensen. It was around this time that he decided to camouflage the overtly Jewish identity conveyed by his name, Peretz Rosenbaum, shortening his forename to 'Paul' and taking 'Rand' from an uncle to form a Madison Avenue-friendly surname. Morris Wyszogrod, a friend and associate of Rand, noted that "he figured that 'Paul Rand,' four letters here, four letters there, would create a nice symbol. So he became Paul Rand." Roy R. Behrens notes the importance of this new title: "Rand's new persona, which served as the brand name for his many accomplishments, was the first corporate identity he created, and it may also eventually prove to be the most enduring." Indeed, Rand was rapidly moving into the forefront of his profession.


title: Paul Rand

text: In his early twenties, he was producing work that began to garner international acclaim, notably his designs on the covers of "Direction" magazine, which Rand produced for no fee in exchange for full artistic freedom. Among the accolades Rand received were those of László Moholy-Nagy:


title: Paul Rand

text: The reputation Rand so rapidly amassed in his prodigious twenties never dissipated; rather, it only managed to increase through the years as his influential works and writings firmly established him as the "éminence grise" of his profession.


title: Paul Rand

text: Although Rand was most famous for the corporate logos he created in the 1950s and 1960s, his early work in page design was the initial source of his reputation. In 1936, Rand was given the job of setting the page layout for an "Apparel Arts" (now "GQ)" magazine anniversary issue. "His remarkable talent for transforming mundane photographs into dynamic compositions, which ... gave editorial weight to the page" earned Rand a full-time job, as well as an offer to take over as art director for the Esquire-Coronet magazines. Initially, Rand refused this offer, claiming that he was not yet at the level the job required, but a year later he decided to go ahead with it, taking over responsibility for Esquire's fashion pages at the young age of twenty-three.


title: Paul Rand

text: The cover art for "Direction" magazine proved to be an important step in the development of the "Paul Rand look" that was not as yet fully developed. The December 1940 cover, which uses barbed wire to present the magazine as both a war-torn gift and a crucifix, is indicative of the artistic freedom Rand enjoyed at "Direction"; in "Thoughts on Design" Rand notes that it "is significant that the crucifix, aside from its religious implications, is a demonstration of pure plastic form as well ... a perfect union of the aggressive vertical (male) and the passive horizontal (female)."


title: Paul Rand

text: Rand's most widely known contributions to design are his corporate identities, many of which are still in use. IBM, ABC, Cummins Engine, UPS, and Enron, among many others, owe Rand their graphical heritage. One of his strengths, as Moholy-Nagy pointed out, was his ability as a salesman to explain the needs his identities would address for the corporation. According to graphic designer Louis Danziger:


title: Paul Rand

text: Rand's defining corporate identity was his IBM logo in 1956, which as Mark Favermann notes "was not just an identity but a basic design philosophy which permeated corporate consciousness and public awareness." The logo was modified by Rand in 1960. The striped logo was created in 1972. The stripes were introduced as a half-toning technique to make the IBM mark slightly less heavy and more dynamic. Two variations of the "striped" logo were designed; one with eight stripes, one with thirteen stripes. The bolder mark with eight stripes was intended as the company's default logo, while the more delicate thirteen stripe version was used for situations where a more refined look was required, such as IBM executive stationery and business cards. Rand also designed packaging, marketing materials and assorted communications for IBM from the late 1950s until the late 1990s, including the well known Eye-Bee-M poster. Although Ford appointed Rand in the 1960s to redesign their corporate logo, it refused to use his modernized design.


title: Paul Rand

text: Although the logos may be interpreted as simplistic, Rand was quick to point out in "A Designer's Art" that "ideas do not need to be esoteric to be original or exciting." His Westinghouse trademark, created in 1960, epitomizes that ideal of minimalism while proving Rand's point that a logo "cannot survive unless it is designed with the utmost simplicity and restraint." Rand remained vital as he aged, continuing to produce important corporate identities into the eighties and nineties with a rumored $100,000 price per single design. The most notable of his later works was his collaboration with Steve Jobs for the NeXT Computer corporate identity; Rand's simple black box breaks the company name into two lines, producing a visual harmony that endeared the logogram to Jobs. Jobs was pleased; just prior to Rand's death in 1996, his former client labeled him "the greatest living graphic designer."


title: Paul Rand

text: Rand devoted his final years to design work and the writing of his memoirs. In 1996, he died of cancer at age 82 in Norwalk, Connecticut. He is buried in Beth El Cemetery.


title: Paul Rand

text: Though Rand was a recluse in his creative process, doing the vast majority of the design load despite having a large staff at varying points in his career, he was very interested in producing books of theory to illuminate his philosophies. László Moholy-Nagy may have incited Rand's zeal for knowledge when he asked his colleague, at their first meeting, if he read art criticism. Rand said no, prompting Moholy-Nagy to reply "Pity." Steven Heller elaborates on this meeting's impact, noting; "from that moment on, Rand devoured books by the leading philosophers on art, including Roger Fry, Alfred North Whitehead, and John Dewey." These theoreticians would have a lasting impression on Rand's work; in a 1995 interview with Michael Kroeger discussing, among other topics, the importance of Dewey's "Art as Experience", Rand elaborates on Dewey's appeal:


title: Paul Rand

text: Dewey is an important source for Rand's underlying sentiment in graphic design; on page one of Rand's groundbreaking "Thoughts on Design", the author begins drawing lines from Dewey's philosophy to the need for "functional-aesthetic perfection" in modern art. Among the ideas Rand pushed in "Thoughts on Design" was the practice of creating graphic works capable of retaining recognizable quality even after being blurred or mutilated, a test Rand routinely performed on his corporate identities.


title: Paul Rand

text: During Rand's later career, he became increasingly agitated about the rise of postmodernist theory and aesthetic in design. In 1992, Rand resigned his position at Yale in protest of the appointment of postmodern designer Sheila Levrant de Bretteville, and convinced his colleague Armin Hofmann to do the same. In justification of his resignation, Rand penned the article "Confusion and Chaos: The Seduction of Contemporary Graphic Design," in which he denounced the postmodern movement as "faddish and frivolous" and "harbor[ing] its own built-in boredom".


title: Paul Rand

text: Despite the importance graphic designers place on his book "Thoughts on Design", subsequent works such as "From Lascaux to Brooklyn" (1996), compounded accusations of Rand being "reactionary and hostile to new ideas about design." Steven Heller defends Rand's later ideas, calling the designer "an enemy of mediocrity, a radical modernist" while Favermann considers the period one of "a reactionary, angry old man." Regardless of this dispute, Rand's contribution to modern graphic design theory in total is widely considered intrinsic to the profession's development.


title: Paul Rand

text: The core ideology that drove Rand's career, and hence his lasting influence, was the modernist philosophy he so revered. He celebrated the works of artists from Paul Cézanne to Jan Tschichold, and constantly attempted to draw the connections between their creative output and significant applications in graphic design. In "A Designer's Art" Rand clearly demonstrates his appreciation for the underlying connections:


title: Procreate (software)

text: Procreate is a raster graphics editor app for digital painting developed and published by Savage Interactive for iOS and iPadOS. It was launched on the App Store (iOS) in 2011.


title: Procreate (software)

text: Currently, in version 5.2, Procreate for iPad was first released in 2011 by Tasmanian software company Savage Interactive. After winning an Apple Design Award in June 2013, Savage launched Procreate 2 in conjunction with iOS 7, adding new features such as better resolution and brush options.


title: Procreate (software)

text: In 2016, Procreate became one of the top ten best-selling iPad apps on the App Store. It rose into the top two in 2017, and became the overall best-selling iPad app in 2018.


title: Procreate (software)

text: Procreate Pocket was released to the App Store in December 2014. Pocket originally included most tools found in Procreate; however, it did not include any features that released on the original Procreate app since its release.


title: Procreate (software)

text: In 2018, Savage launched Procreate Pocket 2.0 to the App Store. In December 2018 Procreate Pocket received Apple's "App of the Year" award.


title: Procreate (software)

text: Kyle Lambert, made the "Stranger Things" poster and a viral "finger-painting" of Morgan Freeman in Procreate. Concept artist Doug Chiang creates robot, vehicle, and creature designs for "Star Wars" in Procreate. John Dyer, the English landscape painter, used Procreate as part of the "Last Chance to Paint" project, a partnership with the Eden Project that sent Dyer to stay with the Yaminawá in the Amazon rainforest, where he painted the experience. Professional artists have also used Procreate to create the posters for "Stranger Things", "Logan", and "Blade Runner 2049", as well as several covers for "The New Yorker". It has also been adopted at Marvel Comics, DC Comics, Disney Animation, and Pixar.


title: Hypercarnivore

text: A hypercarnivore is an animal which has a diet that is more than 70% meat, either via active predation or by scavenging. The remaining non-meat diet may consist of non-animal foods such as fungi, fruits or other plant material. Some extant examples of hypercarnivorous animals include crocodilians, owls, shrikes, eagles, vultures, felids, most wild canids, dolphins, snakes, spiders, scorpions, mantises, marlins, groupers, piranhas and most sharks. Every species in the family Felidae, including the domesticated cat, is a hypercarnivore in its natural state. Additionally, this term is also used in paleobiology to describe taxa of animals which have an increased slicing component of their dentition relative to the grinding component. Hypercarnivores need not be apex predators. For example, salmon are exclusively carnivorous, yet they are prey at all stages of life for a variety of organisms.


title: Hypercarnivore

text: Many prehistoric mammals of the clade Carnivoramorpha (Carnivora and Miacoidea without Creodonta), along with the early order Creodonta, and some mammals of the even earlier order Cimolesta, were hypercarnivores. The earliest carnivorous mammal is considered to be "Cimolestes", which existed during the Late Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in North America about 66 million years ago. Theropod dinosaurs such as "Tyrannosaurus rex" that existed during the late Cretaceous, although not mammals, were obligate carnivores.


title: Hypercarnivore

text: Large hypercarnivores evolved frequently in the fossil record, often in response to an ecological opportunity afforded by the decline or extinction of previously dominant hypercarnivorous taxa. While the evolution of large size and carnivory may be favored at the individual level, it can lead to a macroevolutionary decline, wherein such extreme dietary specialization results in reduced population densities and a greater vulnerability for extinction. As a result of these opposing forces, the fossil record of carnivores is dominated by successive clades of hypercarnivores that diversify and decline, only to be replaced by new hypercarnivorous clades.


title: Hypercarnivore

text: As an example of related species with differing diets, even though they diverged only 150,000 years ago, the polar bear is the most highly carnivorous bear (more than 90% of its diet is meat) while the grizzly bear is one of the least carnivorous in many locales, with less than 10% of its diet being meat.


title: OU812

text: OU812 (pronounced "Oh You Ate One Too") is the eighth studio album by American rock band Van Halen. It was released in 1988 and is the band’s second album to feature vocalist Sammy Hagar. Van Halen began work on the album in September 1987 and completed it in April 1988, one month before its release.


title: OU812

text: Just like its predecessor "5150", "OU812" hit number 1 on the "Billboard" 200 chart, the second of four consecutive #1 studio albums for the band. Spurred by four "Billboard" Hot 100 top-40 singles ("Black and Blue", #34; "Finish What Ya Started", #13; "When It's Love", #5; and "Feels So Good", #35), the album eventually sold over 4 million copies.


title: OU812

text: Once the "5150" tour concluded, Eddie Van Halen had some riffs he had been working on and Sammy Hagar "had a bunch of lyrics in notebooks that I had been thinking about and writing", so they decided to work on another album soon. While the album acknowledges Van Halen for writing and performing and Landee for recording, there was no production credit because according to Hagar, "the band pretty much produced the album ourselves. And we weren't producers, in the sense that we went in with an idea and told everybody what to do and took control. There just wasn't a producer." The only cover song on the album, Little Feat's "A Apolitical Blues", was coincidentally also done by former Van Halen producer Ted Templeman and Landee, to the point the engineer used the same setup to record Van Halen's version.


title: OU812

text: When Hagar was brought to the studio, Eddie showed a piano and drums demo he recorded with Alex Van Halen, which the band soon developed into the song "When It's Love". Given the musical parts were finished quicker than the lyrics, Hagar took some weeks off and travelled to his Mexican house at Cabo San Lucas to work on more songs. There he found the inspiration for the song "Cabo Wabo", which borrowed the melody of "Make It Last", a song Hagar composed for his previous band Montrose, and whose title later named Hagar's nightclub in the city. The last song to be developed was "Finish What Ya Started", which Eddie and Hagar composed one night late into the production. However, the last track to which Hagar recorded his vocals was the eventual album opener "Mine All Mine", as he felt unsure about the lyrics. The deeper metaphysical lyrics to "Mine All Mine" were rewritten seven times, with Hagar saying "it was the first time in my life I ever beat myself up, hurt myself, punished myself, practically threw things through windows, trying to write the lyrics." Although it was considered a joke song, "Source of Infection" was written about Eddie's hospitalization with dengue fever during his vacation in Australia in April 1988, celebrating his seventh wedding anniversary with Valerie Bertinelli.


title: OU812

text: The working title was "Bone", which Alex hated. Hagar then decided on "OU812" after seeing this on the side of a delivery truck on the freeway and finding it funny (rumors persist, though, that the title was a disguised response to the title of David Lee Roth's 1986 solo album, "Eat 'Em and Smile"). OU812 is seen in "Cheech and Chong's Next Movie" (1980) on the license plate of the car given to Cheech at the "Comedy House" when he was leaving. It was also scribbled on the cinderblock column on which is mounted the payphone that the cab drivers used in the TV sitcom "Taxi" (1978-1983). The album's front cover is a homage to the classic cover of "With the Beatles". The cover features a black and white photo of the band member's faces partly hidden in shadows, and is also similar to that of Blue Cheer's "Vincebus Eruptum" (1968) and King Crimson's "Red" (1974). Album artwork for the back cover is Hugo Rheinhold's statuette "Affe mit Schädel".


title: OU812

text: The track listing on the back cover is arranged in alphabetical order, instead of in sequence on most releases.


title: OU812

text: The album is dedicated to Eddie and Alex's father, Jan, who died on December 9, 1986, at the age of 66. The inner linings of the album include the words, "This one's for you, Pa". Jan had previously appeared playing clarinet on one track, "Big Bad Bill (Is Sweet William Now)", on Van Halen's 1982 album, "Diver Down".


title: OU812

text: Reviews for "OU812" were initially mixed. Robert Christgau rated the album a C in "The Village Voice", which signifies "a record of clear professionalism or barely discernible inspiration, but not both." He noted that "trading Dave for Sammy sure wrecked their shot at Led Zep of the '80s--master guitarist, signature vocalist, underrated rhythm section." However, he stated: "Eddie's obsessed with technique, Roth's contemptuous of technique, rhythm section's got enough technique and no klutz genius. But Sammy . . . like wow. If I can't claim the new boy owns them [...], you can't deny he defines them." "Rolling Stone"s David Fricke rated the album three-and-a-half out of five stars. He said of "Source of Infection": "While Eddie Van Halen sprays you with a machine-gun succession of speed-metal-guitar arpeggios, Sammy Hagar sends out the party invitations with his usual savoir-faire — "Hey! All right! Whoo!" Alex Van Halen and Michael Anthony, of course, take him at his word, shooting into hyper-beat space before you can say, 'Jump'." He noted that "Van Halen, contrary to purist grumbling, did not wimp out when Diamond Dave hit the bricks. Nor did the band go — ugh! — pop: the "5150" ladies' choice "Why Can't This Be Love" wasn't really a ballad; it was more like Big Rock Melancholia. In fact, all the "5150"-model Van Halen did was replace one mighty mouth with another and trot out some hip, new songwriting tricks." Still, he stated that "the curve balls [...] don't always hit the strike zone. "Finish What Ya Started" is an unexpected turn into wheat-field-rock country." Despite this, he concluded that "maybe Eddie and company haven't been pushing the envelope, so to speak, far enough in terms of songwriting. But "Mine All Mine" is a good teaser for the future, the slow stuff is classy radio fare, and at its best, "OU812" is a veritable feast of great white rock & roll wow." Xavier Russell of "Kerrang!" was more enthusiastic and called "OU812" "loud, rude, dirty and very much a Van Halen album".


title: OU812

text: A retrospective review from AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine was fairly positive. Erlewine stated that "when David Lee Roth fronted the band, almost everything that Van Halen did seemed easy – as big, boisterous, and raucous as an actual party – but Van Hagar makes good times seem like tough work here." Still, he stated that "the riffs are complicated, not catchy, the rhythms plod, they don't rock, and Sammy strains to inject some good times by singing too hard." However, he concluded that "if it isn't as good as "Fair Warning" (even if it's nearly not as much fun), it's nevertheless the best showcase of the instrumental abilities of Van Hagar." Canadian journalist Martin Popoff defined "OU812" music as "cynical corporate rock" and found the album "over-produced and actually more commonplace" than its predecessor "5150", implying that "the philosophical soul and warmth" of Van Halen "evaporated when David Lee Roth packed it in."


title: OU812

text: In a music magazine interview published a few years after the release of the album, Eddie Van Halen expressed his opinion that the record was not mixed as well as he would have liked: "Sonically it was shit." Some criticism of the album noted the bass guitar parts are of a low level in the mix compared to the vocals and other instruments. There has been speculation that the thin presence of bass guitar in the mix may be related to the Van Halen brothers' rumored growing animosity towards bassist Michael Anthony. In later years, Anthony would be forced out of the band and his songwriting credits removed or altered.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Tok Pisin (, ; ), often referred to by English speakers as "New Guinea Pidgin" or simply Pidgin, is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an official language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in the country. However, in parts of the southern provinces of Western, Gulf, Central, Oro, and Milne Bay, the use of Tok Pisin has a shorter history and is less universal, especially among older people.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Between five and six million people use Tok Pisin to some degree, although not all speak it fluently. Many now learn it as a first language, in particular the children of parents or grandparents who originally spoke different languages (for example, a mother from Madang and a father from Rabaul). Urban families in particular, and those of police and defence force members, often communicate among themselves in Tok Pisin, either never gaining fluency in a local language () or learning a local language as a second (or third) language, after Tok Pisin (and possibly English). Over the decades, Tok Pisin has increasingly overtaken Hiri Motu as the dominant lingua franca among town-dwellers. Perhaps one million people now use Tok Pisin as a primary language. Tok Pisin is slowly "crowding out" other languages of Papua New Guinea.


title: Tok Pisin

text: is derived from English "talk", but has a wider application, also meaning "word", "speech", or "language". derives from the English word 'pidgin'; the latter, in turn, may originate in the word "business", which is descriptive of the typical development and use of pidgins as inter-ethnic trade languages.


title: Tok Pisin

text: While Tok Pisin's name in the language is , it is also called "New Guinea Pidgin" in English. Papua New Guinean anglophones often refer to Tok Pisin as "Pidgin" when speaking English. This usage of "Pidgin" differs from the term "pidgin" as used in linguistics. "Tok Pisin" is not a pidgin in the latter sense, since it has become a first language for many people (rather than simply a "lingua franca" to facilitate communication with speakers of other languages). As such, it is considered a creole in linguistic terminology.


title: Tok Pisin

text: The Tok Pisin language is a result of Pacific Islanders intermixing, when people speaking numerous different languages were sent to work on plantations in Queensland and various islands (see South Sea Islander and blackbirding). The labourers began to develop a pidgin, drawing vocabulary primarily from English, but also from German, Malay, Portuguese and their own Austronesian languages (perhaps especially Kuanua, that of the Tolai people of East New Britain).


title: Tok Pisin

text: This English-based pidgin evolved into Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (where the German-based creole Unserdeutsch was also spoken). It became a widely used lingua franca and language of interaction between rulers and ruled, and among the ruled themselves who did not share a common vernacular. Tok Pisin and the closely related Bislama in Vanuatu and Pijin in the Solomon Islands, which developed in parallel, have traditionally been treated as varieties of a single Melanesian Pidgin English or "Neo-Melanesian" language. The flourishing of the mainly English-based Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (despite the language of the metropolitan power being German) is to be contrasted with Hiri Motu, the lingua franca of Papua, which was derived not from English but from Motu, the vernacular of the indigenous people of the Port Moresby area.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Along with English and Hiri Motu, Tok Pisin is one of the three official languages of Papua New Guinea. It is frequently the language of debate in the national parliament. Most government documents are produced in English, but public information campaigns are often partially or entirely in Tok Pisin. While English is the main language in the education system, some schools use Tok Pisin in the first three years of elementary education to promote early literacy.


title: Tok Pisin

text: There are considerable variations in vocabulary and grammar in various parts of Papua New Guinea, with distinct dialects in the New Guinea Highlands, the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and islands outside of New Guinea. For example, Pidgin speakers from Finschhafen speak rather quickly and often have difficulty making themselves understood elsewhere. The variant spoken on Bougainville and Buka is moderately distinct from that of New Ireland and East New Britain but is much closer to that than it is to the Pijin spoken in the rest of the Solomon Islands.


title: Tok Pisin

text: There are 4 sociolects of Tok Pisin: Tok Bus (meaning "talk of the remote areas") or Tok Kanaka (meaning "talk of the people of the remote areas"), Tok Bilong Asples (meaning "language of the villages") which is the traditional rural Tok Pisin, Tok Skul (meaning "talk of the schools") or Tok Bilong Taun (meaning "talk of the Towns") which is the urban Tok Pisin, and Tok Masta (meaning "language of the colonizers").


title: Tok Pisin

text: The Tok Pisin alphabet contains 22 letters, five of which are vowels, and four digraphs. The letters are (vowels in bold):


title: Tok Pisin

text: Tok Pisin, like many pidgins and creoles, has a simpler phonology than the superstrate language. It has 17 consonants and 5 vowels. However, this varies with the local substrate languages and the level of education of the speaker. The following is the "core" phonemic inventory, common to virtually all varieties of Tok Pisin. More educated speakers, and/or those where the substrate language(s) have larger phoneme inventories, may have as many as 10 distinct vowels.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Nasal plus plosive offsets lose the plosive element in Tok Pisin e.g. English "hand" becomes Tok Pisin . Furthermore, voiced plosives become voiceless at the ends of words, so that English "pig" is rendered as in Tok Pisin.


title: Tok Pisin

text: The verb has a suffix, (< Eng. "him") to indicate transitivity (, "look"; , "see"). But some verbs, such as "eat", can be transitive without it. Tense is indicated by the separate words Future (< Eng. "by and by") and (past) (< Eng. "been"). The present progressive tense is indicated by the word  – e.g. "He is eating".


title: Tok Pisin

text: Adjectives usually take the suffix (now often pronounced , though more so for pronouns, and for adjectives; from "fellow") when modifying nouns; an exception is "little". It is also found on numerals and determiners:


title: Tok Pisin

text: Pronouns show person, number, and clusivity. The paradigm varies depending on the local languages; dual number is common, while the trial is less so. The largest Tok Pisin pronoun inventory is,


title: Tok Pisin

text: Reduplication is very common in Tok Pisin. Sometimes it is used as a method of derivation; sometimes words just have it. Some words are distinguished only by reduplication: "ship", "sheep".


title: Tok Pisin

text: Several of these features derive from the common grammatical norms of Austronesian languages – although usually in a simplified form. Other features, such as word order, are however closer to English.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Sentences which have a 3rd person subject often put the word "i" immediately before the verb. This may or may not be written separate from the verb, occasionally written as a prefix. Although the word is thought to be derived from "he" or "is", it is not itself a pronoun or a verb but a grammatical marker used in particular constructions, e.g., is "car forbidden here", i.e., "no parking".


title: Tok Pisin

text: Tok Pisin is a language that developed out of regional dialects of the languages of the local inhabitants and English, brought into the country when English speakers arrived. There were four phases in the development of Tok Pisin that were laid out by Loreto Todd.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Tok Pisin is also known as a "mixed" language. This means that it consists of characteristics of different languages. Tok Pisin obtained most of its vocabulary from the English language (i.e., English is its lexifier). The origin of the syntax is a matter of debate. Hymes (Hymes 1971b: 5) claims that the syntax is from the substratum languages—the languages of the local peoples (Hymes 1971b: 5). Derek Bickerton's analysis of creoles, on the other hand, claims that the syntax of creoles is imposed on the grammarless pidgin by its first native speakers: the children who grow up exposed to only a pidgin rather than a more developed language such as one of the local languages or English. In this analysis, the original syntax of creoles is in some sense the default grammar humans are born with.


title: Tok Pisin

text: Pidgins are less elaborated than non-Pidgin languages. Their typical characteristics found in Tok Pisin are:


title: Tok Pisin

text: Many words in the Tok Pisin language are derived from English (with Australian influences), indigenous Melanesian languages, and German (part of the country was under German rule until 1919). Some examples:


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: There are 38 subspecies of "Canis lupus" listed in the taxonomic authority "Mammal Species of the World" (2005, 3rd edition). These subspecies were named over the past 250 years, and since their naming, a number of them have gone extinct. The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf ("Canis lupus lupus").


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his "Systema Naturae" the binomial nomenclature – or the two-word naming – of species. "Canis" is the Latin word meaning "dog", and under this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as "Canis familiaris", and on the next page he classified the wolf as "Canis lupus". Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its head and body and tail


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from multiple wolf populations, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog "breeds" having developed at a time when human populations were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of "Mammal Species of the World" published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf "Canis lupus" some 36 wild subspecies, and proposed two additional subspecies: "familiaris" Linnaeus, 1758 and "dingo" Meyer, 1793. Wozencraft included "hallstromi" – the New Guinea singing dog – as a taxonomic synonym for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mDNA study as one of the guides in forming his decision, and listed the 38 subspecies under the biological common name of "wolf", with the nominate subspecies being the Eurasian wolf ("Canis lupus lupus") based on the type specimen that Linnaeus studied in Sweden. However, the classification of several of these canines as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: Sokolov and Rossolimo (1985) recognised nine Old World subspecies of wolf. These were "C. l. lupus", "C. l. albus", "C. l. pallipes", "C. l. cubanensis", "C. l. campestris", "C. l. chanco", "C. l. desortorum", "C. l. hattai", and "C. l. hodophilax". In his 1995 statistical analysis of skull morphometrics, mammalogist Robert Nowak recognized the first four of those subspecies, synonymized "campestris", "chanco" and "desortorum" with "C. l. lupus", but did not examine the two Japanese subspecies. In addition, he recognized "C. l. communis" as a subspecies distinct from "C. l. lupus". In 2003, Nowak also recognized the distinctiveness of "C. l.", "C. l. hattai", "C. l. italicus", and "C. l. hodophilax". In 2005, "MSW3" included "C. l. filchneri". In 2003, two forms were distinguished in southern China and Inner Mongolia as being separate from "C. l. chanco" and "C. l. filchneri" and have yet to be named.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: For North America, in 1944 the zoologist Edward Goldman recognized as many as 23 subspecies based on morphology. In 1959, E. Raymond Hall proposed that there had been 24 subspecies of "lupus" in North America. In 1970, L. David Mech proposed that there was "probably far too many subspecific designations...in use", as most did not exhibit enough points of differentiation to be classified as separate subspecies. The 24 subspecies were accepted by many authorities in 1981 and these were based on morphological or geographical differences, or a unique history. In 1995, the American mammologist Robert M. Nowak analyzed data on the skull morphology of wolf specimens from around the world. For North America, he proposed that there were only five subspecies of the wolf. These include a large-toothed Arctic wolf named "C. l. arctos", a large wolf from Alaska and western Canada named "C. l. occidentalis", a small wolf from southeastern Canada named "C. l. lycaon", a small wolf from the southwestern U.S. named "C. l. baileyi" and a moderate-sized wolf that was originally found from Texas to Hudson Bay and from Oregon to Newfoundland named "C. l. nubilus".


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic classification of "Canis lupus" in "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) listed 27 subspecies of North American wolf, corresponding to the 24 "Canis lupus" subspecies and the three "Canis rufus" subspecies of Hall (1981). The table below shows the extant subspecies, with the extinct ones listed in the following section.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: Subspecies discovered since the publishing of "MSW3" in 2005 which have gone extinct over the past 150 years:


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group considered the New Guinea singing dog and the dingo to be feral dogs ("Canis familiaris"). In 2020, a literature review of canid domestication stated that modern dogs were not descended from the same "Canis" lineage as modern wolves, and proposes that dogs may be descended from a Pleistocene wolf closer in size to a village dog. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered dingos a feral dog ("Canis familiaris") population.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The Italian wolf (or Apennine wolf) was first recognised as a distinct subspecies "Canis lupus italicus" in 1921 by zoologist Giuseppe Altobello. Altobello's classification was later rejected by several authors, including Reginald Innes Pocock, who synonymised "C. l. italicus" with "C. l. lupus". In 2002, the noted paleontologist R.M. Nowak reaffirmed the morphological distinctiveness of the Italian wolf and recommended the recognition of "Canis lupus italicus". A number of DNA studies have found the Italian wolf to be genetically distinct. In 2004, the genetic distinction of the Italian wolf subspecies was supported by analysis which consistently assigned all the wolf genotypes of a sample in Italy to a single group. This population also showed a unique mitochondrial DNA control-region haplotype, the absence of private alleles and lower heterozygosity at microsatellite loci, as compared to other wolf populations. In 2010, a genetic analysis indicated that a single wolf haplotype (w22) unique to the Apennine Peninsula and one of the two haplotypes (w24, w25), unique to the Iberian Peninsula, belonged to the same haplogroup as the prehistoric wolves of Europe. Another haplotype (w10) was found to be common to the Iberian peninsula and the Balkans. These three populations with geographic isolation exhibited a near lack of gene flow and spatially correspond to three glacial refugia.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic reference "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize "Canis lupus italicus"; however, NCBI/Genbank publishes research papers under that name.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The Iberian wolf was first recognised as a distinct subspecies ("Canis lupus signatus") in 1907 by zoologist Ángel Cabrera. The wolves of the Iberian peninsula have morphologically distinct features from other Eurasian wolves and each are considered by their researchers to represent their own subspecies.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic reference "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize "Canis lupus signatus"; however, NCBI/Genbank does list it.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The Himalayan wolf is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves. The taxonomic name of this wolf is disputed, with the species "Canis himalayensis" being proposed based on two limited DNA studies. In 2017, a study of mitochondrial DNA, X-chromosome (maternal lineage) markers and Y-chromosome (male lineage) markers found that the Himalayan wolf was genetically basal to the Holarctic grey wolf and has an association with the African golden wolf.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group noted that the Himalayan wolf's distribution included the Himalayan range and the Tibetan Plateau. The group recommends that this wolf lineage be known as the "Himalayan wolf" and classified as "Canis lupus chanco" until a genetic analysis of the holotypes is available. In 2020, further research on the Himalayan wolf found that it warranted species-level recognition under the Unified Species Concept, the Differential Fitness Species Concept, and the Biological Species Concept. It was identified as an Evolutionary Significant Unit that warranted assignment onto the IUCN Red List for its protection.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The Indian plains wolf is a proposed clade within the Indian wolf ("Canis lupus pallipes") that is distinguished by its mitochondrial DNA, which is basal to all other wolves except for the Himalayan wolf. The taxonomic status of this wolf clade is disputed, with the separate species "Canis indica" being proposed based on two limited DNA studies. The proposal has not been endorsed because they relied on a limited number of museum and zoo samples that may not have been representative of the wild population and a call for further fieldwork has been made.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic reference "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize "Canis indica"; however, NCBI/Genbank lists it as a new subspecies "Canis lupus indica".


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 2017, a comprehensive study found that the gray wolf was present across all of mainland China, both in the past and today. It exists in southern China, which refutes claims made by some researchers in the western world that the wolf had never existed in southern China. This wolf has not been taxonomically classified.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: In 2019, a genomic study on the wolves of China included museum specimens of wolves from southern China that were collected between 1963 and 1988. The wolves in the study formed three clades: northern Asian wolves that included those from northern China and eastern Russia, Himalayan wolves from the Tibetan Plateau, and a unique population from southern China. One specimen from Zhejiang Province in eastern China shared gene flow with the wolves from southern China; however, its genome was 12-14 percent admixed with a canid that may be the dhole or an unknown canid that predates the genetic divergence of the dhole. The wolf population from southern China is believed to be still existing in that region.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: A study of the three coastal wolves indicates a close phylogenetic relationship across regions that are geographically and ecologically contiguous, and the study proposed that "Canis lupus ligoni" (the Alexander Archipelago wolf), "Canis lupus columbianus" (the British Columbian wolf), and "Canis lupus crassodon" (the Vancouver Coastal Sea wolf) should be recognized as a single subspecies of "Canis lupus". They share the same habitat and prey species, and form one study's six identified North American ecotypes - a genetically and ecologically distinct population separated from other populations by their different type of habitat.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The eastern wolf has two proposals over its origin. One is that the eastern wolf is a distinct species ("C. lycaon") that evolved in North America, as opposed to the gray wolf that evolved in the Old World, and is related to the red wolf. The other is that it is derived from admixture between gray wolves which inhabited the Great Lakes area and coyotes, forming a hybrid that was classified as a distinct species by mistake.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic reference "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize "Canis lycaon", however NCBI/Genbank does list it. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered "Canis lycaon" a valid species.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The red wolf is an enigmatic taxon, of which there are two proposals over its origin. One is that the red wolf was a distinct species ("C. rufus") that has undergone human-influenced admixture with coyotes. The other is that it was never a distinct species but was derived from admixture between coyotes and gray wolves, due to the gray wolf population being eliminated by humans.


title: Subspecies of Canis lupus

text: The taxonomic reference "Mammal Species of the World" (3rd edition, 2005) does not recognize "Canis rufus", however NCBI/Genbank does list it. In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists also considered "Canis rufus" a valid species.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod (officially known as the Lady Usher of the Black Rod or, if male, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod) is an official in the parliaments of several Commonwealth countries. The position originates in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The position is similar to one known as a serjeant-at-arms in other bodies.


title: Black Rod

text: In the United Kingdom, Black Rod is principally responsible for controlling access to and maintaining order within the House of Lords and its precincts, as well as for ceremonial events within those precincts. Since early 2018, the post has been held for the first time by a woman, Sarah Clarke.


title: Black Rod

text: The office was created in 1350 by royal letters patent, though the current title dates from 1522. The position was adopted by other members of the Commonwealth when they adopted the British Westminster system. The title is derived from the staff of office, an ebony staff topped with a golden lion, which is the main symbol of the office's authority.


title: Black Rod

text: A ceremonial rod or staff is a common type of symbol indicating the authority of the office-holder. Depictions of ancient authority figures in many cultures include such a rod (alternatively called a sceptre). Another early example was the fasces (literally a bound bundle of rods) carried by guards ("lictors") who accompanied certain high-level officials in the Roman Republic and later Empire.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod is formally appointed by the Crown based on a recruitment search performed by the Clerk of the Parliaments, who is the employer of all House of Lords officials. Prior to 2002, the office rotated among retired senior officers from the Royal Navy, the British Army and the Royal Air Force. It is now advertised openly. Black Rod is an officer of the English Order of the Garter, and is usually appointed Knight Bachelor if not already knighted. Their deputy is the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod is principally responsible for controlling access to and maintaining order within the House of Lords and its precincts, as well as for ceremonial events within those precincts. Previous responsibilities for security, and the buildings and services of the Palace of Westminster, have been passed, respectively, to the Parliamentary Security Director (as of the post's creation in January 2016) and Lords Director of Facilities (as of that post's creation and the retirement of the then-Black Rod in May 2009).


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod's official duties also include responsibility as the usher and doorkeeper at meetings of the Most Noble Order of the Garter; the personal attendant of the Sovereign in the Lords; as secretary to the Lord Great Chamberlain and as the Serjeant-at-Arms and Keeper of the Doors of the House, in charge of the admission of strangers to the House of Lords. Either Black Rod or their deputy, the Yeoman Usher, is required to be present when the House of Lords, the upper house of Parliament, is in session, and plays a role in the introduction of all new Lords Temporal in the House (but not of bishops as new Lords Spiritual). Black Rod also arrests any Lord guilty of breach of privilege or other Parliamentary offence, such as contempt or disorder, or the disturbance of the House's proceedings. Their equivalent in the House of Commons is the Serjeant at Arms.


title: Black Rod

text: Former Black Rod David Leakey said that 30% of his work as Black Rod was within or for the House of Commons.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod, along with their deputy, is responsible for organising ceremonial events within the Palace of Westminster, providing leadership in guiding the significant logistics of running such events.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod is in theory responsible for carrying the Mace into and out of the chamber for the Speaker of the House of Lords (formerly the Lord Chancellor, now the Lord Speaker), though this role is delegated to the Yeoman Usher and Deputy Serjeant-at-Arms, or on judicial occasions, to the Lord Speaker's deputy, the Assistant Serjeant-at-Arms. The mace was introduced in 1876.


title: Black Rod

text: Black Rod is best known for their part in the ceremonies surrounding the State Opening of Parliament and the Speech from the throne. Black Rod summons the Commons to attend the speech and lead them to the Lords. As part of the ritual, the doors to the chamber of the House of Commons are slammed in the approaching Black Rod's face. This is to symbolise the Commons' independence of the Sovereign. Black Rod then strikes the door three times with their staff, and is then admitted and issues the summons of the monarch to attend.


title: Black Rod

text: This ritual also happens whenever the Lords have a commission to be read and Black Rod summons MPs to hear it. For example, on Tuesday 17 December 2019 this ritual happened twice.


title: Black Rod

text: This ritual is derived from the attempt by King Charles I to arrest Five Members in 1642, in what was seen as a breach of the constitution. This and prior actions of the King led to the Civil War. After that incident, the House of Commons has maintained its right to question the right of the monarch's representative to enter their chamber, although they cannot bar them from entering with lawful authority.


title: Black Rod

text: This list is derived from one published by the Parliamentary Archives in 2011, with alterations from later research.


title: Black Rod

text: Technically the serjeant at arms attending the Lord Chancellor (the former presiding officer of the House of Lords) was regarded as an officer of the House of Lords. He was appointed for life until 1713 and during good behaviour thereafter, originally receiving a daily remuneration and from 1806 an annual salary. The post was merged with that of Black Rod in 1971.


title: Black Rod

text: Before the Act of Union of 1800, which united the Kingdom of Ireland with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, there was also a Black Rod in the Irish House of Lords. From 1783 the Irish Black Rod was also Usher of the Order of St Patrick, so the office continued after the Union. No one was appointed to the office after the creation of the Irish Free State in December 1922.


title: Black Rod

text: Before the Acts of Union 1707 united the English and Scottish parliaments, there was a Heritable Usher of the White Rod who had a similar role in the Estates of Parliament in Scotland. This office is currently held by The Rt Rev. John Armes, Bishop of Edinburgh, but the role carries no duties.


title: Black Rod

text: As in the United Kingdom, Black Rod is responsible for arresting any senator or intruder who disrupts the proceedings.


title: Black Rod

text: The Black Rod for the Senate of Canada is the equivalent to the office for the House of Lords. The Legislatures of Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Alberta, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island have also incorporated Black Rods into their respective parliamentary systems.


title: Black Rod

text: The Australian Senate and the upper houses in five Australian states and territories have their own Usher of the Black Rod. (Queensland abolished its upper house and the assemblies of the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory have always been unicameral.)


title: Black Rod

text: The current Usher of the Black Rod for the Australian Senate is John Begley. In the Australian Senate, the Usher of the Black Rod assists with the administration and security of the Senate and has the power to take anyone into custody who causes a disturbance in or near the Senate chamber.


title: Black Rod

text: In New Zealand, where the Legislative Council was abolished in 1951, the Usher of the Black Rod continues to summon MPs to the chamber for the Throne Speech. It is not a full-time position.


title: Black Rod

text: Arthur Bothamley was the first person to hold the role; he was usher of the black rod for 45 years from 1892 until August 1937. In September 1937, he was succeeded by Captain Douglas Bryan, who retired in June 1957. John Everitt Seal took over from Bryan in June 1957 and held the role until his death on 1 November 1964. Alexander John Mackay Manson was appointed in May 1965 to succeed Seal in time for the opening of the second term of the 34th New Zealand Parliament later that month. Manson retired in June 1971. In May 1972, Melville Harvey Scott Innes-Jones was appointed to succeed Manson. Innes-Jones retired in 1991.


title: Black Rod

text: Colonel William "Bill" Nathan, OBE, ED, appointed in 1993, was the first Māori Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. Colonel Nathan retired in 2005, and was followed by Major David Baguley. David Williams was appointed as the acting Usher of the Black Rod in 2017 for the opening of the 52nd New Zealand Parliament. Commander Sandra "Sandy" McKie was appointed to act in the role in 2020 for the opening of the 53rd Parliament, the first woman to hold the position. McKie was permanently appointed to the role effective from 17 October 2022, following the formal retirement of Major Baguley.


title: Black Rod

text: The Senate of South Africa had a Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod from its inception in 1910 to abolition in 1980. When the Senate was restored in 1994 the renamed position of Usher of the Black Rod returned with it, continuing in the new National Council of Provinces.


title: Citroën C4

text: The Citroën C4 is a small family car/compact car (also classified as a compact crossover SUV since 2020) produced under their Citroën marque, from the French automaker PSA Group, and later Stellantis. It was positioned to be the successor to the Citroën Xsara. The first generation production started in September 2004.


title: Citroën C4

text: In June 2020, the third-generation C4 was released in a form of coupe SUV, abandoning the traditional C-segment hatchback/saloon body style.


title: Citroën C4

text: To cope with the market, Citroën was dedicated and committed to building a new model that would appeal to many customers. At the Geneva Motor Show in 2004, a concept from the Citroën line's definitive made-bodied coupé revealed the willingness of the French company to employ it in competition. The car was finally unveiled at the 2004 Paris Motor Show, after being officially launched to retail on September 2, 2004. However, that version was a more domesticated hatchback coupé or five-door.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4's design was created by a team that included Donato Coco, Jean Pierre Ploué and Bertrand Rapatel. Building on the floor of its cousin, the Peugeot 307, the C4 was immediately made available in two body variants: five-door hatchback and three-door coupé. The front is common to both versions, with the grille formed from virtual extensions of the central crest. The saloon is much more rounded and features softer shapes, so they can boast a Cd of just 0.28, while the coupe is more angular, with a rear split into two parts, including lights.


title: Citroën C4

text: The rear window of the coupé is reminiscent of the older Honda CR-X from the early 1990s, as well as the last three-door Mazda 323C. These two versions of the C4 Picasso are more detached, taking over the grille of the saloon and coupe, but the cut of the headlamps are different, aesthetically combining corners and curves. The rear lights incorporate the design as in those of the saloon but were adapted to the different shape of the body. Internally, the dashboard features a central instrument panel that centralizes all heating and cooling controls, audio, and a satellite navigation screen. The instrument panel contains digital and analog displays of the speedometer, petrol levels, and other gauges. Lighting can be customized to change color from white to blue.


title: Citroën C4

text: The revolution, however, is placed in canonical position, behind the wheel. The latter is multifunctional and characterized by having a fixed hub. The cabin is equipped with numerous storage compartments and the luggage compartment is regular in shape, with a capacity of 352 liters, increasing to 1,200 after lowering the rear seat backrest. The load threshold is quite high, hitting loads of heavy objects. There are laminated side windows and exterior mirrors, with a casing specially designed to prevent wind noise and improve the comfort inside.


title: Citroën C4

text: The saloon version is manufactured in Argentina, where it is sold alongside the three-door version. It is exported from there to Brazil and Hungary as the C4 Pallas and to Spain, Turkey, and Greece as the C4 Sedan. A longer four-door saloon version with a different rear end is also built and sold in China as the Citroën C-Triomphe. A panel van based on the coupé bodyshell is available in some markets, including Ireland.


title: Citroën C4

text: A major selling point of the C4 was its extensive use of technology. For example, the car features the "lane departure warning system" (only in the top-of-the-range "exclusive" model), which alerts the driver if he or she crosses a road marking without using the turn signals; directional headlights; perfume dispenser integrated into the ventilation system; translucent dashboard; transparent glass roof; electronic stability program (ESP), and a fixed steering wheel hub, which lets the driver operate several functions of the car without removing their hands from the wheel.


title: Citroën C4

text: The fixed hub also allows for the first production use of a "shaped" driver airbag. Because the hub maintains a constant position, the airbag can be optimally shaped to spread the load across the greatest possible area of the driver's body in a collision, thus reducing the chances of serious injury. In addition, the car features an innovative centrally mounted translucent LCD speedometer display that remains clearly visible in all lighting conditions.


title: Citroën C4

text: The car's in-car entertainment, integrated into the car's information system via VAN bus, is not Digital audio broadcasting (DAB) ready. MP3 playback is supported by the entry level audio system and high-end audio, with double-layer sound-insulated windows and integrated navigation system available as extras. In September 2007, a USB box accessory (Ref: 9702.EZ) was released to enable full iPod connectivity with the standard RD4 radio.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 does not feature Citroën's Hydractive suspension, which is reserved for higher class models, such as the C5 and C6. The Picasso version can feature a pneumatic rear suspension. The C4 breaks with the past on other fronts, in particular by removing the rear autodirezionale solution, used up to that time on the Xsara and ZX. The suspension is the usual type MacPherson strut front suspension with coil springs, while the rear has interconnected wheels with torsion beam and torsion bars. The braking system includes ventilated discs on the front, and rear solid discs with ABS and ESP (not standard versions with basic fittings). The steering is rack and pinion with electro-hydraulic power steering.


title: Citroën C4

text: At the 2008 Moscow International Automobile Salon, Citroën presented a facelifted Citroën C4. Both hatchback and coupé were subject to a slight cosmetic makeover that involved the front end, which now sported a "mouth" and larger trapezoid shape. The grille was redesigned, making it slightly curved. There were also minor updates in the queue. The redesign led to a slight lengthening of the car body, and was the occasion for more news: from the mechanical point of view was the arrival of the 1.6 Prince, with variable valve timing and aspiration, and turbocharged and direct injection, already mounted on the Peugeot 207 and 308, as well as the Mini. Ride comfort was improved, and the more simplified saloon and the coupe were offered for the same price. In addition, the diesel versions were available with Airdream pack, which allowed for slightly reduced emissions and consumption.


title: Citroën C4

text: The saloon version was introduced as the Citroën C-Triomphe, a mid-size saloon automobile produced from 2006 for the Chinese market by Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile, a joint venture between the French PSA Group (Peugeot-Citroën) and the Chinese manufacturer Dongfeng.


title: Citroën C4

text: This new model range was designed to supplement other Chinese models, such as the Fukang and the Elysée, rather than being a direct replacement.


title: Citroën C4

text: In April 2007, Citroën announced that the four-door C4 would be built in Argentina. The Argentinian and Brazilian versions are sold as the C4 Pallas and C4 Sedan in some South American and European markets.


title: Citroën C4

text: The car is a notchback saloon version of the European C4 model, since the Chinese market prefers traditional three-box saloons over hatchbacks. It did not keep the designation, however, because in Chinese, the number "4" is unlucky. The saloon is much larger than the hatchback: its length is over the hatchback's and its wheelbase measures against of the hatchback. This caused the C-Triomphe saloon to be classified in the large family car class. The C-Triomphe has a number of unique features, such as an integrated air freshener, which allows the driver to choose the scent of the interior.


title: Citroën C4

text: In 2009, in China, the C-Triomphe was accompanied by the Citroën C-Quatrè, a smaller (length , wheelbase ), cheaper, and more fashionably styled saloon version of the C4. A hatchback C-Quatre was also manufactured et sold locally. Late 2011, the hatchback got an offroad-looked variant called C4 Cross. In 2012, Citroën unveiled a new facelift version of the whole C-Quatre range at the Shanghai Motor Show.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 Picasso is the MPV version of the C4 range. It has been made available since 2006 in two versions: 5-seater C4 Picasso and 7-seater C4 Grand Picasso. The C4 Picasso received a facelift in 2010, with updated engine, headlights, and mechanics. The engine range is composed largely of the same version of the engine as used on the hatchback and coupé, plus the petrol 1.8, and was also available in bi-fuel (natural gas or LPG) in many markets.


title: Citroën C4

text: The car's advanced technology was the focus of a well-known television advertising campaign showing the car transforming into a giant dancing Transformer, accompanied by the song "Jacques Your Body (Make Me Sweat)" by Les Rythmes Digitales. At the end of the sequence, the robot transforms back into a car, over the slogan "Alive With Technology". The dance moves were based on the concept of a Transformers break dance routine, developed from moves recorded by the agents from Justin Timberlake's choreographer Marty Kudelka. Although the advertisement was produced by a music group from Canada, and the scenery was downtown Vancouver, the car is not available in North America. The entire sequence and scenery were digitally created. Apple Shake was used to digitally generate visual effects. This commercial has since been credited to District 9 director Neill Blomkamp.


title: Citroën C4

text: The follow-up ad featured a similar transformer robot ice skating at high speed across a frozen lake, dodging around obstacles and executing a hockey stop in front of a group of engineers before transforming back into a car. It featured the song "Walking Away (Tocadisco Remix)" by The Egg.


title: Citroën C4

text: The third ad broadcasting shows a third transformer robot sprinting along a road, changing to car form and back to robot form during the run. It features the song "Hungarian Dances" by Brahms. It is not on the Citroën C4 website.


title: Citroën C4

text: The fourth ad featuring yet another transforming robot is being aired in Europe for the revamped C4. The robot struts through town showing off, accompanied by a cover version of the Bee Gees song "Stayin' Alive" by MC Lita.


title: Citroën C4

text: In July 2007, filming began in São Paulo, Brazil, for a commercial for South America, starring North American actor Kiefer Sutherland and Argentine actress Araceli González. One month early, a controversial advertisement announcing the collision of an asteroid with planet Earth, given the appearance of real news, was used in Brazil to promote the release of C4 Pallas, and there is an asteroid named 2 Pallas.


title: Citroën C4

text: A video game titled "Citroën C4 Robot" was developed by Istanbul-based developer 2GEN Studio and released on April 21, 2008. It is a free racing advergame in which the player can either create an account and try to beat another player's record or can play offline.


title: Citroën C4

text: The second-generation Citroën C4 made its debut at the 2010 Paris Salon before it was launched in September. After its launch, it debuted at the Paris Motor Show in October 2010 and went on sale in Europe under the Citroën brand one month later. The new model was slightly bigger than the last and was only available with five doors. A three-door version was omitted by the French company because of the low sales of the previous generation three-door, and to avoid the risk of cannibalizing the DS3 sales. The derived first-generation DS4 (B75) was offered as a more stylish and luxurious alternative.


title: Citroën C4

text: Compared to the outgoing model, the average new design of the French line is less eccentric. In general, the lines are less rounded, the front is characterized by large clusters with aggressive design "cut" on the top and a "step" on the underside. Clearly visible in the front grille is the Citroën, formed by extensions of the central logo. The engine hood is made more aggressive by two longitudinal ribs, while the bumper, which is also aggressive, has a rather large mouth, flanked by two air intakes and two slots for the fog lights.


title: Citroën C4

text: The side view shows two longitudinal ribs, one just above the line of door handles and the other at the bottom. The tail is characterized by clusters that penetrate partially into the side and partly in the boot lid. The large bumper appears massive from the rearview but at the same time, it raises the threshold for overload. The dashboard of the second C4 series is characterized by blue-lit instrumentation in different shades, combining analog and digital technology. The dashboard, with the now ever-present display, is also modern in styling, and has some ribs, especially at the top, which complement the external lines of the bodywork. The steering wheel doesn't have a fixed hub like the first generation. The seats have a sporty design, with padded side panels, but offer little lateral support. The sofa is divisible according to the now familiar pattern 60–40, but it is not tilting. The luggage compartment offers up to 408 liters for the standard, expandable up to 1,183, by lowering the rear seat backrest.


title: Citroën C4

text: The second-generation C4 received a facelift in 2015. The hatchback stayed in production until early 2018.


title: Citroën C4

text: The second series of C4 is provided with specific tires with low rolling resistance, and out of the 200 kg of polymer used in each sample, about 30 are environmentally friendly.


title: Citroën C4

text: The structure of the Mk2 C4, and C4-II, is derived from that of the first series: even the wheelbase was unchanged, but there are some new features in this case. To make the car more comfortable, suspension geometry was slightly modified, and new bushes are used, albeit still MacPherson struts in front and torsion beam at the rear. The brakes are disc all around, the front ones being ventilated, with ABS and ESP standard across the range. The rack and pinion steering with electro-hydraulic power steering is carried over from the previous C4. The engine range includes three petrol and four diesel engines:


title: Citroën C4

text: The e-HDi engine, which debuted on the C4 (and simultaneously on the C4 Picasso based on the first series), is mated to a 6-speed automatic gearbox, as well as the 1.6 engine THP. The other engines are available with a manual 5-speed (1.4 VTi, 1.6 VTi and 1.6 HDi 92 hp) or 6-speed (1.6 HDi112 hp and 2.0 HDi). The 1.6 VTi is also available with a 4-speed automatic transmission.


title: Citroën C4

text: In China, a saloon version simply called Citroën C4 (or by its full name, Dongfeng Citroën C4 Sega, sometimes transcripted C4 Shijia) was available from 2015 to 2019. The Citroen C4 was based on the original Citroen C-Quatre (which it quickly replaced), with the same old platforms and the same wheelbase, and both cars also share the 1.6-liter base engine. Unlike the C-Quatre, the C4 was a failure in China, with 102,597 vehicles manufactured during its whole career. More 4-door C-Quatre were sold during the year 2012 alone.


title: Citroën C4

text: At the end of 2012, Citroën unveiled the saloon version called "C4L". The saloon version was designed by the new PSA Style Centre in Shanghai. It is produced for the Chinese market in the Wuhan plant, and for the Russian market in the Kaluga plant.


title: Citroën C4

text: The platform is the same as the C4 hatchback, with the wheelbase increased by . The engine range was composed of the 1.6 VTI Prince THP from , and the new 1.8 VTI with only for the Chinese market. All models are equipped with stop-start system.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 saloon is manufactured in El Palomar, Argentina, and was planned for launch in the Latin American market in late 2013. In 2013, it contained 62% of regionally-made parts.


title: Citroën C4

text: It was facelifted in 2016 for China and Russia, and in 2017 for South America. The design of the three versions has been standardized on the occasion of this facelift.


title: Citroën C4

text: In China, the C4L was discontinued in 2020. The C4 Lounge was also discontinued in Brazil late 2020, but stayed manufactured in Argentina to sold in local market until 2021. The Russian C4 Sedan is still assembled.


title: Citroën C4

text: The third-generation C4 (C41) was revealed on 16 June 2020 with a coupe SUV styling. The interior receives a significant upgrade, as there are more upmarket materials and a larger, wider touchscreen. The new C4 and ë-C4 are larger and based on an all-new EMP1 platform shared the DS 3 Crossback, Opel Mokka, Opel Corsa, Peugeot 2008 and Peugeot 208.


title: Citroën C4

text: The electric drive version, named the ë-C4, features a electric motor and a 50 kWh battery, capable of of range under the WLTP test.


title: Citroën C4

text: A longer variation of the C4 with a saloon body style, called the C4 X, was unveiled in June 2022. It is the first Citroën to be designed under Pierre Lecercq supervision. According to Citroën, the C4 X merges the elements of a fastback, a 4-door saloon and an SUV.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 and the C4 X have the same wheelbase. Using the traditional saloon-style boot opening, the cargo capacity has been increased from in the C4 to in the C4 X.


title: Citroën C4

text: An electric version, called ë-C4 X, is also available. It is the only version offered in many countries (UK, Benelux, Portugal, Germany, Austria, Nordic countries) where the ICE C4 X is not sold.


title: Citroën C4

text: The Citroën C4 Aircross is a compact SUV based on the Mitsubishi ASX and the Peugeot 4008. It was featured at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show. A four-wheel drive version of the Aircross is also available.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 Cactus is a subcompact crossover produced in PSA's Villaverde factory in Madrid, Spain since the first quarter of 2014. Sales commenced in France in June 2014. Although branded as the C4 Cactus, it is based on the smaller PF1 platform that underpins the C3 and the DS 3. In Europe, it was succeeded by the third generation C4, dropping the "Cactus" suffix.


title: Citroën C4

text: A much-anticipated C4 World Rally Car, intended to replace the multiple World Rally Championship-winning Citroën Xsara WRC, was first sighted in 2004 with testing duties assigned to double world rally champion Carlos Sainz. Having once been earmarked for a late 2005 competitive debut, the decision by the controlling PSA Group to withdraw both Citroën and stablemates Peugeot from works participation at the end of the 2005 season led to the momentary abandonment of the project.


title: Citroën C4

text: Since then, however, the marque etched in a comeback for the 2007 season, during which a revived C4 WRC was scheduled for its official debut, with the then-thrice world champion Sébastien Loeb as the official first driver, and Dani Sordo, the 2005 Junior World Rally Champion, later confirmed alongside him after an impressive 2006 season for the Spaniard. In their official debut at the 2007 Monte Carlo Rally, the two C4 WRCs finished 1–2, with Loeb winning ahead of Sordo. Loeb has subsequently secured the 2007, 2008, and 2009 drivers' titles, with Citroën claiming the 2008 and 2009 manufacturers' championships.


title: Citroën C4

text: In the 2009 season, Citroën's satellite team, Citroën Junior Team, ran a C4 WRC for Evgeny Novikov, Conrad Rautenbach, and the 2008 junior world champion Sébastien Ogier. For the 2010 season, the team ran a C4 WRC for Ogier and the Formula One world champion Kimi Räikkönen. The 2003 world rally champion Petter Solberg competes in a C4 WRC for his private team. The C4 WRC was replaced by the DS3 WRC for the 2011 WRC season.


title: Citroën C4

text: Citroën also unveiled a hybrid concept WRC car at the 2008 Paris Motor Show. The Citroën C4 WRC Hymotion4 uses a KERS system similar to that in the Peugeot 908 HY.


title: Citroën C4

text: The first generation C4 scored second place at the 2005 European Car of the Year awards. It won the 2006 World Car Design of the Year, as well as the "Autosport" Rally Car of the Year in 2010


title: Citroën C4

text: The second generation C4 (from 2010 onwards) was awarded a Euro NCAP Advanced Award for its eTouch Emergency & Assistance System.


title: Citroën C4

text: The C4 Coupe has been produced by Majorette, Norev, and Solido, and the hatchback has been produced by Norev, and NewRay. The Citroën C4 WRC has been produced by Hot Wheels.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a nitrogen oxide () emissions reduction technique used in petrol/gasoline, diesel engines and some hydrogen engines. EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. The exhaust gas displaces atmospheric air and reduces in the combustion chamber. Reducing the amount of oxygen reduces the amount of fuel that can burn in the cylinder thereby reducing peak in-cylinder temperatures. The actual amount of recirculated exhaust gas varies with the engine operating parameters.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: In the combustion cylinder, is produced by high-temperature mixtures of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen, and this usually occurs at cylinder peak pressure. In a spark-ignition engine, an ancillary benefit of recirculating exhaust gases via an external EGR valve is an increase in efficiency, as charge dilution allows a larger throttle position and reduces associated pumping losses. Mazda's turbocharged SkyActiv direct injection gas engine uses recirculated and cooled exhaust gases to reduce combustion chamber temperatures, thereby permitting the engine to run at higher boost levels before the air-fuel mixture must be enriched to prevent engine knocking.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: In a gasoline engine, this inert exhaust displaces some amount of combustible charge in the cylinder, effectively reducing the quantity of charge available for combustion without affecting the air-fuel ratio. In a diesel engine, the exhaust gas replaces some of the excess oxygen in the pre-combustion mixture. Because forms primarily when a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen is subjected to high temperature, the lower combustion chamber temperatures caused by EGR reduces the amount of that the combustion process generates. Gases re-introduced from EGR systems will also contain near equilibrium concentrations of and CO; the small fraction initially within the combustion chamber inhibits the total net production of these and other pollutants when sampled on a time average. Chemical properties of different fuels limit how much EGR may be used. For example methanol is more tolerant to EGR than gasoline.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: The first EGR systems were crude; some were as simple as an orifice jet between the exhaust and intake tracts which admitted exhaust to the intake tract whenever the engine was running. Difficult starting, rough idling, reduced performance and lost fuel economy inevitably resulted. By 1973, an EGR valve controlled by manifold vacuum opened or closed to admit exhaust to the intake tract only under certain conditions. Control systems grew more sophisticated as automakers gained experience; Volkswagen's "Coolant Controlled Exhaust Gas Recirculation" system of 1973 exemplified this evolution: a coolant temperature sensor blocked vacuum to the EGR valve until the engine reached normal operating temperature. This prevented driveability problems due to unnecessary exhaust induction; forms under elevated temperature conditions generally not present with a cold engine. Moreover, the EGR valve was controlled, in part, by vacuum drawn from the carburetor's venturi, which allowed more precise constraint of EGR flow to only those engine load conditions under which is likely to form. Later, backpressure transducers were added to the EGR valve control to further tailor EGR flow to engine load conditions. Most modern engines now need exhaust gas recirculation to meet emissions standards. However, recent innovations have led to the development of engines that do not require them. The 3.6 Chrysler Pentastar engine is one example that does not require EGR.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: The exhaust gas contains water vapor and carbon dioxide which both have lower heat capacity ratio than air. Adding exhaust gas therefore reduces pressure and temperature during the isentropic compression in the cylinder, thereby lowering the adiabatic flame temperature.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: In a typical automotive spark-ignited (SI) engine, 5% to 15% of the exhaust gas is routed back to the intake as EGR. The maximum quantity is limited by the need of the mixture to sustain a continuous flame front during the combustion event; excessive EGR in poorly set up applications can cause misfires and partial burns. Although EGR does measurably slow combustion, this can largely be compensated for by advancing spark timing. The impact of EGR on engine efficiency largely depends on the specific engine design, and sometimes leads to a compromise between efficiency and emissions. In certain types of situations, a properly operating EGR can theoretically increase the efficiency of gasoline engines via several mechanisms:


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: EGR is typically not employed at high loads because it would reduce peak power output. This is because it reduces the intake charge density. EGR is also omitted at idle (low-speed, zero load) because it would cause unstable combustion, resulting in rough idle.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: Since the EGR system recirculates a portion of exhaust gases, over time the valve can become clogged with carbon deposits, which will prevent it from operating properly. Clogged EGR valves can sometimes be cleaned, but replacement is necessary if the valve is faulty.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: Because diesel engines depend on the heat of compression to ignite their fuel, they are fundamentally different from spark-ignited engines. The physical process of diesel-fuel combustion is such that the most complete combustion occurs at the highest temperatures. Unfortunately, the production of nitrogen oxides () increases at high temperatures. The goal of EGR is thus to reduce production by reducing the combustion temperatures.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: In modern diesel engines, the EGR gas is usually cooled with a heat exchanger to allow the introduction of a greater mass of recirculated gas. However, uncooled EGR designs do exist; these are often referred to as hot-gas recirculation (HGR).


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: Unlike spark-ignition engines, diesel engines are not limited by the need for a contiguous flamefront. Furthermore, since diesels always operate with excess air, they benefit (in terms of reduced output) from EGR rates as high as 50%. However, a 50% EGR rate is only suitable when the diesel engine is at idle, since this is when there is otherwise a large excess of air.


title: Exhaust gas recirculation

text: Because modern diesel engines often have a throttle, EGR can reduce the need for throttling, thereby eliminating this type of loss in the same way that it does for spark-ignited engines. In a naturally aspirated (i.e. nonturbocharged) engine, such a reduction in throttling also reduces the problem of engine oil being sucked past the piston rings into the cylinder and causing oil-derived carbon deposits there. (This benefit only applies to nonturbocharged engines.)