title: Hooliganism

text: The inquest was carried out by Mr Braxton Hicks who "remarked that the activity of the gang he referred to was not confined to Lambeth, but extended to numerous other districts. It was composed of young fellows who scorned to do a stroke of work, and obtained a living by blackmailing. It was a common practice for three or four of these men to walk into a shop and offer the shopman the alternative of giving them a dollar for drink or having his shop wrecked. In connection with the Oakley-street tragedy intimidation had reached an unexampled case. Witnesses had been warned that it would be as much as their life was worth to give evidence against John Darcy. On Wednesday plain-clothes men escorted the witnesses from the court singly. He himself had been warned – not by anonymous letter but through a mysterious personal medium – that if seen in a certain neighbourhood he would be done for. A magistrate had also told him that he had been the recipient of a like indignity."


title: Hooliganism

text: Arthur Conan Doyle wrote in his 1904 short story "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons", "It seemed to be one of those senseless acts of Hooliganism which occur from time to time, and it was reported to the constable on the beat as such." H. G. Wells wrote in his 1909 semi-autobiographical novel "Tono-Bungay", "Three energetic young men of the hooligan type, in neck-wraps and caps, were packing wooden cases with papered-up bottles, amidst much straw and confusion."


title: Hooliganism

text: According to "Life" magazine (30 July 1941), the comic strip artist and political cartoonist Frederick Burr Opper introduced a character called Happy Hooligan in 1900; "hapless Happy appeared regularly in U.S. newspapers for more than 30 years", a "naive, skinny, baboon-faced tramp who invariably wore a tomato can for a hat." "Life" brought this up by way of criticizing the Soviet U.N. delegate Yakov A. Malik for misusing the word. Malik had indignantly referred to anti-Soviet demonstrators in New York as "hooligans". Happy Hooligan, "Life" reminded its readers, "became a national hero, not by making trouble, which Mr. Malik understands is the function of a hooligan, but by getting himself help."


title: Hooliganism

text: Later, as the meaning of the word shifted slightly, none of the possible alternatives had precisely the same undertones of a person, usually young, who belongs to an informal group and commits acts of vandalism or criminal damage, starts fights, and who causes disturbances but is not a thief. Hooliganism is now predominantly related to sport.


title: Hooliganism

text: The words "hooliganism" and "hooligan" began to be associated with violence in sports, in particular from the 1970s in the UK with football hooliganism. The phenomenon, however, long preceded the modern term; for example, one of the earliest known instances of crowd violence at a sporting event took place in ancient Constantinople. Two chariot racing factions, the Blues and the Greens, were involved in the Nika riots which lasted around a week in 532 CE; nearly half the city was burned or destroyed, in addition to tens of thousands of deaths.


title: Hooliganism

text: Sports crowd violence continues to be a worldwide concerning phenomenon exacting at times a large number of injuries, damage to property and casualties. Individual, contextual, social and environmental factors interact and influence one another through a dynamic process occurring at different levels.Macro-sociological accounts suggest that structural strains, experiences of deprivation or a low socio-economic background can at times be instrumental to the acceptance and reproduction of norms that tolerate great levels of violence and territoriality, which is a common feature of football hooliganism. Furthermore, social cleavages within societies facilitate the development of strong in-groups bonds and intense feelings of antagonism towards outsiders which in turn can facilitate group identification and affect the likelihood of fan violence.


title: Hooliganism

text: Beginning in at least the 1960s, the United Kingdom gained a reputation worldwide for football hooliganism; the phenomenon was often dubbed the "British" or "English Disease".


title: Hooliganism

text: Sports crowd violence continues to be a worldwide concerning phenomenon exacting at times a large number of injuries, damage to property and casualties. Individual, contextual, social and environmental factors interact and influence one another through a dynamic process occurring atle=A Day Of Horror And Shame |work=Sports Illustrated |date=10 June 1985 |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref> However, since the 1980s and well into the 1990s the UK government has led a widescale crackdown on football related violence. While football hooliganism has been a growing concern in some continental European countries in recent years, British football fans now tend to have a better reputation abroad. Although reports of British football hooliganism still surface, the instances now tend to occur at pre-arranged locations rather than at the matches themselves.


title: Hooliganism

text: Football (soccer) and other sports hooliganism overall is rare in the United States in part because of stricter legal penalties for vandalism and physical violence, club markets having their own territory of fans, venues banning weapons, stricter security during games, and a stronger taboo on politics, class, race, and religion into the American sporting culture. Although isolated drunken fights at games do occur, they rarely escalate to major brawling comparable to Europe and Latin America.


title: Hooliganism

text: In the Soviet Union the word "khuligan" ( – transliteration of the English word) was used to refer to scofflaws. Hooliganism (, "khuliganstvo") was listed as a criminal offense, similar to disorderly conduct in some other jurisdictions, and used as a catch-all charge for prosecuting unapproved behavior.


title: Hooliganism

text: Olympic medalist Vasiliy Khmelevskiy was convicted of hooliganism for setting a costumed person on fire during a celebration in Minsk in 1979 and sentenced to five years of imprisonment. Mathias Rust was convicted of hooliganism, among other things, for his 1987 Cessna landing on Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge next to Red Square.


title: Hooliganism

text: Since the fall of the Soviet Union, nowadays, hooliganism is defined generally in the Criminal Code of Russia as an average gravity crime.


title: Hooliganism

text: More recently, the same charge has been leveled against members of the feminist punk group Pussy Riot for which three members each received a two-year sentence on 17 August 2012. Hooliganism charges were also levelled against the Greenpeace protesters in October 2013. In March 2022, Marina Ovsyannikova, a Russian journalist who held up a banner protesting the Russian invasion of Ukraine during a national news broadcast, was convicted of flouting Russian anti-protest laws and fined ₽30,000 for her actions. The Kremlin called her actions an act of hooliganism.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Walter Kamau Bell (born January 26, 1973) is an American stand-up comic and television host. He has hosted the CNN series "United Shades of America" since 2016, and hosted FXX television series "Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell" from 2012 to 2013. He is the host of the live radio show and podcast "Kamau Right Now" on KALW, and also co-hosts the podcasts "Denzel Washington Is The Greatest Actor Of All Time Period" with "Kevin Avery" (comedian) and "Politically Re-Active" with Hari Kondabolu. In 2022, Bell directed and produced the documentary miniseries "We Need to Talk About Cosby".


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Bell was born in Palo Alto, California, and grew up in Alabama, Boston, and Chicago. He is the only child of Walter Bell, who served as Alabama's Insurance Commissioner and Chairman of Swiss Re America Holding Corporation, and author Janet Cheatham Bell, who founded a self-publishing firm. Between ages five and 12, Bell lived in Boston, Massachusetts in the Mattapan neighborhood of the city. Bell graduated from the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools and attended the University of Pennsylvania before dropping out. Later he began to pursue a career in comedy.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: After establishing himself as a sociopolitical comedian and community activist based in San Francisco, Bell became a founding member of the comedy collective Laughter Against the Machine and has been featured in a number of prominent podcasts and publications, such as "WTF with Marc Maron", "Citizen Radio", and Current TV's "The War Room with Jennifer Granholm", on which Bell was a regular correspondent.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: His first comedy album, "One Night Only", was released in 2007. Also in 2007, he developed a one-man show titled "The W. Kamau Bell Curve: Ending Racism in About An Hour", "a comedic exploration of the current state of America's racism", which he periodically performs in updated versions.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: His follow-up album, "Face Full of Flour", was released in 2010, and was named one of the Top 10 Best Comedy Albums of the year by iTunes and "Punchline Magazine". From 2011 to 2012, he wrote the blog "Kamau's Komedy Korner" for the "San Francisco Weekly". In 2012, Bell was voted San Francisco's best comedian by the SF Weekly, the San Francisco Bay Guardian, and 7×7 Magazine.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: His first stand-up comedy TV special, "Semi-Prominent Negro", premiered on Showtime on April 29, 2016, and on September 30, 2016, his third full-length album with the same title, was released on Kill Rock Stars.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: On November 7, 2017, Bell became the Frank Sinatra Artist-in-Residence of Santa Clara University in Santa Clara, California.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: From 2012 to 2013, Bell hosted a weekly stand up comedy television series, "Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell", first on FX and later on FXX. The show, produced by Chris Rock, provided observational comedy and commentary on social and political issues in addition to celebrity interviews. After the show was cancelled in November 2013, Bell moved back to California from New York.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: He is currently the host of the award-winning CNN documentary series "United Shades of America", which premiered on April 24, 2016. The series has been nominated for several Emmy Awards: from 2016 to 2019 (4 nominations) it was nominated for Outstanding Unstructured Reality Program; in 2021 it was nominated for Outstanding Hosted Nonfiction Series Or Special. Bell was also nominated as Outstanding Host in 2017 and 2018. Bell is Executive Producer of the show, accepting the award for Creative Arts Emmy for Outstanding Unstructured Reality Program in 2017, 2018 and 2019.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: The show "United Shades of America" was renewed for season 3 in 2018. The first episode of the show was aired on the 29th of April 2018. The season consisted of 8 episodes. The last episode, titled ""Native Hawaii"" aired on July 1, 2018. Later in July 2018, Bell was nominated for "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Host for a Reality Program" for hosting "United Shades of America".


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: In 2022, Bell directed and produced the documentary miniseries "We Need to Talk About Cosby". It explores the life and career of Bill Cosby to his sexual assault cases. It premiered on January 30, 2022, on Showtime.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: From 2010 to 2014, Bell co-hosted the podcast "The Field Negro Guide to Arts & Culture" with Living Colour guitarist Vernon Reid.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Since November 2014, Bell has co-hosted the Earwolf-produced podcast "Denzel Washington Is The Greatest Actor Of All Time Period" with comedian and writer Kevin Avery. In addition to reviewing the films of Denzel Washington one by one, the podcast has also featured interviews with prominent actors, filmmakers, musicians, and comedians including Spike Lee, Ava DuVernay, Jesse Williams, Issa Rae, and Ryan Coogler.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Since June 2016, he has also co-hosted the Panoply/First Look Media-produced podcast "Politically Re-Active" with comedian Hari Kondabolu. The podcast explores American politics and elections with a comedic approach, and includes interviews with activists, journalists, and scholars such as Ian Haney López, Robert Reich, and Pramila Jayapal.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Bell has authored a number of essays and blog posts about race and racism in American politics and media. In May 2017, Bell published his first book, "The Awkward Thoughts of W. Kamau Bell: Tales of a 6'4, African American, Heterosexual, Cisgender, Left-Leaning, Asthmatic, Black and Proud Blerd, Mama's Boy, Dad, and Stand-Up Comedian". The book is a humorous autobiography interspersed with essays about politics and popular culture.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: Bell sits on the advisory boards of Race Forward, a racial justice think tank (formerly known as the Applied Research Center), and Hollaback!, an anti-harassment organization. In October 2013, he was named the American Civil Liberties Union celebrity ambassador on racial justice.


title: W. Kamau Bell

text: On January 26, 2015, Bell and his wife Melissa were involved in an incident at the Elmwood Cafe in Berkeley, California, which Bell alleged was racially motivated. Bell reported online that an employee of the cafe told him to "scram", or words to that effect, while he was talking to his white wife and her friends at one of its outdoor tables. He had approached the women from the outside casually dressed (e.g., wearing a knit cap), and the employee, a waitress, assumed he was "selling something," which Bell took as code for "homeless." The cafe owner fired the waitress, and, with Bell, held a community forum to discuss implicit bias and how to improve. Bell's account was eventually featured in an episode of the radio series "This American Life" titled "Birds & Bees". After April 2018 arrests of two black men at a Starbucks gained media attention, Bell renewed his criticism of the Elmwood Cafe. It closed soon after. The cafe reopened a month later with former manager and current co-owner Kara Hammond changing the name to Baker & Commons.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Ramzi Mohammed Abdullah bin al-Shibh (; also transliterated as bin al-Shaibah; born 1 May 1972) is a Yemeni citizen currently being held by the U.S. as an enemy combatant detainee at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. He is accused of being a "key facilitator for the September 11 attacks" in 2001 in the United States.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: In the mid-1990s, bin al-Shibh moved as a student to Hamburg, Germany, where he allegedly became close friends with Mohamed Atta, Ziad Jarrah and Marwan al-Shehhi. Together, they are suspected of forming the Hamburg cell and becoming central perpetrators of the September 11 attacks. He was the only one of the four who failed to obtain a U.S. visa; he is accused of acting as an intermediary for the hijackers in the United States, by wiring money and passing on information from key al-Qaeda figures. After the attacks, bin al-Shibh was the first to be publicly identified by the U.S. as the "20th hijacker", of whom there have been several more possible candidates.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh has been in United States custody since he was captured on 11 September 2002, in Karachi, Pakistan. He was held by the CIA in black sites in Morocco before being transferred to Guantanamo Bay in September 2006. Finally charged in 2008 before a military commission, he and several others suspected in the 9/11 attacks went to trial beginning in May 2012.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Ramzi bin al-Shibh was born 1 May 1972 in Hadhramaut province in Yemen. When he was young, his family moved to a working-class neighborhood in the capital, Sana'a. In 1987, his father died. He was cared for by his older brother, Ahmed, and his mother.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: In 1987, while still in high school, bin al-Shibh began working part-time as a clerk for the International Bank of Yemen. He continued working there until 1995.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh applied for a U.S. visa in 1995, but his request was denied. He instead went to Germany, where he requested political asylum, claiming that he was a political refugee from Sudan. He lived in Hamburg until 1997, when the judge refused his asylum request.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh returned to the Hadramaut region of Yemen. A short while later he received a German visa under his real name. While he was in Germany, bin al-Shibh used the name Ramzi Omar. In 1997, bin al-Shibh met Mohamed Atta at a mosque; he was the leader of the Hamburg cell. For two years, Atta and bin al-Shibh were roommates in Germany.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: In late 1999, bin al-Shibh traveled to Kandahar in Afghanistan, where he received training at al Qaeda camps. He met others involved in planning the September 11 attacks.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Original plans for the 9/11 attacks called for bin al-Shibh to be one of the hijacker pilots, along with three other members of the Hamburg cell, including Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah. From Hamburg, bin al-Shibh applied to take flight training in the United States. At that time, he also applied to Aviation Language Services, which provides language training for student pilots. Bin al-Shibh applied for an entry visa to the United States, four times, and was refused each time. He made visa applications in Germany on May 17, 2000, and again in June, on September 16, and October 25, 2000.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: According to the 9/11 Commission, this refusal of a visa was motivated by general concern by U.S. officials at the time that people from Yemen, which was struggling economically, would illegally overstay their visit and seek work in the United States. His friend, Zakariyah Essabar, was also denied visas. After failing to gain a visa to enter the United States, bin al-Shibh took on a "coordinator" role in the plot, serving as a link between Atta in the United States and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in Afghanistan.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: According to the Al Jazeera reporter Yosri Fouda's documentary, "Top Secret: The Road to September 11", three weeks prior to the attacks, Saeed al-Ghamdi is believed to have used the name "Abdul Rahman" to message bin al-Shibh online (who was posing as a girlfriend), writing:


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The first semester commences in three weeks. Two high schools and two universities. ... This summer will surely be hot ...19 certificates for private education and four exams. Regards to the professor. Goodbye.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: This was said to be a reference to two military/governmental targets and two civilian targets, 19 hijackers and 4 hijacked planes.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: He said, 'A friend of mine gave me a puzzle and I want you to help me out.' I said to him, 'Is this the time for puzzles, Mohamed?' He said, 'Yes, I know, but no one else but you could help me.' He said, 'Two sticks, a dash and cake with a stick down. What is it?' I said, 'Did you wake me up just to tell me this?' As it turns out, two sticks is the number 11. A dash is a dash. And cake with a stick down is the number nine. And that was September 11.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: In August 2001, bin al-Shibh sent approximately $14,000 to Zacarias Moussaoui, using the alias "Ahad Sabet", a few days after receiving transfer of $15,000 from Hashim Abdulrahman in the United Arab Emirates.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh was the first to be publicly identified by the United States as the "20th hijacker," someone who was thought to have been tasked to fill out the single missing slot among the four terrorist five-person teams. This spot was never filled. United Airlines Flight 93 had four hijackers, not five, which is believed in part to have led to the success of the passenger revolt  —  the crash of the plane near Shanksville, Pennsylvania was likely caused by the passengers.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: After 14 January 2002, bin al-Shibh was featured among five suspected al-Qaeda members on videos delivering what United States Attorney General John Ashcroft described as "martyrdom messages from suicide terrorists." NBC News said that the five videos had been recorded after the September 11 attacks.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Ashcroft said the five videotapes, shown by the FBI without sound, had been recovered from the rubble of the home of Mohammad Atef outside Kabul, Afghanistan. Ashcroft called upon people worldwide to help "identify, locate and incapacitate terrorists who are suspected of planning additional attacks against innocent civilians." The sound was left out to guard against the possibility that the messages contained signals for other terrorists. Ashcroft added that an analysis of the audio suggested "the men may be trained and prepared to commit future suicide terrorist acts." Ashcroft said not much was known about any of them except bin al-Shibh. The other three are still featured in compiled video clips, in order of appearance, Muhammad Sa'id Ali Hasan, Abd al-Rahim, and Khalid Ibn Muhammad al-Juhani. The fifth was identified a week later as Abderraouf Jdey, alias Al-Rauf bin al-Habib bin Yousef al-Jiddi.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: On 8 September 2006, al-Qaeda released a video that shows Osama bin Laden and some of the 9/11 hijackers. The tape identifies bin al-Shibh as the "coordinator of the 9/11 attacks" in its English subtitles. The video shows bin al-Shibh and other hijackers training in kickboxing, as well as disarming and concealing weapons at a terrorist training camp in or near Kandahar, Afghanistan.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: On 17 January 2002, the FBI published the first Most Wanted Terrorists Seeking Information list (now known as the FBI Seeking Information – Terrorism list). They identified the five wanted terrorists, about whom little was known but who were suspected of plotting additional terrorist attacks in martyrdom operations. (see current version displaying photos of five terrorists on the remaining martyrdom videos FBI list, as of June 2006) Ramzi bin al-Shibh was one of the four men among the five whose names were known.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Ramzi bin al-Shibh is suspected of having been involved in the 2000 USS "Cole" bombing, and the 2002 Ghriba synagogue bombing in Tunisia.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh was captured in Pakistan on September 11, 2002, after a gun battle in Karachi with the Pakistani ISI and the CIA's Special Activities Division. On September 14, 2002, he was transferred to the United States. CIA officers transported him by extraordinary rendition to a secret black site in Morocco for interrogation. The CIA admitted in August 2010 that it has video tapes of these interrogations.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: His profile was removed from the FBI Seeking Information wanted list by October 17, 2002. Bin al-Shibh was held by the U.S. at an undisclosed CIA-led location until September 2006. On September 6, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush announced that bin al-Shibh and thirteen other CIA-held, high-value detainees had been transferred to Guantanamo Bay detention camp.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh is also wanted by German courts; he had shared a Hamburg apartment with Mohamed Atta, the suspected ringleader of the September 11 hijackers. In 2005, the USA denied a German request for bin al-Shibh's extradition. In an earlier extradition and trial, Abdelghani Mzoudi, a 9/11 suspect, was acquitted of German charges.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: A three-page-long Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for Ramzi bin al-Shibh on February 8, 2007, for a Combatant Status Review Tribunal. The transcript of his hearing was eight pages long. It said that he chose not to attend his Tribunal, held March 9, 2007. The first two pages of the transcript were consumed with the Tribunal's officers swearing oaths, and the reading out of the Tribunal mandate and authority.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The Tribunal's President called on the captive's Personal Representative to explain his efforts to explain the captive's right to be present at his Tribunal.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The allegations prepared for the first 558 captives whose status was examined by Combatant Status Review Tribunals (CSRT), between August 2004 and January 2005, were broken into two sections: those that established a connection to terrorism, and those that established hostile activity. The allegations were numbered, and were generally only one or two sentences in length.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The Department of Defense announced on August 9, 2007 that all fourteen of the "high-value detainees" who had been transferred to Guantanamo from the CIA's black sites, had been officially classified as "enemy combatants". Although judges Peter Brownback and Keith J. Allred had ruled two months earlier that only ""illegal" enemy combatants" could face military commissions, the Department of Defense waived the qualifier and said that all fourteen men could now face charges before Guantanamo military commissions.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: On 12 June 2008, the United States Supreme Court ruled, in "Boumediene v. Bush" (2008), that detainees had the right to access the federal court system in "habeas" challenges to their detention. It ruled that the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which had restricted their exercise of habeas corpus outside the military commission system, was unconstitutional in this respect. The first 22 captives who had pending habeas petitions in 2006 when the Act was passed, were allowed to re-initiate their petitions in August 2008.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Bin al-Shibh and four other captives classified as high value detainees (Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Mustafa al-Hawsawi, Ammar al-Baluchi and Walid Bin Attash) were charged in Guantanamo military commissions in Spring 2008. The men triggered controversy when they announced that they did not want US-appointed attorneys and they planned to boycott their commissions. The military commissions, as authorized by President George W. Bush, did not permit suspects to forgo legal representation, to act as their own attorneys, or to boycott their commissions. The commissions authorized by the Military Commissions Act of 2006, did authorize suspects to serve as their own attorneys.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The other four men eventually agreed to attend their commissions. Bin al-Shibh, however, has continued to refuse to attend. His appointed attorneys had expressed concern about him and his state of mental health. The top-secret location of Camp 7, where the high-value detainees are held, had been off limits to military attorneys. The individual detainees are hooded when they travel from the camp to their commission hearings.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: Suzanne Lachelier, one of the attorneys and a reserve officer in the Judge Advocate General Corps, offered to wear a hood, in order to be taken to him when the camp authorities initially refused her examination of the prison. She finally gained approval from the military commission judge to see the prison in the autumn of 2008. To get to the prison, Lachelier and her co-counsel, Rich Federico, were taken in a windowless van that was used to transport detainees. They were the first defense lawyers to visit Camp 7.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: The judge presiding over the commission's pre-trial motions ordered bin al-Shibh and Mustafa al-Hawsawi to undergo mental competency hearings. On December 8, 2008, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed told the judge that he, along with the other four men who had been indicted, wished to confess and plead guilty; however, they wished to delay their plea until after the competency hearings of bin al-Shibh and Hawsawi, because all five men wanted to make their pleas together.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: On 17 May 2010, "Saba News" reported that Ramzi Al-Shaibah, and four other Yemenis would face charges in the summer of 2010. Two other Yemenis to face charges were: Walid Bin Atash and Abdul Rahim Al-Nasheri. "Saba News" did not name the fourth and fifth individuals.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: In 2011, the lawyers of Bin al-Shibh argued that he may be unfit to stand trial and participate in his own defense. They have asked that the proceedings against him and his four co-accused be stayed until his mental state is determined. They say he has been prescribed psychotropic drugs of the sort that are used to treat schizophrenia. Bin al-Shibh claims that he is mentally fit, has denounced his lawyers, and says that he wants to represent himself before the commissions.


title: Ramzi bin al-Shibh

text: On 31 January 2014, Carol Rosenberg, reporting in the "Miami Herald", wrote that Pohl had to delay al-Shibh's trial again, because the panel of three military psychiatrists who tried to determine whether he was mentally competent to stand trial had not been able to reach a conclusion.


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomics (also known as online comics or Internet comics) are comics published on a website or mobile app. While many are published exclusively on the web, others are also published in magazines, newspapers, or comic books.


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomics can be compared to self-published print comics in that anyone with an Internet connection can publish their own webcomic. Readership levels vary widely; many are read only by the creator's immediate friends and family, while some of the largest claim audiences well over one million readers. Webcomics range from traditional comic strips and graphic novels to avant garde comics, and cover many genres, styles, and subjects. They sometimes take on the role of a comic blog. The term web cartoonist is sometimes used to refer to someone who creates webcomics.


title: Webcomic

text: There are several differences between webcomics and print comics. With webcomics the restrictions of traditional books, newspapers or magazines can be lifted, allowing artists and writers to take advantage of the web's unique capabilities.


title: Webcomic

text: The creative freedom webcomics provide allows artists to work in nontraditional styles. Clip art or photo comics (also known as fumetti) are two types of webcomics that do not use traditional artwork. "A Softer World", for example, is made by overlaying photographs with strips of typewriter-style text. As in the constrained comics tradition, a few webcomics, such as "Dinosaur Comics" by Ryan North, are created with most strips having art copied exactly from one (or a handful of) template comics and only the text changing. Pixel art, such as that created by Richard Stevens of "Diesel Sweeties", is similar to that of sprite comics but instead uses low-resolution images created by the artist themself. However, it is also common for some artists to use traditional styles, similar to those typically published in newspapers or comic books.


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomics that are independently published are not subject to the content restrictions of book publishers or newspaper syndicates, enjoying an artistic freedom similar to underground and alternative comics. Some webcomics stretch the boundaries of taste, taking advantage of the fact that internet censorship is virtually nonexistent in countries like the United States. The content of webcomics can still cause problems, such as "Leisure Town" artist Tristan Farnon's legal trouble after creating a profane "Dilbert" parody, or the Catholic League's protest of artist Eric Millikin's "blasphemous treatment of Jesus."


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomic artists use many formats throughout the world. Comic strips, generally consisting of three or four panels, have been a common format for many artists. Other webcomic artists use the format of traditional printed comic books and graphic novels, sometimes with the plan of later publishing books.


title: Webcomic

text: Scott McCloud, one of the first advocates of webcomics, pioneered the idea of the "infinite canvas" where, rather than being confined to normal print dimensions, artists are free to spread out in any direction indefinitely with their comics. Such a format proved highly successful in South-Korean webcomics when JunKoo Kim implemented an infinite scrolling mechanism in the platform Webtoon in 2004. In 2009, French web cartoonist Balak described Turbomedia, a format for webcomics where a reader only views one panel at a time, in which the reader decides their own reading rhythm by going forward one panel at a time. Some web cartoonists, such as political cartoonist Mark Fiore or Charley Parker with "Argon Zark!", incorporate animations or interactive elements into their webcomics.


title: Webcomic

text: The first comics to be shared through the Internet were Eric Millikin's "Witches and Stitches", which he started uploading on CompuServe in 1985. Services such as CompuServe and Usenet were used before the World Wide Web started to rise in popularity in 1993. Early webcomics were often derivatives from strips in college newspapers, but when the Web became widely popular in the mid-1990s, more people started creating comics exclusively for this medium. By 2000, various webcomic creators were financially successful and webcomics became more artistically recognized. Unique genres and styles became popular during this period.


title: Webcomic

text: The 2010s also saw the rise of webtoons in South Korea, where the form has become very prominent. This decade has also seen an increasingly larger number of successful webcomics being adapted into animated series in China and Japan.


title: Webcomic

text: In March 1995, artist Bebe Williams launched one of the first webcomics collectives, Art Comics Daily. Newspaper comic strip syndicates also launched websites in the mid-1990s.


title: Webcomic

text: Other webcomics collectives followed, with many launching in the next decade. In March 2000, Chris Crosby, Crosby's mother Teri, and other artists founded Keenspot. In July 2000, Austin Osueke launched eigoMANGA, publishing original online manga, referred to as "webmanga".


title: Webcomic

text: In 2001, the subscription webcomics site Cool Beans World was launched. Contributors included UK-based comic book creators Pat Mills, Simon Bisley, John Bolton, and Kevin O'Neill, and the author Clive Barker. Serialised content included "Scarlet Traces" and "Marshal Law".


title: Webcomic

text: In March 2001, Shannon Denton and Patrick Coyle launched Komikwerks.com serving free strips from comics and animation professionals. The site launched with 9 titles including Steve Conley's "Astounding Space Thrills", Jason Kruse's "The World of Quest", and Bernie Wrightson's "The Nightmare Expeditions".


title: Webcomic

text: On March 2, 2002, Joey Manley founded Modern Tales, offering subscription-based webcomics. The Modern Tales spin-off serializer followed in October 2002, then came girlamatic and Graphic Smash in March and September 2003 respectively.


title: Webcomic

text: By 2005, webcomics hosting had become a business in its own right, with sites such as Webcomics Nation.


title: Webcomic

text: Traditional comic book publishers, such as Marvel Comics and Slave Labour Graphics, did not begin making serious digital efforts until 2006 and 2007. DC Comics launched its web comic imprint, Zuda Comics in October 2007. The site featured user submitted comics in a competition for a professional contract to produce web comics. In July 2010, it was announced that DC was closing down Zuda.


title: Webcomic

text: Some creators of webcomics are able to do so professionally through various revenue channels. Webcomic artists may sell merchandise based on their work, such as T-shirts and toys, or they may sell print versions or compilations of their webcomic. Webcomic creators can also sell online advertisements on their websites. In the second half of the 2000s, webcomics became less financially sustainable due to the rise of social media and consumers' disinterest in certain kinds of merchandise. Crowdfunding through Kickstarter and Patreon have also become sources of income for web cartoonists.


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomics have been used by some cartoonists as a path towards syndication in newspapers. Since the mid-1990s, Scott McCloud advocated for micropayments systems as a source of income for web cartoonists, but micropayment systems have not been popular with artists or readers.


title: Webcomic

text: Many webcomics artists have received honors for their work. In 2006, Gene Luen Yang's graphic novel "American Born Chinese", originally published as a webcomic on Modern Tales, was the first graphic novel to be nominated for a National Book Award. Don Hertzfeldt's animated film based on his webcomics, "Everything Will Be OK", won the 2007 Sundance Film Festival Jury Award in Short Filmmaking, a prize rarely bestowed on an animated film.


title: Webcomic

text: Many traditionally print-comics focused organizations have added award categories for comics published on the web. The Eagle Awards established a Favorite Web-based Comic category in 2000, and the Ignatz Awards followed the next year by introducing an Outstanding Online Comic category in 2001. After having nominated webcomics in several of their traditional print-comics categories, the Eisner Awards began awarding comics in the Best Digital Comic category in 2005. In 2006 the Harvey Awards established a Best Online Comics Work category, and in 2007 the Shuster Awards began an Outstanding Canadian Web Comic Creator Award. In 2012 the National Cartoonists Society gave their first Reuben Award for "On-line comic strips."


title: Webcomic

text: Other awards focus exclusively on webcomics. The Web Cartoonists' Choice Awards consist of a number of awards that were handed out annually from 2001 to 2008. The Dutch Clickburg Webcomic Awards (also known as the Clickies) has been handed out four times between 2005 and 2010. The awards require the recipient to be active in the Benelux countries, with the exception of one international award.


title: Webcomic

text: Though webcomics are typically published primarily on the World Wide Web, often webcomic creators decide to also print self-published books of their work. In some cases, web cartoonists may get publishing deals in which comic books are created of their work. Sometimes, these books are published by mainstream comics publishers who are traditionally aimed at the direct market of comic books stores. Some web cartoonists may pursue print syndication in established newspapers or magazines.


title: Webcomic

text: The traditional audience base for webcomics and print comics are vastly different, and webcomic readers do not necessarily go to bookstores. For some web cartoonists, a print release may be considered the "goal" of a webcomic series, while for others, comic books are "just another way to get the content out." Webcomics have been seen by some artists as a potential new path towards syndication in newspapers. According to Jeph Jacques ("Questionable Content"), "there's no real money" in syndication for webcomic artists. Some artists are not able to syndicate their work in newspapers because their comics are targeted to a specific niche audience and wouldn't be popular with a broader readership.


title: Webcomic

text: Many webcomics are published primarily in English, this being a major language in Australia, Canada, India, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Cultures surrounding non-anglophone webcomics have thrived in countries such as China, France, India, Japan, and South Korea.


title: Webcomic

text: Webcomics have been a popular medium in India since the early 2000s. Indian webcomics are successful as they reach a large audience for free and they are frequently used by the country's younger generation to spread social awareness on topics such as politics and feminism. These webcomics achieve a large amount of exposure by being spread through social media.


title: Webcomic

text: In China, Chinese webcomics have become a popular way to criticize the communist government and politicians in the country. Many webcomics by popular artists get shared around the country thanks to social networks such as Sina Weibo and WeChat. Many titles will often be censored or taken down by the government.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The siege of Sevastopol (at the time called in English the siege of Sebastopol) lasted from October 1854 until September 1855, during the Crimean War. The allies (French, Sardinian, Ottoman, and British) landed at Eupatoria on 14 September 1854, intending to make a triumphal march to Sevastopol, the capital of the Crimea, with 50,000 men. Major battles along the way were Alma (September 1854), Balaklava (October 1854), Inkerman (November 1854), Tchernaya (August 1855), Redan (September 1855), and, finally, Malakoff (September 1855). During the siege, the allied navy undertook six bombardments of the capital, on 17 October 1854; and on 9 April, 6 June, 17 June, 17 August, and 5 September 1855.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The Siege of Sevastopol is one of the last classic sieges in history. The city of Sevastopol was the home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet, which threatened the Mediterranean. The Russian field army withdrew before the allies could encircle it. The siege was the culminating struggle for the strategic Russian port in 1854–55 and was the final episode in the Crimean War.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: During the Victorian Era, these battles were repeatedly memorialized. The Siege of Sevastopol was the subject of Crimean soldier Leo Tolstoy's "Sebastopol Sketches" and the subject of the first Russian feature film, "Defence of Sevastopol". The Battle of Balaklava was made famous by Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade" and Robert Gibb's painting "The Thin Red Line". A panorama of the siege itself was painted by Franz Roubaud.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The allies (French, Ottoman, and British) landed at Eupatoria on 14 September 1854. The Battle of the Alma (20 September 1854), which is usually considered the first battle of the Crimean War (1853–1856), took place just south of the River Alma in the Crimea. An Anglo-French force under Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud and FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan defeated General Alexander Sergeyevich Menshikov's Russian army, which lost around 6,000 troops.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: Moving from their base at Balaklava at the start of October, French and British engineers began to direct the building of siege lines along the Chersonese uplands to the south of Sevastopol. The troops prepared redoubts, gun batteries, and trenches.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: With the Russian army and its commander Prince Menshikov gone, the defence of Sevastopol was led by Vice Admirals Vladimir Alexeyevich Kornilov and Pavel Nakhimov, assisted by Menshikov's chief engineer, Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Totleben. The military forces available to defend the city were 4,500 militia, 2,700 gunners, 4,400 marines, 18,500 naval seamen, and 5,000 workmen, totalling just over 35,000 men.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The naval defense of Sevastopol included 8 artillery batteries: 3 on the north shore ( or Fort Constantine, Mikhail battery or Fort Michael, battery no.4) and 5 on the northern shore (Pavel battery or Fort Pavel, battery no.8, Alexander battery or Fort Alexander, battery no.8).


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The Russians began by scuttling their ships to protect the harbour, then used their naval cannon as additional artillery and the ships' crews as marines. Those ships deliberately sunk by the end of 1855 included "Grand Duke Constantine", "City of Paris" (both with 120 guns), , , , , and "Yagondeid" (all 84 guns), "Kavarna" (60 guns), "Konlephy" (54 guns), steam frigate "Vladimir", steamboats "Thunderer", "Bessarabia", "Danube", "Odessa", "Elbrose", and "Krein".


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: By mid-October, the Allies had some 120 guns ready to fire on Sevastopol; the Russians had about three times as many.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: On 5 October (old style date, 17 October new style) the artillery battle began. The Russian artillery first destroyed a French magazine, silencing their guns. British fire then set off the magazine in the Malakoff redoubt, killing Admiral Kornilov, silencing most of the Russian guns there, and leaving a gap in the city's defences. However, the British and French withheld their planned infantry attack, and a possible opportunity for an early end to the siege was missed.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: At the same time, to support the Allied land forces, the Allied fleet pounded the Russian defences and shore batteries. Six screw-driven ships of the line and 21 wooden sail were involved in the sea bombardment (11 British, 14 French, and two Ottoman Turkish). After a bombardment that lasted over six hours, the Allied fleet inflicted little damage on the Russian defences and coastal artillery batteries while suffering 340 casualties among the fleet. Two of the British warships were so badly damaged that they were towed to the arsenal in Constantinople for repairs and remained out of action for the remainder of the siege, while most of the other warships also suffered serious damage due to many direct hits from the Russian coastal artillery. The bombardment resumed the following day, but the Russians had worked through the night and repaired the damage. This pattern would be repeated throughout the siege.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: In late October and early November, the battles of Balaclava and Inkerman took place beyond the siege lines. Balaclava gave the Russians a morale boost and convinced them that the Allied lines were thinly spread out and undermanned. But after their defeat at Inkerman, the Russians saw that the siege of Sevastopol would not be lifted by a battle in the field, so instead they moved troops into the city to aid the defenders. Toward the end of November, a winter storm ruined the Allies' camps and supply lines. Men and horses sickened and starved in the poor conditions.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: While Totleben extended the fortifications around the Redan bastion and the Malakoff redoubt, British chief engineer John Fox Burgoyne sought to take the Malakoff, which he saw as the key to Sevastopol. Siege works were begun to bring the Allied troops nearer to the Malakoff; in response, Totleben dug rifle pits from which Russian troops could snipe at the besiegers. In a foretaste of the trench warfare that became the hallmark of the First World War, the trenches became the focus of Allied assaults.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The Allies were able to restore many supply routes when winter ended. The new Grand Crimean Central Railway, built by the contractors Thomas Brassey and Samuel Morton Peto, which had been completed at the end of March 1855 was now in use bringing supplies from Balaclava to the siege lines. The 24-mile long railroad delivered more than five hundred guns and plentiful ammunition. The Allies resumed their bombardment on 8 April (Easter Sunday). On 28 June (10 July), Admiral Nakhimov died from a head wound inflicted by an Allied sniper.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: On 24 August (5 September) the Allies started their sixth and the most severe bombardment of the fortress. Three hundred and seven cannon fired 150,000 rounds, with the Russians suffering 2,000 to 3,000 casualties daily. On 27 August (8 September), thirteen Allied divisions and one Allied brigade (total strength 60,000) began the last assault. The British assault on the Great Redan failed, but the French, under General MacMahon, managed to seize the Malakoff redoubt and the Little Redan, making the Russian defensive position untenable. By the morning of 28 August (9 September), the Russian forces had abandoned the southern side of Sevastopol.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: Although defended heroically and at the cost of heavy Allied casualties, the fall of Sevastopol would lead to the Russian defeat in the Crimean War. Most of the Russian casualties were buried in Brotherhood cemetery in over 400 collective graves. The three main commanders (Nakhimov, Kornilov, and Istomin) were interred in the purpose-built Admirals' Burial Vault.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The British sent cannons seized at Sevastopol to many towns in Britain, and several important cities across the Empire. Additionally, several were sent to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. These cannon are now all kept at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (renamed after the closing of RMA Woolwich shortly after the Second World War) and are displayed in front of Old College, next to cannon from Waterloo and other battles. Many of the cannon sent to towns in Britain were melted down during the Second World War to help the war effort, though several of these have subsequently been replaced by replicas.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: The cascabel (the large ball at the rear of old muzzle-loaded guns) of several cannon captured during the siege was said to have been used to make the British Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the British Armed Forces. However, Hancocks, the manufacturer, confirms that the metal is Chinese, not Russian, bronze. The cannons used are in the Firepower Museum in Woolwich and are clearly Chinese. There would be no reason why Chinese cannon would be in Sevastopol in the 1850s and it is likely that the VC guns were, in fact, British trophies from the China war in the 1840s held in the Woolwich repository. Though it had been suggested that the VCs should be made from Sevastopol cannons, it seems that in practice, they were not. Testing of medals which proved not to be of Russian bronze has given rise to stories that some Victoria Crosses were made of low grade material at certain times but this is not so – all Victoria Crosses have been made from the same metal from the start.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: Components of the 1861 Guards Crimean War Memorial by John Bell, in Waterloo Place, St James's, London, were made from melted down Sevastopol cannons.


title: Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855)

text: Following the end of the siege, two large bells were taken by British forces as war trophies from the Church of the Twelve Apostles. Along with two smaller bells, they were appropriated and transported by Lieutenant Colonel John St George, who commanded the Royal Artillery siege train. They were displayed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, before the larger one was taken to Aldershot Garrison, where it was mounted on a wooden frame on Gun Hill. In 1879, it was moved to the bell tower of the Cambridge Military Hospital, the garrison's medical facility. It was moved in 1978 to the officer's mess in Hospital Road and more recently to St Omer Barracks; it is a Grade II listed structure. The second bell was taken to Windsor Castle and installed in the Round Tower; by tradition it is only rung on the death of a king or queen.


title: Stagecoach

text: A stagecoach is a four-wheeled public transport coach used to carry paying passengers and light packages on journeys long enough to need a change of horses. It is strongly sprung and generally drawn by four horses although some versions are drawn by six horses.


title: Stagecoach

text: Commonly used before steam-powered rail transport was available, a stagecoach made long scheduled trips using "stage stations" or posts where the stagecoach's horses would be replaced by fresh horses. The business of running stagecoaches or the act of journeying in them was known as staging.


title: Stagecoach

text: Some familiar images of the stagecoach are that of a Royal Mail coach passing through a turnpike gate, a Dickensian passenger coach covered in snow pulling up at a coaching inn, a highwayman demanding a coach to "stand and deliver" and a Wells Fargo stagecoach arriving at or leaving a Wild West town. The yard of ale drinking glass is associated by legend with stagecoach drivers, though it was mainly used for drinking feats and special toasts.


title: Stagecoach

text: The stagecoach was a closed four-wheeled vehicle drawn by horses or hard-going mules. It was regularly used as a public conveyance on an established route usually to a regular schedule. Spent horses were replaced with fresh horses at stage stations, posts, or relays.


title: Stagecoach

text: In addition to the stage driver or coachman who guided the vehicle, a shotgun messenger armed with a coach gun might travel as a guard beside him. From here comes the origin of the phrase "riding shotgun".


title: Stagecoach

text: A simplified and lightened vehicle known as a stage wagon, mud-coach, or mud-wagon, was used in the United States under difficult conditions. A canvas-topped wagon had a lower center of gravity, and it could not be loaded on the roof with heavy freight or passengers as an enclosed coach so often was. It was a similar style of passenger conveyance to the Berline coach.


title: Stagecoach

text: Up until the late 18th century, a stagecoach traveled at an average speed of about , with the average daily mileage covered being around , but with improvements to the roads and the development of steel springs, the speed increased, so that by 1836 the scheduled coach left London at 19:30, travelled through the night (without lights) and arrived in Liverpool at 16:50 the next day, a distance of about , doubling the overall average speed to about , including stops to change horses.


title: Stagecoach

text: The first crude depiction of a coach was in an English manuscript from the 13th century. The first recorded stagecoach route in Britain started in 1610 and ran from Edinburgh to Leith. This was followed by a steady proliferation of other routes around the island. By the mid 17th century, a basic stagecoach infrastructure had been put in place. A string of coaching inns operated as stopping points for travellers on the route between London and Liverpool. The stagecoach would depart every Monday and Thursday and took roughly ten days to make the journey during the summer months. Stagecoaches also became widely adopted for travel in and around London by mid-century and generally travelled at a few miles per hour. Shakespeare's first plays were performed at coaching inns such as The George Inn, Southwark.


title: Stagecoach

text: By the end of the 17th century stagecoach routes ran up and down the three main roads in England. The London-York route was advertised in 1698:


title: Stagecoach

text: The novelty of this method of transport excited much controversy at the time. One pamphleteer denounced the stagecoach as a "great evil [...] mischievous to trade and destructive to the public health". Another writer, however, argued that:


title: Stagecoach

text: The speed of travel remained constant until the mid-18th century. Reforms of the turnpike trusts, new methods of road building and the improved construction of coaches led to a sustained rise in the comfort and speed of the average journey - from an average journey length of 2 days for the Cambridge-London route in 1750 to a length of under 7 hours in 1820.


title: Stagecoach

text: Robert Hooke helped in the construction of some of the first spring-suspended coaches in the 1660s and spoked wheels with iron rim brakes were introduced, improving the characteristics of the coach.


title: Stagecoach

text: In 1754, a Manchester-based company began a new service called the "Flying Coach". It was advertised with the following announcement - "However incredible it may appear, this coach will actually (barring accidents) arrive in London in four days and a half after leaving Manchester." A similar service was begun from Liverpool three years later, using coaches with steel spring suspension. This coach took an unprecedented three days to reach London with an average speed of


title: Stagecoach

text: Even more dramatic improvements were made by John Palmer at the British Post Office. The postal delivery service in Britain had existed in the same form for about 150 years—from its introduction in 1635, mounted carriers had ridden between "posts" where the postmaster would remove the letters for the local area before handing the remaining letters and any additions to the next rider. The riders were frequent targets for robbers, and the system was inefficient.


title: Stagecoach

text: Palmer made much use of the "flying" stagecoach services between cities in the course of his business, and noted that it seemed far more efficient than the system of mail delivery then in operation. His travel from Bath to London took a single day to the mail's three days. It occurred to him that this stagecoach service could be developed into a national mail delivery service, so in 1782 he suggested to the Post Office in London that they take up the idea. He met resistance from officials who believed that the existing system could not be improved, but eventually the Chancellor of the Exchequer, William Pitt, allowed him to carry out an experimental run between Bristol and London. Under the old system the journey had taken up to 38 hours. The stagecoach, funded by Palmer, left Bristol at 4 pm on 2 August 1784 and arrived in London just 16 hours later.


title: Stagecoach

text: Impressed by the trial run, Pitt authorised the creation of new routes. Within the month the service had been extended from London to Norwich, Nottingham, Liverpool and Manchester, and by the end of 1785 services to the following major towns and cities of England and Wales had also been linked: Leeds, Dover, Portsmouth, Poole, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Holyhead and Carlisle. A service to Edinburgh was added the next year, and Palmer was rewarded by being made Surveyor and Comptroller General of the Post Office. By 1797 there were forty-two routes.


title: Stagecoach

text: The period from 1800 to 1830 saw great improvements in the design of coaches, most notably by John Besant in 1792 and 1795. His coach had a greatly improved turning capacity and braking system, and a novel feature that prevented the wheels from falling off while the coach was in motion. Besant, with his partner John Vidler, enjoyed a monopoly on the supply of stagecoaches to the Royal Mail and a virtual monopoly on their upkeep and servicing for the following few decades.


title: Stagecoach

text: Steel springs had been used in suspensions for vehicles since 1695. Coachbuilder Obadiah Elliott obtained a patent covering the use of elliptic springs - which were not his invention. His patent lasted 14 years delaying development because Elliott allowed no others to license and use his patent. Elliott mounted each wheel with two durable elliptic steel leaf springs on each side and the body of the carriage was fixed directly to the springs attached to the axles. After the expiry of his patent most British horse carriages were equipped with elliptic springs; wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid taxation, and steel springs in larger vehicles.


title: Stagecoach

text: Steady improvements in road construction were also made at this time, most importantly the widespread implementation of Macadam roads up and down the country. The speed of coaches in this period rose from around (including stops for provisioning) to and greatly increased the level of mobility in the country, both for people and for mail. Each route had an average of four coaches operating on it at one time - two for both directions and a further two spares in case of a breakdown en route. Joseph Ballard described the stagecoach service between Manchester and Liverpool in 1815 as having price competition between coaches, with timely service and clean accommodations at inns.


title: Stagecoach

text: The development of railways in the 1830s spelled the end for stagecoaches and mail coaches. The first rail delivery between Liverpool and Manchester took place on 11 November 1830. By the early 1840s most London-based coaches had been withdrawn from service.


title: Stagecoach

text: Some stagecoaches remained in use for commercial or recreational purposes. They came to be known as road coaches and were used by their enterprising (or nostalgic) owners to provide scheduled passenger services where rail had not yet reached and also on certain routes at certain times of the year for the pleasure of an (often amateur) coachman and his daring passengers.


title: Stagecoach

text: While stagecoaches vanished as rail penetrated the countryside the 1860s did see the start of a coaching revival spurred on by the popularity of Four-in-hand driving as a sporting pursuit (the Four-In-Hand Driving Club was founded in 1856 and the Coaching Club in 1871).


title: Stagecoach

text: New stagecoaches often known as Park Drags began to be built to order. Some owners would parade their vehicles and magnificently dressed passengers in fashionable locations. Other owners would take more enthusiastic suitably-dressed passengers and indulge in competitive driving. Very similar in design to stagecoaches their vehicles were lighter and sportier.


title: Stagecoach

text: These owners were (often very expert) amateur gentlemen-coachmen, occasionally gentlewomen. A professional coachman might accompany them to avert disaster. Professionals called these vehicles 'butterflies'. They only appeared in summer.


title: Stagecoach

text: Cobb & Co was established in Melbourne in 1853 and grew to service Australia's mainland eastern states and South Australia.


title: Stagecoach

text: The "diligence", a solidly built stagecoach with four or more horses, was the French vehicle for public conveyance with minor varieties in Germany such as the "Stellwagen" and "Eilwagen". The "diligence" from Le Havre to Paris was described by a fastidious English visitor of 1803 with a thoroughness that distinguished it from its English contemporary, the "stage coach".


title: Stagecoach

text: A more uncouth clumsy machine can scarcely be imagined. In the front is a cabriolet fixed to the body of the coach, for the accommodation of three passengers, who are protected from the rain above, by the projecting roof of the coach, and in front by two heavy curtains of leather, well oiled, and smelling somewhat offensively, fastened to the roof. The inside, which is capacious, and lofty, and will hold six people in great comfort is lined with leather padded, and surrounded with little pockets, in which travellers deposit their bread, snuff, night caps, and pocket handkerchiefs, which generally enjoy each others company, in the same delicate depository. From the roof depends a large net work which is generally crouded with hats, swords, and band boxes, the whole is convenient, and when all parties are seated and arranged, the accommodations are by no means unpleasant.


title: Stagecoach

text: Upon the roof, on the outside, is the imperial, which is generally filled with six or seven persons more, and a heap of luggage, which latter also occupies the basket, and generally presents a pile, half as high again as the coach, which is secured by ropes and chains, tightened by a large iron windlass, which also constitutes another appendage of this moving mass. The body of the carriage rests upon large thongs of leather, fastened to heavy blocks of wood, instead of springs, and the whole is drawn by seven horses.


title: Stagecoach

text: The English visitor noted the small, sturdy Norman horses "running away with our cumbrous machine, at the rate of six or seven miles an hour". At this speed stagecoaches could compete with canal boats, but they were rendered obsolete in Europe wherever the rail network expanded in the 19th century. Where the rail network did not reach, the "diligence" was not fully superseded until the arrival of the autobus.


title: Stagecoach

text: In France, between 1765 and 1780, the "turgotines", big mail coaches named for their originator, Louis XVI's economist minister Turgot, and improved roads, where a coach could travel at full gallop across levels, combined with more staging posts at shorter intervals, cut the time required to travel across the country sometimes by half.


title: Stagecoach

text: A Cobb & Co (Australia) proprietor arrived in New Zealand on 4 October 1861, thus beginning Cobb & Co. (New Zealand) stagecoach operation.


title: Stagecoach

text: Beginning in the 18th century crude wagons began to be used to carry passengers between cities and towns, first within New England by 1744, then between New York and Philadelphia by 1756. Travel time was reduced on this later run from three days to two in 1766 with an improved coach called the "Flying Machine". The first mail coaches appeared in the later 18th century carrying passengers and the mails, replacing the earlier post riders on the main roads. Coachmen carried letters, packages, and money, often transacting business or delivering messages for their customers. By 1829 Boston was the hub of 77 stagecoach lines; by 1832 there were 106. Coaches with iron or steel springs were uncomfortable and had short useful lives. Two men in Concord, New Hampshire, developed what became a popular solution. They built their first Concord stagecoach in 1827 employing long leather straps under their stagecoaches which gave a swinging motion.


title: Stagecoach

text: In his 1861 book "Roughing It", Mark Twain described the Concord stage's ride as like "a cradle on wheels". Around twenty years later in 1880 John Pleasant Gray recorded after travelling from Tucson to Tombstone on J.D. Kinnear's mail and express line: The horses were changed three times on the trip, normally completed in 17 hours.


title: Stagecoach

text: The stagecoaches lines in the USA were operated by private companies. Their most profitable contracts were with U.S. Mail and were hotly contested. Pony Express, which began operations in 1860, is often called first fast mail service from the Missouri River to the Pacific Coast, but the Overland Mail Company began a twice-weekly mail service from Missouri to San Francisco in September 1858. Transcontinental stage-coaching ended with the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869.


title: Stagecoach

text: The railway network in South Africa was extended from Mafeking through Bechuanaland and reached Bulawayo in 1897. Prior to its arrival, a network of stagecoach routes existed.


title: Stagecoach

text: Stagecoaches, often known by the French name "Diligence" - a smaller model with room for six passengers and a bigger one for ten, drawn by two horses (in the city, on the plain or on a good road) or three (on intercity and elevated roads) - were the main means of public transportation in Ottoman Palestine between the middle of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.


title: Stagecoach

text: The first stagecoaches were brought to Palestine by the German religious group known as the "Templers" who operated a public transportation service between their colonies in the country as early as 1867. Stagecoach development in Palestine was greatly facilitated by the 1869 visit of Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I. For this distinguished guest, the road between Jaffa and Jerusalem was greatly improved, making possible the passage of carriages. Stagecoaches were a great improvement over the earlier means of transport used in the country, such as riding horses, donkeys or camels, or light carts drawn by donkeys.


title: Stagecoach

text: When the stagecoach ran into a difficult ascent or mud, the passengers were required to get off and help push the carriage. The trip between Jaffa and Jerusalem by stagecoach lasted about 14 hours spread over a day and a half, including a night stop at Bab al-Wad (Shaar HaGai), the trip in the opposite, downhill direction took 12 hours.


title: Stagecoach

text: The stagecoaches belonged to private owners, and the wagoners were mostly hired, although sometimes the wagoner was also the owner of the wagon. The license to operate the stagecoaches was granted by the government to private individuals in the cities and to the colony committees in the early Zionist colonies. The license holders paid a special tax for this right and could employ subcontractors and hired wagons.


title: Stagecoach

text: The stagecoaches linked Jerusalem with Jaffa, Hebron and Nablus, the Zionist colonies with Jaffa, Haifa with Acre and Nazareth. They were also used for urban and suburban transportation in the Haifa region.


title: Stagecoach

text: The colony of Rehovot is known to have promulgated detailed regulations for stagecoach operation, soon after its foundation in 1890, which were greatly extended in 1911. Fares were fixed, ranging between 1.10 Grush for traveling to the nearby village of Wadi Hanin and 5.00 Grush for traveling from Rehovot to Jaffa. The stagecoach was required to work six times a week (except for the Shabbat) and to carry free of charge the mails and medicines of the Rehovot pharmacy.


title: Stagecoach

text: While railways started being constructed in Palestine in the last years of the 19th Century, stagecoaches were still a major means of public transport until the outbreak of The First World War, and in peripheral areas were still used in the early years of British Mandatory rule.


title: Stagecoach

text: Part of the plot of "Doctor Dolittle's Circus" is set in a stagecoach, where the animal-loving Doctor Dolittle is traveling along with a female seal, disguised as a woman, whom he is helping to escape from the circus. The Doctor is mistaken for a notorious highwayman...


title: Nick Begich

text: Nicholas Joseph Begich Sr. (born April 6, 1932 – disappeared October 16, 1972; declared dead December 29, 1972) was an American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Alaska. He is presumed to have died in the crash of a light aircraft in Alaska in 1972; his body was never found. He was a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Nick Begich

text: Begich was born and raised in Eveleth, Minnesota. His father, John Begich (né Begić), was born in Podlapača, Udbina, Croatia, Nick Sr.'s mother, Anna (née Martinić), was also of Croatian descent. He earned a Bachelor of Arts from Saint Cloud State University in 1952 and a Master of Arts from the University of Minnesota 1954. He took graduate courses at the University of Colorado Boulder and University of North Dakota.


title: Nick Begich

text: Begich worked as a guidance counselor in the schools of Anchorage, and he was later Director of Student Personnel for the Anchorage school system before becoming Superintendent of Schools at Fort Richardson. In 1962, Begich was elected to the Alaska Senate, where he served for eight years. Begich also taught political science during parts of this period at the University of Alaska at Anchorage.


title: Nick Begich

text: In 1968, Begich ran for Alaska's only House seat and lost to the incumbent Representative, Republican Howard Pollock.


title: Nick Begich

text: In 1970, Pollock ran for Governor of Alaska and Begich ran again for the seat and was now successful by defeating the Republican banker Frank Murkowski, who later served as a U.S. Senator and then as Governor of Alaska. In 1972 for his re-election, Begich was opposed by Republican state senator Don Young.


title: Nick Begich

text: Posthumously, Begich won the 1972 election, with 56% to Don Young's 44%. However, after Begich was declared dead, a special election was held. Young won the seat and stayed in that position until his death on March 18, 2022. Mary Peltola won the following special election and became the first Democrat in 49 years to hold the seat.


title: Nick Begich

text: On October 16, 1972, he and House Majority Leader Hale Boggs, of Louisiana, were two of the four men on board a twin engine Cessna 310 when the airplane disappeared during a flight from Anchorage to Juneau. Also on board were Begich's aide, Russell Brown, and the pilot, Don Jonz. The four were heading to a campaign fundraiser for Begich.


title: Nick Begich

text: In an enormous search effort, search and rescue aircraft of the United States Coast Guard, Navy, Army, Air Force, Civil Air Patrol and civilians were deployed to look for the four men and the missing Cessna 310. On November 24, 1972, after proceeding for 39 days, the air search was suspended. Neither the airplane nor any of its four occupants were ever found. All were declared dead on December 29, 1972.


title: Nick Begich

text: The Cessna was required to carry an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) per Alaska state statutes section 02.35.115, Downed Aircraft Transmitting Devices, which took effect on September 6, 1972, five weeks before the plane disappeared. The Alaska statute made reference to Federal Aviation Regulation 91.52, published on September 21, 1971, which mandated ELTs in aircraft such as this, but had an effective date of December 30, 1973, for existing aircraft.


title: Nick Begich

text: No ELT signal determined to be from the plane was heard during the search. In its report on the incident, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) stated that the pilot's portable ELT, permissible in lieu of a fixed ELT on the plane, was found in an aircraft at Fairbanks, Alaska. The report also notes that a witness saw an unidentified object in the pilot's briefcase that resembled, except for color, the portable ELT. The NTSB concluded that neither the pilot nor aircraft had an ELT.


title: Nick Begich

text: In 1972, the tallest building in Whittier, Alaska, was renamed to Begich Towers in memory of Nick Begich. Begich Peak which is three miles north of the "Begich, Boggs Visitor Center" at Portage Lake was also named after him.


title: Nick Begich

text: In November 2015, a "Seattle Weekly" story detailed the work of journalist Jonathan Walczak, who since 2012 has investigated the plane crash and subsequent events in an effort to determine the fate of the flight that carried Begich and Boggs. Walczak created a podcast about Begich's disappearance, which was released by iHeartMedia in the summer of 2020. The podcast, called "Missing in Alaska," explored the conspiratorial ideas that FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover or Detroit mobsters operating in Tucson had assassinated Hale Boggs.


title: Nick Begich

text: In 1956, Begich married Margaret Jean Jendro, nicknamed Pegge. They had six children: Nick Jr., Mark, Nichelle, Tom, Stephanie, and Paul. Mark was elected as a member of the Anchorage Borough Assembly, then became mayor, and was narrowly elected as the junior U.S. senator from Alaska, in 2008. The incumbent, Republican Ted Stevens, had been convicted of seven felonies, eight days before the 2008 election, after being caught up in the Alaska political corruption probe. In 2016, Nick's son Tom won the Democratic primary nomination for Seat J in the Alaska Senate, has faced little opposition in that general election and since, was redistricted to Seat I in 2020, and remains in that office in 2022.


title: Nick Begich

text: Nick's brother Joseph Begich served 18 years in the Minnesota House of Representatives from their hometown of Eveleth. Nick Begich's widow, Pegge, briefly married Jerry Max Pasley. She ran for the House of Representatives seat in 1984 and 1986, but was defeated by the incumbent, Don Young.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network (AJMN) (Arabic: الجزيرة, romanized: al-jazīrah, IPA: [æl (d)ʒæˈziːrɐ]; , referring to the Qatar Peninsula) is a Qatari international state-owned public media conglomerate headquartered at Qatar Radio and Television Corporation Complex in Wadi Al Sail, Doha. It is the parent company of International Arabic news channel Al Jazeera and other similarly branded factual media operations. Initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel, it has since expanded into a network with several outlets, including the internet and specialty television channels in multiple languages and beyond. The chairman is Sheikh Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani. The acting director general is Mostefa Souag.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The organisation is a "private foundation for public benefit" under Qatari law. Under this organisational structure, it receives funding from the State of Qatar and according to media scholar Tine Ustad Figenschou, while both Al Jazeera and Qatari officials stress that the network is politically and editorially independent, this independence is "relative and conditional." The network is sometimes perceived to have mainly Islamist perspectives, promoting the Muslim Brotherhood, and having a pro-Sunni and an anti-Shia bias in its reporting of regional issues. Al Jazeera has aired videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The network's news operation currently has 70 bureaus around the world that are shared between the network's channels and operations, the second-largest amount of bureaux of any media company in the world after the BBC. In June 2017, the Saudi, Emirati, Bahraini, and Egyptian governments, supported by 12 other OIC member governments (with initial rumours claiming the support of additional governments; later reduced to 9 member governments by the latest of August 2019), pressed for the closure of the entire conglomerate as one of thirteen demands made to the government of Qatar during the 2017-2021 Qatar diplomatic crisis. Other media networks have spoken out in support of the network.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The original Al Jazeera Satellite Channel (then called JSC or Jazeera Satellite Channel) was launched on 1 November 1996. This was following the closure of the first BBC Arabic language television station, then a joint venture with Orbit Communications Company, owned by Saudi King Fahd's cousin, Khalid bin Faisal Al Saud. The BBC channel had closed after a year and a half when the Saudi government attempted to thwart a documentary pertaining to executions under sharia law.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, provided a loan of QAR 500 million ($137 million) to sustain Al Jazeera through its first five years, as Hugh Miles detailed in his book "Al Jazeera: The Inside Story of the Arab News Channel That Is Challenging the West".


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera's first day on the air was 1 November 1996. It offered 6-hours of programming per day; this would increase to 12 hours by the end of 1997. It was broadcast to the immediate neighborhood as a terrestrial signal, and on cable, as well as through satellites (which was also free to users in the Arab world). 1 January 1999 was Al Jazeera's first day of 24-hour broadcasting. Employment had more than tripled in one year to 500 employees, and the agency had bureaux at a dozen sites as far as EU and Russia. Its annual budget was estimated at $25 million at the time.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2001, Al Jazeera was the singular international news network in Kabul, Afghanistan. Especially after 9/11, the demand for the English translation of Al Jazeera had increased. Therefore, Al Jazeera started to think about a service in the English language.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In late 2002, the director of marketing of Al Jazeera, Ali Mohamed Kama began to push a "repositioning" of Al Jazeera, "accompanied by the introduction of English subtitles and dubbing of broadcast into English."


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2003, Al Jazeera hired its first English-language journalists, among whom was Afshin Rattansi, from the BBC's Today Programme.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In March 2003, it launched an English-language website (see below). The name of the website was "Al Jazeera Net"; it was launched by younger journalists. The site published various stories covered by the network, but it was not depending on Arabic-language channels and websites. The website aimed to connect to the Western audience, cooperate with BBC, and be "a global citizen's home page."


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: However, twelve hours after the launch of the website, "Al Jazeera Net" was kept offline due to many denials of service attacks. Over twenty-four hours later, "Al Jazeera Net" came back online however, Freedom Cyber Force Militia hacked the website to redirect web browsers to a picture of the American flag with a slogan saying that "Let Freedom Ring". After that, "Al Jazeera Net" came to be without a secured place to host because three of Al Jazeera's web providers, Horizons Media, Information Services, and Akamai Technologies canceled the contract. Also in March, Yahoo and AOL stopped advertising contracts with Al Jazeera. Therefore, the English-translated website was put off later in 2003.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On 4 July 2005 Al Jazeera officially announced plans to launch a new English-language satellite service to be called Al Jazeera International. The new channel started at 12h GMT on 15 November 2006 under the name Al Jazeera English and has broadcast centers in Doha (next to the original Al Jazeera headquarters and broadcast center), London, Kuala Lumpur and Washington D.C. The channel is a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week news channel, with 12 hours broadcast from Doha, and four hours each from London, Kuala Lumpur, and Washington D.C. Among its staff were journalists hired from ABC's "Nightline" and other top news outfits. Josh Rushing, a former media handler for CENTCOM during the Iraq war, agreed to provide commentary; David Frost was also on board. In an interesting technical feat, the broadcast of the new operation was handed off between bases in Doha, London, Washington, D.C., and Kuala Lumpur on a daily cycle.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The new English language venture faced considerable regulatory and commercial hurdles in the North America market for its perceived sympathy with extremist causes. At the same time, others felt Al Jazeera's competitive advantage lay in programming in the Arabic language. There were hundreds of millions of potential viewers among the non-Arabic language speaking Muslims in Europe and Asia, however, and many others who might be interested in seeing news from the Middle East read by local voices. If the venture panned out, it would extend the influence of Al Jazeera, and tiny Qatar, beyond even what had been achieved in the station's first decade. In an interesting twist of fate, the BBC World Service was preparing to launch its own Arabic language station in 2007.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2011 Al Jazeera Media Network created Al Jazeera Balkans, a version of Al Jazeera in the Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian language(s) stationed in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina catering to and broadcasting around the Balkans.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2013 they announced the creation of Al Jazeera Türk, a version of Al Jazeera in the Turkish language(s), stationed in Istanbul, and catering to and broadcasting around Turkey. On January 22, 2014, Al Jazeera Türk's website was launched with news content. The move made Al Jazeera Türk the first 24-hour news operation to go digital before broadcast. The Website shut down in 2017 without the channel being launched.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera America was an American version of Al Jazeera English. The channel launched on 20 August 2013 exclusively on cable and satellite systems in the United States.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On 2 January 2013, Al Jazeera Media Network announced that it purchased Current TV from its founders Al Gore, Joel Hyatt, and Ronald Burkle, in the United States and would be launching an American news channel. Originally 60% of the channel's programming would be produced in America while 40% would be from Al Jazeera English, which later changed to almost all the content being U.S. originated.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Though Current TV had large distribution throughout the United States on cable and satellite TV, it averaged only 28,000 viewers at any time. The acquisition of Current TV by Al Jazeera allowed Time Warner Cable to drop the network due to its low ratings, but released a statement saying that they would consider carrying the channel after they evaluated whether it made sense for their customers. The channel was later added to Time Warner and Bright House Networks lineups after a new carriage deal was agreed upon.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On January 13, 2016, Al Jazeera America CEO Al Anstey announced that the network would cease operations on April 12, 2016, citing the "economic landscape".


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2004 Al Jazeera expanded into the world of sports with the establishment of Al Jazeera Sports (now known as beIN Sports) and the building of 8 Arabic language specialty sports channels.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On 1 January 2014, Al Jazeera Sports was renamed beIN Sports after it along with all of the organisation's non-news and current affairs assets were spun off and privatised into beIN Media Group; the channels were legally spun off to have consistency with all the Network's sports properties. According to Kate O'Brian, President of Al Jazeera America, Al Jazeera Sports revenue helped fund the network when it was in operation similar to how BBC Worldwide helps fund the BBC.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On September 9, 2005, Al Jazeera established a children's division with the launch of Al Jazeera Children's Channel (since 2013 it was known as JeemTV). The channel targets an audience of 7 to 15-year-olds and broadcasts 24 hours a day.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On January 16, 2009, Baraem launched, the channel targets an audience of 3 to 7-year-olds and broadcasts 17 hours a day (6 am to 11 pm Doha time).


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On April 1, 2016, both JeemTV and Baraem were acquired by beIN Media Group and were made part of beIN Channels Network. Since then, as a result, the channels were no longer free to view and made exclusive to beIN Channels Network.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network also operates Al Jazeera Documentary Channel an Arabic language documentary channel, Al Jazeera Mubasher, a live politics and public interest channel (similar to C-SPAN, Houses of the Oireachtas Channel or BBC Parliament), which broadcasts conferences in real time without editing or commentary the first channel of its kind in the Middle East.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera restructured its operations to form a network that contains all their different channels. Wadah Khanfar, then the managing director of the Arabic Channel, was appointed as the Director-General of the Al Jazeera Network. He also acted as the managing director of the Arabic channel. Khanfar resigned on 20 September 2011, proclaiming that he had achieved his original goals and that eight years was enough time for any leader of an organization, in an interview aired on Aljazeera English.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On 26 November 2009, Al Jazeera English received approval from the CRTC, which enables Al Jazeera English to broadcast via satellite in Canada.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2011, in accordance with the renaming of the corporation, AJMN was legally re-designated from a "public institution to a 'private institution of public utility'"; however, it was unknown how this would affect editorial management and funding. The network is also funded through its television contracts and revenue from its sports division.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera covered the Arab spring more than any other news outlets and had a significant role in spreading the Arab uprising.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera was the leading media spreading the news about unrest in a small city in Tunisia throughout the Middle East in 2011.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: People in the Middle East have heavily relied on Al Jazeera to obtain news about their regions and the world even more than YouTube and Google. Hillary Clinton, who at the time of the Arab Spring was the U.S. Secretary of State stated that "Al-Jazeera has been the leader in that [it is] literally changing people’s minds and attitudes. And like it or hate it, it is really effective."


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The news of unrest in the Arab states was broadcast by Al Jazeera in Arabic for the Arab world as well as in English for the audiences from the rest of the world.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In Tunisia, Ben Ali regime banned Al Jazeera from operating in the country, but with the help of Facebook users inside Tunisia, Al Jazeera was able to access reports from the events such as protests and government crackdowns that were taking place inside the country. The intensive media coverage of people's uprising against their leaders by Al Jazeera mobilized more people from other parts of the country to join the revolution.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The population in other Arab countries such as Bahrain, Egypt, Yemen, Libya, Syria also mobilized against their governments influenced by the Tunisian's successful revolt which was extensively covered by Al Jazeera in local languages. The international opinion also came to support the Arab movements in the Middle East since Al Jazeera English covered and reported governmental human right abuses against political activists and even ordinary citizens in the Middle East.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera media network operates a number of specialty channels besides its original flagship news channel.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network also operates mobile apps for their various channels with Al Jazeera Mobile and Al Jazeera New Media


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The network operates Aljazeera.com which is the main website for the Al Jazeera English, Al Jazeera Balkans and the former Al Jazeera America web sites. For its Arabic language properties, it has Aljazeera.net. and for its Turkish properties Aljazeera.tr.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: On January 1, 2018, Al Jazeera launched a Mandarin-language news website becoming the first Middle Eastern news provider to target the Chinese audience. The staff of the project is in contact with their audience via Chinese social media like Weibo, Meipai and WeChat.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network also has a digital online-only news channel AJ+. The channel is an online and mobile-only news channel primarily found on various social media networks and YouTube and operated by Al Jazeera New Media out of San Francisco, California. The channel consists of mostly On Demand content. It soft-launched on 13 June 2014 with a new webpage, Facebook page and videos on YouTube. The full channel launched with an app in September 2014. There are also Arabic and Spanish language versions of the channel.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2017, the network launched a podcasting network called Jetty. Later renamed Al Jazeera Podcasts, the network is available via the network's website as well as SoundCloud, Apple Podcasts, Stitcher, TuneIn, and iHeartRadio. The network is based out of San Francisco alongside AJ+ and is available in English.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: In 2021, the network launched Rightly, an online news channel aimed at center-right American conservatives. The channel much like AJ+ is only available online, primarily on YouTube. The launch of the channel spurred questions from Al Jazeera staff questioning if the channel took away from Al Jazeera's mission to be non-partisan and from various media critics wondering if conservative audiences would watch a channel from Al Jazeera, a long time target of American conservatives.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network owns and operates the Al Jazeera Center for Studies Al Jazeera Center for Studies. Established in 2006, the Al Jazeera Center for Studies conducts in-depth analysis of current affairs at both regional and global levels. Its research agenda focuses primarily on geopolitics and strategic developments in the Arab world and surrounding regions. The center with an extensive network of distinguished researchers, and a wide range array of experts from across the globe, the center aims to promote dialogue and build bridges of mutual understanding and cooperation between cultures, civilizations, and religions.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The Al Jazeera International Documentary Film Festival Aljazeera International Documentary Film Festival is an annual film festival held at the Doha Sheraton in Doha, Qatar. The first festival was held on 18 April 2005. Every year the festival has a different theme. The vision of the festival is to make the festival an invitation... to introduce different cultures from all over the world, foster better relationships through an exchange of experiences and knowledge thus creating a foundation of respect and understanding. Al Jazeera seeks to make the festival become a place where filmmakers from different countries and cultures meet to create a unique platform that celebrates creative talent and encourages a cultural interest in documentary films.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The festival endeavors to promote creative talent from all over the world and in this way, leave behind a unique stamp of originality and professionalism.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: The Al Jazeera Balkans Documentary Film Festival' was started in 2018 as an annual international documentary film festival based in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Al Jazeera Media Network

text: Al Jazeera Media Network sued AT&T in 2013 for refusing to carry its United States channel, claiming this was in violation of their contract. The two sides later settled in 2014 leading to the channel being added on AT&T's U-Verse systems.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Uzbekistan (, ) is the common English name for the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR; , in Russian: Узбекская Советская Социалистическая Республика, Uzbekskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika. It was also referred to as Uzbekistan SSR, Uzbek: Ўзбекистон ССР, O’zbekiston SSR; , "Uzbekskaya SSR") and later, the Republic of Uzbekistan (; Russian: Республика Узбекистан, Respublika Uzbekistan), that refers to the period of Uzbekistan from 1924 to 1991 as one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union. It was governed by the Uzbek branch of the Soviet Communist Party, the legal political party, from 1925 until 1990. From 1990 to 1991, it was a sovereign part of the Soviet Union with its own legislation. Sometimes, that period is also referred to as Soviet Uzbekistan.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Beginning 20 June 1990, the Uzbek SSR adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty within its borders. Islam Karimov became the republic's inaugural president.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: On 31 August 1991, the Uzbek SSR was renamed the Republic of Uzbekistan and declared independence three months before the Soviet Union's dissolution on 26 December 1991.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Uzbekistan was bordered by Kazakhstan to the north; Tajikistan to the southeast; Kirghizia to the northeast; Afghanistan to the south; and Turkmenistan to the southwest.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: The name, Uzbekistan, literally means "Home of the Free", taken from an amalgamation of "uz" (Turkic: "self"), "bek" (Turkic: "master", "bey in modern Turkish"), and "-stan" (Persian: "land of"). However, the official name of the republic was the "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic" as defined by its 1937 and 1978 Constitutions.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In 1924, the borders of political units in Central Asia were changed along ethnic lines determined by Vladimir Lenin's Commissar for Nationalities, Joseph Stalin. The Turkestan ASSR, the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic, and the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic were abolished and their territories were divided into eventually five separate Soviet Socialist Republics, one of which was the "Uzbek Socialist Soviet Republic", created on 27 October 1924. The next year Uzbekistan became one of the republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). In 1928, the collectivization of land into state farms was initiated, which lasted until the late 1930s.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: Uzbekistan included the Tajik ASSR until 1929, when the Tajik ASSR was upgraded to an equal status. In 1930, the Uzbek SSR capital was relocated from Samarkand to Tashkent, which remained the capital since. In 1936, Uzbekistan was enlarged with the addition of the Karakalpak ASSR taken from the Kazakh SSR in the last stages of the national delimitation in the Soviet Union. That same year in December, it was renamed to the "Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic". Further bits and pieces of territory were transferred several times between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan after World War II.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: In 1937–38, during the Great Purge, a number of alleged nationalists were executed, including Faizullah Khojaev, the first prime minister.


title: Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

text: During World War II, many industries were relocated to Uzbekistan from vulnerable locations in western regions of the USSR to keep them safe. Large numbers of Russians, Ukrainians and other nationalities accompanied the factories, altering the demographics of the republic. The demographics situation was further aggravated by Stalin's forced deportation of some ethnic groups suspected of collaboration with the Axis powers (including Nazi Germany) from other parts of the Soviet Union to Uzbekistan. This included large numbers of ethnic Koreans, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens.