title: Archduchess Sophie of Austria

text: Empress Elisabeth adored Hungary and its people and proposed to her husband that they take a trip to her favourite country, perhaps even tour it. Franz Joseph accepted and they left in early spring 1857. While in Budapest, both Sophie and her sister Archduchess Gisela fell ill with diarrhea and had a very high fever. 10-month-old Gisela recovered quickly. However, two-year-old Sophie's body could not take it. At : in the evening, after eleven hours of struggling to survive, Sophie died in her mother's arms, probably from dehydration due to the diarrhea or from convulsions due to the high fever. It was later theorized that Sophie died from typhus fever, but this is yet to be proven.


title: Archduchess Sophie of Austria

text: Sophie's body was brought back to Vienna and buried in the Imperial Crypt, in Ferdinandsgruft ("Ferdinand's Vault") within the southwest pier.


title: Archduchess Sophie of Austria

text: The death of her oldest child would haunt Empress Elisabeth for her entire life. Elisabeth was held indirectly responsible for Sophie's death by her mother-in-law Archduchess Sophie (née Princess Sophie of Bavaria). She suffered a breakdown and would lock herself in her apartments for days at a time or go riding until she reached a state of exhaustion, just to avoid having to think. Sophie's death also settled who got the children. Princess Sophie indisputably took the children as soon as they were born. Elisabeth also started to neglect her surviving daughter, and their relationship was not a close one. One of Elisabeth's ladies-in-waiting, Marie Festetics, commented in her diary that the Empress did not even take the time to attend Gisela's wedding preparations. Elisabeth also behaved in a similar manner to her only son, Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria. For the rest of her remaining days, Elisabeth would wear a bracelet with a likeness of her dead daughter and kept a portrait of her in her apartments.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The Queensboro Bridge, officially named the Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge, is a cantilever bridge over the East River in New York City. Completed in 1909, it connects the neighborhood of Long Island City in the borough of Queens with the Upper East Side in Manhattan, passing over Roosevelt Island. The bridge is also known as the 59th Street Bridge because its Manhattan end is located between 59th and 60th streets.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The Queensboro Bridge carries New York State Route 25 (NY 25), which terminates at the bridge's western end in Manhattan, and also once carried NY 24 and NY 25A. The western leg of the Queensboro Bridge is flanked on its northern side by the freestanding Roosevelt Island Tramway. The bridge was, for a long time, simply called the Queensboro Bridge, but in March 2011, the bridge was officially renamed in honor of former New York City mayor Ed Koch.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The Queensboro Bridge is the northernmost of four toll-free vehicular bridges connecting Manhattan Island to Long Island, along with the Williamsburg, Manhattan, and Brooklyn bridges to the south. It is the first entry point into Manhattan in the course of the New York City Marathon and the last exit point out of Manhattan in the Five Boro Bike Tour.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The Queensboro Bridge is a two-level double cantilever bridge, with separate cantilevered spans over channels on each side of Roosevelt Island joined by a fixed central truss. In all it has five spans, including approaches between the cantilevered sections and each terminus. Their lengths are as follows:


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: Until it was surpassed by the Quebec Bridge in 1917, the span between Manhattan and Roosevelt Island was the longest cantilever in North America.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The upper level of the bridge has four lanes of automobile traffic, consisting of two roadways with two lanes in each directions. It provides a view of the bridge's cantilever truss structure and the New York skyline. Although the two upper level roadways both end at Thomson Avenue on the Queens side, they diverge in opposite directions on the Manhattan side. The lanes used by westbound traffic, located on the northern side of the bridge, lead north to 62nd and 63rd Streets. On the other hand, the lanes normally used by eastbound traffic are located on the southern side of the bridge lead south to 57th and 58th Streets. The roadway to 57th and 58th Streets is used as a westbound high-occupancy vehicle lane during morning rush hours.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The lower level has five vehicular lanes, the inner four for automobile traffic and the southern outer lane for automobile traffic as well, used exclusively for Queens-bound traffic. The North Outer Roadway was converted into a permanent pedestrian walk and bicycle path in September 2000.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The Manhattan approach to the bridge is supported on a series of Guastavino tile vaults which formed the elegant ceiling of the former Food Emporium Bridge Market and the restaurant Guastavino's, located under the bridge. Originally, this open air promenade was known as Bridgemarket and was part of Hornbostel's attempt to make the bridge more hospitable in the city. In February 2020, it was announced that Trader Joe's is planning to open a supermarket in this space, which opened in December 2021.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: Serious proposals for a bridge linking Manhattan to Long Island City were first made as early as 1838, and attempts to finance such a bridge were made by a private company beginning in 1867. Its efforts never came to fruition and the company went bankrupt in the 1890s. Successful plans finally came about in 1903 – after the creation in 1898 of Greater New York City through the amalgamation of Manhattan (New York City), Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx and Staten Island – under the new city's Department of Bridges, led by Gustav Lindenthal, who was appointed to the new position of Commissioner of Bridges in 1902, in collaboration with Leffert L. Buck and Henry Hornbostel, designers of the Williamsburg Bridge.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: Construction soon began, but it would take until 1909 for the bridge to be completed due to delays from the collapse of an incomplete span during a windstorm, and from labor unrest, which included an attempt to dynamite one span. The bridge opened for public use on March 30, 1909, having cost about $18 million and 50 lives. There was a ten-cent toll to drive over the bridge. The bridge's ceremonial grand opening was held on June 12, 1909. At the time, it was the fourth longest bridge in the world. The grand opening included a fireworks display. The bridge was then known as the Blackwell's Island Bridge, from an earlier name for Roosevelt Island.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The bridge's upper level originally contained two pedestrian walkways and two elevated railway tracks (which connected a spur of the IRT Second Avenue Elevated Line in Manhattan to the Queensboro Plaza station in Queens). Three lanes of roadway were installed on the south side of the upper level in 1931, replacing the former upper-level walkway. All service on the Second Avenue Elevated was discontinued in 1942. From 1955 to 1958, two additional lanes were built on the upper level. The upper-level ramps on the Queens end of the bridge were built during the same time.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The lower deck originally hosted four motor traffic lanes, and what is now the "outer roadway" and pedestrian walk were two trolley lanes. A trolley connected passengers from Queens and Manhattan to a stop in the middle of the bridge, where passengers could take an elevator or the stairs down to Roosevelt Island. The trolley operated from the bridge's opening until April 7, 1957. The trolley lanes and mid-bridge station, as well as the stairs, were removed in the 1950s following the trolley's discontinuation, and for the next few decades the bridge carried 11 lanes of automobile traffic.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: In 1919, an elevator building called the elevator storehouse was built adjacent to the bridge on the north side located about where the current tram station is to transport cars and passengers to what was then called Welfare Island, now Roosevelt Island. It was known as the "upside-down" building because its main entrance was on the 10th floor, the height of the bridge deck. This provided access to the hospitals on the island. This building has now been demolished. Then, in 1955, the Welfare Island Bridge from Queens opened, allowing automobile and truck access to the island and the only non-aquatic means in and out of the island; the vehicular elevator to Queensboro Bridge then closed. As late as August 1973, a separate passenger elevator ran during the work week from near the Queens end of the bridge to Welfare Island via the Welfare Island Elevator Storehouse, which was described at the time as "clean but gloomy".


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The bridge was repainted over a seven-month period starting in November 1966. The $240,000 project was the bridge's first repainting in 14 years. The city government considered implementing tolls on the four free East River bridges, including the Queensboro, in 1971. On November 23, 1973, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the Queensboro Bridge as a city landmark, preventing the bridge from being modified without LPC approval. It was the second East River bridge to be so designated, after the Brooklyn Bridge. While there were concerns that the landmark status could prevent tollbooths from being installed, planners said the landmark designation did not affect the proposal, as tollbooths could just be installed on the bridge's approaches.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: In February 1987, the New York City Department of Transportation announced that parts of the northern upper roadway would be closed for two years as part of a $42 million project. The southern upper roadway had just been completed at a cost of $31 million. The northern roadway was closed for one year, reopening in October 1988.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: Starting in 1994, two lanes were reserved during rush hours for carpool traffic. For a brief period in 1997, the traffic directions of the upper-level roadways were reversed during rush hours so that the upper level used a left-hand traffic pattern. Manhattan-bound traffic used the southern roadway while Queens-bound traffic used the northern roadway. After residents of the Upper East Side voiced concerns about severe rush-hour congestion, this traffic pattern was discontinued, and the south-side walkway on the lower level was converted to a Queens-bound vehicular lane during the evening rush hour. The outer roadway was later opened to vehicles at all times, but after a series of fatal crashes in 2013, officials decided to close the ramp during the nighttime.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: In March 2009, the New York City Bridge Centennial Commission sponsored events marking the centennial of the bridge's opening. The bridge was also designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers during the year of its centennial anniversary.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: On December 8, 2010, Mayor Bloomberg announced that the bridge would be renamed in honor of former Mayor Ed Koch from the Queensboro Bridge to the Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge. The announcement was made the same week the New York State Legislature voted to rename the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel in honor of former Governor Hugh Carey. The new name became official in March 2011. The renaming decision was unpopular among Queens residents and business leaders, and many local residents continue to refer to the bridge by its older name. New York City Council member Peter Vallone Jr. from Queens vowed to remove Koch's name from the bridge. Vallone said, "Never in a million years would they think to rename the Brooklyn or Manhattan bridges, but for some reason, it was OK to slap Queens around."


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: In January 2021, the city decided to install a two-way protected bike path on the northern outer roadway of the lower level, to be completed by 2022. The southern outer roadway, which at the time was used by vehicular traffic, would be used exclusively by pedestrians. However, the conversion of the southern outer roadway was subsequently delayed because of a planned renovation of the upper deck. The renovation commenced in February 2022 and was expected to last until December 2023.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: In addition to the two elevated railway tracks, the bridge also had four streetcar tracks. The following Queens lines operated over the bridge:


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: One Manhattan line operated over the bridge, the Third Avenue Railway's 42nd Street Crosstown Line from 1910 to 1950.


title: Queensboro Bridge

text: The bridge carries the Q32 local bus route operated by MTA New York City Transit and the Q60 and Q101 local bus routes operated by the MTA Bus Company. The bridge also carries 20 express bus routes in the eastbound direction only: the MTA Bus Company's , and New York City Transit's X63, X64, and X68. (These bus routes use the Queens-Midtown Tunnel for westbound travel.)


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: British rock band Bring Me the Horizon have released six studio albums, two live albums, two compilation albums, one remix album, two extended plays (EPs), one demo album, 31 singles, two video albums, 36 music videos, two other releases and three other appearances. Formed in Sheffield in 2004 by vocalist Oliver Sykes, guitarists Lee Malia and Curtis Ward, bassist Matt Kean and drummer Matt Nicholls, the band released their debut EP "This Is What the Edge of Your Seat Was Made For" on Thirty Days of Nights Records in 2005, which reached number 41 on the UK Budget Albums Chart. After signing with British independent record label Visible Noise, the group released their debut full-length studio album "Count Your Blessings" in 2006, which reached the top 100 of the UK Albums Chart and the top 10 of the UK Rock & Metal Albums Chart. The 2008 follow-up "Suicide Season" reached the UK top 50 and charted in the US for the first time when it reached number 107 on the "Billboard" 200. In November 2009, an expanded version of the album titled "Suicide Season Cut Up!" was released, featuring remixes and videos.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: Ward left the band in early 2009 and was replaced by Jona Weinhofen. The new lineup released "There Is a Hell Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven Let's Keep It a Secret." in 2010, which reached number 13 on the UK Albums Chart and number 17 on the US "Billboard" 200. The album's lead single "It Never Ends" was also the band's first to chart, reaching number 103 on the UK Singles Chart, while the track "Blessed with a Curse" reached the top 10 of the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: Weinhofen left the group in early 2013 and was replaced by keyboardist Jordan Fish. Now signed with RCA Records and Sony Music, Bring Me the Horizon released their fourth album "Sempiternal" a few months later, which reached number three on the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold in the UK, the US and Australia. Three singles from the album – "Sleepwalking", "Go to Hell, for Heaven's Sake" and "Can You Feel My Heart" – reached the top 30 of the US Mainstream Rock Songs chart. The band's debut EP and first three albums were later released as a limited edition vinyl box set in November 2014.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: In 2014, the group released the single "Drown", which was the band's first to reach the top 20 of the UK Singles Chart and top the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: A re-recorded version of Die4U was later included on the band's fifth album "That's the Spirit", which was released in September 2015 and peaked at number two in both the UK and the US. Four further singles – "Happy Song", "Throne", "True Friends" and "Follow You" – later topped the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart. The band's first live video album, "Live at Wembley", was also released in 2015. "Live at the Royal Albert Hall", recorded in April 2016 with a full orchestra, followed in December 2016.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: The band released the singles "Mantra" and "Wonderful Life" in August and October 2018, respectively, while the singles "Medicine", "Mother Tongue" and "Nihilist Blues" were released in January 2019. Bring Me the Horizon's sixth studio album "Amo" was released on 25 January 2019. The album continues Bring Me the Horizon's progression into the genres of pop rock, hard rock, alternative rock and electronic rock, while also incorporating elements of pop and electronica. "Amo" would become Bring Me the Horizon's first UK chart topper on the UK Albums Chart by debuting at number 1 and eventually be certified gold in their home country by the BPI.


title: Bring Me the Horizon discography

text: "" would continue this trend by peaking at number one in the UK after being released on physical formats on 22 January 2021. This would chart higher after debuting at number 5 in October 2020 solely on digital formats. "Post Human: Survival Horror" got certified silver in the UK in the backend of July 2021, as well as gifting Bring Me the Horizon three UK Top 40 hits in 2020 with the likes of "Parasite Eve", their highest-charting single since "Drown" in 2014, debuting at 28 on the UK Singles Chart. "Obey", a collaboration with British rock singer Yungblud, and "Teardrops" being the other singles from the record to debut and peak within the Top 40 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Jayaprakash

text: V. Jayaprakash is an Indian actor and producer who works in Tamil and Telugu-language films. He ventured into film business in the early 2000s as a producer, making several films under his banner GJ Cinema and later turned actor, with Cheran's 2007 film, "Mayakannadi". Subsequently, performing a variety of supporting roles, he found more success as a character actor, with his most notable performances in "Pasanga" (2009), "Naadodigal" (2009), "Naan Mahaan Alla" (2010), "Yuddham Sei" (2011), "Mankatha" (2011), "Moodar Koodam" (2013) and "Pannaiyarum Padminiyum" (2014).


title: Jayaprakash

text: Jayaprakash hails from Sirkazhi, Tamil Nadu, India. Before entering the film industry, he had worked in various fields such as dairy farming, petrol business, transport and billiards parlour.


title: Jayaprakash

text: He started acting at age of 45. His first film was "Mayakannadi" in 2007, following which he received more acting assignments. His role as the village school teacher, Chokkalingam, in Company Production's critically acclaimed "Pasanga" is considered his breakthrough performance, for which he received accolades and several awards. Apart from "Pasanga", he played notable supporting roles in other commercially successful ventures such as "Naadodigal", "Vamsam", "Naan Mahaan Alla", "Bale Pandiya" and "Yudham Sei" and "Mankatha". He also appeared in Pandiraj's "Marina".


title: Jayaprakash

text: As a producer he has produced several films like "Chellamae", "April Maadhathil", "Thavasi" and many more under his GJ Cinema banner. He hasn't starred in any of the film that he had produced. Before starting GJ Cinema banner he produced films like "Porkaalam" and "Gopala Gopala" with M. Kajamaideen under Roja Combines. Both GJ cinema and Roja Combines have been closed down for long time.


title: Jayaprakash

text: Jayaprakash has two sons, Niranjan and Dushyanth, who turned actors with the 2010 M. Sasikumar film "Eesan".


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) is a department of the Federal Bureau of Investigation's National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC) that uses behavioral analysts to assist in criminal investigations. The mission of the NCAVC and the BAU is to provide behavioral based investigative and/or operational support by applying case experience, research, and training to complex and time-sensitive crimes, typically involving acts or threats of violence.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The Behavioral Analysis Unit originates from the Behavioral Science Unit, established in 1985 and now renamed Behavioral Analysis Unit 5, which is the unit devoted to research. The Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU) was created in 1985 as part of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC), itself established in 1985.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The IOSS (Investigations & Operations Support Section) is a branch of the FBI's overall CIRG Critical Incident Response Group. IOSS provides personnel and training to assist in investigations throughout the country, and at US embassies worldwide. IOSS supports other CIRG groups within the FBI, FBI Headquarters and Field Offices, FBI legal attaches (at embassies abroad), and all US law enforcement agencies. IOSS is divided into two main sections: the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC) and the Operations Support Branch (OSB).


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The NCAVC also includes the ViCAP. ViCAP (Violent Criminal Apprehension Program) is a database available as a tool to all law enforcement agencies nationwide. It compiles facts, statistics, and particular details regarding violent offenses (including rape, assault, and murder), and maintains them in an online database for the purpose of linking a known offender or known offense to previous crimes, victims, or offenders. It is a pattern database, allowing users to see patterns in M.O., signature, or victimology, helping to tie crimes to offenders and offenders to crimes for the purpose of solving cases involving violence.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The BAU receives requests for services from federal, state, local, and international law enforcement agencies. Responses to these requests for BAU assistance are facilitated through the network of field NCAVC coordinators. BAU services can consist of on-site case consultations, telephone conference calls, and/or consultations held at the BAU with case investigators.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: BAU assistance to law enforcement agencies is provided through the process of "criminal investigative analysis". Criminal investigative analysis is a process of reviewing crimes from both a behavioral and investigative perspective. It involves reviewing and assessing the facts of a criminal act, interpreting offender behavior, and interaction with the victim, as exhibited during the commission of the crime, or as displayed in the crime scene. BAU staff conduct detailed analyses of crimes for the purpose of providing two or more of the following services: crime analysis, investigative suggestions, profiles of unknown offenders, threat analysis, critical incident analysis, interview strategies, major case management, search warrant assistance, prosecutive and trial strategies, and expert testimony.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: In addition to the above services, the BAU staff produced the "Child Abduction Response Plan" to assist investigators faced with these investigations. Recently, the BAU released "The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective" report to guide school administrators, teachers, parents, and law enforcement in identifying and evaluating threats in schools. The BAU maintains a reference file for experts in various forensic disciplines such as odontology, anthropology, psychiatry, entomology, or pathology.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The BAU was brought into mainstream culture by television shows such as "Criminal Minds", which depict an elite group of "FBI agent profilers" who travel the country assisting local law enforcement on diverse cases.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: The CBS weekly drama series "Criminal Minds" and its spinoff, "" both feature the BAU. Thomas Harris' Hannibal Lecter novels and the corresponding films ("Manhunter", "The Silence of the Lambs", "Hannibal", and "Red Dragon") featured the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU), which later created and developed what eventually became known as the BAU. It is also seen in the NBC television show based on the novels, "Hannibal", and the CBS television show "Clarice". The "" episode "" (, no. 12, January 8, 2008) heavily features a member of the BAU. Additionally, in season 5 of the HBO show "The Wire", two detectives visit the BAU team in Quantico for a profile of the "fake" serial killer they are investigating. In October 2017, the Netflix show "Mindhunter" was released, which details the experiences of two BSU team detectives interviewing inmates with psychological disorders. In August 2017, the Discovery Channel series "", based on true events, was released. It featured a member of the BAU who helped catch Ted Kaczynski AKA the Unabomber, through the use of forensic profiling.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: In order to generate profiles of offenders, members of the BAU use a concept known as psychological profiling. Belief in psychological profiling has often been supported by anecdotal evidence describing BAU profiles as a necessary key to solving a crime. A homeless man in North Carolina, for example, was apprehended after a BAU profile was issued for a case that the local police force had not been able to solve. Although anecdotal evidence such as this abounds in popular media, the concept of psychological profiling has not been empirically proven.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: In a number of studies, professional criminal profilers have been compared to other groups such as students, police officers, and clinical psychologists. In order to evaluate these groups, each participant was presented with the details of a previously solved crime. The profile written by the participant was then compared to a profile of the guilty party. In no study did the group of profilers outperform the other groups, and in some studies, they were clearly outperformed by both police officers and chemistry students.


title: Behavioral Analysis Unit

text: Despite these findings, members of the BAU continue to use psychological profiling. Public confidence in psychological profiling is also high and has been greatly promoted by TV shows such as "Criminal Minds". Some forensic psychologists, such as Robert Homant, have also dismissed the previously mentioned studies by stating that they lack external validity as they do not truly represent the situations in which members of the BAU work.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Federalist No. 10 is an essay written by James Madison as the tenth of "The Federalist Papers", a series of essays initiated by Alexander Hamilton arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. Published on November 22, 1787, under the name "Publius", "Federalist No. 10" is among the most highly regarded of all American political writings.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: No. 10 addresses the question of how to reconcile citizens with interests contrary to the rights of others or inimical to the interests of the community as a whole. Madison saw factions as inevitable due to the nature of man—that is, as long as people hold differing opinions, have differing amounts of wealth and own differing amount of property, they will continue to form alliances with people who are most similar to them and they will sometimes work against the public interest and infringe upon the rights of others. He thus questions how to guard against those dangers.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Federalist No. 10 continues a theme begun in Federalist No. 9 and is titled "The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection". The whole series is cited by scholars and jurists as an authoritative interpretation and explication of the meaning of the Constitution. Historians such as Charles A. Beard argue that No. 10 shows an explicit rejection by the Founding Fathers of the principles of direct democracy and factionalism, and argue that Madison suggests that a representative republic is more effective against partisanship and factionalism.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Madison saw the federal Constitution as providing for a "happy combination" of a republic and a purer democracy, with "the great and aggregate interests being referred to the national, the local and particular to the State legislatures" resulting in a decentralized governmental structure. In his view, this would make it "more difficult for unworthy candidates to practice the vicious arts by which elections are too often carried."


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Prior to the Constitution, the thirteen states were bound together by the Articles of Confederation. These were, in essence, a military alliance between sovereign nations adopted to better fight the Revolutionary War. Congress had no power to tax, and as a result, was not able to pay debts resulting from the Revolution. Madison, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and others feared a break-up of the union and national bankruptcy. Like Washington, Madison felt the revolution had not resolved the social problems that had triggered it, and the excesses ascribed to the King were now being repeated by the state legislatures. In this view, Shays' Rebellion, an armed uprising in Massachusetts in 1786, was simply one, albeit extreme, example of "democratic excess" in the aftermath of the War.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: A national convention was called for May 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Madison believed that the problem was not with the Articles, but rather the state legislatures, and so the solution was not to fix the articles but to restrain the excesses of the states. The principal questions before the convention became whether the states should remain sovereign, whether sovereignty should be transferred to the national government, or whether a settlement should rest somewhere in between. By mid-June, it was clear that the convention was drafting a new plan of government around these issues—a constitution. Madison's nationalist position shifted the debate increasingly away from a position of pure state sovereignty, and toward the compromise. In a debate on June 26, he said that government ought to "protect the minority of the opulent against the majority" and that unchecked, democratic communities were subject to "the turbulency and weakness of unruly passions".


title: Federalist No. 10

text: September 17, 1787 marked the signing of the final document. By its own Article Seven, the constitution drafted by the convention needed ratification by at least nine of the thirteen states, through special conventions held in each state. Anti-Federalist writers began to publish essays and letters arguing against ratification, and Alexander Hamilton recruited James Madison and John Jay to write a series of pro-ratification letters in response.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Like most of the Federalist essays and the vast majority of "The Federalist Papers", No. 10 first appeared in popular newspapers. It was first printed in the "Daily Advertiser" under the name adopted by the Federalist writers, "Publius"; in this it was remarkable among the essays of Publius, as almost all of them first appeared in one of two other papers: the "Independent Journal" and the "New-York Packet". Federalist No. 37, also by Madison, was the only other essay to appear first in the "Advertiser".


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Considering the importance later ascribed to the essay, it was reprinted only on a limited scale. On November 23, it appeared in the "Packet" and the next day in the "Independent Journal". Outside New York City, it made four appearances in early 1788: January 2 in the "Pennsylvania Gazette", January 10 in the "Hudson Valley Weekly", January 15 in the Lansingburgh "Northern Centinel", and January 17 in the "Albany Gazette". Though this number of reprintings was typical for "The Federalist" essays, many other essays, both Federalist and Anti-Federalist, saw much wider distribution.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: On January 1, 1788, the publishing company J. & A. McLean announced that they would publish the first 36 of the essays in a single volume. This volume, titled "The Federalist", was released on March 2, 1788. George Hopkins' 1802 edition revealed that Madison, Hamilton, and Jay were the authors of the series, with two later printings dividing the work by author. In 1818, James Gideon published a third edition containing corrections by Madison, who by that time had completed his two terms as President of the United States.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Henry B. Dawson's edition of 1863 sought to collect the original newspaper articles, though he . It was much reprinted, albeit without his introduction. Paul Leicester Ford's 1898 edition included a table of contents which summarized the essays, with the summaries again used to preface their respective essays. The first date of publication and the newspaper name were recorded for each essay. Of modern editions, Jacob E. Cooke's 1961 edition is seen as authoritative, and is most used today.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Federalist No. 10 continues the discussion of the question broached in Hamilton's Federalist No. 9. Hamilton there addressed the destructive role of a faction in breaking apart the republic. The question Madison answers, then, is how to eliminate the negative effects of faction. Madison defines a faction as "a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." He identifies the most serious source of faction to be the diversity of opinion in political life which leads to dispute over fundamental issues such as what regime or religion should be preferred.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Madison argues that "the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property." He states, "Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society." Providing some examples of the distinct interests, Madison identified a landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, and "many lesser interests". Madison insists that they all belonged to "different classes" that were "actuated by different sentiments and views." Thus, Madison argues, these different classes would be prone to make decisions in their own interest, and not for the public good. A law regarding private debts, for instance, would be "a question to which the creditors are parties on one side, and the debtors on the other." To this question, and to others like it, Madison notes that, though "justice ought to hold the balance between them," the interested parties would reach different conclusions, "neither with a sole regard to justice and the public good."


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Like the anti-Federalists who opposed him, Madison was substantially influenced by the work of Montesquieu, though Madison and Montesquieu disagreed on the question addressed in this essay. He also relied heavily on the philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment, especially David Hume, whose influence is most clear in Madison's discussion of the types of faction and in his argument for an extended republic.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Madison first theorizes that there are two ways to limit the damage caused by faction: either remove the causes of faction or control its effects. He then describes the two methods to remove the causes of faction: first, destroying liberty, which would work because "liberty is to faction what air is to fire", but it is impossible to perform because liberty is essential to political life, just as air is "essential to animal life." After all, Americans fought for it during the American Revolution. The second option, creating a society homogeneous in opinions and interests, is impracticable. The diversity of the people's ability is what makes them succeed more or less, and inequality of property is a right that the government should protect. Madison particularly emphasizes that economic stratification prevents everyone from sharing the same opinion. Madison concludes that the damage caused by faction can be limited only by controlling its effects.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: He then argues that the only problem comes from majority factions because the principle of popular sovereignty should prevent minority factions from gaining power. Madison offers two ways to check majority factions: prevent the "existence of the same passion or interest in a majority at the same time" or render a majority faction unable to act. Madison concludes that a small democracy cannot avoid the dangers of majority faction because small size means that undesirable passions can very easily spread to a majority of the people, which can then enact its will through the democratic government without difficulty.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Madison states, "The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man", so the cure is to control their effects. He makes an argument on how this is not possible in a pure democracy but possible in a republic. With pure democracy, he means a system in which every citizen votes directly for laws (direct democracy), and, with republic, he intends a society in which citizens elect a small body of representatives who then vote for laws (representative democracy). He indicates that the voice of the people pronounced by a body of representatives is more conformable to the interest of the community, since, again, common people's decisions are affected by their self-interest.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: He then makes an argument in favor of a large republic against a small republic for the choice of "fit characters" to represent the public's voice. In a large republic, where the number of voters and candidates is greater, the probability to elect competent representatives is broader. The voters have a wider option. In a small republic, it would also be easier for the candidates to fool the voters but more difficult in a large one. The last argument Madison makes in favor of a large republic is that as, in a small republic, there will be a lower variety of interests and parties, a majority will more frequently be found. The number of participants of that majority will be lower, and, since they live in a more limited territory, it would be easier for them to agree and work together for the accomplishment of their ideas. While in a large republic the variety of interests will be greater so to make it harder to find a majority. Even if there is a majority, it would be harder for them to work together because of the large number of people and the fact they are spread out in a wider territory.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: A republic, Madison writes, is different from a democracy because its government is placed in the hands of delegates, and, as a result of this, it can be extended over a larger area. The idea is that, in a large republic, there will be more "fit characters" to choose from for each delegate. Also, the fact that each representative is chosen from a larger constituency should make the "vicious arts" of electioneering (a reference to rhetoric) less effective. For instance, in a large republic, a corrupt delegate would need to bribe many more people in order to win an election than in a small republic. Also, in a republic, the delegates both filter and refine the many demands of the people so as to prevent the type of frivolous claims that impede purely democratic governments.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Though Madison argued for a large and diverse republic, the writers of the Federalist Papers recognized the need for a balance. They wanted a republic diverse enough to prevent faction but with enough commonality to maintain cohesion among the states. In Federalist No. 2, John Jay counted as a blessing that America possessed "one united people—a people descended from the same ancestors, the same language, professing the same religion". Madison himself addresses a limitation of his conclusion that large constituencies will provide better representatives. He notes that if constituencies are too large, the representatives will be "too little acquainted with all their local circumstances and lesser interests". He says that this problem is partly solved by federalism. No matter how large the constituencies of federal representatives, local matters will be looked after by state and local officials with naturally smaller constituencies.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: The Anti-Federalists vigorously contested the notion that a republic of diverse interests could survive. The author "Cato" (another pseudonym, most likely that of George Clinton) summarized the Anti-Federalist position in the article Cato no. 3:


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Whoever seriously considers the immense extent of territory comprehended within the limits of the United States, with the variety of its climates, productions, and commerce, the difference of extent, and number of inhabitants in all; the dissimilitude of interest, morals, and policies, in almost every one, will receive it as an intuitive truth, that a consolidated republican form of government therein, can never" form a perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to you and your posterity, "for to these objects it must be directed: this unkindred legislature therefore, composed of interests opposite and dissimilar in their nature, will in its exercise, emphatically be, like a house divided against itself.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Generally, it was their position that republics about the size of the individual states could survive, but that a republic on the size of the Union would fail. A particular point in support of this was that most of the states were focused on one industry—to generalize, commerce and shipping in the northern states and plantation farming in the southern. The Anti-Federalist belief that the wide disparity in the economic interests of the various states would lead to controversy was perhaps realized in the American Civil War, which some scholars attribute to this disparity. Madison himself, in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, noted that differing economic interests had created dispute, even when the Constitution was being written. At the convention, he particularly identified the distinction between the northern and southern states as a "line of discrimination" that formed "the real difference of interests".


title: Federalist No. 10

text: The discussion of the ideal size for the republic was not limited to the options of individual states or encompassing union. In a letter to Richard Price, Benjamin Rush noted that "Some of our enlightened men who begin to despair of a more complete union of the States in Congress have secretly proposed an Eastern, Middle, and Southern Confederacy, to be united by an alliance offensive and defensive".


title: Federalist No. 10

text: In making their arguments, the Anti-Federalists appealed to both historical and theoretic evidence. On the theoretical side, they leaned heavily on the work of Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. The Anti-Federalists Brutus and Cato both quoted Montesquieu on the issue of the ideal size of a republic, citing his statement in "The Spirit of the Laws" that:


title: Federalist No. 10

text: It is natural to a republic to have only a small territory, otherwise it cannot long subsist. In a large republic there are men of large fortunes, and consequently of less moderation; there are trusts too great to be placed in any single subject; he has interest of his own; he soon begins to think that he may be happy, great and glorious, by oppressing his fellow citizens; and that he may raise himself to grandeur on the ruins of his country. In a large republic, the public good is sacrificed to a thousand views; it is subordinate to exceptions, and depends on accidents. In a small one, the interest of the public is easier perceived, better understood, and more within the reach of every citizen; abuses are of less extent, and of course are less protected.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Greece and Rome were looked to as model republics throughout this debate, and authors on both sides took Roman pseudonyms. Brutus points out that the Greek and Roman states were small, whereas the U.S. is vast. He also points out that the expansion of these republics resulted in a transition from free government to tyranny.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: In the first century of the American republic, No. 10 was not regarded as among the more important numbers of "The Federalist". For example, in "Democracy in America", Alexis de Tocqueville refers specifically to more than fifty of the essays, but No. 10 is not among them. Today, however, No. 10 is regarded as a seminal work of American democracy. In "The People's Vote", a popular survey conducted by the National Archives and Records Administration, National History Day, and "U.S. News & World Report", No. 10 (along with Federalist No. 51, also by Madison) was chosen as the 20th most influential document in United States history. David Epstein, writing in 1984, described it as among the most highly regarded of all American political writing.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: The historian Charles A. Beard identified Federalist No. 10 as one of the most important documents for understanding the Constitution. In his book "An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States" (1913), Beard argued that Madison produced a detailed explanation of the economic factors that lay behind the creation of the Constitution. At the outset of his study, Beard writes that Madison provided "a masterly statement of the theory of economic determinism in politics" (Beard 1913, p. 15). Later in his study, Beard repeated his point, providing more emphasis. "The most philosophical examination of the foundations of political science is made by Madison in the tenth number," Beard writes. "Here he lays down, in no uncertain language, the principle that the first and elemental concern of every government is economic" (Beard 1913, p. 156).


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Douglass Adair attributes the increased interest in the tenth number to Beard's book. Adair also contends that Beard's selective focus on the issue of class struggle, and his political progressivism, has colored modern scholarship on the essay. According to Adair, Beard reads No. 10 as evidence for his belief in "the Constitution as an instrument of class exploitation". Adair's own view is that Federalist No. 10 should be read as "eighteenth-century political theory directed to an eighteenth-century problem; and ... one of the great creative achievements of that intellectual movement that later ages have christened 'Jeffersonian democracy.


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Garry Wills is a noted critic of Madison's argument in Federalist No. 10. In his book "Explaining America", he adopts the position of Robert Dahl in arguing that Madison's framework does not necessarily enhance the protections of minorities or ensure the common good. Instead, Wills claims: "Minorities can make use of dispersed and staggered governmental machinery to clog, delay, slow down, hamper, and obstruct the majority. But these weapons for delay are given to the minority irrespective of its factious or nonfactious character; and they can be used against the majority irrespective of its factious or nonfactious character. What Madison prevents is not faction, but action. What he protects is not the common good but delay as such".


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Federalist No. 10 is sometimes cited as showing that the Founding Fathers and the constitutional framers did not intend American politics to be partisan. For instance, U.S. Supreme Court justice John Paul Stevens cites the paper for the statement that "Parties ranked high on the list of evils that the Constitution was designed to check". Justice Byron White cited the essay while discussing a California provision that forbids candidates from running as independents within one year of holding a partisan affiliation, saying, "California apparently believes with the Founding Fathers that splintered parties and unrestrained factionalism may do significant damage to the fabric of government."


title: Federalist No. 10

text: Madison's argument that restraining liberty to limit faction is an unacceptable solution has been used by opponents of campaign finance limits. Justice Clarence Thomas, for example, invoked Federalist No. 10 in a dissent against a ruling supporting limits on campaign contributions, writing: "The Framers preferred a political system that harnessed such faction for good, preserving liberty while also ensuring good government. Rather than adopting the repressive 'cure' for faction that the majority today endorses, the Framers armed individual citizens with a remedy."


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: "Hello" is a song by American singer and songwriter Lionel Richie. Taken as the third single from his second solo album, "Can't Slow Down" (1983), the song was released in 1984 and reached number one on three "Billboard" music charts: the pop chart (for two weeks), the R&B chart (for three weeks), and the Adult Contemporary chart (for six weeks). The song also went to number one on the UK Singles Chart for six weeks.


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: The song was subject to a lawsuit by songwriter Marjorie Hoffman White, who accused Richie of plagiarizing her 1978 composition "I'm Not Ready to Go".


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: "Cash Box" said that the song "is as melodic and heartwrenching as anything [Ritchie] has done previously and that’s saying something."


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: The song is written in the key of A minor. The verses follow the chord progression of Am—Cmaj/G—Fmaj—C/G—Fmaj. The chorus features a Neapolitan chord (Bb).


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: The music video for "Hello", directed by Bob Giraldi, features the story of Richie as a theater and acting teacher having a seemingly unrequited love for a blind student (Laura Carrington) until he discovers she shares the feeling as demonstrated by the discovery that she is sculpting a likeness of his head in clay.


title: Hello (Lionel Richie song)

text: The song is memorable for the line "Hello, is it me you're looking for?" The phrase started the song's composition, as when James Anthony Carmichael visited Richie, the singer greeted him that way, to which Carmichael replied, "Finish that song." Richie initially felt that the song was "corny" but ultimately "by the time I finished the verse, I fell in love with the song again." Several publications have commented on similarities in the theme of the song and accompanying video with that of "Hello" by British singer Adele.


title: Namecheap

text: Namecheap is an ICANN-accredited domain name registrar providing domain name registration and web hosting based in Phoenix, Arizona, US. Namecheap is a budget hosting provider with 11 million registered users and 10 million domains.


title: Namecheap

text: In July 2019, Namecheap was one of the organizations that filed a reconsideration request to ICANN asking for a review of the decision to remove price caps on .org and .info TLDs. As of September 2019, ICANN has ignored such requests.


title: Namecheap

text: In February 2022, Namecheap announced that they would terminate services to Russian accounts due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, citing "war crimes and human rights violations". Existing users were given a one-week grace period to move their domains. The company also announced that it would be offering free anonymous domain registration and web hosting to all protest and anti-war websites in Russia or Belarus. Namecheap at the same time said it had over 1,000 employees located in Ukraine, comprising most of its support staff, mostly in Kharkiv (which was a major location of fighting).


title: Cigarillo

text: A cigarillo (from Spanish "cigarrillo", meaning "cigarette", in turn from "cigarro" ("cigar") + "-illo" (diminutive suffix), pronounced in parts of Latin America or in Spain) is a short, narrow cigar. Unlike cigarettes, cigarillos are wrapped in tobacco leaves or brown, tobacco-based paper. Cigarillos are smaller than regular cigars but usually larger than cigarettes. Cigarillos are usually made without filters, and are meant to be smoked like a cigar and not inhaled (except those made in this form only for specific tax issues).


title: Cigarillo

text: Generally, a cigarillo contains about three grams of tobacco; the length varies from and the diameter is about 6–9 mm, usually 8 mm. Comparatively, a cigarette contains less than one gram of tobacco and is about in length and 8 mm in diameter.


title: Cigarillo

text: Most cigarillos are machine-made, which is cheaper than hand-rolling. It is unusual to store them in humidors,


title: Cigarillo

text: In the United Kingdom common consumer brands include Henri Wintermans Signature (formerly Café Creme) and Hamlets and in the rest of Europe Dannemann Moods, Candlelight, Agio Panters and Mehari's, Clubmaster and Handelsgold are popular.


title: Cigarillo

text: In the United States they include Al Capone, Black & Mild, Backwoods, Dutch Masters, Garcia Y Vega, Game, Splitarillos, Good Times, Swisher Sweets, and Phillies. Some famous cigar brands, such as Cohiba or Davidoff, also make cigarillos - Cohiba Mini and Davidoff Club Cigarillos.


title: Cigarillo

text: In Spanish-speaking countries, as well as in the Philippines, "cigarrillo" means a cigarette. Anglo-Americans were first introduced to 'cigarrillo's' on a massive scale, during their conquest of New Mexico and California during the American-Mexican War 1846-1848. As it was observed that, "Both sexes smoke "cigarrillos" almost incessantly."


title: Cigarillo

text: In the United States, cigarillos (and cigars) were taxed at a lower rate than cigarettes. In February 2009 an increase from 5 cents to 40 cents per pack as part of the SCHIP expansion bill set a tax rate similar to that for cigarettes.


title: Cigarillo

text: Like other tobacco products, cigarillos are a health risk to those who smoke them. In Brazil, Uruguay, Canada, Australia, India, and throughout Europe they are subject to the same laws which require manufacturers to place a health warning on a portion of each package.


title: Cigarillo

text: Like cigars, cigarillos are not meant to be inhaled. As a result of this, it is often assumed that cigarillos are a healthier alternative to cigarettes, but health authorities around the world still warn smokers of the risk they pose due to smoke being in the mouth.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The Algonquin Round Table was a group of New York City writers, critics, actors, and wits. Gathering initially as part of a practical joke, members of "The Vicious Circle", as they dubbed themselves, met for lunch each day at the Algonquin Hotel from 1919 until roughly 1929. At these luncheons they engaged in wisecracks, wordplay, and witticisms that, through the newspaper columns of Round Table members, were disseminated across the country.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Daily association with each other, both at the luncheons and outside of them, inspired members of the Circle to collaborate creatively. The entire group worked together successfully only once, however, to create a revue called "No Sirree!" which helped launch a Hollywood career for Round Tabler Robert Benchley.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: In its ten years of association, the Round Table and a number of its members acquired national reputations, both for their contributions to literature and for their sparkling wit. Although some of their contemporaries, and later in life even some of its members, disparaged the group, its reputation has endured long after its dissolution.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The group that would become the Round Table began meeting in June 1919 as the result of a practical joke carried out by theatrical press agent John Peter Toohey. Toohey, annoyed at "The New York Times" drama critic Alexander Woollcott for refusing to plug one of Toohey's clients (Eugene O'Neill) in his column, organized a luncheon supposedly to welcome Woollcott back from World War I, where he had been a correspondent for "Stars and Stripes". Instead, Toohey used the occasion to poke fun at Woollcott on a number of fronts. Woollcott's enjoyment of the joke and the success of the event prompted Toohey to suggest that the group in attendance meet at the Algonquin each day for lunch.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The group first gathered in the Algonquin's Pergola Room (later called the Oak Room) at a long rectangular table. As they increased in number, Algonquin manager Frank Case moved them to the Rose Room and a round table. Initially the group called itself "The Board" and the luncheons "Board meetings". After being assigned a waiter named Luigi, the group re-christened itself "Luigi Board". Finally, they became "The Vicious Circle" although "The Round Table" gained wide currency after a caricature by cartoonist Edmund Duffy of the "Brooklyn Eagle" portrayed the group sitting at a round table and wearing armor.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Membership was not official or fixed for so many others who moved in and out of the Circle. Some of these included:


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: In addition to the daily luncheons, members of the Round Table worked and associated with each other almost constantly. The group was devoted to games, including cribbage and poker. The group had its own poker club, the Thanatopsis Literary and Inside Straight Club, which met at the hotel on Saturday nights. Regulars at the game included Kaufman, Adams, Broun, Ross and Woollcott, with non-Round Tablers Herbert Bayard Swope, silk merchant Paul Hyde Bonner, baking heir Raoul Fleischmann, actor Harpo Marx, and writer Ring Lardner sometimes sitting in. The group also played charades (which they called simply "The Game") and the "I can give you a sentence" game, which spawned Dorothy Parker's memorable sentence using the word "horticulture": "You can lead a horticulture but you can't make her think."


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Members often visited Neshobe Island, a private island co-owned by several "Algonks"—but governed by Woollcott as a "benevolent tyrant", as his biographer Samuel Hopkins Adams charitably put it—located on several acres in the middle of Lake Bomoseen in Vermont. There they would engage in their usual array of games including wink murder, which they called simply "Murder", plus croquet.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: A number of Round Tablers were inveterate practical jokers, constantly pulling pranks on one another. As time went on the jokes became ever more elaborate. Harold Ross and Jane Grant once spent weeks playing a particularly memorable joke on Woollcott involving a prized portrait of himself. They had several copies made, each slightly more askew than the last, and would periodically secretly swap them out and then later comment to Woollcott "What on earth is wrong with your portrait?" until Woollcott was beside himself. Eventually they returned the original portrait.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Given the literary and theatrical activities of the Round Table members, it was perhaps inevitable that they would write and stage their own revue. "No Sirree!", staged for one night only in April 1922, was a take-off of a then-popular European touring revue called "La Chauve-Souris", directed by Nikita Balieff.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: "No Sirree!" had its genesis at the studio of Neysa McMein, which served as something of a salon for Round Tablers away from the Algonquin. Acts included: "Opening Chorus" featuring Woollcott, Toohey, Kaufman, Connelly, Adams and Benchley with violinist Jascha Heifetz providing offstage, off-key accompaniment; "He Who Gets Flapped", a musical number featuring the song "The Everlastin' Ingenue Blues" written by Dorothy Parker and performed by Robert Sherwood accompanied by "chorus girls" including Tallulah Bankhead, Helen Hayes, Ruth Gillmore, Lenore Ulric and Mary Brandon; "Zowie, or the Curse of an Akins Heart"; "The Greasy Hag, an O'Neill Play in One Act" with Kaufman, Connelly and Woollcott; and "Mr. Whim Passes By—An A. A. Milne Play."


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The only item of note to emerge from "No Sirree!" was Robert Benchley's contribution, "The Treasurer's Report". Benchley's disjointed parody so delighted those in attendance that Irving Berlin hired Benchley in 1923 to deliver the "Report" as part of Berlin's "Music Box Revue" for $500 a week. In 1928, "Report" was later made into a short sound film in the Fox Movietone sound-on-film system by Fox Film Corporation. The film marked the beginning of a second career for Benchley in Hollywood.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: With the success of "No Sirree!" the Round Tablers hoped to duplicate it with an "official" Vicious Circle production open to the public with material performed by professional actors. Kaufman and Connelly funded the revue, named "The Forty-niners". The revue opened in November 1922 and was a failure, running for just 15 performances.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: As members of the Round Table moved into ventures outside New York City, inevitably the group drifted apart. By the early 1930s the Vicious Circle was broken. Edna Ferber said she realized it when she arrived at the Rose Room for lunch one day in 1932 and found the group's table occupied by a family from Kansas. Frank Case was asked what happened to the group. He shrugged and replied, "What became of the reservoir at Fifth Avenue and Forty-Second Street? These things do not last forever." Some members of the group remained friends after its dissolution. Parker and Benchley in particular remained close up until his death in 1945, although her political leanings did strain their relationship. Others, as the group itself would come to understand when it gathered following Woollcott's death in 1943, simply realized that they had nothing to say to one another.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Because a number of the members of the Round Table had regular newspaper columns, the activities and quips of various Round Table members were reported in the national press. This brought Round Tablers widely into the public consciousness as renowned wits.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Not all of their contemporaries were fans of the group. Their critics accused them of "logrolling", or exchanging favorable plugs of one another's works, and of rehearsing their witticisms in advance. James Thurber (who lived in the hotel) was a detractor of the group, accusing them of being too consumed by their elaborate practical jokes. H. L. Mencken, who was much admired by many in the Circle, was also a critic, commenting to fellow writer Anita Loos that "their ideals were those of a vaudeville actor, one who is extremely 'in the know' and inordinately trashy".


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The group showed up in the 1923 best-seller "Black Oxen" by Gertrude Atherton. She sarcastically described a group she called "the Sophisticates":


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Groucho Marx, brother of Round Table associate Harpo, was never comfortable amidst the viciousness of the Vicious Circle. Therein he remarked "The price of admission is a serpent's tongue and a half-concealed stiletto." Even some members of the Round Table disparaged it later in life. Dorothy Parker in particular criticized the group.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Despite Parker's bleak assessment and while it is true that some members of the Round Table are perhaps now "famous for being famous" instead of for their literary output, Round Table members and associates contributed to the literary landscape, including Pulitzer Prize-winning work by Circle members Kaufman, Connelly and Sherwood (who won four) and by associate Ferber and the legacy of Ross's "New Yorker". Others made lasting contributions to the realms of stage and screen — Tallulah Bankhead and Eva Le Gallienne became Broadway greats and the films of Harpo and Benchley remain popular; and Parker has remained renowned for her short stories and literary reviews.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The Algonquin Round Table, as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there, helped earn the Algonquin Hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark. The hotel was so designated in 1987. In 1996 the hotel was designated a national literary landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA based on the contributions of "The Round Table Wits". The organization's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: Although the Rose Room was removed from the Algonquin in a 1998 remodel, the hotel paid tribute to the group by commissioning and hanging the painting "A Vicious Circle" by Natalie Ascencios, depicting the Round Table and also created a replica of the original table. The hotel occasionally stages an original musical production, "The Talk of the Town", in the Oak Room. Its latest production started September 11, 2007 and ran through the end of the year.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: A film about the members, "The Ten-Year Lunch" (1987), won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature.


title: Algonquin Round Table

text: The dramatic film "Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle" (1994) recounts the Round Table from the perspective of Dorothy Parker.


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Jacob Daniel Tierney (born September 26, 1979) is a Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter. Known for his role of Eric in "Are You Afraid of the Dark?" (1990-1992) and Pastor Glen in "Letterkenny" (2016-2021).


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Tierney was born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Terry Smiley, a teacher, and veteran producer Kevin Tierney. His younger sister is actress Brigid Tierney. He is of Irish (on his father's side) and Jewish (on his mother's side) heritage.


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Tierney started his career as a child actor, beginning at age six. Aside from acting, Tierney also writes and directs. He made his directorial debut in 2002 with his short film titled "Dad".


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Since "Dad", Tierney has written and directed the feature films "Twist" (2003), for which he was nominated for a Genie Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, "The Trotsky" (2009), which garnered him two Canadian Comedy Awards and a Genie Award, "Good Neighbours" (2010), and "Preggoland" (2014). He has also directed episodes of the television sitcom "Mr. D" and Gavin Crawford's comedy special "Gavin Crawford's Wild West". In 2012, Tierney participated in the jury of the Air Canada enRoute Film Festival.


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Tierney made his stage directing debut in 2015 with a production of "Travesties" by Tom Stoppard at the Segal Centre in Montreal. In 2017, he returned to the Segal Centre to direct "Noises Off" by Michael Frayn.


title: Jacob Tierney

text: Tierney is the co-creator of the television series "Letterkenny" along with writer Jared Keeso. Tierney also writes and directs the series, in addition to starring as Pastor Glen. At the 5th Canadian Screen Awards in 2017, Tierney won several awards for his work on the series, including Best Comedy Series.


title: Jacob Tierney

text: In 2018, Tierney's work as series director was recognized once again as he took home the CSA for Best Direction in a Comedy Series as well as Best Writing in a Comedy Series with Letterkenny co-writer and co-creator Jared Keeso.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: When a Man Loves a Woman is a 1994 American romantic drama film directed by Luis Mandoki and written by Al Franken and Ronald Bass. The film stars Andy García, Meg Ryan, Tina Majorino, Mae Whitman, Ellen Burstyn, Lauren Tom and Philip Seymour Hoffman.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: "When a Man Loves a Woman" was released in the United States on April 29, 1994. For her performance as an alcoholic mother, Ryan received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Best Female Actor in a Leading Role. The film's title is taken from the song of the same name by Percy Sledge.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Alice Green is a school counselor who has a serious drinking problem and is married to Michael, an airline pilot. Though she is lighthearted and loving, Alice is often reckless and, when drunk, even neglects her children: nine-year-old Jess from a previous marriage, and four-year-old Casey, whose father is Michael.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: One afternoon, Alice enters their home in a drunken incoherent state. She dismisses the reluctant babysitter Amy, who leaves her alone with her children. Still drinking, Alice is confronted by Jess, who is concerned for her welfare. In return, she slaps Jess, who runs to her room in tears. While in the shower, Alice retches, calls for Jess, and is unable to control her balance, which causes her to fall through the shower door onto the bathroom floor and lose consciousness. Fearing Alice has died, Jess contacts Michael who immediately flies home to be by Alice's side.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: In the hospital, Michael and Alice confront the truth about Alice's drinking. They both decide that she must seek professional help for her alcoholism. Upon release from the hospital, a timid Alice enters a rehabilitation clinic.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Michael finds himself now the main caregiver of their home and children, a role he struggles to maintain along with his career as an airline pilot, as well as fighting with Amy and driving her out of the house. Meanwhile, at the clinic, Alice is flourishing; her recovery is painful, but stabilizing, and she is well-liked and respected by both staff and fellow clinic tenants alike. During a family visit day at the clinic, Alice immediately begins to rebuild her shattered bond with the children, leaving Michael alone to wander the grounds uncomfortable and out of place in Alice's new lifestyle.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Alice returns home sober yet guarded – she is vocal, strong, and changed. Michael is having trouble adjusting to Alice's post-treatment aloofness, distant and cold behavior towards him. He has become used to being the stable and responsible one in their relationship and appropriately feels neglected by Alice's newly established and highly prioritized outside friendships. She resents the fact that Michael seems to be out of touch with her ability to cope at home, yet whenever he expresses his love and concern, she shuts him out. Coming to terms with their estrangement, a reluctant Michael agrees to Alice's suggestion that the two see a marriage counselor, who rather Michael's behavior as "codependent."


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: During an argument, Alice confesses that Michael's clearly genuine desire to be a supportive husband "makes her skin crawl." Michael moves out, and Alice stays in their home with the children. Michael is unable to process the change his relationship has undergone and seeks out a support group for spouses of alcoholics. Initially shy, Michael becomes a more vocal member of the group and shares his sorrow over his lack of understanding for the gravity his wife's sobriety would have on him, his children, and his marriage.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Alice and Michael singularly return to the hospital to celebrate the birth of Amy's baby. They spend time together and as they depart, Alice asks Michael if he would attend her 180-day sober speech where she will acknowledge her failings and accomplishments. She also tells him that she has been thinking about asking him to come home with her. Michael tells Alice he has been offered a job in Denver. For the first time since they both agreed Alice should enter rehab, they both agree Michael should take the position.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Alice later stands on a stage and tells her sobriety story; the toll it took on her, her children, and her marriage. Her audience is moved to tears. Her speech ends and she is surrounded by well-wishers. Out of the crowd appears Michael. At ease with himself and Alice, he explains what he missed along the way..."to listen, to really listen." They share an intense, longing, passionate kiss.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Tom Hanks was considered for Garcia's role and Michelle Pfeiffer and Debra Winger were considered for Ryan's role.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: The film holds a 70% approval rating among critics at Rotten Tomatoes based on 23 reviews. The site's consensus states: ""When a Man Loves a Woman" delves into the complex dynamics of a marriage shadowed by addiction, aided by strong performances from Andy Garcia and Meg Ryan."


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Roger Ebert, himself a recovering alcoholic, gave the film four out of four stars and wrote, "Here is a wise and ambitious film about the way alcoholism affects the fabric of a marriage. So many movies about the disease simplify it into a three-step process: Gradual onset, spectacular bottom, eventual recovery. It isn't that simple; most alcoholics never even give themselves a chance to recover. And recovery is a beginning, not an end." He praised the acting of Meg Ryan, Andy Garcia, and Lauren Tom, and said one of the film's strengths is "it isn't just about Alice's recovery. It's about Michael's recovery from Alice's recovery."


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: James Berardinelli said that the "ending is too facile", and that its "occasional didactic tendencies are its weakness", but concluded "the script does a good enough job establishing the dynamics of the Green family that we never doubt that the story deserves to be told. The film's poignancy is its strength...In balance, the former by far outweighs the latter, making this a worthwhile picture." Berardinelli also gave praise to the performances of Tina Majorino and Mae Whitman, and argued that seeing the characters of Alice and Michael through the children's eyes helps elevate the story.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: David Denby of "New York Magazine" called the film an "earnest and highly prolonged counseling disappointment" and a "pushy therapeutic exercise" which, although intelligent, features "endless talk, a stunted "mise en scène", and a moral atmosphere of dogged and literal-minded persistence" which "overvalues its own sobriety".


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: In a 2012 review for "Bitch" magazine, Christen McCurdy wrote, "It’s a rare film that begins its story in the middle of a relationship, and whose happy ending does not depend on one character’s white-hot epiphany and subsequent breathless confession (though we get something like that in the final scene). Instead, both characters’ roles in the relationship have to evolve."


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: The film debuted at number two at the US box office behind "The Crow". It grossed $50 million in the United States and Canada and $119 million worldwide.


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: A soundtrack featuring the musical score by Zbigniew Preisner was released. The track list is as follows:


title: When a Man Loves a Woman (film)

text: Not included on the soundtrack but featured in the film are the tracks "Running From Mercy" and "Stewart's Coat" by Rickie Lee Jones, """I'm a Good Man" by Robert Cray"," and "Everybody Hurts" by R.E.M.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: Senate of Pakistan or Aiwān-e-Bālā Pākistān (, , literally "Pakistan upper house"), is the upper legislative chamber of the bicameral legislature of Pakistan, and together with the National Assembly makes up the Parliament of Pakistan.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: First convened in 1973, the Senate's composition and powers are established by the Article 59 of the Constitution of Pakistan. Each of the four provinces are represented by 23 senators regardless of population, while the Islamabad Capital Territory is represented by four senators, all of whom serve staggered six-year terms. The Senate secretariat is located in the east wing of the Parliament Building; the National Assembly convenes in the west wing of the same building.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: The Senate has several exclusive powers not granted to the National Assembly, including the powers of making parliamentary bills as a being enforced into law. Elections are held every three years for one half of the Senate and each Senator has a term of six years. The Constitution does not allow for the dissolution of the Senate.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: After Independence, the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, elected in December 1947 after partition, was assigned the task of framing the Constitution of Pakistan. This Assembly passed the Objectives Resolution on 12 March 1949, laying down principles which later became substantive part of the Constitution of Pakistan. However, before it could accomplish the task of framing the constitution, it was dissolved in October 1954. Thereafter, the Governor General, convened the Second Constituent Assembly in May 1955, which framed and passed the first Constitution of Pakistan on 29 February 1956. That Constitution was promulgated on 23 March 1956, which provided for a parliamentary form of Government with a unicameral legislature. However, from 14 August 1947 to 1 March 1956, the Government of India Act 1935 was retained as the Constitution of Pakistan.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: On October 7, 1958, Martial Law was promulgated and the Constitution abrogated. The Military Government appointed a Constitution Commission in February, 1960 which framed the 1962 Constitution. That Constitution provided for a Presidential form of Government with a unicameral legislature. The 1962 Constitution was abrogated on 25 March 1969. The Civil Government, which came to power in December 1971 pursuant to 1970 elections, gave the nation an interim Constitution in the year 1972.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: The 1970 Assembly framed the 1973 Constitution which was unanimously passed on 12 April and promulgated on 14 August 1973. The 1973 Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of Government with a bicameral legislature, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: The membership of the Senate, which was originally 45, was raised to 63 in 1977 and to 87 in 1985. The government of Gen. Pervez Musharraf raised the membership of the Senate from 87 to 100 through the Legal Framework Order (LFO), 2002, enforced on 21 August 2002 and the government of Asif Ali Zardari raised the membership of the Senate from 100 to 104 through the 18th amendment in 2011 (four minority members from four provinces). After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the number of seats in the Senate was reduced to 96, as the seats for FATA were removed after its merger with KPK.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: The main purpose for the creation of the Senate of Pakistan was to give equal representation to all the federating units since the membership of the National Assembly was based on the population of each province. Equal provincial membership in the Senate, thus, balances the provincial inequality in the National Assembly.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: There are one hundred senatorial seats. There are 18 women Senators; Pakistani constitution requires that there be at least 17 women Senators. Members of the Senate are elected according to Article 59 of the Constitution.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: Under Article 50 of the Constitution, the Majlis-i-Shoora (Parliament) of Pakistan consists of the President and two Houses to be known respectively as the National Assembly and the Senate. The President is elected by members of both Houses of the Parliament and the Provincial Assemblies. The President may be removed from office or impeached through a resolution, passed by not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the Parliament in a joint sitting of the two Houses, convened for the purpose.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: In the event that the office of the President becomes vacant, the Chairman of the Senate acts as President till such time that the position may be filled through a by election. This also occurs when the President, by reason of absence or any other incapacity, is unable to effectively exercise their office.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: Unless both the Houses pass a Bill and it receives President's assent it cannot become a law including in the case of a money bill which is the sole prerogative of the National Assembly. Through an amendment, the role of a Mediation Committee, composed of eight members of each House, has been introduced to evolve consensus on Bills, in case there is a disagreement between the two houses.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: The Constitution provides that there shall be a Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister which is collectively responsible to the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is chosen from the National Assembly. The Federal Ministers and Ministers of State are appointed from among the members of Parliament. However, the number of Federal Ministers and Ministers of State who are members of Senate, shall not at any time, exceed one fourth of the numbers of Federal Ministers.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: (2) Election to fill seats in the Senate allocated to each Province shall be held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.


title: Senate of Pakistan

text: (3) The Senate shall not be subject to dissolution but the term of its members of parliaments, who shall retire as follows, shall be six years:-


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The Kokoda Track campaign or Kokoda Trail campaign was part of the Pacific War of World War II. The campaign consisted of a series of battles fought between July and November 1942 in what was then the Australian Territory of Papua. It was primarily a land battle, between the Japanese South Seas Detachment under Major General Tomitarō Horii and Australian and Papuan land forces under command of New Guinea Force. The Japanese objective was to seize Port Moresby by an overland advance from the north coast, following the Kokoda Track over the mountains of the Owen Stanley Range, as part of a strategy to isolate Australia from the United States.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Japanese forces landed and established beachheads near Gona and Buna on 21 July 1942. Opposed by Maroubra Force, then consisting of four platoons of the 39th Battalion and elements of the Papuan Infantry Battalion, they quickly advanced and captured Kokoda and its strategically vital airfield on 29 July. Despite reinforcement, the Australian forces were continually pushed back. The veteran Second Australian Imperial Force (AIF) 21st Brigade narrowly avoided capture in the Battle of Mission Ridge – Brigade Hill from 6 to 8 September. In the Battle of Ioribaiwa from 13 to 16 September, the 25th Brigade under Brigadier Kenneth Eather fought the Japanese to a halt but ceded the field to the Japanese, withdrawing to Imita Ridge.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The Japanese advanced to within sight of Port Moresby but withdrew on 26 September. They had outrun their supply line and had been ordered to withdraw in consequence of reverses suffered at Guadalcanal. The Australian pursuit encountered strong opposition from well-prepared positions around Templeton's Crossing and Eora Village from 11 to 28 October. Following the unopposed recapture of Kokoda, a major battle was fought around Oivi and Gorari from 4 to 11 November, resulting in a victory for the Australians. By 16 November, two brigades of the Australian 7th Division had crossed the Kumusi River at Wairopi, and advanced on the Japanese beachheads in a joint Australian and United States operation. The Japanese forces at Buna–Gona held out until 22 January 1943.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Australian reinforcement was hampered by the logistical problems of supporting a force in isolated, mountainous, jungle terrain. There were few planes available for aerial resupply, and techniques for it were still primitive. Australian command considered that the Vickers machine gun and medium mortars were too heavy to carry and would be ineffective in the jungle terrain. Without artillery, mortars or medium machine guns, the Australians faced an opponent equipped with mountain guns and light howitzers that had been carried into the mountains and proved to be a decisive advantage. Australian forces were unprepared to conduct a campaign in the jungle environment of New Guinea. The lessons learned during the course of this campaign and the subsequent battle of Buna–Gona led to widespread changes in doctrine, training, equipment and structure, with a legacy that remains until the present day.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: In consequence of the rapid Japanese advance and the perceived failure to quickly counterattack, a "crisis of command" resulted, in which manoeuvring by General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in the South West Pacific Area, and General Sir Thomas Blamey, commander of Allied Land Forces, resulted in the sackings of three high-ranking Australian officers. The generalship of MacArthur and Blamey has been criticised for unreasonable and unrealistic perceptions of the terrain and conditions under which the campaign was fought—to the detriment of the troops committed to the fighting. The Kokoda Track campaign has been mythologised as Australia's Thermopylae and incorporated into the Anzac legend even though the premise of a vastly numerically-superior enemy has since been shown to be incorrect.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: After the fall of Singapore, the Australian government and many Australians feared that Japan would invade the Australian mainland. Australia was ill-prepared to counter such an attack. The entire 8th Division, deployed to Malaya, Ambon, Timor and Rabaul, was lost or rendered ineffective as the Japanese rapidly advanced. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) lacked modern aircraft and the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) was too small to counter the Imperial Japanese Navy. The RAAF and RAN were greatly expanded, though it took years for these services to build up to their peak strengths. The Militia was mobilised but, although a large force, it was inexperienced and lacked modern equipment. In response to the threat, the Government appealed to the United States for assistance, and the 6th and 7th Divisions of the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF) were brought back from the Middle East. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill attempted to divert them to Burma, but the Australian Prime Minister, John Curtin, refused to authorise this movement. As a compromise, two brigades of the 6th Division disembarked at Ceylon, where they formed part of the garrison until they returned to Australia in August 1942.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The Japanese Imperial General Headquarters considered invading Australia in early 1942 but decided against doing so in February that year, as it was judged to be beyond the Japanese capabilities, and no planning or preparations were undertaken. Instead, in March 1942 the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States and preventing Allied offensive operations by capturing Port Moresby, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa and New Caledonia. An attempt to capture Port Moresby by an amphibious assault, Operation Mo, was thwarted by the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. A month later, most of the Japanese carrier fleet was destroyed in the Battle of Midway, further reducing the possibility of major amphibious operations in the South Pacific. Following this, the Japanese began to consider an overland advance on Port Moresby.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Meanwhile, the Allied Supreme Commander in the South West Pacific Area, General Douglas MacArthur set about developing airfields for the defence of Port Moresby, and to strike against the Japanese. The first of these, Operation Boston, was authorised on 20 May and initially planned for the Abau–Mullins Harbor area. Milne Bay was subsequently determined to be preferable and a garrison force was sent by ship from Port Moresby on 22 June. Another strip at Merauke, on the south coast of Dutch New Guinea was authorised on 22 June to protect the western flank. On 9 June, MacArthur questioned General Sir Thomas Blamey, the commander of Allied Land Forces, as to measures taken for the defence of the overland approach from Buna. This set in train the deployment of forces to Kokoda. MacArthur began to consider the development of an airfield in the Buna area. An initial reconnaissance, landed by flying boat, was conducted on 10 and 11 July. Orders for the airfield construction, Operation Providence, were received by New Guinea Force (NGF) on 17 July, but were postponed by seven days on 18 July, and cancelled following the Japanese landings that shortly followed.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: In 1942, Papua was a territory of Australia. There had been little development and it was largely devoid of infrastructure beyond that around Port Moresby. The pre-war economy was based primarily upon copra and rubber—with plantations established intermittently in coastal regions—and mining. The administrative centre of Port Moresby had basic airfield and port facilities. There were no roads beyond the vicinity of Port Moresby and, by modern standards, these were little more than tracks. As a result, travel north of Port Moresby was largely undertaken by air, or sea. There were a few landing fields around Port Moresby, with others on the northern side of the Owen Stanley Range at the government stations of Buna and Kokoda.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The village of Kokoda is positioned on a plateau in northern foot-hills of the Owen Stanley Range. It overlooks the Yodda Valley (formed by the Mambare River) to its north. The Mambare runs roughly south-east to north-west. Kokoda is approximately direct line from the coastal village of Buna, which formed part of the Japanese beachhead positions occupied on their landing. However, the overland route was approximately . The track to the coast crosses the Kumusi River at Wairopi, approximately east of Kokoda. The river was spanned there by a wire-rope bridge (Wairopi being Pidgin for wire rope). There was a wide track leading from there to the coast which the Japanese subsequently set about developing as a road for vehicle traffic.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: In 1942, the village was the site of a government station, rubber plantation and strategically important airstrip. The Kokoda Track is a foot track that runs roughly southwest from Kokoda overland ( in a straight line) through the Owen Stanley Range towards Port Moresby. It was known before the war and had been used as an overland mail route. While there is a "main track" that is associated with the fighting during the campaign, there are many parallel, interlocking tracks that follow much the same general course. The southern end of the track is now considered to start at Owers' Corner, from Port Moresby. The vehicle track from Port Moresby originally terminated at McDonald's [Corner], where it serviced the McDonald homestead. Between June and late September 1942, around of road was completed, extending it to Owers' Corner.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The Kokoda Track passed through what was referred to during the early war years as "the (Kokoda) Gap". To the Japanese, who had learned of the Gap through vague explorer's accounts, it potentially offered a corridor from Buna through the Owen Stanleys along which they could launch a quick advance on Port Moresby. Conversely, the Allies believed it was a narrow and largely impassable path that could be blocked and held with only limited resources. In reality, the Gap is a dip in the Owen Stanley Range about wide, convenient for aircraft crossing the range to pass through.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The track reaches a height of as it passes around the peak of Mount Bellamy. The terrain rises and falls with regularity, up to up and down over the full length of the track. This markedly increases the distance to be traversed, although there are several flat areas, particularly around Myola. The vegetation is largely dense jungle. The climate is mostly hot and humid with high rainfall, although the higher parts are cold, particularly at night. The higher elevations are frequently above cloud level, resulting in fog.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Myola is close to the watershed. A stream flowing from Myola is part of the headwaters of Eora Creek on the northern watershed. On the northern part of the track, its course, to Deniki, is determined by Eora Creek. It follows along the side of the steep valley formed by the creek. It crosses the creek from one side to the other at several points along its course. From Deniki, the track descends to the Kokoda plateau.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Operations in New Guinea were impacted by tropical diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, scrub typhus, tropical ulcers, dysentery from a range of causes and fungal infections. Walker observes that the Kokoda Track "starts and ends with malaria". Malarial vectors were substantially absent from the cooler, higher elevations along the track. Most cases observed in these areas were relapses rather than primary infections. The immediate vicinity of Port Moresby is relatively dry. While this tends to mitigate the risk of malaria, significant rates of the disease were observed in troops, mainly militia, sent to New Guinea for defence of the port, leading up to the campaign. The risk from malaria was particularly high for troops operating in the coastal area around the southern end of the track and when the Australian forces had been forced back to Imita Ridge. AIF units returning from the Middle East were more aware of the threat this disease posed and arrived with supplies of quinine. For these reasons, the disease did not have the same degree of significance or impact on operations as it did at Milne Bay or the subsequent operations at Buna–Gona.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Anderson recounts the prevalence of dysentery among Australian troops, while James reports that "more and more [Japanese] succumbed" to diseases, including dysentery, as they withdrew along the track. Walker attributes enteric infections to poor field hygiene, contaminated and unpurified water, and a failure to make adequate sanitary provisions along the track during the early part of the campaign. He also identifies that a proportion of diarrhoeal disturbances were attributable to the poor diet (particularly the high-fat content of tinned beef) rather than infection.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The Japanese 17th Army under Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake was a corps-sized command, based at Rabaul, involved in the New Guinea, Guadalcanal, and Solomon Islands campaigns. Following Coral Sea, the 17th Army considered an overland advance on Port Moresby. This was based on pre-war intelligence that a road existed linking it with Kokoda. Initial aerial reconnaissance was inconclusive but plans were made for a reconnaissance in force and to exploit the possibility of an advance along such a route. The 15th Independent Engineer Regiment (less one company) and the South Seas Detachment under Major General Tomitarō Horii were assigned to these tasks. At the time, Horii was unenthusiastic as to the possibility of success, in consideration of the logistical difficulties that would be faced, but he did not press his objection.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: An advance party, under command of Colonel Yokoyama Yosuke of the 15th Independent Engineer Regiment was to consist of the main force of the regiment, the 1st Battalion of the 144th Infantry Regiment, and the 1st Company, 1st Battalion of the 55th Mountain Artillery Regiment. It also included 500 Korean and Formosan labourers and 2,000 native labourers from Rabaul. A naval force based on the 5th Yokosuka Naval Landing Party was to land at the same time as the advance party and commence construction of an airfield at Buna. Japanese planning proceeded on the premise that an overland assault would occur.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: The initial landing took place from the evening of 21 July 1942. An infantry company was immediately dispatched towards Kokoda. A second component of the Yokoyama landing party arrived on 29 July. The landing was reinforced by successive convoys over the following weeks. The main force of the 144th Infantry Regiment landed on 18 August. The 41st Infantry Regiment (less 1st Battalion) landed on 21 August, with the 1st Battalion landing on 27 August.


title: Kokoda Track campaign

text: Horii linked up with the advance party at Kokoda and began to assemble his force for the overland advance. By 26 August, it consisted of the 144th Infantry Regiment (three battalions), the 41st Infantry Regiment (2nd and 3rd Battalions, with the 1st Battalion yet to arrive—joining the main force on 14 September) and 1st Battalion, 55th Mountain Artillery Regiment. The 3rd Battalion was tasked with protecting the force's line-of-communication. The 41st Infantry Regiment fielded only 1,900 troops since both the 1st and 3rd Battalions had approximately 400 detached from each for road construction and supply tasks. The force has been estimated at 6,000. Horii commenced his advance with each man carrying sixteen days' rations. Troops of both regiments were seasoned veterans. The 41st Infantry Regiment had fought against Australians in Malaya.