title: Kay Burley

text: In June 2015, Burley was criticised through social media for her interview of Nick Varney, the chief executive of Merlin Entertainments. This followed an accident on The Smiler ride at Alton Towers, which led to injuries for 11 of the 16 passengers. Responses to her behaviour dubbed it "disrespectful to everyone involved" and an "outright attack". In response, Burley tweeted "For those concerned I was hard on Alton Towers boss, he'll get over it. Not sure those on his ride will be so quick to recover". Her interview with Varney began a negative reaction over social media, prompting 1,816 complaints to Ofcom and also led to over 55,000 signatures on a petition to have Burley sacked. Ofcom declined to launch a formal investigation into the interview.


title: Kay Burley

text: In March 2015, Burley repeatedly asked Cerie Bullivant of CAGE how he felt about the beheading of Western hostages by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. When Bullivant left the interview as he believed Burley's question to be "inherently Islamophobic and racist", Burley retorted that it was "nonsense", and told Bullivant to "get over yourself". This prompted 57 complaints to Ofcom, but no action against Burley was taken.


title: Kay Burley

text: In 2018, during an interview concerning Boris Johnson's remarks about the burqa, Burley drew criticism when she used as an example the lack of visible facial expression of war veteran Simon Weston, who had received severe facial injuries in the Falklands War.


title: Kay Burley

text: In December 2020, Burley admitted to breaching London's tier 2 coronavirus restrictions when celebrating her 60th birthday. Her actions allegedly included meeting up to nine individuals outside of her household, breaking the 11pm curfew, and socialising inside two restaurants and her own home. Burley was later suspended from Sky News until June 2021, and withdrawn from consideration for the Royal Television Society's journalism awards.


title: Kay Burley

text: In March 2022, during an interview with two Ukrainian refugees in Dublin, Burley drew criticism for stating that they can "start to build a new life in Dublin, safe in the knowledge that the British people are completely behind you". Dublin is in the Republic of Ireland, so not part of Britain or the UK.


title: Kay Burley

text: Burley's first novel, "First Ladies", was published on 12 May 2011. The book is an erotic romance set in the media industry, including television news. One reviewer called it a "turgid mess" which is not even bad enough to be good: "Unfortunately, this book, with its dire comic timing, complete absence of irony, pointless digressions, dull plotting and complete lack of any engaging characters, is so mind-numblingly, fist-chewingly awful, that it’s just bad."


title: Kay Burley

text: In 2018 Burley participated in Channel 4's "Celebrity Hunted" and was captured in the penultimate episode.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Michael John Lohan ( ; born April 25, 1960) is an American television personality, best known as the father of actress Lindsay Lohan.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Michael Lohan is the oldest of four children born to Marilyn (née Desiderio) and Richard Lohan. He has Irish and Italian ancestry.


title: Michael Lohan

text: As of 2021, Lohan co-hosts a weekly radio show covering topics of addiction recovery on KPRC 950 AM in Houston, Texas.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Lohan married Dina, a former singer and dancer, on November 2, 1985. Dina and Michael Lohan have four children: daughters Lindsay (born July 2, 1986) and Aliana (born December 22, 1993), and sons Michael, Jr. (born 1987) and Dakota "Cody" (born June 16, 1996). The parents separated when their daughter Lindsay was three, and later reunited. Dina filed for divorce on January 18, 2005. In August 2007, the former couple announced a final divorce settlement had been reached, with the divorce scheduled to be finalized three months later. Dina was granted custody of their two youngest children, Ali and Cody.


title: Michael Lohan

text: On June 30, 2008, Lohan submitted a DNA sample for a paternity test after a Montana massage therapist, Kristi Kaufmann Horn, stated she was intimately involved with Michael in 1995 while he was separated from Dina, and fathered her daughter, Ashley Horn. The paternity results were revealed as positive during his appearance on "Trisha" where Lohan reunited with Kaufmann while meeting Horn for the first time.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Lohan and former tabloid reporter Kate Major became engaged over Easter weekend in 2010. They later broke up, but their continued relationship, which was marked by conflict, was depicted in the fifth season of the VH1 reality TV series "Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew", which documented Lohan's rehabilitation for alcoholism, which he said began in 1982. Lohan says that although he had not done cocaine in six years at this point (a "culture" to which he says he succumbed while working on Wall Street), "Drinking always led to coke. Always." He also discussed how he was affected by the verbal abuse and alcoholism of his father, who had recently died of stomach cancer.


title: Michael Lohan

text: It was also revealed on "Celebrity Rehab" that Lohan had been diagnosed with left main cardiac disease. Although Lohan had previously had a blockage in his right coronary artery, the blockage at his left main coronary artery placed Lohan at high risk for a cardiac event, and required him to avoid stress and anger.


title: Michael Lohan

text: In 2011, Lohan lived in West Hollywood, California. As of February 2014, Lohan lived in Boca Raton, Florida with his wife Kate, whom he married in October 2014, and their sons, Landon Major Lohan (born January 30, 2013) and Logan Michael Lohan (born December 31, 2014). Prior to moving to Boca Raton, he lived in Fort Lauderdale and at the Tahitian Inn in Tampa.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Lohan and his wife lost custody of both their children in November 2015. In December 2015, Kate filed for legal separation from Lohan.


title: Michael Lohan

text: In 1990, Lohan was investigated for insider trading and convicted of criminal contempt of court. He was sentenced to three years in jail in Nassau County, and was released in 1993 on five years' probation. During this time, his daughter Lindsay had started modeling for the Ford Models agency and was starring in commercials, and by the time of his release in 1993, she was at the pinnacle of her career.


title: Michael Lohan

text: In 1997, Lohan was arrested when he violated his probation after flying to Napa, California to visit Lindsay, who had been hospitalized for an asthma attack that occurred during the filming of "The Parent Trap". He subsequently served a year in prison.


title: Michael Lohan

text: After Lindsay became a movie star, tensions arose in the family. This conflict came to a head when he and Dina's youngest brother, Matt Sullivan, got into a fistfight outside Lohan’s Long Island home, during a May 23, 2004 first communion party for their son Dakota. Lohan was charged with attempted assault and, while awaiting sentencing, was involved in a car accident that led to his being charged with driving under the influence of alcohol and aggravated unlicensed operation of a motor vehicle. While in prison, he took up singing and songwriting, as well as correspondence courses for Teen Challenge, a faith-based sobriety program. Michael and Dina Lohan separated again later that year. Lohan was later arrested on June 29 after allegedly leaving a Long Island hotel where he had rented several suites without paying his $3,800 bill, and faced assault charges in Manhattan for allegedly swearing at a sanitation worker and punching the worker in the face after the worker's truck blocked his car. On January 19, 2005, Dina's spokesperson confirmed that she had filed for divorce.


title: Michael Lohan

text: Lohan was released from prison in March 2007 after serving a two-and-a-half-year sentence in the Collins Correctional Facility. He subsequently took up residence in a Teen Challenge center in West Babylon, New York, and underwent training to become a minister, though to be ordained requires his parole to end.


title: Michael Lohan

text: He subsequently worked as an actor and counselor with the Long Island Teen Challenge rehabilitation program. He has also been involved in various television proposals, including the "Michael Lohan Reality Project", a 2007 series produced by Frozen Pictures, which followed his life, work and efforts to reconnect with his daughter and family.


title: Michael Lohan

text: On October 25, 2011, Lohan was arrested in a suspected domestic violence incident in Tampa, Florida, involving his on-again, off-again girlfriend, Kate Major. Lohan was released from custody on $5,000 bail and ordered to have no further contact with Major. On October 27, 2011, he was again in police custody after contacting Major by phone. After being subsequently released from a Tampa hospital October 28, 2011, and taken to Falkenburg Road Jail, Lohan was denied bail the next day.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The is a minivan manufactured by Japanese automaker Honda since 1994, marketed in most of the world and currently in its fifth generation in Japan.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The Odyssey had originally been conceived and engineered in Japan, in the wake of the country's economic crisis of the 1990s – which in turn imposed severe constraints on the vehicle's size and overall concept, dictating the minivan's manufacture in an existing facility with minimal modification. The result was a smaller minivan, in the compact MPV class, that was well received in the Japanese domestic market but less well received in North America. The first generation Odyssey was marketed in Europe as the Honda Shuttle.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: Subsequent generations diverged to reflect market variations, and Honda built a plant in Lincoln, Alabama, incorporating the ability to manufacture larger models. Since model year 1999, Honda has marketed a larger (large MPV-class) Odyssey in North America and a smaller Odyssey in Japan and other markets. Honda also offered the larger North American Odyssey in Japan as the Honda LaGreat between 1999 and 2004.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The first-generation Odyssey was a raised wagon from Honda that was launched in Japan and North America in 1994. Based on the Accord sedan, it was offered with an optional 4WD (with RA2 and RA4 chassis), and from 1997 with a 3.0-litre V6 J30A engine with the RA5 chassis code (front-wheel drive only). L and Aero models were equipped with a sunroof. All the JDM Odysseys had a dual air conditioning system, separate for the front and rear seat rows. Since the first generation all the models have been six- or seven-seater versions.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In 1995, it won the Automotive Researchers' and Journalists' Conference Car of the Year award in Japan. In its home market, the Odyssey competed with the Toyota Gaia, Toyota Ipsum and the Nissan Presage. European sales were hampered by the absences of both a manual transmission as well as a diesel engine option.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The original 2.2-litre engine produces . This was replaced by a slightly larger 2.3-liter version offering in August 1997. In October 1997, the V6 engine became an option in the domestic market.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The Japanese market Odyssey was initially available in B, S and L grade levels. In January 1996, the top-of-the-line Exclusive model has been added. In October 1996, the M grade was added which positioned between the lower S grade and the higher L grade, and the base B grade was discontinued. When the facelifted model arrived in August 1997, the Exclusive grade was discontinued, and later replaced in October 1997 with the Prestige model in VG and VZ grade levels.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In December 1999, a new, larger second-generation Odyssey appeared in Japan and Australia and in a left-hand drive format for China. However, this new Odyssey was a major upgrade of the first generation Odyssey rather than a completely new model. As a result, its overall shape and appearance were similar to the first generation Odyssey. Still, it was longer and wider than the previous model. While base models had slightly smaller dimensions and a smaller 2.3L engine, models with more options as well those with the 3.0L V6 engine featured slightly larger bumpers and chrome inserts, larger grille as well as a unique chrome number plate surround.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The base model continued to be sold with a 2.3-liter VTEC four-cylinder engine (F23A) in RA6 (2WD) and RA7 (4WD) models. The 3.0-liter J30A VTEC V6 engine from the first generation, now producing , was available in the RA8 (2WD) and RA9 (4WD) Absolute sport and Prestige luxury models. The 2000 Odyssey was the first Honda to receive a five-speed automatic transmission, albeit with the 3.0-liter engine only as the four-cylinder versions rotate in the other direction. All the second generation gearboxes also featured another first — a tiptronic-like manual mode, known as "Honda S-matic", in which a gearbox remains the classic Honda hydro-automat, but the driver is able to manage the shifting moment (if electronically allowed) with the selector's "+" and "-" positions. The interior was completely new. The old automatic column shifter was moved to the centre console. A new touchscreen-based digital climate control system replaced the old manual controls, which worked in conjunction with Honda's new navigation system. Woodgrain trim was standard on all models, while in VG/VZ V6 models leather and velour seat and door materials were standard over the basic cloth trims. The interior configuration was also changed (second and third row), and the spare wheel was moved to a new position beneath the third row. With L and Absolute versions, an additional third-row heater was added. The sunroof was no longer available respectively.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The Japanese market Odyssey continued to be available in S, M and L grade levels, as well as Prestige model in VG and VZ grade levels.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In November 2001, the Odyssey was given a mild restyle. The MQ grade was added to the regular four-cylinder Odyssey lineup which positioned between the lower M grade and the higher L grade, and also introduced the new, sportier Absolute model that is positioned between regular and Prestige models. It received new, larger Honda emblems for the front and rear, clear-lens tail lights (replacing amber, darker in Absolute model), and a larger front grille with four chrome strips instead of three (different grille and bumper design in Absolute model) as well as new alloy wheel design options. The Absolute model is available with either 2.3-liter four-cylinder or 3.0-liter V6 engine.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In February 2003, the Premium Sound Spirit variant which based on the MQ grade went on sale in Japan. It is equipped with a Bose sound system, 16-inch aluminium wheels, and metal-beating like equipment.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In May 2003, the Fine Spirit variant was introduced, based on Absolute, Absolute Limited and M grades equipped with a special body color and special aluminum wheels, metal-beating panel, and genuine leather and metal-beating combination steering wheel. In addition to adopting a special body color, it is equipped with a metallic gray front grille, a chrome-plated outer door handle, and a special wood grain panel.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In the Australian market, the new Odyssey proved more popular than its predecessor, at least initially. However, in 2002, sales hit an all-time low, and in 2003, sales of only 649 units were almost one-third of the total in 2000.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The third-generation Japanese-built Odyssey was the first full redesign of the Odyssey since its introduction in 1994. Going on sale in Japan in October 2003, and in Australia and many other countries from early 2004, it continued with a 5-door body style, with a much sleeker, lower, and more car-like appearance. For the first time cruise-control appeared on the JDM Odyssey. The 4WD version has received the new DPS system. The seat folding mechanism was changed again. The height of the new Odyssey was lower than ever – designed with multi-level parking in mind, particularly for Japan. The new Odyssey came with the Honda K24A i-VTEC engine, a 2.4 L unit producing ; this was the same engine used in the CR-V and Accord. A 4WD version (RB2) came only with an automatic transmission, while the 2WD version came only with a continuously variable transmission, except Absolute, JDM S/B model as well as export models. The V6 engine was dropped completely. Instead, a variant of the K24A engine was adopted for the sporty Absolute version ( with 4WD), which was only equipped with an automatic transmission – both the 2WD and 4WD variants. Moreover, this new engine had the same fuel consumption as the old 2.2 L engine. All this resulted in the new Odyssey becoming a sales success. In Australia, the Odyssey achieved its best-ever sales year in 2005, and outsold the Toyota Tarago for the first time.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In Japan, the third-generation Odyssey was initially available in S, M, L and Absolute grade levels. In October 2005, the base S grade was discontinued and the Aero Edition based on the M grade with the same bumper as the Absolute grade has been released. For the facelifted model released in April 2006, the base B grade was revived (previously the lowest grade level of the pre-facelift first generation Odyssey) and the Aero Edition was replaced by the M Aero Package. In February 2007, the S grade was reinstated along with the S Aero Package, the M grade was equipped with 16-inch aluminium wheels, and the L grade was equipped with a voice recognition Honda HDD navigation system with a rear camera and a progressive commander. In August 2007, the K Package based on the L grade with genuine leather-wrapped AT select lever was added. At the same time, the "HDD Navi Special Edition" based on the S, S Aero Package, M, M Aero Package and Absolute grades with the same navigation system equipment as the L grade was released.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: Sales of the fourth-generation Odyssey in the Japanese market began on 17 October 2008, and it was initially available in M, L, Li and Absolute grade levels. The engine and transmission has fundamentally remained the same as the third generation, adding more power and better fuel economy. It is equipped with a 2.4-litre engine and CVT with a torque converter for the FWD, and 5-speed automatic transmission for 4WD and high-output 206 hp Absolute grade.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: Two engines are offered in Japan: one with 173 PS output (i-VTEC is only for intake camshaft) and the other one with 206 PS output in Absolute grade (i-VTEC is for both camshafts). On 3 September 2009, the M Fine Spirit grade has been added, positioned below the M grade. At the same time, the Aero Package is also available for M Fine Spirit and M grades with the same bumper as the Absolute grade. The Odyssey received a facelift with a redesigned grille on 6 October 2011. The M Fine Spirit grade was replaced by the M-S grade, and the L grade was discontinued. On 5 July 2012, the MX grade was added and is also available with the Aero Package. The MX grade is positioned above the M grade and below the Li grade.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: One of the biggest changes to this generation of Odyssey was the inclusion of electronic stability control and standard curtain airbags on all grades.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In many markets outside Japan like Australia and Indonesia, the Odyssey is also equipped with a 5-speed automatic transmission.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The fifth-generation Odyssey for the international market was teased on the website on 26 September 2013, and went on sale in Japan on 1 November 2013. However, long before that, Honda showcased a concept car called the Concept M which was presented at the 2013 Shanghai Motor Show. The rear hinged side doors were changed to dual power sliding doors, much like most other minivans by Japanese automakers today. It's now bigger than its predecessors and for seven-seater variants, premium cradle seats with ottomans are offered on the second row. The new RC1 (2WD) & RC2 (4WD) models are available in either seven-seater or eight-seater. It is powered by Honda's newly developed 2.4L i-VTEC Earth Dreams engine which produces and . Direct-injection is added in the range-topping Absolute grade which increases output to and . The 2.4L Earth Dreams engine provides fuel economy of as calculated from Japan's JC08 mode test cycle.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In Japan, this model also replaced the Elysion to compete against Toyota Alphard and Nissan Elgrand in the full-size luxury MPV category.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The Odyssey Hybrid RC4 was launched in Japan on 4 February 2016 with a 2.0L petrol hybrid engine. Honda has given the Sport Hybrid i-MMD name to the new hybrid system. Improvements to the new hybrid system include reduction of the size and weight of key components such as the battery and power control unit from the existing two-motor hybrid system used in the Accord Hybrid and Accord Plug-in Hybrid that were introduced in 2013. The power control unit is 23 percent smaller and 27 percent lighter than the one in the Accord Hybrid. The Odyssey Hybrid went on sale in Japan on 5 February 2016, but is unlikely to be exported to the US as the US-market Odyssey utilizes a larger platform than the Japanese market Odyssey.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In Australia, the Odyssey went on sale in February 2014 and is available in two trim levels: VTi, which is based on the JDM G grade, and VTi-L, which is based on the JDM Absolute grade.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: In the Middle East, the JDM Odyssey was introduced in 2015 as Honda Odyssey J, while USDM Odyssey continues with its original name.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The fifth-generation Odyssey is also a basis for the second-generation Honda Elysion for the Chinese market, but with a different front fascia, and adopts a design resembling the Honda Legend. The Odyssey-based Elysion was launched in China on 9 January 2016.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: On 16 November 2017, the fifth-generation Odyssey was given a facelift with new bumpers and LED fog lamps and was refreshed with a range of driver’s assistances featuring adaptive cruise control, forward collision warning, collision mitigation braking system, lane departure warning, road departure mitigation system, lane-keeping assist system, rear-cross traffic monitor and blind-spot monitoring system in the top of the range model. It also has a new chrome front grille fascia, an improved NVH (noise, vibration, harshness) and a plusher captain's chair in the second row.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The first facelift of the fifth-generation Odyssey was introduced in the Chinese market in July 2018, updating the front end with a redesigned front bumper. The Odyssey Sport Hybrid based on the JDM Absolute grade was launched in China on 29 April 2019.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: The second facelift model for the 2021 model year went on sale in Japan in November 2020, featuring redesigned bumpers with a two-piece grille, headlamps and tail lamps with a thin chrome bar across them. In the interior, it receives a redesigned dashboard with a 7.0-inch info display replacing the previous 3.5-inch found on the instrument cluster, and motion detection sliding doors using hand gestures.


title: Honda Odyssey (international)

text: At its debut, the Odyssey won the Japan Car of the Year Award (Special Category) and the RJC New Car of the Year Award. By September 1997, the Odyssey had sold more than 300,000 units, becoming Honda’s fastest-selling new car and breaking the Civic’s record. The Odyssey was "Wheels" magazine's Car of the Year for 1995. At the Odyssey's European launch, where it was marketed as the "Shuttle", British ex-Grand Prix driver Jonathan Palmer described its handling as equal of any "executive saloon".


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The Last of Us: Left Behind is a 2014 action-adventure game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is a downloadable expansion pack to the 2013 game "The Last of Us". Set in a post-apocalyptic world, the game switches between two stories: the first, set three weeks before the events of "The Last of Us", follows Ellie as she spends time with her best friend Riley in an abandoned mall in Boston. The second takes place during the "Winter" chapter of "The Last of Us" and focuses on Ellie's attempts to scour an abandoned mall in Colorado for medical supplies to heal Joel, who was gravely injured in an ambush, while dealing with enemies and reminiscing about her time with Riley.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The game is played from a third-person perspective; players use firearms, improvised weapons, and stealth to defend against hostile humans and zombie-like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the "Cordyceps" fungus. Players can use "Listen Mode" to locate enemies through a heightened sense of hearing and spatial awareness. The game also features a crafting system, allowing players to customize weapons through the upgrades. "Left Behind" was released worldwide on February 14, 2014 for the PlayStation 3; it was later bundled with "The Last of Us Remastered", an updated version of the game released for the PlayStation 4 on July 29, 2014, and then released as a stand-alone expansion pack for both consoles on May 12, 2015. It was included in "The Last of Us Part I", a remake of the game released on PlayStation 5 in September 2022; a Windows version is in development.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: "The Last of Us: Left Behind" was highly anticipated due to the critical acclaim received by "The Last of Us". It received generally favorable reviews by critics, with particular praise for its story, characterization, and depiction of female and LGBT characters (including a kiss between Ellie and Riley deemed by critics as a "breakthrough moment" for video games), while some criticism was aimed at a battle sequence late in the game that was considered by some to be "unnatural" and "forced". Like its parent game, it received several awards and nominations.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The gameplay of "The Last of Us: Left Behind" is similar to the basic gameplay of "The Last of Us". It is an action-adventure game that uses a third-person perspective. The game involves gunfights, melee combat, and a cover system. Players control Ellie. An added feature in combat is the ability to focus the attention of the Infected towards human enemies, by throwing objects to distract them. This results in a lower number of enemies to encounter, giving players a tactical advantage. Throughout the flashback section, players encounter locations and activities around the mall, such as a carousel, photo booth, video arcade, mask store, and water guns. All of these locations and activities have some level of interactivity, allowing players to use them in different ways; for example, the photo booth allows players to select different poses to strike for a picture, while using the water guns prompts players to engage Riley in a water gun fight.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: After an ambush that leaves Joel (Troy Baker) severely injured, Ellie (Ashley Johnson) searches an abandoned mall in Colorado for supplies to heal him. She discovers a medical kit in a derelict military helicopter that has crashed through the roof. Making her way back to the unconscious Joel, Ellie must deal with the Infected and members of the hostile human group who injured Joel in the first place. She fights her way back to Joel, treats his injury, and takes him to a hideout to see out the worsening winter.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: Months earlier, three weeks before Ellie meets Joel, Riley Abel (Yaani King) surprises her at their Boston military boarding school after running away over a month ago. She reveals that she has joined the Fireflies, a revolutionary militia group, and takes Ellie to explore an abandoned mall. They have fun with a carousel, photo booth, arcade, and Halloween store before having a water gun fight. Riley reveals that she has been assigned to a group of Fireflies in a different city, but broke the rules to come and see Ellie one last time. The girls argue, but Ellie eventually tells Riley that she supports her decision as she knows Riley has wanted it for a long time. Before they part ways, Riley plugs Ellie's Walkman into the sound system of an electronics store, and the two dance on a display case to Etta James's cover of "I Got You Babe". Ellie tearfully begs Riley not to leave; Riley agrees and rips her Firefly pendant off, prompting Ellie to kiss her. Riley responds positively, though the two are then chased by a horde of Infected alerted by the music. They outrun most of the Infected and kill the remainder, getting bitten in the process. They briefly consider shooting themselves to prevent the infection taking over them, but instead choose to spend their final hours together. While Riley is assumed to have succumbed to the infection, Ellie discovers that she is immune, triggering the events of "The Last of Us".


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: Naughty Dog began developing "The Last of Us: Left Behind" following the release of "The Last of Us" in June 2013, with a team about half the size. Following the decision to create single-player downloadable content for the game, the development team immediately decided that the story would focus on the character of Ellie; they found that players of "The Last of Us" were interested to learn about events in Ellie's life prior to the events of the main game, particularly the events involving Riley Abel, whom Ellie mentioned in "The Last of Us". In addition, they found that some players were interested in the events that occurred between the Fall and Winter segments of the main game, in which Ellie cares for an injured Joel. This led to the team deciding to contrast these two events against each other, feeling it would help the story's pacing. Game director Bruce Straley said that the team felt the story justified the development of "Left Behind".


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: "Left Behind" was written to focus on the relationship between Ellie and Riley, and to recount the events that defined their later personalities. Riley was chronologically introduced to Ellie in "", a comic book written by creative director Neil Druckmann and artist Faith Erin Hicks. The team used the comic as a reference point when developing the relationship between Ellie and Riley, becoming particularly interested in having the chance to see more of their relationship; Druckmann felt that they would not have developed "Left Behind" if "American Dreams" hadn't been written. Druckmann felt that the story of Joel and Ellie's relationship in "The Last of Us" dealt with survival, loyalty and love, and that Ellie and Riley's relationship in "Left Behind" deals with similar themes. Straley felt that the themes involve love, loss and devotion, pondering the extent that one goes to protect those one cares about. Ashley Johnson portrayed Ellie in "Left Behind", reprising her role from "The Last of Us". To portray Riley, the team cast Yaani King; Johnson has noted that it was interesting to act against someone different, and that King fit the role immediately. King felt intimidated to become part of a large project, and was worried about "fit[ting] in". The team found it interesting to tell the story of Riley, as players of "The Last of Us" were already aware of the effect that she had on Ellie; "Left Behind" sees Riley's behavior change Ellie, resulting in the latter's focus to fight in order to save those close to her. The team were also interested in Ellie's behavior around Riley; she is perceived as being more playful. In "Left Behind", Ellie and Riley share a kiss; the team explored omitting the kiss from the game, but felt that it was imperative to the story, and that it strengthened the relationship. Though initially he only felt that Ellie viewed Riley as an influence, Druckmann later considered her romantic appeal, and decided to explore the concept.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: While writing "The Last of Us", Druckmann had a general idea of the events that would shape Ellie's identity; when conceiving the story direction for "Left Behind", he found that these events were suitable. Druckmann felt that omitting the nature of the argument between Ellie and Riley, which took place prior to the events of the game, allowed players to draw their own conclusions. The team found various sections of the game interesting, such as the references to Facebook and Halloween, as the characters are unaware of their meaning.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The smaller time frame of development for "Left Behind" gave the team an opportunity to trial mechanics and ideas that they were unable to test on the main game. With the game's combat, an added feature was to allow players to focus the attention of the Infected towards human enemies, allowing an easier escape. The gameplay was also more focused on the characters, as opposed to the combat, to allow players to relate to them more. The gameplay sequences were designed to contrast with other moments of Ellie's life; for example, the water gun fight with Riley is contrasted to the gunfights with enemies. The team found that creating some gameplay mechanics was a challenge, with even fewer combat scenarios in "Left Behind" than in "The Last of Us". The animation of the masks also presented a challenge, due to the number of joints; it took various iterations before the final design was implemented.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: "The Last of Us: Left Behind" was released worldwide for the PlayStation 3 on February 14, 2014 as a downloadable expansion pack to "The Last of Us". It was later bundled with "The Last of Us Remastered", an updated version of the game released for the PlayStation 4 on July 29, 2014. It was released as a standalone expansion pack for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 on May 12, 2015. "Left Behind" was included in "The Last of Us Part I", a remake of the original game, released on PlayStation 5 in September 2022; Windows version is in development.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: "The Last of Us: Left Behind" received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic, based on 69 reviews. Reviewers praised the character development, story and subtext, gameplay and combat, and depiction of female and LGBT characters.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: Tom Mc Shea of "GameSpot" found the story insightful, and "IGN" Colin Moriarty named it one of the game's standout features. Matt Helgeson of "Game Informer" wrote that the writing "shines", and that it significantly assisted with the development of the characters. Henry Gilbert of "GamesRadar" felt that the story was "intermittently intense, tragic, humorous, and even poignant". "Polygon"s Samit Sarkar wrote that "Left Behind" "serves as a terrific side story" to the main game, but is "even more impressive" when taken on its own merits. Nick Cowen of "Computer and Video Games" found the story "less satisfying" than "The Last of Us" due to its lack of new details about Ellie, but declared it "action-packed and enjoyable" nonetheless.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The characters—particularly the relationship between Ellie and Riley—received acclaim. "Polygon"s Philip Kollar appreciated the game's ability to portray realistic female characters, noting that they "aren't easy stereotypes", while "GameSpot" Mc Shea felt new appreciation for Ellie by seeing her actions around Riley. Helgeson of "Game Informer" welcomed the addition of Riley, noting that she is "played with the same level of emotional depth and subtlety" as other characters. "The Daily Telegraph"s Tim Martin praised the "interplay" between the Ellie and Riley, and "Eurogamer" Stace Harman felt that the game improves the understanding of Joel and Ellie's relationship. The character performances also received praise, with "IGN"s Moriarty and "Kotaku" Kirk Hamilton noting that the game improved as a result.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The game received some positive reactions in relation to its depiction of LGBT characters. The kiss shared by Ellie and Riley was described by "Kotaku" Hamilton as "video gaming's latest breakthrough moment" and "a big deal". Keza MacDonald of "IGN" wrote that the kiss was "so beautiful and natural and funny that [she] was left dumbstruck". Edward Smith of "International Business Times" felt that the kiss was "the first example of intimacy in a videogame that's meant anything", recognizing it as "an expression of both burgeoning teen sexuality and of ... friendship". Amplify, a project of the non-profit Advocates for Youth, reported that the kiss had attracted criticism from some players.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: Many reviewers found the gameplay and combat a refreshing difference from other games. "Eurogamer" Harman commended the game's ability to link the gameplay to the story, noting that it adds "diversity and dynamism". Helgeson of "Game Informer" praised the additional gameplay feature allowing players to force fights among the Infected and human enemies, naming such sequences "engaging", while Martin of "The Daily Telegraph" appreciated the game's ability to contextualize the combat sequences. However, some critics felt negatively about a gameplay sequence occurring late in the game, which requires players to kill a large number of enemies; GameSpot's Mc Shea noted that it felt "unnatural", and "IGN"s Moriarty called it "forced". "Electronic Gaming Monthly"s Eric L. Patterson wrote that players will feel "disappointed" if they play the game "more for the gameplay than the story".


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: The world and environments of the game drew acclaim from many reviewers. "Polygon"s Kollar called the game's locations "beautiful", while "Eurogamer" Harman wrote that the level design significantly improved the environments. Moriarty of "IGN" praised the setting within the mall, due to its regularity in "the real, pre-apocalyptic world". Mc Shea of "GameSpot" also felt that the game's focus on exploration allowed the "well-realized environments [to] breathe", and Martin of "The Daily Telegraph" noted that Ellie's body size allowed for "quieter and faster" movement throughout the environments.


title: The Last of Us: Left Behind

text: "The Last of Us: Left Behind" received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications. Following its release, GameSpot awarded "Left Behind" Game of the Month for February 2014. For the year 2014, the game was review aggregator GameRankings' highest-rated PlayStation 3 game, and Metacritic's third highest-rated PlayStation 3 game. "GameSpot" nominated the game for Game of the Year, and awarded it PS3 Game of the Year. It also received Most Valuable Add-On Content at the SXSW Gaming Awards, and Best DLC from "Hardcore Gamer". The game's story received awards at the 11th British Academy Video Games Awards, IGN AU Black Beta Select Awards 2014, and the 67th Writers Guild of America Awards; the game's ending also won Best Memorable Moment from IGN Australia. The character of Ellie received Most Valuable Character at the SXSW Gaming Awards, while Ashley Johnson's performance as the character won an award at the British Academy Video Games Awards. The game was also recognized as being innovative; it was nominated for the Games for Change award at The Game Awards 2014, as well as the Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award at the SXSW Gaming Awards.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: German vehicle registration plates ( or, more colloquially, ) are alphanumeric plates in a standardized format, issued officially by the district authorities to motorized vehicles of German residents. The legal requirements for these licence plates are laid down in a federal law titled (Ordinance on the admission of vehicles for road traffic), or in the shortened version which replaced part of an older law named in 2011. The law distinguishes between meaning a specific combination of letters and digits, and which are the physical licence plates. In everyday language, these terms are often replaced indifferently by and rarely is the difference emphasized by restricted use of either or .


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: All motorized vehicles participating in road traffic on public space, whether moving or stationary, have to bear the plates allotted to them, displayed at the appropriate spaces at the front and rear. Additionally, the official seals on the plates show their validity which can also be proven by the documentation coming with them. Motorcycles and trailers carry only the rear plate. The system of number plates used on cars, buses, trucks, trailers and motorcycles is described below. Its most significant feature is the first part, an area code of one, two or three letters which used to tell the district of registration. It has developed into a widespread habit in Germany, even a children's game when travelling, to guess “where that vehicle is from”.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: German number plates are rectangular, with standard dimensions for cars, trucks, buses and their trailers. Plates bearing few characters may have reduced length but must retain the size and shape of the characters. Plates in two lines for the said types of vehicles measure . Motorcycles also have plates in two lines but with specific dimensions: Plates for "large motorcycles" (engine displacement over 125 cc or power output exceeding ) issued until 2011 combine a size of with characters of the same size as used for car plates, while those issued since 2011 have characters of reduced size and measure either or . Plates for "light motorcycles" ("Leichtkrafträder" up to 125 cc and ) combine a size of with characters of reduced size. This smallest size of plates is also used for agricultural tractors with a maximum speed of and their trailers and may also be issued as an exception for certain import cars, when a plate of regular size cannot be applied at the available space.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The characters on the licence plate, as well as the narrow rim framing it, are black on a white background. In standard size they are high, and wide for letters or wide for digits. The smaller plates bear characters of height and width, respectively. In the current system, introduced in 1956, they consist of an area code of one, two or three letters, followed by an identifier sequence of one or two letters and one to four digits. The total quantity of characters on the plate must not exceed eight. Identifiers consisting of one letter with one- or two-digit numbers are often reserved for motorcycle use since there is less space for plates on these vehicles, especially before the reduction of plate size to 180 × 200 mm and 220 × 200 mm in 2011.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Modern German plates use a typeface called (, tamper-hindering script). It is designed so that the letter "P" cannot be altered to look exactly like an "R", and vice versa; nor can the "F" or the "L" be forged to equal an "E", etc. Another feature is the equal width of all characters, different from the old DIN 1451 script which had been in use since the introduction of the current system, in 1956. FE-Schrift can be read by OCR software for automatic number plate recognition more easily than DIN 1451.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The present style was introduced in 1994 and became mandatory in 2000, so the number of licence plates issued in the old style has become very rare. As with many plates for countries within the European Union, a blue strip on the left shows a shortened country code in white text (D for = Germany) and the Flag of Europe (12 golden stars forming a circle on a blue background).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Traditionally, German licence plates are made of aluminium sheet, with embossed characters rising above background level. Over the years, however, various other materials have been used, albeit to a small extent only. Since 2013, a new style of plates made of plastic is allowed. They are said to be less sensitive to mechanical damage and to cause less CO emission in their production, but are more expensive.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Number plates are retroflective, but must not be mirroring, concealed or soiled, nor may they be covered by glass, foil or similar layers. Occasionally, drivers who adorn their licence plate with a badge of their favourite football club are fined and ordered to restore the original state.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The first part or consists of one, two or three letters representing the district where the car was registered, such as B for Berlin or HSK for Hochsauerlandkreis. These letters formerly coincided with the German districts. They were assigned unambiguously, as each district had one abbreviation only. Whenever a district changed its name or was merged with another, the area code would be redefined and any vehicle registered henceforth could only be issued the current code. Since 2013, however, this rule was revoked and area codes long abolished were re-introduced. In consequence, many districts use more than one code, and certain codes, on the other hand, are not assigned to one district only.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In some cases an urban district and the surrounding non-urban district share the same letter code. Usually, these are distinguished by different letter/digit patterns. For example, the urban district of has one letter after the area code (SR-A 123), whereas the surrounding district has two letters (SR-AB 123) in this place. However, several cities that share their code with the surrounding rural districts have started using any available codes for both districts without any distinction; the city of , for example, and the surrounding rural district of used different systems with their code R only until 2007.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Germany includes diacritical marks in the letters of some codes, that is the letters Ö and Ü; formerly also Ä. For a long time, German codes kept to the rule that a code with an umlaut would prohibit another code with the respective blank vowel, e.g. there could not be a district code FU as the code FÜ was already in use for Fürth. This rule was disregarded in 1996, when BÖ was introduced for Bördekreis in spite of BO existing for Bochum.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: When the area codes were introduced, they were intended mainly as a means for police officers to identify speeders and other traffic offenders. However, they soon developed into everyday abbreviations of people's home areas and were cherished or despised. Sometimes, the codes of neighbouring districts were given mocking or spiteful meanings. When districts merged and only one of their codes could be continued, fierce battles might ensue about which one.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Since 1968, a peculiar rule has applied to the municipality of which is a German exclave completely surrounded by Swiss territory. Although Büsingen belongs to the German district of Konstanz, it is part of the Swiss customs area. For this reason, a vehicle registered to a citizen of Büsingen does not bear KN for Konstanz but BÜS, signifying to Swiss customs officers that this is in fact a domestic vehicle. There are about 700 cars with this area code, which makes Büsingen the smallest and least-populated registration precinct in Germany.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Registration plates become valid with the official seal of registration. This is a sticker of diameter, following the area code and bearing, in colours, the seal of the respective German with the name of the state and the issuing district authority added in print. Older stickers were monochrome, black on silver or white, and smaller (), depicting the seal of either the Bundesland or the city district. Vehicles used by federal institutions, such as , carry the German instead of a seal.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The rear plate bears, above the official seal, the vehicle safety test sticker. This test is obligatory three years after the first registration, and every two years after that. The expiration date can be seen at one glance, as the sticker is attached with the month of expiration pointing upwards. The black marking, covering the sectors on either side of "12", thus makes it easy for the police to read the expiration month from a distance. Like the hand on a clock, the marking shows the position of a number on the face of a clock. The year when the next safety test is due is printed in the centre of the sticker and also indicated by the colour of the sticker which is repeated every six years.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Between 1985 and 2010, a similar yet hexagonal sticker was applied to the front plate, certifying the emission test. Since that year, the emission test was incorporated into the safety test and was not performed separately any more, so the emission sticker became obsolete.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: All these stickers are specially treated to be easily transferred onto the licence plates, but hard to be removed without damaging the plate itself, making them relatively counterfeit-proof.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The only licence plates which do not need to carry either seal are repeaters. These are obligatory when the original rear plate is covered, in part or whole, by cargo or attached parts, such as bicycle carriers.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The final identifier or of the licence plate consists of one or two letters, followed by a number of up to four digits. Thus, basically any combination from A1 to ZZ9999 is possible, yet restricted by the maximum length of eight characters, including the area code. All 26 letters of the Latin alphabet may be used, yet this was not always so. In order to avoid confusion between B and 8, F and E, G and 6, I and 1, O and Q and 0, those six letters were excluded from the middle part of registration plates. In 1992, the letters B, F and G were permitted, and in 2000 the alphabet was completed as I, O and Q have been allowed. In the very first months of the numbering system, between July and November 1956, the letter I was used but J was not. This was soon reversed, but single vintage cars kept sporting their letter I between 1956 and 2000 when it was re-introduced.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In the style used until 1994, a hyphen following the area code was used to separate the two groups of letters. This does no longer appear in the new format but is often retained, as the space between the geographic identifier and serial letters is a significant character and must be considered when writing down or transmitting a number. For example, F ST 683 is different from FS T 683. The risk of confusion can be avoided by writing a hyphen after the city code, like F-ST 683. For this reason, the police will usually radio the location name and spell out the next letters, using the German telephone alphabet. Thus, F ST 683 would be radioed as and FS T 683 as . If the officer should not know the meaning of the area code, he would spell it out too, such as , etc.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: While the number is issued by each district authority separately, a probable split between two or more districts sharing the same area code has to be considered. Further restrictions are caused by “prohibited” combinations (see below).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: For an extra charge of €10.20, vehicle owners can register a personalised identifier, keeping to the above rules. In most cases of personalised plates, owners choose their initials and a number reflecting their date of birth. In this fashion, fictional Mrs , born 2 May 1965 and living in , might choose "E-UM 2565" for her car. By combining area code and random letters, further possibilities arise, such as a man from Oldenburg named Olaf, born on Christmas Eve, could choose "OL-AF 2412". A resident of the town of Pirna might choose "PIR-AT 77", meaning “pirate” in German. is one of few places where the number plate can spell out all of the city name.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: BMW, owner of Mini, registers all Mini press/marketing cars in the district of which holds the code MI, to get “MI-NI” number plates for the cars. BMW itself is based in Munich, yet "M-INI" plates are not possible to issue, as three letters after the district code are not permitted.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: From 1970s up to 1994, Essen city buses owned by city transport company EVAG (Essener Verkehrs-AG) were registered with "E-AT" number plates, "essen" means "to eat" in German.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: These vanity plates can only be made up of the available prefixes and numbers, within the general rules. A James Bond fan from Hamburg would not be allowed the plate "HH-JB 007" because leading digits 0 (or even double-0) are not possible; however, he might strive for HH-J 8007 or HH-OO 7, imitating digits by letters or vice versa. The owner of a Volkswagen Polo can certainly show "VW" in the middle section, but neither "PO-LO 1995" nor "VW-P0 L01" would be possible, as these prefixes are not issued nor may letters and digits be mixed at will. Nonetheless, a notable variety of personalised number plates can be spotted on German roads.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Combinations that are regarded as a , which means “offence to moral and customs”, are disallowed or otherwise avoided. This refers mostly to abbreviations relating to Nazi Germany, such as "NS" (National Socialism), "KZ" (, concentration camp), "HJ" (, Hitler Youth), "SS" (Schutzstaffel) and "SA" (Sturmabteilung). Therefore, these two-letter combinations are generally not issued in any district, nor do the city districts of Nuremberg, Cologne and Stuttgart issue one-letter plates which would result in the combinations N-S, K-Z, S-A, S-D and S-S.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Those prefixes which will not be issued as middle letters were also excluded from the list of possible area codes with the introduction of the current system, although between 1945 and 1949 the French occupation force had used the combination SA followed by the double-digit numbers 01 to 08 for the then seven rural districts in the Saar Protectorate and its capital . Nor were these codes later taken into consideration for newly formed districts in former GDR: The district used the name of its capital, Pirna, in its code PIR, to avoid the use of "SS". When the districts of Torgau, Delitzsch and Oschatz merged into , they combined their initials into TDO, instead of abbreviating "Northern Saxony" as "NS".


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: On the other hand, the area codes HH and AH were chosen for and former district , although they could be interpreted as and , respectively. In everyday German, the letters AH are not regarded as an obvious abbreviation for that name, even less so in the 1950s when the lists were created. Nonetheless, these two-letter codes and the respective numerals 18 and 88, signifying the first and eighth letter of the alphabet, obviously have developed into Nazi symbols. They are therefore generally avoided in the serial part of licence plates, although they may be found sometimes. Generally, the decision whether or not a certain combination is permitted lies with the respective district authority. In Brandenburg, any plates that are related to Hitler, the Hitler salute, etc. cannot be issued, especially if they would be bearing digits 1888, 8818, 8888 or ending in 88, 888, 188. Nor can the combinations AH 18 and HH 18 be issued to new owners. Some districts however allow these combinations if they are the owner's initials (for example, might be able to get XX-NS 1234).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In 2004 in Nuremberg, a car owner was refused a number plate beginning "N-PD" because of the connection to the political party NPD. After the terror group National Socialist Underground was uncovered in 2011, the city of Nuremberg refused number plates beginning with "N-SU" and even abolished the respective plates on their own vehicles of (sewage and environmental department).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In the 2010s, some districts started banning licence plates with the middle letters IS which resembled the Islamic State.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The combinations STA-SI, S-ED, HEI-L, IZ-AN and WAF-FE are also forbidden or discouraged, to avoid association with Stasi, the of the GDR, the Nazi salute, NAZI backwards and the German word for weapon respectively.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Other combinations affected are BUL-LE (German derogative for police, roughly comparable to "pig"), MO-RD (German for murder) and SU-FF (boozing). On the other hand, plates that would seem offensive in other circumstances have been allowed, such as the infamous acronym AC-AB.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: For quite different reasons, some districts hold certain letter combinations reserved. The Saxon capital Dresden issues all DD-Q plates to the state police vehicles. Likewise, Erfurt uses EF-LP for the police in Thuringia. Munich and other Bavarian cities reserve certain combinations with "P" for the police units within their authorities, such as M-PM, N-PP or RO-P. Cologne issues K-TX to taxis and K-LN to the city's own vehicles. In various districts, firefighter vehicles will be issued the middle letters FW standing for .


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Sometimes, e.g. in movie films, it may be necessary to show licence plates which do not really belong to any vehicle. The easiest way would be to create a fictional area code, such as "NN-XY 555". In the 1980s the West German TV series G was used for an imaginary large city in the area. However, if the plot is supposed to take place in a defined town or region, the audience would expect cars to show codes of that area on their number plates. When James Bond was driving around Hamburg in Tomorrow Never Dies, the obviously fake Berlin licence plates on his BMW were soon pointed out.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In the time before 2000, it had also been possible to use number plates with bogus identifiers containing the letters B, F, G, I, O and Q, which at that time were not issued in the middle group. Meanwhile, however, all these letters can appear on a real licence plate. In order to state clearly that the plate shown is a fictive one, the crew could use an impossible identifier, such as an in this middle section. Yet another way would be to have a valid registration issued (or at least reserved) by the district authority.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Vehicles must be registered with their owner's name and current address. On proof of identity, vehicle documentation and liability insurance, the registration will take place in the district authority competent for the respective address. An alphanumeric combination, which can be reserved according to personal wishes, will be issued to the vehicle. The physical plates, however, have to be acquired separately, either at a local store or online. Both the dimensions of the plates and the typeface of letters and numbers are standardized. After purchasing the number plate, the official stamps must be applied, back at the registration office. A fee is payable for the registration, in addition to the expenses for the plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Changes, such as a vehicle being sold or its owner moving residence, must be registered to keep the vehicle documentation up to date. If the vehicle remains within the district, the licence plates may be retained. A vehicle being relocated outside of the district has to be registered at the authority now competent. Whilst it was mandatory to have the plates altered, according to the current address, this obligation was reduced in 2015 and has meanwhile been abolished. Since then, it is generally not possible any more to tell the owner's district of residence from the area code on the plates, as they may have registered it at a former residence e.g. in Hamburg yet moved to Frankfurt meanwhile.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: When owners choose to deregister their vehicle, the officer at the local authority will want to see the licence plates with defaced seals on them as proof that the plate can no longer be used in public. For this purpose, special machines are available for use at the registration office. Once defaced, the plates may only be used legally on public roads for one return journey to the owner's residence. If a vehicle is to be deregistered and a new one registered to the same owner, it is possible to swap the licence plate from old to new within the same process. Documentation and fees are necessary nonetheless, and neither vehicle should be used to reach the authority, as the assignment of the number changes by the minute.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: It is general practice for owners to deregister their vehicles when selling them, typically when a sale is agreed. A sales contract is highly recommended, and various forms are available online for free. A seller may hand over their vehicle with valid licence plates and papers still in their name to the new owner, and the owner will complete the registration transfer to their name. In a scenario without a proper sales contract, the seller may become liable when the buyer commits traffic violations or even criminal acts related to the car or plates. It is generally not recommended to sell used cars with licence plates.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: A car whose owner has not paid their insurance premium and is reported to the police by the insurance company may get , "unstamped" when found in a public place. The police will remove the official seal using a scratching tool like a screwdriver, leaving the plate without a valid seal. This renders the vehicle illegal to be used, or to be left in a public place, unless the insurance premium is paid and plates are fitted with a new official seal. A one-time journey to the relevant registration authorities is permitted to have the seal reinstated, once insurance is restored.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: As of 2020, the average registration fee is €26.00 whilst further fees may apply for choosing an individual identifier or for reservation of such. Whereas some of these amounts are ordained by federal laws, others vary slightly from one district to the next. The prices for number plates, on the other hand, are subject to the free market and range from less than 10€ up to around 40€ per piece. Generally, it is cheaper to have the plates ordered online, but faster to walk across the street and have them made on the spot.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Further costs arise for motor vehicle tax (€194 on average yet very much depending on engine and emissions) and mandatory liability insurance (€260 on average, in 2019; depending on the model of the vehicle, age and residence of the owner, etc.). Comprehensive insurance is recommended but voluntary.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Besides the most common way of registering a vehicle for everyday, all-year use indefinitely, it is possible to register for several months of each year, or for a few days in order to export the vehicle abroad. As well it is allowed, under certain restrictions, to register two vehicles (such as a car and a motorhome) under one number, with the same main licence plate. These variations may save expenses in tax and insurance. Further ways of saving apply to vintage cars and to electrically powered vehicles. Each of these special registrations are represented in the respective licence plate.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In deviating from the system described above, vehicles registered to federal, state or communal owners can bear licence plates not showing the district and sometimes omitting the middle letters.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Very rarely, German licence plates bear characters in different colours than black. These exceptions are:


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The first German licence plates that had a lettering plan were issued from 1906 onwards. The various states and realms which made up the German Empire used different prefixes, such as Roman numerals ( representing Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg, etc.) or plain letters ( for Hansestadt Hamburg, e.g.). Larger states added further identifiers for their provinces or regions. Saxony did not use any statewide numeral and only used Roman numerals for its provinces.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: During World War I the German Army was assigned the combination MK for , military vehicle of the German Army. After the war, during the Weimar Republic, the German Army used RW for . Other than this, there were no significant changes after the overthrow of the German monarchy.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: During the Nazi regime (1933–1945), the system of licence plates was basically continued. New combinations were issued for nationwide institutions or organisations, such as DR (Deutsche Reichsbahn) for the railway authority, WH , WL , WM and WT for the military, or POL for the police.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: While the Nazi state expanded and waged war, their bureaucrats applied their systems, including licence plates, to occupied countries or territories. Thus, plates of similar style were introduced in Austria, on Czech and Polish territory, in Alsace and Lorraine, and beyond.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: After 1945, however, the victorious allied forces abolished the system of German licence plates and instead assigned new lettering combinations in their respective occupation zones. Although each nation implemented their own ideas initially, a system for all four zones was introduced by 1949. At first, the different zones were distinguishable by the first letter prefix A, B, F or S standing for the American, British, French or Soviet occupation zone, respectively. A second letter below indicated the area or country in question, such as stood for "American zone/Bavaria". This area code was followed by a two-digit number signifying the district and another number counting within that area. Often the numbers would become scarce after some years and another zone prefix without the first letter was introduced additionally.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The city of Berlin had a special status and, consequentially, special plates. Having abolished the old number plates in 1945, the Soviet occupation forces issued plates with Cyrillic characters at first. Motorcycles were issued БM (=BM, 1945–1946) and ГM (GM, 1945–1947). Cars, lorries and buses received ГФ (=GF, 1945–1946) and БГ (=BG, 1945–1947). These were replaced on the insistence of the western powers, first to KB for "Kommandatura Berlin" and, in the Eastern part of the city, to GB in 1948.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The British Army of the Rhine (BAOR), initially occupation forces, later NATO elements, issued servicemen with plates carrying white letters and numerals on a black background for their personal vehicles. These cars stood out in comparison to the black on white German plates, and following the terrorist murder of a British serviceman, identified when returning to his car with BAOR licence plates, servicemen had to opt for their cars to carry either UK plates (generally right-hand drive vehicles) or German plates (generally left-hand drive vehicles). During the time that Belgian forces were stationed in West Germany, white on black plates similar to the BAOR plates were used.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The American Forces have tried to “blend in” their servicepersons′ private vehicles in another way. Starting in 2000, they adopted a type of which closely resembled the German plates yet bore area codes which were at that time not assigned to any district, i.e. AD, AF and HK, later also IF and QQ. These codes still stood out, especially as they bore the NATO symbol instead of the EU′s circle of stars and the registration seal candidly read instead of, e.g. . Since 2006, the vehicles in question bear with regular German area codes, generally referring to the district of their official stationing.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The German Democratic Republic issued their own style of licence plates since 1953. The first letter would indicate the or district where the vehicle was registered. These initials, however, did not refer to the name of the Bezirk but were distributed almost alphabetically from North to South.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: After German reunification in 1990, the DDR plates were soon abolished and the West German system introduced, starting in 1991 and completed in 1993. Even before this transition phase, it could be observed that licence plates in GDR scheme were produced with West German typeface on the respective machinery.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In July 1956 the current system was introduced in then West Germany, replacing the post-war system. The occupation zones were no longer referred to, instead the new system based on the districts of Germany. Each of these was assigned an alphabetic code which had its origin in the name of the district, i.e. of the city or of the capital of the rural district. Quite often, a “district-free” city was surrounded by, or adjacent to a rural district of the same name. In this case, they would both share the code as well as the name, yet devise a way how to split the possible alphanumerical combinations.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The number of letters in the area code hints at the size of the district. The basic idea was to even out the number of characters on all licence plates, because the most populous districts would have more cars and, therefore, more digits after the prefix. The largest German cities generally only have one-letter codes (B=Berlin, M=Munich (), K=Cologne (), F=, S=, H=), while most other districts in Germany have two- or three-letter codes. Therefore, cities or districts with fewer letters are generally assumed to be bigger and more important whereas three-letter codes tend to be regarded as rural and dull. Reflecting that, most districts aimed for a combination with fewer letters for their prefix code.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The most significant exception of the one-letter code is Germany's second largest city which bears HH for , because of its historical membership in the Hanseatic League, reflected already in its prefix used between 1906 and 1945. A similar principle applies to Bremen and , forming the state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen and sharing the common prefix HB (1906–1947, and again since 1956). Likewise, received its former prefix HL, already used between 1906 and 1937 when its statehood was abolished.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The first drafts, however, had to be altered in a few cases. The district of Wittlich rejected the code "WC", understandably, and received WIL instead. The code "KZ", initially projected for Konstanz, was withdrawn fast, due to recent history, and replaced by KN. Neither were "SA", "SS" or "HJ" considered to be issued. The code "SD" was projected for Stade and was finally altered into STD after protests from that district who did not want to bear the abbreviation of the .


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: When originally planned, the system included which were to be reserved until reunification. That included the territory of the GDR as well as the territories annexed to Poland and the Soviet Union after World War II, which West Germany's government still claimed in that era until about 1970. When reunification came in 1990, the reserved codes (e.g. "P" for Potsdam) were indeed issued to East German districts in January 1991, often as originally planned and as they existed at that time.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Starting in the early 1970s, West German districts were extensively rearranged. In order to reduce their number and so simplify governance, different steps could be taken:


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In each of these cases, the new districts had to be endowed with an area code. Again, various solutions were possible:


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In any case, the adamant rule was that "one" area code per district was valid and would be issued to any vehicle registered henceforth. Existing registrations would remain valid until the vehicle was removed from this district to be either relocated or permanently deregistered. Another rule, however, was abolished. Whereas rural districts had generally been named after their capital town, it was now possible to create new names, applying to geographical or historical features. As well it was possible to combine the names of the districts that had merged, either keeping one of their codes or creating a new one.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: When the GDR ceased to exist and Germany was reunited in its present size on 3 October 1990, new area codes were issued to the East German districts. In many cases they could be taken from the old lists that had been prepared before 1956: P stood for , EF for , SON for . Yet, a considerable number of codes was altered, either because a code which had been reserved for a district in today's Poland or Russia had become available, or because the projected code had meanwhile been issued to a West German district.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: One example of a reserved code being reused before reunification was one-letter L which was originally planned for , but was given to the newly formed Hessian city of and the district in 1977, as hopes for reunification faded away. After the rather unexpected reunification (and Lahn city having split up again and thus abolished in 1979), the L was returned to the city of and was issued LDK instead.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The letter G was first reserved for the East German city of and later awarded to the city of , although both are smaller than the West German (GE). The area code ZK had been reserved, in the 1950s, for the city of but was rejected as ZK had become the abbreviation of the loathed of the former Communist party SED.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: In analogy to the three northwestern Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, but without historical examples of formerly issued prefixes, four northeastern Hanseatic cities, , , and , chose the prefixes HGW, HRO, HST and HWI. There were no suitable two-letter codes available since HG, HR, HS and HW were already taken by West German districts.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Beginning in the mid-1990s, however, districts in East Germany were rearranged again, similar to the West two decades before. Thus many of these codes issued before were now outdated, but could still be seen alongside the new code. This rearrangement was continued in a second step after 2000, which created large districts with a remarkable variety of possible area codes registered. Still, only one of these was the current one which would be issued to vehicles registered at the moment.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: After the reorganization of districts, from the 1970s onward, many area codes expired and new ones were created at that time. However, number plates issued before these rearrangements remain valid, providing the vehicle is still in use and has not been reregistered since. So it was still possible, if rare, to see a classic car with registration codes of administrative units that have not existed for over 30 years.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: A study conducted in 2010–12 produced the result that 72% of the German population would welcome the possibility to use again these abolished area codes whereas only 13% opposed the idea.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: What was especially striking was that even young people who had never driven a car with such an “old” prefix favoured the idea of this so-called (licence plate liberalization).


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: The police, however, warned against this step, as it had turned out that observant citizens would easily notice a car with a number plate from a distant district, thus assisting the police in solving crimes. Plates from the vicinity, on the other hand, would be easier to remember in full, and this would also help to find offenders. More opposition came from local politicians who maintained they had at last succeeded in unifying their merged districts and healed the wounds of those inhabitants who had to give up “their” prefix. If that prefix was available again, they feared, it might lead to old feuds within districts flaming up anew.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Nonetheless, the Federal Ministry of Transport complied with the majority of citizens. Beginning in November 2012 in some districts, and meanwhile nationwide, most of these expired prefix codes have been reintroduced, e.g. in the district of , it has again become possible to register vehicles with MO as used for the former district of and DIN as used for the former district of , additionally to the standard WES which had been the only code issued since 1975. As of December 2020, the liberalization has led to 323 previously abolished codes being reintroduced.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Furthermore, it has become possible to “take one′s number along”, i.e. to keep a licence plate issued at the previous address after moving away from that district. For that reason, the area code and the respective state seal on a licence plate do not necessarily mean that the vehicle's owner really lives there.


title: Vehicle registration plates of Germany

text: Light motorised vehicles such as mopeds, motorized wheelchairs and other small, low-power vehicles (such as vehicles for the physically handicapped, with a maximum speed of ) are required to have a registration plate of a different kind. This (“insurance plate”) uses a system of three digits on the top and three letters beneath. Both numbers and letters are chosen randomly so personalising the plates is not possible. Plates are much smaller than the plates for normal cars and are only valid for one year from 1 March until the end of February the following year. Those plates are sold by insurance companies, so the fee includes both the registration and the cost of one year's insurance for the vehicle. There are four colours used: black, blue, green for normal plates, and red for temporary use, such as testing (very rare). The first three colours are changed every year in order to make it easy to see whether the vehicle has the correct plate and insurance.


title: No first use

text: In nuclear ethics and deterrence theory, No first use (NFU) refers to a type of pledge or policy wherein a nuclear power formally refrains from the use of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in warfare, except for as a second strike in retaliation to an attack by an enemy power using WMDs. Such a pledge would allow for a unique state of affairs in which a given nuclear power can be engaged in a conflict of conventional weaponry while it purposefully foregoes any of the strategic advantages of nuclear weapons, provided the enemy power does not possess or utilize any such weapons of their own. The concept is primarily invoked in reference to nuclear mutually assured destruction but has also been applied to chemical and biological warfare, as is the case of the official WMD policy of India.


title: No first use

text: China and India are currently the only two nuclear powers to formally maintain a No First Use policy, adopting pledges in 1964 and 1998 respectively. Both NATO and a number of its member states have repeatedly rejected calls for adopting a NFU policy, as during the lifetime of the Soviet Union a pre-emptive nuclear strike was commonly argued as a key option to afford NATO a credible nuclear deterrent, compensating for the overwhelming conventional weapon superiority enjoyed by the Soviet Army in Eurasia. In 1993, Russia dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by Leonid Brezhnev, with Russian military doctrine later stating in 2000 that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons "in response to a large-scale conventional aggression". Pakistan has also made similar statements, largely in reference to intermittent military tensions with India. North Korea has publicly pledged to refrain from a preemptive nuclear strike, while threatening retaliation up to and including WMDs against conventional aggression.


title: No first use

text: China became the first nuclear-weapon state to make public its NFU pledge, when it first gained nuclear capabilities in 1964, and the only state as of 2018 "to maintain an unconditional NFU pledge." In other words, it has undertaken "not to be the first to use nuclear weapons at any time or under any circumstances" and "not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against any non-nuclear-weapons states or nuclear-weapon-free zones at any time or under any circumstances." During the Cold War, China decided to keep the size of its nuclear arsenal small, rather than compete in an international nuclear arms race with the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref name="S/1995/265"></ref> China has repeatedly reaffirmed its no-first-use policy in recent years, doing so in 2005, 2008, 2009 and again in 2011. China has also consistently called on the United States to adopt a no-first-use policy, to reach an NFU agreement bilaterally with China, and to conclude an NFU agreement among the five nuclear weapon states.


title: No first use

text: India first adopted a "no first use" policy after its second nuclear tests, Pokhran-II, in 1998. In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of "retaliation only". The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike, but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail" and that decisions to authorise the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the prime minister or his "designated successor(s)". According to the National Research Development Corporation, despite the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan in 2001–2002, India remained committed to its nuclear no-first-use policy. India is in the process of developing a nuclear doctrine based on "credible minimum deterrence".


title: No first use

text: In a speech at the National Defence College by India's National Security Advisor, Shivshankar Menon, on October 21, 2010, the wording was changed from "no first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states", but some argued that it was not a substantive change but "an innocent typographical or lexical error in the text of the speech". Prime Minister Modi has, before the recent general elections, reiterated commitment to a no-first-use policy. In April 2013, Shyam Saran, convener of the National Security Advisory Board, affirmed that regardless of the size of a nuclear attack against India, be it a tactical nuclear weapon or a strategic nuclear weapon, India would retaliate massively. That was in response to reports that Pakistan had developed a tactical battlefield nuclear weapon in an attempt to supposedly nullify an Indian "no first use" retaliatory doctrine. On November 10, 2016, the Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar questioned the no-first-use policy of India, and asked why should India "bind" itself when it is a "responsible nuclear power". He clarified that it was his personal opinion.


title: No first use

text: Indian Defence Minister Rajnath Singh, speaking on the anniversary of the death of former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee on August 16, 2019, said that India's no-first-use policy might change depending upon the "circumstances". Vajpayee's government conducted the Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998.


title: No first use

text: Pakistan, Russia, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France say that they will use nuclear weapons against either nuclear or non-nuclear states only in the case of invasion or other attack against their territory or against one of their allies. Historically, NATO military strategy, taking into account the numerical superiority of Warsaw Pact conventional forces, assumed that tactical nuclear weapons would have to be used to defeat a Soviet invasion.


title: No first use

text: At the 16th NATO summit in April 1999, Germany proposed that NATO adopt a no-first-use policy, but the proposal was rejected. In 2022, leaders of the five NPT nuclear-weapon states issued a statement on prevention of nuclear war, saying "We affirm that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought."


title: No first use

text: In its final years, the Soviet Union adopted a formal no-first-use in 1982 when Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko read a pledge by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev against a pre-emptive nuclear strike at the United Nations. However, this pledge was not taken seriously, and later leaked Soviet Armed Forces documents confirmed that the military had plans for a pre-emptive nuclear strike and considered launching one during the Able Archer 83 crisis. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation formally reversed this policy in 1993 due to the weakness of the Russian Armed Forces in the post-Soviet era. Russia describes its entire military doctrine as defensive military doctrine.


title: No first use

text: The 2020 Presidential Executive Order on Nuclear Deterrence in Article 4 uses the wording: "deterrence of a potential adversary from aggression against the Russian Federation and/or its allies. In the event of a military conflict, this Policy provides for the prevention of an escalation of military actions and their termination on conditions that are acceptable for the Russian Federation and/or its allies." This has been interpreted as describing non-nuclear scenarios where Russia might use nuclear weapons to achieve its military goals. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, observers expressed concern that Russia would preemptively use tactical nuclear weapons after President Vladimir Putin announced the mobilization of Russian nuclear forces to "combat-ready" status. However, in December 2022, Putin claimed that Russia would never use nuclear weapons first.


title: No first use

text: Russia and China do maintain a mutual agreement to have a no first use policy which was developed under the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation. Under the second paragraph of article two, China and Russia agreed that "The contracting parties reaffirm their commitment that they will not be the first to use nuclear weapons against each other nor target strategic nuclear missiles against each other."


title: No first use

text: On December 7th 2022, president Putin stated that Russia will not be the first to use nuclear weapons in a conflict, neither will "it be the second" to do so.


title: No first use

text: In March 2002, the Secretary of State for Defence Geoff Hoon stated that the UK was prepared to use nuclear weapons against "rogue states" such as Ba'athist Iraq if they ever used "weapons of mass destruction" against British Armed Forces troops in the field. This policy was restated in February 2003 and again under the Ministry of Defence's Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010. In April 2017 Defence Secretary Michael Fallon confirmed that the UK would use nuclear weapons in a "pre-emptive initial strike" in "the most extreme circumstances". Fallon stated in a parliamentary answer that the UK has neither a 'first use' or 'no first use' in its nuclear weapon policy so that its adversaries would not know when the UK would launch nuclear strikes.


title: No first use

text: The United States has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it "reserves the right to use" nuclear weapons first in the case of conflict. This was partially to provide a nuclear umbrella over its allies in NATO as a deterrent against a conventional Warsaw Pact attack during the Cold War, and NATO continues to oppose a no-first-use policy. Not only did the United States and NATO refuse to adopt a no first use policy, but until 1967 they maintained a nuclear doctrine of "massive retaliation" in which nuclear weapons would explicitly be used to defend North America or Western Europe against a conventional attack. Although this strategy was revised, they both reserved the right to use nuclear weapons first under the new doctrine of "flexible response."


title: No first use

text: The US doctrine for the use of nuclear weapons was revised most recently in the Nuclear Posture Review, released April 6, 2010. The 2010 Nuclear Posture Review reduces the role of U.S. nuclear weapons: "The fundamental role of U.S. nuclear weapons, which will continue as long as nuclear weapons exist, is to deter nuclear attack on the United States, our allies, and partners." The U.S. doctrine also includes the following assurance to other states: "The United States will not use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapons states that are party to the NPT and in compliance with their nuclear non-proliferation obligations."


title: No first use

text: For states eligible for the assurance, the United States would not use nuclear weapons in response to a chemical or biological attack but states that those responsible for such an attack would be held accountable and would face the prospect of a devastating conventional military response. Even for states that are not eligible for the assurance, the United States would consider the use of nuclear weapons only in extreme circumstances to defend the vital interests of the United States or its allies and partners. The Nuclear Posture Review also notes, "It is in the U.S. interest and that of all other nations that the nearly 65-year record of nuclear non-use be extended forever."


title: No first use

text: This supersedes the doctrine of the George W. Bush administration set forth in "Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations" and written under the direction of Air Force General Richard Myers, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The new doctrine envisions commanders requesting presidential approval to use nuclear weapons to preempt an attack by a nation or a terrorist group using weapons of mass destruction. The draft also includes the option of using nuclear weapons to destroy known enemy stockpiles of nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons.


title: No first use

text: In August 2016, President Barack Obama reportedly considered adopting a 'No First Use' policy. Obama was persuaded by several Cabinet officials such as Secretary of State John Kerry, Secretary of Defense Ash Carter, and Secretary of Energy Ernest Moniz that 'No First Use' would rattle U.S. allies and decided not to take up the policy.


title: No first use

text: During the 2017–2018 North Korea crisis, there were efforts to either require congressional approval for a pre-emptive nuclear strike or to ban it altogether and impose an NFU policy. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee chaired by Bob Corker held its first meeting on the President's authority to use nuclear weapons in 41 years. Since 2017, Ted Lieu, Ed Markey, Elizabeth Warren, and Adam Smith all introduced bills to limit the President's ability to order a pre-emptive nuclear strike. Calls to limit the President of the United States' ability to unilaterally launch a pre-emptive nuclear strike increased after the January 6 United States Capitol attack. During the 2020 United States presidential election the eventual victor Joe Biden expressed support for a "sole purpose" declaration confirming that the only use of U.S. nuclear weapons would be as a deterrent, although this is distinct from a "no first use" declaration identifying that the United States would not unilaterally use them.


title: No first use

text: Pakistan's Foreign Minister Shamshad Ahmad warned that if Pakistan is ever invaded or attacked, it will use "any weapon in its arsenal" to defend itself.


title: No first use

text: Pakistan refuses to adopt a no first use doctrine and indicates that it would launch nuclear weapons even if the other side did not use such weapons first. Pakistan's asymmetric nuclear posture has significant influence on India's ability to retaliate, as shown in 2001 and 2008 crises, when non-state actors carried out deadly terrorist attacks on India, only to be met with a relatively subdued response from India. A military spokesperson stated that "Pakistan's threat of nuclear first-use deterred India from seriously considering conventional military strikes."


title: No first use

text: Pakistan's National Security Advisor Sartaj Aziz defended the policy of first use. Aziz stated that Pakistan's first use doctrine is entirely deterrent in nature. He explained that it was effective after the 2001 Indian Parliament attack and argued that if Pakistan had a no first use policy, there would have been a major war between the two countries.


title: No first use

text: North Korea's stated policy position is that nuclear weapons "will never be abused or used as a means for preemptive strike", but if there is an "attempt to have recourse to military force against us" North Korea may use their "most powerful offensive strength in advance to punish them".


title: No first use

text: Although Israel does not officially confirm or deny having nuclear weapons, the country is widely believed to be in possession of them. Its continued ambiguous stance puts it in a difficult position since to issue a statement pledging 'no first use' would confirm their possession of nuclear weapons.


title: No first use

text: Israel has said that it "would not be the first country in the Middle East to formally introduce nuclear weapons into the region".


title: No first use

text: If Israel's very existence is threatened, some speculate that Israel would use a "Samson Option", a "last resort" deterrence strategy of massive retaliation with nuclear weapons, should the State of Israel be substantially damaged and/or near destruction. According to Israeli historian Avner Cohen, Israel's policy on nuclear weapons, which was set down in 1966, revolves around four "red lines" which could lead to an Israeli nuclear response:


title: Walking in Memphis

text: "Walking in Memphis" is a song composed and originally recorded by American singer-songwriter Marc Cohn, for whom it remains his signature song. It received a Song of the Year nomination at the 34th Grammy Awards in 1992, the same year that the 32-year-old Cohn won the Grammy for Best New Artist.


title: Walking in Memphis

text: The song's lyrics are autobiographical, chronicling a 1985 trip that Cohn, then a struggling songwriter and singer, took to Memphis to overcome a bout of writer's block. After visiting the church where former soul singer Al Green was preaching, Elvis Presley's former home of Graceland, and a small nightclub in nearby Mississippi, as well as wandering various streets of downtown Memphis, he returned to New York and began composing the song. While writing and recording sessions continued through the late 1980s, his debut album, on which the song was the lead single, was not released until 1991.


title: Walking in Memphis

text: "Walking in Memphis" reached number 13 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1991, becoming Cohn's only top-forty hit on the chart. The song reached number three in Canada, number seven in Ireland, and number 11 in Australia. "Walking in Memphis" has since been covered several times, notably in 1995 by Cher and in 2003 by Lonestar.