title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The Cardinal gambles, keeps the wife of one of his courtiers as a mistress, and fights duels. Conspiracy and intrigue are the air he breathes. Duke Ferdinand is his brother's willing conspirator in villainy, and at times his rages shock even the Cardinal's sense of decorum. The Duke's corruption in the end destroys his sanity: incestuous desire for his own sister. Realizing she has married and borne children by Antonio, his rage drives him to do everything in his power to bring his sister to despair, madness and death, but in the end he is driven mad himself.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: These two perverse villains destroy or poison all that is within their reach, all semblance of warmth or human affection.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The brothers repeatedly abuse their power. Ferdinand is caught committing adultery but is not punished. The Cardinal abuses his ecclesiastical powers to have Antonio's property confiscated and to have the Duchess and her family banished from the state of Ancona. Ferdinand and the Cardinal order the death of the Duchess without any proper judgement passed by a court of law.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The ideal quality her brothers would foist on the Duchess is that of being submissive to (their) male control, though ironically widowhood was often the first time women might be independent of the control of husbands or male relatives. However, the Duchess went against her brothers' wishes and remarried. Her assertion of her freedom of choice is best illustrated in her soliloquy following her conversation with her brothers when they strictly advise her to not even think about remarrying. Immediately after telling her brothers that she will never remarry, she says to herself: "If all my royal kindred / Lay in my way unto this marriage, / I'd make them my low foot-steps." The central conflict of the play involves the Duchess' desire to marry for love and her brothers' desire to prevent her from remarrying (either to inherit her estate and control her choices, or perhaps out of Ferdinand's potentially incestuous love for his sister). Throughout, she refuses to submit to her brothers' attempts at control and even asserts her identity and self-control at the moment of her death, announcing "I am Duchess of Malfi still" (4.2).


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The internal struggle faced by the Duchess when fighting her brothers and hiding her marriage was all part of Webster's intention to reflect and refer to the Roman paradigms and Senecan tragedies. This is compelled through the Duchess's speech and actions.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The relationship between the Duchess and her brothers is rooted in cruelty. The brothers often try to manipulate her and drive her mad. This cruelty is first evident when the Cardinal and Ferdinand lock the Duchess in her own home. Ferdinand deceives the Duchess into thinking that he cares: "I come to seal my peace with you. / Here's a hand, / To which you have vowed much love. / The ring upon't / You gave"(4.1 42–44). In the darkness, the Duchess thinks that Ferdinand is asking for her forgiveness when he reaches out his hand, and so she kisses it; when the lights come on she sees the dead bodies of her husband and children, and believes she just kissed her husband's severed hand. But in reality, Ferdinand used wax figures to trick her into thinking her family is dead. This deception and cruelty cause the Duchess physical and emotional torment throughout the play. At the end of the play, the Duchess is strangled at the request of her brothers.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The Duchess argues that high class is not an indicator of a good man. At the time, Italy was moving into capitalism and one no longer needed to be born into wealth to obtain it. Though the Duchess and her brothers are aware of this, her brothers, concerned with wealth and honour, nevertheless strive to dismantle her marriage to Antonio while disapproving of their sister's love life. Ferdinand is particularly obsessed with the idea of inheriting the fortune to which his sister is entitled, because it would protect his social and financial status. Ultimately the Duchess is put to death for remarrying into a lower class.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The Duchess is often criticised (Clifford Leech condemned her for her 'irresponsible overturning of a social code') for stepping out of the societal expectations of a widow in sixteenth century England. As a widow, the Duchess gains a new power and independence, which angers her brothers. As a female in a position of power, she is expected to hold the throne and obey the patriarchal figures in the court, specifically her two brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand. The Cardinal and Ferdinand are in line to receive the inheritance if the Duchess does not have any children, so controlling her sexual affairs becomes their singular focus. Rather than respecting her autonomy and wishes, they aim to control her sexuality and diminish her independence. In Act I, Scene I, Ferdinand makes this clear when he states, "Nay, / I mean the tongue: variety of courtship. / What cannot a neat knave with a smooth tale / Make a woman believe? Farewell, lusty widow" (1.1.247–250). He is solely focused on preserving her chastity, so he views her as an object, rather than a human being. The continued objectification of the Duchess from her brothers conveys males' perceived ability to control a woman's body in the society of the 16th century.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The play makes use of various theatrical devices, some of them derived from Senecan Tragedy which includes violence and bloodshed on the stage. Act III, Scene IV is a mime scene, in which a song is sung in honour of the Cardinal, who gives up his robes and invests himself with the attire of a soldier, and then performs the act of banishing the Duchess. The whole scene is commented upon by two pilgrims, who condemn the harsh behaviour of the Cardinal towards the Duchess. That the scene is set against the backdrop of the Shrine of Our Lady of Loretto, a religious place, adds to its sharp distinction between good and evil, justice and injustice.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: Act V, Scene iii, features an important theatrical device, echo, which seems to emanate from the grave of the Duchess, in her voice. In its totality, it reads: "Deadly accent. A thing of sorrow. That suits it best. Ay, wife's voice. Be mindful of thy safety. O fly your fate. Thou art a dead thing. Never see her more." The echo repeats the last words of what Antonio and Delio speak, but is selective. It adds to the sense of the inevitability of Antonio's death, while highlighting the role of fate.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: "Set and props": As this play would have first been produced in the Globe, the set would probably been a bare stage with movable set pieces such as tables, stools, beds, hangings, and altars, all of which would have been stock pieces used in every show. Props would also have been minimal, with essentials like swords, pistols, and candles, and dummies. The traveller and future translator of Castiglione's "Cortegiano", Thomas Hoby, together with his friend Peter Whitehorne, translator of Machiavelli's "Art of War", were lavishly entertained by a subsequent Duchess of Malfi and her son, Innico, in the Castello di Amalfi in 1550. Hoby was clearly very impressed by the decor, by implication superior to what he was used to in England, describing the chamber in which they were accommodated as: 'hanged with clothe of gold and vellett, wherein were two beddes, th'one of silver worke and the other of vellett, with pillowes bolsters and the shetes curiouslie wrowght with needle worke.'


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: "Lighting": Lighting for a theatre like the Globe is completely dependent upon the sun. Performances would occur in the afternoon so as to see the performers, since no other sources of lighting were accessible.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: "Costumes": This was the Jacobean era, and Renaissance clothing, often hand-me-downs from noble patrons, would have been appropriate during this time. Especially since this play takes place among wealthy, prestigious characters who belong to The Royal Court, there would have been long dresses with elaborate sleeves and headpieces for most female characters, and form fitting tunics for most of the men as a general rule. Men would wear hose and codpieces, very royal members of The Court might wear jackets with stuffed (bombast) sleeves, and both men and women would be able to wear clothing with some type of colour to it. Due to the sumptuary laws, deep purple was restricted to the nobility of the times. During this period, and until the Restoration (1660) women were not generally accepted on stage. Because of this, the roles of women were played by apprentice boys or the younger men. Padding would be built into their costumes, their heads would be adorned with wigs, and extra make-up would be applied to their faces.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The Duchess of Malfi was first performed between 1613 and 1614 by the King's Men, an acting group to which Shakespeare belonged. The printer was Nicholas Okes and the publisher was John Waterson. However, the play was not printed in quarto (a smaller, less expensive edition than the larger folio) until 1623. The title page of this particular edition tells us that the play was printed privately. The title page also informs readers that the play text includes numerous passages that were cut for performance. The 1623 quarto is the only substantive version of the play in circulation today, and modern editions and productions are based on it. Notable is that, on the title page of the 1623 quarto, a clear distinction is drawn between the play in performance and the play as a text to be read.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The play was written for and performed by the King's Men in 1613 or 1614. The double cast lists included in the 1623 quarto suggest a revival around 1619. Contemporary reference also indicated that the play was performed in 1618, for in that year Orazio Busino, the chaplain to the Venetian ambassador to England, complained of the play's treatment of Catholics in the character of the Cardinal.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The quarto's cast list allows more precision about casting than is usually available. Richard Burbage and Joseph Taylor successively played Ferdinand to Henry Condell's Cardinal. John Lowin played Bosola; William Ostler was Antonio. Boy player Richard Sharpe played the title role not in the original 1612 production, presumably due to his age, but in the revival of 1619–23. Nicholas Tooley played Forobosco, and Robert Pallant doubled numerous minor roles, including Cariola.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The quarto title page announces that the play was performed at both the Globe Theatre and at Blackfriars; however, in tone and in some details of staging (particularly the use of special lighting effects) the play is clearly meant primarily for the indoor stage. Robert Johnson, a regular composer for Blackfriars, wrote incidental music for the play and composed a setting for the "madmen's song" in Act 4.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The play is known to have been performed for Charles I at the Cockpit-in-Court in 1630; there is little reason to doubt that it was performed intermittently throughout the period.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The play remained current through the first part of the Restoration. Samuel Pepys reports seeing the play several times; it was performed by the Duke of York's company under Thomas Betterton.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: By the early eighteenth century, Webster's violence and sexual frankness had gone out of taste. In 1733, Lewis Theobald wrote and directed an adaptation, "The Fatal Secret"; the play imposed neoclassical unities on the play, for instance by eliminating the Duchess's child and preserving the Duchess at the end. By mid-century, the play had fallen, with Webster, out of the repertory, where it stayed until the Romantic revival of Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 1850, after a generation of critical interest and theatrical neglect, the play was staged by Samuel Phelps at Sadler's Wells, with Isabella Glyn in the title role. The text was adapted by Richard Henry Horne. The production was favourably reviewed by "The Athenaeum"; George Henry Lewes, however, registered disapproval of the play's violence and what he termed its shoddy construction: "Instead of 'holding the mirror up to nature,' this drama holds the mirror up to Madame Tussauds." These would become the cornerstones of criticisms of Webster for the next century. Still, the play was popular enough for Glyn to revive her performance periodically for the next two decades.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: Shortly after, "Duchess" came to the United States. Working with Horne's text, director James Stark staged a production in San Francisco; this version is noteworthy for a sentimental apotheosis Stark added, in which the Duchess and Ferdinand are reunited in heaven. The most popular American productions, however, were produced by Wilmarth Waller and his wife Emma.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: William Poel staged the play at the Opera Comique in 1892, with Mary Rorke as the Duchess and Murray Carson as Bosola. Poel's playscript followed Webster's text closely apart from scene rearrangements; however, reaction had set in, and the production received generally scathing reviews. William Archer, England's chief proponent of Ibsen's new drama, took advantage of the occasion to lambast what he saw as the overestimation of Elizabethan theatre in general.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 1919, the Phoenix Society revived the play in London for the first time in two decades. The production featured Cathleen Nesbitt as the Duchess; Robert Farquharson played Ferdinand. The production was widely disparaged. For many of the newspaper critics, the failure indicated that Webster had become a "curio"; T. S. Eliot, conversely, argued that the production had failed to uncover the elements that made Webster a great dramatist—specifically his poetry. A 1935 production at the Embassy Theatre received similarly negative reviews; Ivor Brown noted that the audience left "rather with superior smiles than with emotional surrender." In 1938, a production was broadcast on BBC television; it was no better received than the previous two stage productions.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 1937, it was performed in Dublin, Ireland, at the Abbey Theatre, with incidental music composed by Arthur Duff.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In the aftermath of World War II, George Rylands directed a production at the Haymarket Theatre that at last caught the public mood. John Gielgud, as Ferdinand, accentuated the element of incestuous passion in that character's treatment of the Duchess (played by Peggy Ashcroft). Cecil Trouncer was Bosola. Edmund Wilson was perhaps the first to note that the play struck an audience differently in the wake of the revelation of the Holocaust; this note is, from 1945 on, continually struck in discussions of the appropriateness of Webster for the modern age. A 1946 production on Broadway did not fare as well; Rylands attempted to duplicate his London staging with John Carradine as Ferdinand and Elisabeth Bergner as the Duchess. W. H. Auden adapted Webster's text for the modern audience. However, the production's most notable innovation was in the character of Bosola, which was played by Canada Lee in whiteface. The production received savage reviews from the popular press, and it fared little better in the literary reviews.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The first successful postwar performance in America was staged at the off-Broadway Phoenix Theatre in 1957. Directed by Jack Landau, who had earlier staged a brief but well-reviewed "White Devil", the production emphasised (and succeeded as) Grand Guignol. As Walter Kerr put it, "Blood runs right over the footlights, spreads slowly up the aisle and spills well out into Second Avenue."


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: Ashcroft returned as the Duchess in a 1960 production at the Aldwych Theatre. The play was directed by Donald McWhinnie; Eric Porter played Ferdinand and Max Adrian the Cardinal. Patrick Wymark played Bosola. The production received generally favourable but lukewarm reviews. In 1971, Clifford Williams directed the play for the Royal Shakespeare Company. Judi Dench took the title role, with Geoffrey Hutchings as Bosola and Emrys James as the Cardinal. Dench's husband Michael Williams played Ferdinand, casting which highlighted the sexual element of the play's siblings.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 1980, Adrian Noble directed the play at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester. This production received excellent notices; it was transferred to London, where it won the London Drama Critic's Award for best play. Helen Mirren played the title role; Mike Gwilym played Ferdinand, and Bob Hoskins played Bosola. Pete Postlethwaite was Antonio. Mirren's performance received special acclaim.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: The actor-centred troupe led by Ian McKellen and Edward Petherbridge chose Webster's play as one of their first productions. The production opened in January 1986 in the Lyttelton Theatre of the Royal National Theatre and was directed and designed by Philip Prowse. The staging was highly stylised, the scenic backdrop segmented, and the actors' movements tightly controlled. The result, as Jarka Burian noted, was "a unified, consistent mise-en-scene...without enough inner turbulence to create a completely satisfying theatre experience." Eleanor Bron played the Duchess; McKellen played Bosola, Jonathan Hyde Ferdinand, and Petherbridge the Cardinal.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 1995, Juliet Stevenson and Simon Russell-Beale played the Duchess and Ferdinand respectively in a production at Greenwich Theatre, directed by Philip Franks.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In 2010, the production was staged for Stage on Screen at the Greenwich Theatre, London. It was directed by Elizabeth Freestone and starred Aislin McGuckin in a production that set the play in the first half of the twentieth century. In The Guardian, the reviewer noted that 'Much of the pleasure of this revival lies in re-encountering Webster's language...full of savage poetry.' The production is now available on DVD.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In July 2010, English National Opera and Punchdrunk collaborated to stage the production, which had been commissioned by the ENO from composer Torsten Rasch. The production was staged in a promenade style and performed at a mysterious vacant site at Great Eastern Quay in London's Royal Albert Basin.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: From March to June 2012, London's Old Vic Theatre staged a production, directed by Jamie Lloyd and starring, amongst others, Eve Best.


title: The Duchess of Malfi

text: In January 2014, Shakespeare's Globe staged a production directed by Dominic Dromgoole and starring Gemma Arterton as the Duchess, James Garnon as the Cardinal, David Dawson as Ferdinand, Alex Waldmann as Antonio, and Sean Gilder as Bosola. It was the first production performed in the Globe's Sam Wanamaker Playhouse. The production was filmed and broadcast on BBC4 on 25 May 2014. This production coincided with a representation of the aforementioned Theobald text of 1736 as part of the Globe's Read Not Dead series – directed by David Oakes.


title: Flag officer

text: A flag officer is a commissioned officer in a nation's armed forces senior enough to be entitled to fly a flag to mark the position from which the officer exercises command.


title: Flag officer

text: The generic title of flag officer is used in many modern navies and coast guards to denote those who hold the rank of rear admiral or its equivalent and above, also called "flag ranks". In some navies, this also includes the rank of commodore. Flag officer corresponds to the generic terms general officer, used by land and some air forces to describe all grades of generals, and air officer, used by other air forces to describe all grades of air marshals and air commodores.


title: Flag officer

text: A flag officer sometimes is a junior officer, called a flag lieutenant or flag adjutant, attached as a personal adjutant or aide-de-camp.


title: Flag officer

text: In the Canadian Forces, a flag officer (French: "officier général", "general officer") is an admiral, vice admiral, rear admiral, or commodore, the naval equivalent of a general officer of the army or air force. It is a somewhat counterintuitive usage of the term, as only flag officers in command of commands or formations actually have their own flags (technically a commodore has only a broad pennant, not a flag), and army and air force generals in command of commands or formations also have their own flags, but are not called flag officers. Base commanders, usually full colonels, have a pennant that flies from the mast or flagpole on the base, when resident, or on vehicles that carry them.


title: Flag officer

text: A flag officer's rank is denoted by a wide strip of gold braid on the cuff of the service dress tunic, one to four gold maple leaves over a crossed sword and baton, all beneath a royal crown, on epaulettes and shoulder boards; and two rows of gold oak leaves on the peak of the service cap. Since the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968, a flag officer's dress tunic had a single broad stripe on the sleeve and epaulettes.


title: Flag officer

text: In May 2010 the naval uniform dark dress tunic was adjusted—exterior epaulettes were removed, reverting to the sleeve ring and executive curl-rank insignia used by most navies. commodores' uniforms display a broad stripe, and each succeeding rank receives an additional sleeve ring. There are no epaulettes on the exterior of the tunic, but they are still worn on the uniform shirt underneath.


title: Flag officer

text: In India, it is applied to brigadiers, major generals, lieutenant generals and generals in the Army; commodores, rear admirals, vice admirals and admirals in the Navy; and air commodores, air vice marshals, air marshals and air chief marshals in the Air Force. Each of these flag officers is designated with a specific flag. India's honorary ranks (five star ranks) are field marshal in the Army, Marshal of the Indian Air Force in the Air Force and admiral of the fleet in the Navy. A similar equivalence is applied to senior police officers of rank Deputy Inspector General(DIG), Inspector General(IG), Additional Director General(ADG) and Director General(DG).


title: Flag officer

text: In the United Kingdom, the term is only used for the Royal Navy, with there being a more specific distinction being between a "flag officer" and an "officer of flag rank". Formerly, all officers promoted to flag rank were considered to be "flag officers". The term is still widely used to refer to any officer of flag rank. Present usage is that rear admirals and above are officers of flag rank, but only those officers who are authorised to fly a flag are formally called "flag officers" and have different flags for different ranks of admiral.


title: Flag officer

text: Of the 39 officers of flag rank in the Royal Navy in 2006, very few were "flag officers" with entitlement to fly a flag. For example, a Commander-in-Chief Fleet flies an admiral's flag whether ashore or afloat and is a "flag officer". The chief of staff (support), a rear admiral, is not entitled to fly a flag and is an "officer of flag rank" rather than a "flag officer". List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy lists most admirals who were "flag officers". A flag officer's junior officer is often known as "Flags". Flag Officers in the Royal Navy are considered as Rear-Admirals and above.


title: Flag officer

text: Equivalent ranks in the British Army and Royal Marines are called general officer rather than flag officers, and those in the Royal Air Force (as well as the rank of air commodore) are called air officers, although all are entitled to fly flags of rank.


title: Flag officer

text: Captain was the highest rank in the United States Navy from its beginning in 1775 until 1857, when Congress created the temporary rank of flag officer, which was bestowed on senior Navy captains who were assigned to lead a squadron of vessels in addition to command of their own ship.This temporary usage gave way to the permanent ranks of commodore and rear admiral in 1862.


title: Flag officer

text: The term "flag officer" is still in use today, explicitly defined as an officer of the U.S. Navy or Coast Guard serving in or having the grade of admiral, vice admiral, rear admiral, or rear admiral (lower half), equivalent to general officers of an army.


title: Flag officer

text: In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, the term "flag officer" generally is applied to all general officers authorized to fly their own command flags—i.e., brigadier general, or pay grade O-7, and above. As a matter of law, Title 10 of the United States Code makes a distinction between general officers and flag officers (general officer for the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force; flag officer for the Navy and Coast Guard). Non-naval officers usually fly their flags from their headquarters, vessels, or vehicles, typically only for the most senior officer present.


title: Flag officer

text: In the United States all flag and general officers must be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Each subsequent promotion requires renomination and re-approval. For the Navy, each flag officer assignment is usually limited to a maximum of two years, followed by either reassignment, reassignment and promotion, or retirement.


title: Boundary layer

text: In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface formed by the fluid flowing along the surface. The fluid's interaction with the wall induces a no-slip boundary condition (zero velocity at the wall). The flow velocity then monotonically increases above the surface until it returns to the bulk flow velocity. The thin layer consisting of fluid whose velocity has not yet returned to the bulk flow velocity is called the velocity boundary layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: The air next to a human is heated resulting in gravity-induced convective airflow, airflow which results in both a velocity and thermal boundary layer. A breeze disrupts the boundary layer, and hair and clothing protect it, making the human feel cooler or warmer. On an aircraft wing, the velocity boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer (~ 1 km) near the ground. It is affected by the surface; day-night heat flows caused by the sun heating the ground, moisture, or momentum transfer to or from the surface.


title: Boundary layer

text: Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure and the circumstances under which they are created. The thin shear layer which develops on an oscillating body is an example of a Stokes boundary layer, while the Blasius boundary layer refers to the well-known similarity solution near an attached flat plate held in an oncoming unidirectional flow and Falkner–Skan boundary layer, a generalization of Blasius profile. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect (rather than convective inertia), an Ekman layer forms. In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously.


title: Boundary layer

text: The viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the wing's surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent.


title: Boundary layer

text: The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness.


title: Boundary layer

text: At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent flow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far aft on the wing as possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of the boundary layer. The low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down more suddenly than the turbulent layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: The aerodynamic boundary layer was first hypothesized by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12, 1904 at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg, Germany. It simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by viscosity and creating the majority of drag experienced by the boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without significant effects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas by making significant simplifications of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The same hypothesis is applicable to other fluids (besides air) with moderate to low viscosity such as water. For the case where there is a temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid, it is found that the majority of the heat transfer to and from a body takes place in the vicinity of the velocity boundary layer. This again allows the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains relatively constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself.


title: Boundary layer

text: The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.


title: Boundary layer

text: The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the freestream temperature. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: In high-performance designs, such as gliders and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the surface of the wing create skin friction drag.


title: Boundary layer

text: At high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a laminar boundary layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow develops along the body, and eventually becomes turbulent, the process known as boundary layer transition. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through a porous surface (see Boundary layer suction). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. Natural laminar flow (NLF) techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the airfoil or fuselage so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length.


title: Boundary layer

text: At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be badly affected by adverse pressure gradients. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such flow separation causes a large increase in the pressure drag, since it greatly increases the effective size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a turbulator. The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as vortex generators on aircraft. Special wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence.


title: Boundary layer

text: When using half-models in wind tunnels, a peniche is sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the effect of the boundary layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: The deduction of the boundary layer equations was one of the most important advances in fluid dynamics. Using an order of magnitude analysis, the well-known governing Navier–Stokes equations of viscous fluid flow can be greatly simplified within the boundary layer. Notably, the characteristic of the partial differential equations (PDE) becomes parabolic, rather than the elliptical form of the full Navier–Stokes equations. This greatly simplifies the solution of the equations. By making the boundary layer approximation, the flow is divided into an inviscid portion (which is easy to solve by a number of methods) and the boundary layer, which is governed by an easier to solve PDE. The continuity and Navier–Stokes equations for a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow in Cartesian coordinates are given by


title: Boundary layer

text: where formula_4 and formula_5 are the velocity components, formula_6 is the density, formula_7 is the pressure, and formula_8 is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid at a point.


title: Boundary layer

text: The approximation states that, for a sufficiently high Reynolds number the flow over a surface can be divided into an outer region of inviscid flow unaffected by viscosity (the majority of the flow), and a region close to the surface where viscosity is important (the boundary layer). Let formula_4 and formula_5 be streamwise and transverse (wall normal) velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using scale analysis, it can be shown that the above equations of motion reduce within the boundary layer to become


title: Boundary layer

text: The order of magnitude analysis assumes the streamwise length scale significantly larger than the transverse length scale inside the boundary layer. It follows that variations in properties in the streamwise direction are generally much lower than those in the wall normal direction. Apply this to the continuity equation shows that formula_5, the wall normal velocity, is small compared with formula_4 the streamwise velocity.


title: Boundary layer

text: Since the static pressure formula_7 is independent of formula_17, then pressure at the edge of the boundary layer is the pressure throughout the boundary layer at a given streamwise position. The external pressure may be obtained through an application of Bernoulli's equation. Let formula_18 be the fluid velocity outside the boundary layer, where formula_19 and formula_18 are both parallel. This gives upon substituting for formula_7 the following result


title: Boundary layer

text: These approximations are used in a variety of practical flow problems of scientific and engineering interest. The above analysis is for any instantaneous laminar or turbulent boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar flow studies since the mean flow is also the instantaneous flow because there are no velocity fluctuations present. This simplified equation is a parabolic PDE and can be solved using a similarity solution often referred to as the Blasius boundary layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: Prandtl observed that from any solution formula_27 which satisfies the boundary layer equations, further solution formula_28, which is also satisfying the boundary layer equations, can be constructed by writing


title: Boundary layer

text: where formula_30 is arbitrary. Since the solution is not unique from mathematical perspective, to the solution can added any one of an infinite set of eigenfunctions as shown by Stewartson and Paul A. Libby.


title: Boundary layer

text: Von Kármán derived the integral equation by integrating the boundary layer equation across the boundary layer in 1921. The equation is


title: Boundary layer

text: For steady two-dimensional boundary layers, von Mises introduced a transformation which takes formula_41 and formula_42(stream function) as independent variables instead of formula_41 and formula_17 and uses a dependent variable formula_45 instead of formula_4. The boundary layer equation then become


title: Boundary layer

text: For steady two-dimensional compressible boundary layer, Luigi Crocco introduced a transformation which takes formula_41 and formula_4 as independent variables instead of formula_41 and formula_17 and uses a dependent variable formula_53(shear stress) instead of formula_4. The boundary layer equation then becomes


title: Boundary layer

text: The treatment of turbulent boundary layers is far more difficult due to the time-dependent variation of the flow properties. One of the most widely used techniques in which turbulent flows are tackled is to apply Reynolds decomposition. Here the instantaneous flow properties are decomposed into a mean and fluctuating component with the assumption that the mean of the fluctuating component is always zero. Applying this technique to the boundary layer equations gives the full turbulent boundary layer equations not often given in literature:


title: Boundary layer

text: Using a similar order-of-magnitude analysis, the above equations can be reduced to leading order terms. By choosing length scales formula_60 for changes in the transverse-direction, and formula_61 for changes in the streamwise-direction, with formula_62, the x-momentum equation simplifies to:


title: Boundary layer

text: This equation does not satisfy the no-slip condition at the wall. Like Prandtl did for his boundary layer equations, a new, smaller length scale must be used to allow the viscous term to become leading order in the momentum equation. By choosing formula_64 as the "y"-scale, the leading order momentum equation for this "inner boundary layer" is given by:


title: Boundary layer

text: In the limit of infinite Reynolds number, the pressure gradient term can be shown to have no effect on the inner region of the turbulent boundary layer. The new "inner length scale" formula_66 is a viscous length scale, and is of order formula_67, with formula_68 being the velocity scale of the turbulent fluctuations, in this case a friction velocity.


title: Boundary layer

text: Unlike the laminar boundary layer equations, the presence of two regimes governed by different sets of flow scales (i.e. the inner and outer scaling) has made finding a universal similarity solution for the turbulent boundary layer difficult and controversial. To find a similarity solution that spans both regions of the flow, it is necessary to asymptotically match the solutions from both regions of the flow. Such analysis will yield either the so-called log-law or power-law.


title: Boundary layer

text: Similar approaches to the above analysis has also been applied for thermal boundary layers, using the energy equation in compressible flows.


title: Boundary layer

text: The additional term formula_69 in the turbulent boundary layer equations is known as the Reynolds shear stress and is unknown a priori. The solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations therefore necessitates the use of a turbulence model, which aims to express the Reynolds shear stress in terms of known flow variables or derivatives. The lack of accuracy and generality of such models is a major obstacle in the successful prediction of turbulent flow properties in modern fluid dynamics.


title: Boundary layer

text: A constant stress layer exists in the near wall region. Due to the damping of the vertical velocity fluctuations near the wall, the Reynolds stress term will become negligible and we find that a linear velocity profile exists. This is only true for the very near wall region.


title: Boundary layer

text: In 1928, the French engineer André Lévêque observed that convective heat transfer in a flowing fluid is affected only by the velocity values very close to the surface. For flows of large Prandtl number, the temperature/mass transition from surface to freestream temperature takes place across a very thin region close to the surface. Therefore, the most important fluid velocities are those inside this very thin region in which the change in velocity can be considered linear with normal distance from the surface. In this way, for


title: Boundary layer

text: Although Lévêque's solution was specific to heat transfer into a Poiseuille flow, his insight helped lead other scientists to an exact solution of the thermal boundary-layer problem. Schuh observed that in a boundary-layer, "u" is again a linear function of "y", but that in this case, the wall tangent is a function of "x". He expressed this with a modified version of Lévêque's profile,


title: Boundary layer

text: This results in a very good approximation, even for low formula_74 numbers, so that only liquid metals with formula_74 much less than 1 cannot be treated this way.


title: Boundary layer

text: In 1962, Kestin and Persen published a paper describing solutions for heat transfer when the thermal boundary layer is contained entirely within the momentum layer and for various wall temperature distributions. For the problem of a flat plate with a temperature jump at formula_76, they propose a substitution that reduces the parabolic thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation. The solution to this equation, the temperature at any point in the fluid, can be expressed as an incomplete gamma function. Schlichting proposed an equivalent substitution that reduces the thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation whose solution is the same incomplete gamma function.


title: Boundary layer

text: Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius derived an exact solution to the above laminar boundary layer equations. The thickness of the boundary layer formula_77 is a function of the Reynolds number for laminar flow.


title: Boundary layer

text: Note that in many cases, the no-slip boundary condition holds that formula_91, the fluid velocity at the surface of the plate equals the velocity of the plate at all locations. If the plate is not moving, then formula_92. A much more complicated derivation is required if fluid slip is allowed.


title: Boundary layer

text: In fact, the Blasius solution for laminar velocity profile in the boundary layer above a semi-infinite plate can be easily extended to describe Thermal and Concentration boundary layers for heat and mass transfer respectively. Rather than the differential x-momentum balance (equation of motion), this uses a similarly derived Energy and Mass balance:


title: Boundary layer

text: For the momentum balance, kinematic viscosity formula_8 can be considered to be the "momentum diffusivity". In the energy balance this is replaced by thermal diffusivity formula_96, and by mass diffusivity formula_97 in the mass balance. In thermal diffusivity of a substance, formula_98 is its thermal conductivity, formula_6 is its density and formula_100 is its heat capacity. Subscript AB denotes diffusivity of species A diffusing into species B.


title: Boundary layer

text: Under the assumption that formula_101, these equations become equivalent to the momentum balance. Thus, for Prandtl number formula_102 and Schmidt number formula_103 the Blasius solution applies directly.


title: Boundary layer

text: Accordingly, this derivation uses a related form of the boundary conditions, replacing formula_104 with formula_105 or formula_106 (absolute temperature or concentration of species A). The subscript S denotes a surface condition.


title: Boundary layer

text: Using the streamline function Blasius obtained the following solution for the shear stress at the surface of the plate.


title: Boundary layer

text: where formula_118 are the regions of flow where formula_105 and formula_106 are less than 99% of their far field values.


title: Boundary layer

text: Because the Prandtl number of a particular fluid is not often unity, German engineer E. Polhausen who worked with Ludwig Prandtl attempted to empirically extend these equations to apply for formula_121. His results can be applied to formula_122 as well. He found that for Prandtl number greater than 0.6, the thermal boundary layer thickness was approximately given by:


title: Boundary layer

text: From this solution, it is possible to characterize the convective heat/mass transfer constants based on the region of boundary layer flow. Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling are combined with the flux term derived above and the boundary layer thickness.


title: Boundary layer

text: This gives the local convective constant formula_127 at one point on the semi-infinite plane. Integrating over the length of the plate gives an average


title: Boundary layer

text: Following the derivation with mass transfer terms (formula_98 = convective mass transfer constant, formula_97 = diffusivity of species A into species B, formula_131 ), the following solutions are obtained:


title: Boundary layer

text: Many of the principles that apply to aircraft also apply to ships, submarines, and offshore platforms.


title: Boundary layer

text: For ships, unlike aircraft, one deals with incompressible flows, where change in water density is negligible (a pressure rise close to 1000kPa leads to a change of only 2–3 kg/m). This field of fluid dynamics is called hydrodynamics. A ship engineer designs for hydrodynamics first, and for strength only later. The boundary layer development, breakdown, and separation become critical because the high viscosity of water produces high shear stresses.


title: Boundary layer

text: This effect was exploited in the Tesla turbine, patented by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless turbine because it uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Boundary layer turbines are also known as cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl).


title: Boundary layer

text: By using the transient and viscous force equations for a cylindrical flow you can predict the transient boundary layer thickness by finding the Womersley Number (formula_134).


title: Boundary layer

text: where formula_134 = Womersley Number; formula_141 = density; formula_142 = velocity; formula_143 ?; formula_144 = length of transient boundary layer; formula_145 = viscosity; formula_61 = characteristic length.


title: Boundary layer

text: By using the convective and viscous force equations at the boundary layer for a cylindrical flow you can predict the convective flow conditions at the boundary layer by finding the dimensionless Reynolds Number (formula_147).


title: Boundary layer

text: where formula_147 = Reynolds Number; formula_141 = density; formula_142 = velocity; formula_156 = length of convective boundary layer; formula_145 = viscosity; formula_61 = characteristic length.


title: Boundary layer

text: Boundary layer ingestion promises an increase in aircraft fuel efficiency with an aft-mounted propulsor ingesting the slow fuselage boundary layer and re-energising the wake to reduce drag and improve propulsive efficiency.


title: Boundary layer

text: To operate in distorted airflow, the fan is heavier and its efficiency is reduced, and its integration is challenging.


title: Boundary layer

text: It is used in concepts like the Aurora D8 or the French research agency Onera’s Nova, saving 5% in cruise by ingesting 40% of the fuselage boundary layer.


title: Boundary layer

text: to ingest all the fuselage boundary layer, while minimizing the azimuthal flow distortion, the fuselage splits into two spindles with 13-18:1 bypass ratio fans.


title: Boundary layer

text: Propulsive efficiencies are up to 90% like counter-rotating open rotors with smaller, lighter, less complex and noisy engines.


title: Riccardo Scamarcio

text: He went to train as an actor at the Scuola Nazionale di Cinema in Rome, where he now lives. His debut acting role was in a TV series in 2000, while his first ever lead role in a feature film was in "Three Steps Over Heaven" (2004), directed by Luca Lucini. Through this he immediately became well known to the Italian speaking public, especially a young audience. His success brought him prominence as a sex symbol and boosted requests for his acting skills, leading to his role in "Texas" (2005), directed by Fausto Paravidino and soon to him joining the cast of "Romanzo Criminale", playing a monosyllabic, enigmatic thug character in a powerful portrait of a mafiosi community directed by Michele Placido.


title: Riccardo Scamarcio

text: In 2006 he acted in "The Black Arrow", a TV series broadcast by Canale 5, adapted from the novel by Robert Louis Stevenson, and took on four new film roles: "My Brother Is an Only Child" (2007), directed by Daniele Luchetti, based on the novel "Il fasciocomunista" by Antonio Pennacchi. Scamarcio won a David di Donatello nomination for Best Supporting Actor for this work. He also played in "Manual of Love 2" (2007), directed by Giovanni Veronesi, Ho voglia di te (2007), directed by Luis Prieto, and "Go Go Tales" (2007), directed by Abel Ferrara.


title: Riccardo Scamarcio

text: In 2007 he began work on "At a Glance" (2008) directed by Sergio Rubini, "Italians" (2009), a comedy directed by Giovanni Veronesi, and "The Big Dream" (2009), set in Italy in 1968, directed by Michele Placido. "Eden à l'Ouest", directed by Costa-Gavras, saw Scamarcio playing an illegal immigrant-cum-innocent abroad. "The Cézanne Affair" (2009), directed by Sergio Rubini, co-starred Scamarcio's partner, Italian-Greek actress Valeria Golino, who plays his sister.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Jeffrey Bryant Saturday (born June 18, 1975) is an American football coach and former center who is the interim head coach for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at the University of North Carolina. He was signed by the Baltimore Ravens as an undrafted free agent in 1998, but was cut by the team without playing a game. Saturday then signed with the Indianapolis Colts, with whom he played 13 seasons, won Super Bowl XLI over the Chicago Bears and was selected to four All-Pro teams and five Pro Bowls. In his final NFL season, he made his sixth Pro Bowl as a member of the Green Bay Packers. Saturday is a former sports analyst for ESPN.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday was born in Atlanta, Georgia. He attended Shamrock High School in Decatur, Georgia, in 1993.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: His high school coach Ron Gartrell said in a 2012 "Sports Illustrated" story on Saturday, "Eighty percent of our offense was behind Jeff. On defense we put Jeff on one side and all our other good players on the other side, because teams ran away from Jeff." However, Gartrell could not sell Southeastern Conference schools on Saturday's abilities; in the same interview, he said that coaches at Georgia and Tennessee considered Saturday too short to play in the conference. He received a scholarship offer from the University of North Carolina partly because of Gartrell's friendship with UNC's then-defensive coordinator Carl Torbush.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he was a four-year letterman for coach Mack Brown's North Carolina Tar Heels football team from 1994 to 1997. As a junior in 1996 and again as a senior in 1997, he was one of the Tar Heels' team captains. He was recognized as a first-team All-Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) selection at center in 1996 and 1997, and an Academic All-ACC selection in 1997.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: According to "Sports Illustrated", Saturday was ranked as the No. 11 center available in the 1998 NFL Draft. He was described as "somewhat an overachiever, has worked to make himself better," but also as "an undersized guy [who] simply has trouble matching up against power NTs that can overwhelm him". He went undrafted. The Baltimore Ravens signed him as a free agent on April 27, 1998, only to waive him on June 12, 1998. He then returned to Raleigh, North Carolina, and took a job as a manager at an electrical supply store.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday first came to the attention of the Indianapolis Colts during the 1998 season, when former college teammate Nate Hobgood-Chittick was on the roster. As Hobgood-Chittick would recall in 2012,I had no footing at all with that franchise, so I stood outside [Bill] Polian's door in my dirty sweats, saying a prayer. I walked in and said, "There's a guy selling electrical supplies in Raleigh right now who whipped all those first-round draft choices at North Carolina every day." Polian looked at me and said, "I love it. Let's get him in here for a workout."


title: Jeff Saturday

text: The Colts signed him as a free agent on January 7, 1999. In his rookie season, Saturday backed up starting guard Steve McKinney, and earned his first NFL start at left guard on November 21, 1999, against the Philadelphia Eagles. After only two regular season starts in 1999, Saturday started all 16 regular season games of the 2000 season at center for the Colts, and continued to start every game thereafter—for a total of 85 consecutive games—before sitting out two games with an injury in December 2004. Saturday finished his time with the Colts as the team's starting center for 12 straight seasons, and was the anchor of the Colts' offensive line, which gave up the fewest quarterback sacks among all NFL teams in the 2004, 2005, and 2006 seasons. Saturday attempted a pass once, during a game in 2004, but it fell incomplete.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Though the Colts won at least 10 regular season games for five consecutive years under head coach Tony Dungy, the team could not get to the Super Bowl, losing in the AFC playoffs from 2002 to 2005. In 2006, the Colts went 12–4 in the regular season and earned the third seed in the AFC. On January 21, 2007, Saturday helped the Colts win the AFC Championship Game against the New England Patriots when he recovered a teammate's fumble in the end zone and scored a touchdown. Saturday also provided the key block on the game-winning touchdown run by Joseph Addai, pancaking Vince Wilfork. Peyton Manning, the Colts' quarterback at the time and a longtime friend, claimed that Saturday wants this play to be known as "The Block." Two weeks later, Saturday helped the Colts win Super Bowl XLI against the Chicago Bears.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On February 26, 2009, Saturday signed a three-year $13.3 million contract with the Colts including a $7.45 million signing bonus.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: During his time with the Colts, Saturday started 188 of 197 games. He became a free agent after the 2011 season.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday signed a two-year deal with the Green Bay Packers for $7.75 million on March 23, 2012. After an up-and-down season, Saturday was benched on December 21, 2012. Despite this, Saturday was later announced as the back-up center for the NFC in the 2013 Pro Bowl. In the Pro Bowl, despite being on opposite teams, Saturday and long-time Colts teammate Peyton Manning shared a final snap.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On January 25, 2013, Saturday announced he would retire following the 2013 Pro Bowl Game. On March 7, 2013, Saturday signed a 1-day contract with the Colts to retire with the team with which he spent 13 of his 14 seasons.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday was voted onto six Pro Bowl teams in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, and 2012. For the 2005 and 2007 seasons, he was named to the Associated Press NFL All-Pro First-team. He was selected as Offensive Lineman of the Year by the National Football League Alumni organization for 2007.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday was inducted into the Indianapolis Colts Ring of Honor during the week 2 game against the New York Jets on September 21, 2015.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday was inducted into the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame, in Macon, Georgia, as a member of the 2017 class.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On January 20, 2017, Saturday was named the head coach of Hebron Christian Academy, in Dacula, Georgia.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On February 14, 2020, Saturday resigned from the position of head coach at Hebron Christian. During his time there he was 20–16 making the playoffs every year while winning three playoff games including one state quarterfinals appearance in 2019.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On November 7, 2022, the Indianapolis Colts named Saturday as the team's interim head coach after the team fired Frank Reich following a 3–5–1 start. The move generated widespread surprise and criticism, notably from former NFL head coach Bill Cowher and fellow former offensive lineman Joe Thomas, given Saturday's lack of previous coaching experience beyond the high school level and presence of several former NFL head coaches on the staff. Saturday is the first NFL head coach with no prior college or professional coaching experience since Norm Van Brocklin with the Minnesota Vikings in 1961. Colts owner Jim Irsay defended the move and said that Saturday could potentially remain head coach beyond 2022; Saturday's former teammate Pat McAfee also defended the move and blasted fellow Pittsburgh native Cowher on getting the head coaching job with their hometown Pittsburgh Steelers at 34. General manager Chris Ballard said that the Colts had tried to hire Saturday in 2019 as an offensive line coach and also for a position prior to the 2022 season. Saturday made his head coaching debut against the Las Vegas Raiders, which the Colts won, 25–20.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: On December 17, 2022, Saturday's Colts team lost to the Minnesota Vikings by a final score of 39–36. The Colts blew a 33-point lead, which surpassed the 1992 Houston Oilers for the largest blown lead in NFL history. Coincidentally, Frank Reich, who Saturday replaced as Colts head coach, was the quarterback who led the comeback victory for the Buffalo Bills over the Oilers.


title: Jeff Saturday

text: Saturday is a member of the executive committee of the National Football League Players' Association, where he was the key negotiator in completing the 2011 Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) between the NFL and NFLPA. Saturday joined ESPN in 2013 and appeared on network programming such as "NFL Live" and "SportsCenter".


title: Between (TV series)

text: Between is a Canadian science fiction drama television series which debuted May 21, 2015 on Citytv. Created by Michael McGowan, the series stars Jennette McCurdy as Wiley Day, a pregnant teenage daughter of a minister living in the small town of Pretty Lake, which is coping with a mysterious disease that has killed everybody over the age of 21.


title: Between (TV series)

text: The series is a co-production between Citytv and Netflix, which distributes the series outside Canada as a Netflix Original Series. The series was renewed for a second season on July 8, 2015, which premiered on June 30, 2016. Though the series was never officially cancelled, no news has been released about the series since the last episode of the second season aired on August 4, 2016.


title: Between (TV series)

text: "Between" is the story of a small town called Pretty Lake and surrounding rural area under siege from a mysterious disease that has wiped out everybody aged 22 and older. The series also explores numerous themes: the power vacuum that results when the government quarantines a 10 square mile zone and leaves the inhabitants to fend for themselves; the desire of inhabitants to escape, ignoring that they will spread the deadly disease to the entire planet; and the effect of hormonal teenaged/young adult angst becoming the guiding force for an entire community.


title: Between (TV series)

text: The series was originally set for a season of six one-hour episodes, co-produced and financed by Citytv and Netflix as part of a collaboration deal. The series represents the first major television solo starring role for McCurdy.


title: Between (TV series)

text: Production of season 1 began on October 20, 2014. Citytv aired an exclusive preview of the series during their broadcast of the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, and the series premiered on May 21, 2015.


title: Between (TV series)

text: Jesse Carere was promoted to managing director for season 2. Production of season 2 began in January 2016, with six one-hour episodes like the first season. The series shot through March 11, 2016, with two new characters, Lium (played by Steven Grayhm) and Renee (played by Mercedes Morris).


title: Between (TV series)

text: As an accompaniment to the show, a web series called "Between the Lines" has been released, featuring eight two-minute webisodes. The web series follows the character Amanda as she interviews students at Pretty Lake High as an assignment for the school's yearbook. The series begins pre-outbreak, and continues throughout the quarantine and ensuing chaos, taking an in-depth look at a different character each week. The first installment of the web series was posted on May 22, 2015, with new webisodes made available every week on CityTV.com, after each TV episode broadcasts. The season 2 edition of the web series, a six-part video diary kept by Wiley and Adam, became available on June 23, 2016.


title: Between (TV series)

text: In addition, season 2 includes an after-show web component called "Inside Between", hosted by Angelina LeDrew-Bonvarlez and Nicole Stamp and streaming live (then remaining available) on CityTV.com's "Between" page, directly following each TV episode's initial broadcast on City.


title: Between (TV series)

text: Per the collaboration deal, the series airs terrestrially on City, and streams on Shomi in Canada and Netflix internationally. It is the first series originating from Canada to air on Netflix from its inception.


title: Between (TV series)

text: Episodes air on a week by week basis on City, on Thursdays at 8 pm Eastern Time. During season 1, they were later added on week by week basis on Netflix, for international viewing at 11:30 pm Eastern. Season 1 was added to Netflix's Canadian service one year after its Shomi debut. For season 2, all six episodes were released on Netflix on July 1, 2016, outside Canada.


title: Between (TV series)

text: "Between"s season 1 ratings on Citytv pulled a combined 3.2 million viewers, reaching roughly 10% of the Canadian population. The show performed at 31% in the desirable 18–34 age demographic, significantly above the channel average of 19% for the demographic.


title: Between (TV series)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports a 22% approval rating with an average rating of 4.3/10, based on 18 critic reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "A poorly acted regurgitation of post-apocalyptic cliches, "Between" falls short of Netflix's other high quality offerings." On the review aggregator Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100 based on 10 critics, indicating "mixed or average".


title: Between (TV series)

text: Brian Lowry of "Variety" called "Between" "an utterly ho-hum addition to Netflix's original lineup". Keith Uhlich of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote, "It's the end of the world as they know it, and viewers won't care." Mike Hale of "The New York Times" called it a "familiar ensemble soap opera with conspiracy-theory embroidery". Mary McNamara of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "The town is lovely, the premise solid if overfamiliar, but the script lacks both depth and tension (big problem), and McCurdy is one of the few cast members who can act." Kevin P. Sullivan of "Entertainment Weekly" rated it C− and criticized the show's writing. Joshua Alston of "The A.V. Club" rated it C+ and wrote that the series lacks a compelling hook.


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte was a professional boxing event that featured heavyweight professional boxing match contested between WBC and "The Ring" heavyweight champion, Tyson Fury, and WBC interim heavyweight champion, Dillian Whyte. The bout took place on Saturday 23 April 2022 at Wembley Stadium in London, England. Tyson Fury won the bout by technical knockout in round 6.


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: On 9 October 2021, undefeated WBC and "The Ring" heavyweight champion Tyson Fury defended his world titles against former WBC champion Deontay Wilder in their trilogy match, when he defeated Wilder via eleventh-round knockout in a widely acclaimed contest that was named "The Ring" magazine Fight of the Year 2021. Fury's mandatory challenger, Dillian Whyte, had been scheduled to face southpaw Otto Wallin in a defence of his WBC interim title later that month on 30 October, but the fight was cancelled days beforehand after it was alleged that Whyte had suffered a shoulder injury, ruling him out of contention. Whyte ultimately did not reschedule the fight, opting to bypass Wallin for a shot at Fury's world titles.


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: On 30 December 2021, WBC president Mauricio Sulaiman, who had ordered Fury to defend his WBC title against Whyte, ruled that the champion Fury would be entitled to 80% of the purse, compared to Whyte's 20% as the challenger. Sulaiman had set a deadline of 11 January 2022 for purse bids, as the two fighters' camps could not agree to terms. However, this deadline was pushed back multiple times, in part due to ongoing negotiations from Fury's team who were trying to secure the fight for the undisputed heavyweight championship against undefeated WBA (Super), IBF and WBO heavyweight champion Oleksandr Usyk. A fight between Fury and Usyk did not materialise, as deposed former champion Anthony Joshua was unwilling to step aside to allow the two champions to fight.


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: The deadline for the Fury-Whyte purse bids was ultimately scheduled for 28 January 2022, when it was announced that Frank Warren's Queensberry Promotions had won the rights to promote the fight, with a winning bid of $41,025,000 (£31 million), beating out the $32,222,222 (£24 million) bid submitted by Eddie Hearn's Matchroom. Warren's bid was reported to be the highest successful purse bid in boxing history. Fury reacted to the news, stating on social media that he is "coming home", suggesting that the fight against Whyte will be the first time he will box on U.K. soil since his August 2018 win against Francesco Pianeta. On 25 February 2022, it was officially announced that the fight would be taking place at Wembley Stadium in London, England on 23 April.


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: The first press conference for the fight took place on 1 March at Wembley Stadium, with Whyte absent. Whyte's lawyer stated that his client would not be partaking in promoting the fight, as "we still do not have things resolved". Despite his opponent's non-attendance, Fury as usual was "in full showman mode", declaring, "Even Tyson Fury versus his own shadow sells", and promising that the fight "is going to be a Ferrari racing a Vauxhall Corsa". When asked about Whyte's no-show, Fury opined, "He's definitely shown the white flag in my estimation." In addition, he stated that his bout against Whyte would be the final fight of his professional career, promising to retire after the fight: "I'm a two-time undisputed world champion. [I have] £150m in the bank and nothing to prove to anybody."


title: Tyson Fury vs. Dillian Whyte

text: Tickets for the fight went on sale on 2 March. 85,000 of the 90,000 available tickets were sold within the first 3 hours, prompting Fury's promoter Frank Warren to begin the process of applying to the local authorities to expand the capacity to 100,000 fans, which would make Fury-Whyte the largest post-war boxing attendance in the history of the United Kingdom.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Ekk Deewana Tha () is a 2012 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film written and directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon, featuring Prateik Babbar, Amy Jackson (her Hindi debut), and Manu Rishi in lead roles. The film is a remake of Menon's own 2010 bilingual film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" (Tamil) / "Ye Maaya Chesave" (Telugu). It features reused soundtrack and film score composed by A. R. Rahman, while the cinematography and editing were handled by M. S. Prabhu and Anthony Gonsalves, respectively.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: While in production, the film was titled "Prem Katha" but was renamed as "Ekk Deewana Tha" as the director wanted an abstract title for the film, similar to the original. The film, produced by Fox Star Studios, Photon Kathaas and RS Infotainment, was released on 17 February 2012 in two different versions with a number of endings to suit the taste of regional viewers. The film opened to mixed reviews and had a lukewarm reception at the box office.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Sachin Kulkarni is a student of mechanical engineering in Mumbai who aspires to become a filmmaker. His friend introduces him to cinematographer Anay. With Anay's help, Sachin becomes an assistant to director. Sachin's family, who are Marathi Brahmins, rent Jessie Thekekuttu's house. Jessie is from a conservative Malayali Syrian Catholic "Nasrani" family from Alappuzha, Kerala, that lives upstairs. Sachin falls in love with Jessie the moment he meets her. Sachin tries to interact with Jessie, who is afraid of speaking to men around her strict father, and ends up angering Jessie. Unable to hide his feelings for her any longer, Sachin confesses his love for her, to which she does not respond. A few days later, Sachin learns from his sister that Jessie has gone to Kerala to visit her grandmother. He, along with Anay, ends up in Kerala to look for her. After several days, he finds her, apologises and she introduces him to her family in Kerala as her "classmate". Jessie denies she has any feelings for him but agrees to be his friend. On the train journey back home, however, the two get closer and share a passionate kiss. Sachin is convinced Jessie loves him; the two meet several times and Jessie begins to admit that she also likes Sachin, but wants to refrain from any problems because she knows her father wouldn't give her hand in marriage to a Hindu. Consequently, due to various misunderstandings between Jessie's brother and Sachin, her parents learn of their supposed affair. They fix a match and schedule her wedding. The day arrives and midway through the ceremony, Jessie refuses to marry the groom, displeasing everyone in her family. Sachin, who had, without anyone's knowledge, come to Kerala to witness the wedding is ecstatic and secretly visits Jessie at her home. It is then that Jessie admits she has indeed fallen in love with him. Sachin and Jessie continue to meet each other without the knowledge of their parents.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: At this point of time, Sachin goes to Goa on a forty-day shoot, where he gets busy. Meanwhile, the topic of Jessie's marriage comes up again at her home when the man whom she refused to marry earlier pays them a visit. Panicking, Jessie calls Sachin and tells him that she wants to elope with him. Sachin, who is travelling through less than ideal places, tells Jessie to stay in Mumbai for now, and that soon he would be back and they can discuss. Jessie stops taking Sachin's calls and so he goes back one night to check on Jessie. He learns that Jessie has decided to break up, as the relationship is not peaceful due to her parents' disapproval. She says she has agreed to marry a boy of her parents' choice. When Sachin pleads her not to do it, she tells him that a time had come when she was willing to elope, but the moment was gone. She doesn't want Sachin to wait for her, as he has his dreams to fulfill. Sachin later learns that she is married and settled abroad.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Two years later, Sachin meets Samantha. She falls in love with him but is rejected by Sachin who hasn't yet gotten over Jessie. He then comes up with a script for his first film, which happens to be his very own love story. He calls upon an actor as the film's protagonist, Samantha as the female lead and Anay as the film's cinematographer, and the film is eventually titled "Jessie". While shooting for the film in Taj Mahal, he sees Jessie and she comes to speak with him. She admits that she is not married and is still in love with him, and he too says she is still in his heart. Sachin proposes yet again and they get married the same day. This is actually revealed to be the climax in Sachin's film – which Sachin and Jessie in real life are watching together in the theatre. After the film ends, Jessie praises Sachin for his efforts and the latter agrees to drop her home, implying that they have reunited.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Gautham Menon started working on "Ekk Deewana Tha", the Hindi remake of his Tamil film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa", in 2010, and his Telugu simultaneous version "Ye Maaya Chesave", with Prateik Babbar and Amy Jackson starring (for the Hindi version). "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" and "Ye Maaya Chesave" were considered to have changed the images of their lead actor pairs Silambarasan Rajendar-Trisha Krishnan and Naga Chaitanya-Samantha respectively. Though, the Hindi remake initially had Trisha Krishnan reprising her role from the Tamil version, the actress was dropped from the project after a photo shoot and replaced by Amy Jackson, who shot to fame with the Tamil film "Madrasapattinam".


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Gautham Menon was trying out a 'look shoot' at the same locations where he shot "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" and "Ye Maaya Chesave", including a popular seaside restaurant on ECR, Chennai. A source close to the director said, "This shoot was just to get the 'feel' of the film. The actual shoot will take place in Mumbai from next month." According to the sources, A R Rahman's original tunes will be retained for "Ekk Deewana Tha" as well, while the film also features Gautham Menon's regular technical team, consisting of art director Rajeevan and editor Anthony Gonsalves.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Noted poet, story and screenplay writer, Javed Akhtar recently was in Chennai, supervising the script and writing the lyrics for the film. A source close to the development said, "Javed saab and Gautham hit it off well. The lyricist's inputs will be taken into consideration as Gautham is particular that his film should not come across as a routine South Indian remake."


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Amy Jackson, playing a Syrian Malabar Nasrani Christian in the film, said, "I'm very kicked about working with Gautham Menon. I've seen VTV ["Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa"] at least 15 times. "Ekk Deewana Tha" is a perfect launch pad for me in Bollywood. He is a perfectionist and I know he will shape my character according to the needs and tastes of the Bollywood audience. I've begun the first schedule of the film and I'm planning to hire a Hindi tutor to help me sail through it."


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: The shooting of the film was to start in late-2010 but Prateik Babbar was busy with the promotions of "Dhobi Ghat". Finally, the shooting of the film commenced in April 2011, with the entire cast and crew of the film in Mumbai. The shooting of the film progressed in various localities in Mumbai and the "Ekk Deewana Tha" team went down to Kerala and began the second schedule there in May 2011. The crew later went to Chennai in June 2011 to shoot few important scenes in Amethyst, Chennai, while, some of the songs were shot in AVM Studios, Chennai. In July 2011, after the shooting of the film in Chennai was completed, the next schedule of the film was started at The Taj Mahal, Agra, while the shooting of the film was also held in Delhi. In 2011, the team moved to Goa to film the song sequences for "Hosanna" and "Phoolon Jaisi", choreographed by Flexy Stu.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: Singer Chinmayi dubbed for the female lead, reprising her role from the Tamil and Telugu versions where she dubbed for Trisha and Samantha, respectively.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: The soundtrack and film score for "Ekk Deewana Tha" is composed by A. R. Rahman, retaining the same tunes from "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" along with few additional tracks – "Kya Hai Mohabbat" (A. R. Rahman), "Jessy's Driving Me Crazy" (Sanjeev Thomas & Timmy) and three instrumental tracks – "Broken Promises" (Shreya Ghoshal), "Moments in Kerala" and "Jessy's Land". The track "Dost Hai (Girl I Loved You)" is a remixed version of its Tamil original Kannukkul Kannai. The soundtrack album consists of lyrics penned by Javed Akhtar, collaborating with Gautham Menon for the first time. The soundtrack album was released at a luxury hotel in Agra, by A. R. Rahman on 21 December 2011.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: The film was released on 17 February 2012, in a unique way with a number of different endings. Notably, in Tamil, "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" had the leads part ways whereas in "Ye Maaya Chesave", the lover birds unite. The mainstream ending was released across 500 screens in India, while the director's cut, with a different climax, was released in 20 select theatres across the country. The director's cut showcased a coming-of-age love story while the ending for the mass release had a conventional feel-good ending.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: A month before the film's release, a group from the Christian Secular Forum (CSF) in Mumbai strongly objected to the song "Hosanna". According to them, "Hosanna" is a sacred term in the Bible that is used by both Jews and Christians while praying, while in the film, the same term was used in a romantic sense. They demanded removal of the song, as well as an "apology for disrespecting the word", and threatened to take legal action against the film if the song was not edited out of the film's final cut.


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: To this, music director Rahman responded, "As with any film project I work on, I had spent several months researching before composing/writing all the songs for and had consulted friends who are Christian in particular about the use of the word 'Hosanna' in this song. The song was a sensation when it was released in the South a couple of years ago and it went on to win all possible music awards and was well received by all communities! Therefore I am deeply concerned about the sentiments of all those who appear to be hurt by this song."


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: "Ekk Deewana Tha" received mixed reviews upon release. Avijit Ghosh of "The Times of India" gave the film 3 stars out of 5 saying, ""Ekk Deewana Tha" has its moments but it doesn't really put you in the mood for love." Oneindia.in commented that "In a nutshell, Ek Deewana Tha is good romantic thriller and this can be good for this Valentine's season." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 2 stars out of 5, and said, "On the whole, "Ekk Deewana Tha" has a few sparkling moments, that's about it. However, it lacks the fizz for the spectator to go deewana!" Shubhra Gupta from "The Indian Express" also gave the film 2 stars out of 5, saying, "Simbu's stubbly guy-next-door, helplessly in love with the feckless Trisha was the highlight, apart from its lovely songs, of VTV ["Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa"]: where did all the passion go in "Ekk Deewana Tha"?" Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN too gave the film 2 stars out of 5 saying, "This Hindi remake is a disappointing bore of a love story that tests your threshold for pain as it hobbles along indulgently for close to 2 hours and 40 minutes." Zee News gave the film 2 stars out of 5, and concluded that, "All in all, "Ekk Deewana Tha" is a movie that seems to have been lost in translation. However, Prateik deserves praise for his efforts." Blessy Chettiar of DNA gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5, concluding saying, "A simple and sweet story treated badly. Skip. Simple." Komal Nahta for Koimoi.com gave the film a single star out of 5, blaming the routine story, the weak screenplay and lack of feeling of empathy for the two lead characters. Preeti Arora of Rediff.com feels that "Ekk Deewana Tha", Gautham Menon's Hindi remake of his hit Tamil film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaaya", lost quite a bit in translation. She gave the film 1 star out of 5. Shubha Shetty-Saha of "MiD DAY" too gave the film 1 star out of 5 saying, "No, the story is not really as bad as it seems. With better direction and perhaps a little more sensitivity and with a faster pace, and better actors (oops, are they too many conditions?), it might have worked." Mayank Shekhar of "Hindustan Times" again gave the film 1 star out of 5 saying, "We’re beyond midway through the movie: chuck chemistry, all you’re wondering is what the hell’s the story." Kaveree Bamzai of India Today too gave the film 1 star out of 5, and said, "We are supposed to feel the longing he has for Amy. We only feel the irritation. Get on with it guys you want to say. Come to the point. By the time they do you are exhausted, and want to do what Prateik says Amy's character did to his feelings-showed him the middle finger. So there." Kunal Guha of Yahoo! gave the film minus 1 rating, and said, "it is in fact the iceberg that makes this painful love story crash as we endure the burn."


title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: The opening day at the box office saw only 5–10% occupancy in cinemas. On Saturday, the film collected just nett. The film on Sunday collected nett, taking its total first weekend collection to nett. Its gross collection for week one stood at nett.


title: Eye chart

text: An eye chart, or optotype, is a chart used to subjectively measure visual acuity. Eye charts are often used by health care professionals, such as optometrists, physicians or nurses, to screen persons for vision impairment. Ophthalmologists, physicians who specialize in the eye, also use eye charts to monitor the visual acuity of their patients in response to various therapies such as medications or surgery.


title: Eye chart

text: The chart is placed at a standardized distance away from the person whose vision is being tested. The person then attempts to identify the symbols on the chart, starting with the larger symbols and continuing with progressively smaller symbols until the person cannot identify the symbols. The smallest symbols that can be reliably identified is considered the person's visual acuity.


title: Eye chart

text: The Snellen chart is the most widely used. Alternative types of eye charts include the logMAR chart, Landolt C, E chart, Lea test, Golovin–Sivtsev table, the Rosenbaum chart, and the Jaeger chart. As previously mentioned, eye charts measure visual acuity. Eye charts do not provide doctors with information on eye diseases such as glaucoma, problems with the retina, or loss of peripheral vision.


title: Eye chart

text: In practice, it is very important to recheck the result using Duochrome test, because it allows to refine the final sphere in refraction. It is more important to pass that test, than have perfect binocular vision in Snellen chart, especially for toric contact lenses that may behave differently from glasses. Otherwise binocular fusion may be worse that it is supposed to be.


title: Eye chart

text: The concept of using eye glasses in order to improve eyesight has been prevalent since the late thirteenth century. As science progressively improved, reputable doctors within the ophthalmology field like Cornelius Donders began to describe a clear definition as to what should be done in order to improve timeless impairments of a patient's vision. Although it slowly became clear what the procedure was in order to benefit a patient through his work, there was no uniform exam in order to prove the impairment in someone’s vision. Around this time, the knowledge within the field of ophthalmology grew immensely.


title: Eye chart

text: Previous studies led to doctors (worldwide) determining a way in which visual acuity could be examined. German eye doctor, Heinrich Kuehler proposed the first examination in order to test visual acuity. Shortly after, an Austrian doctor, Eduard Jaeger created a chart which tested near vision acuity. Although the general concept of the eye chart was introduced during the 1830s by doctors mentioned previously, the most effective chart to test visual acuity at the time was refined in 1862 by Dutch optometrist Herman Snellen. The conception of his chart began when Snellen became Donder's first assistant. Snellen worked closely with Dr. Donders as he determined vision impairments patients had by having them look at a chart on the wall. Donders eventually passed on his responsibilities to Snellen because he was very occupied with other disciplines of science like physiology.


title: Eye chart

text: Because of Donders' fame and Snellen’s natural talent towards the field of ophthalmology, many doctors were enticed to visit in order to share ideas with them in Utrecht. As he worked closely through his practice, Snellen created his own chart that measured visual acuity. Snellen’s eye chart became the first of its type, hence it being the most scientifically reliable design in order to test vision distance in that time period. Snellen’s success within his charts was because they differed from past models that measured visual acuity. His chart varied the sizes of stimuli. Snellen’s eye chart opened the door to testing visual acuity, hence it became the global standard.


title: Eye chart

text: The high demand for this chart was everywhere. Even japanese ophthalmologist Ema Tenko, who studied under Snellen, created an eye chart that was used in Japan. Because of the creation of eye charts, examinations like vision screening (roughly beginning in 1899) within schools took place in order to test children’s eyes. Optotype, another term that could define an eye chart, remains the most common exam in order to test standard vision.


title: Eye chart

text: Charts display several rows of optotypes, which are standardized symbols for testing vision. Optotypes are usually letters, numbers, or geometric symbols. Each row of the chart depicts optotypes of a different size. Typically the largest optotypes are in the top row. The optotypes become progressively smaller towards the bottom of the chart.


title: Eye chart

text: The person removes any glasses or contact lenses, and stands or sits a standardized distance from the chart (e.g., 20 feet for the Snellen chart). The person is then asked to identify the optotypes on the chart, starting with large rows and continuing to smaller rows until the optotypes cannot be reliably identified any more. The row in which the person can reliably identify symbols defines the visual acuity.


title: Eye chart

text: One eye is tested at a time. Practically, this is accomplished by covering the other eye with a hand, piece of paper, or a small paddle. After testing without glasses or contact lenses, testing is repeated while the person wears them, if applicable. Often, the use of such refractive lenses will correct visual acuity to normal. Refractive error can be corrected using a pinhole occluder. If the visual acuity improves with the use of pinholes, refractive lenses can be utilized to improve visual acuity. Squinting can achieve the same effect as a pinhole occluder.


title: Eye chart

text: With the Snellen chart, the visual acuity is recorded as a fraction with 20 in the numerator (top number) and values ranging from 10 to 600 in the denominator (bottom number). The denominator indicates the distance in feet at which a person with normal vision could stand to correctly identify the same symbols identified by the person tested. For example, a visual acuity of 20/20 is considered normal.


title: Eye chart

text: Numerous types of eye charts exist and are used in various situations. For example, the Snellen chart is designed for use at 6 meters or 20 feet, and is thus appropriate for testing distance vision, while the ETDRS chart is designed for use at 4 meters. There is often also a need to test a subject's vision at near or occupational tasks (such as reading or computer use). For these situations, a Rosenbaum chart or Jaeger chart can be used.


title: Eye chart

text: While the Snellen chart remains the default, some authors have argued that the logMAR chart is superior. The logMAR chart presents the same number of symbols on each line, uses a typeface with letters that are equally legible at various sizes, and by varying the symbol size logarithmically, it is easier to use at nonstandard distances. As a consequence of these improvements, the logMAR chart has been proposed as a more reliable tool for measuring visual acuity.


title: Eye chart

text: It can be difficult to measure visual acuity in infants, young children, and illiterate adults. Special eye charts such as Lea Symbols can be used. One version uses simple pictures or patterns. Others are printed with the block letter "E" turned in different orientations, the so-called Tumbling E. The patient simply indicates which direction each "E" is facing. The Landolt C chart is similar: rows have circles with different segments missing, and the test-taker describes where each broken piece is located. The last two kinds of charts also reduce the possibility of the patient guessing the images.


title: Eye chart

text: Parents and caregivers may test their child's eyesight from home to identify potential vision problems that require an eye care professional. Testing a child age three and older can be accomplished using the Tumbling E chart to play the "pointing game". For this test, the child sits in a chair 10 feet from the chart, gently holding an eye cover over one eye. The parent or caregiver points to each E, starting with the largest E. The child then points in the direction the E is facing (up, down, left, right). The smallest line with Es identified by the child can be recorded. The various directions the E can face should be reviewed with the child prior to home testing. Home tests are not as accurate as exams conducted by professional ophthalmologists. At home eye tests should not replace a visit to a professional eye care physician.


title: Eye chart

text: Computer-based alternatives to the eye chart have been developed, but are not very common prior to smart phones with high display resolution and DPI becoming popular. They have several potential advantages, such as a more precise measurement, less examiner-induced bias and randomized optotypes.


title: Eye chart

text: If the person, particularly a young child, is unable to cooperate with visual acuity testing via an eye chart, practitioners can be alerted to possible deficits in visual acuity by asking parents whether the child appears to see well. A clue is that the child may hold objects close to the face when attempting to focus. Refractive error can be estimated via photography, a technique called photoscreening.


title: Eye chart

text: Research has shown that optotype "crowding" reduces visual acuity at the fovea (as opposed to "eccentric" visual acuity) once the optotype characters are closer than 4.4 bar widths apart. This is referred to as the "critical spacing" for optotype letters at the fovea. For periphery visual acuity, the critical spacing is much greater, such that optotype characters closer than 15-20 bar widths apart negatively affect visual acuity.


title: Neferneferuaten

text: Ankhkheperure-Merit-Neferkheperure/Waenre/Aten Neferneferuaten () was a name used to refer to a female pharaoh who reigned toward the end of the Amarna Period during the Eighteenth Dynasty. Her sex is confirmed by feminine traces occasionally found in the name and by the epithet "Akhet-en-hyes" ("Effective for her husband"), incorporated into one version of her nomen (birth name) cartouche. She is distinguished from the king Smenkhkare who used the same throne name, Ankhkheperure, by the presence of epithets in both cartouches. She is suggested to have been either Meritaten or, more likely, Nefertiti. If this person is Nefertiti ruling as sole pharaoh, it has been theorized by Egyptologist and archaeologist Dr. Zahi Hawass that her reign was marked by the fall of Amarna and relocation of the capital back to the traditional city of Thebes.


title: Neferneferuaten

text: There is no broad consensus as to the succession order of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten. The period from the 13th year of Akhenaten's reign to the ascension of Tutankhaten is very murky. The reigns of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten were very brief and left little monumental or inscriptional evidence to draw a clear picture of political events. Adding to this, Neferneferuaten shares her prenomen (throne name) with Smenkhkare, and her nomen (birth name) with Nefertiti/Neferneferuaten Nefertiti making identification very difficult at times. With little dated evidence to fix their reigns with any certainty, the order depends on how the evidence is interpreted. Many encyclopedic sources and atlases will show Smenkhkare succeeding Akhenaten on the basis of tradition dating back to 1845, and some still conflate Smenkhkare with Neferneferuaten. The lack of unique names continues to cause problems in books and papers written before the early 1980s: an object might be characterized as bearing the name of Smenkhkare, when if in fact, the name was "Ankhkheperure", it could be related to one of two people.


title: Neferneferuaten

text: As illustrated in a 2011 Metropolitan Museum of Art symposium on Horemheb, the general chronology of the late Eighteenth Dynasty is:


title: Neferneferuaten

text: Aidan Dodson proposes that Smenkhkare did not have an independent reign and thus, Neferneferuaten must have come after him, the result being that Smenkhkare's reign is entirely that of a coregent, ending about a year later, in Year 14 or 15 of Akhenaten's reign, with little firm evidence to argue against it. Gabolde cites the Smenkhkare wine docket to support the idea that Smenkhkare must have succeeded Akhenaten. Finally, Allen has used the wine docket and strong association of Neferneferuaten with Akhenaten in her epithets and on stelae to speculate that "both" may have succeeded Akhenaten, with one as a rival king. An Allen-Dodson hybrid could see Tutankhamun succeeding Akhenaten directly as rival to Neferneferuaten. There are almost as many theories and putative chronologies as there are Egyptologists interested in the period.


title: Neferneferuaten

text: The recently discovered inscription for Nefertiti as Great Royal Wife in regnal Year 16 makes it clear she was still alive and still queen, which could be seen as supporting her candidacy as Neferneferuaten and direct succession to Akhenaten. On the other hand, advocates for Smenkhkare make the case that since she is attested as "queen" just before the start of Akhenaten's final regnal year, then Smenkhkare is more likely to be Akhenaten's direct successor.


title: Neferneferuaten

text: Regardless of the order, Neferneferuaten's successor seems to have denied her a king's burial based on items originally inscribed with her name but utilised for the burial of Tutankhamun. In the reign of Horemheb, the reigns of the Amarna Period pharaohs from Akhenaten to Ay were expunged from history as these kings' total regnal years were assigned to Horemheb. The result is that 3,300 years later, scholars would have to piece together events and even resurrect the players bit by bit with the evidence sometimes limited to palimpsest.