title: Language of Jesus

text: The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic words. When the text itself refers to the language of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning "Hebrew"/"Jewish" (Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: "têi hebraḯdi dialéktōi", lit. 'in the Hebrew dialect/language') but this term is often applied to unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases; for this reason, it is often interpreted as meaning "the (Aramaic) vernacular of the Jews" in recent translations.


title: Language of Jesus

text: A small minority of scholars believe that most or all of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. This theory is known as Aramaic primacy.


title: Language of Jesus

text: This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus bringing the girl back to life, with a transliteration into Greek, as ταλιθὰ κούμ. A few Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this form of the text, but others (Codex Alexandrinus, the text-type known as the Majority Text, and also the Latin Vulgate) write κοῦμι ("koumi", cumi) instead. The latter is in the Textus Receptus and is the version which appears in the KJV.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The Aramaic is "ṭlīthā qūm". The word "ṭlīthā" is the feminine form of the word "ṭlē", meaning "young". "Qūm" is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally "qūmī". However, there is evidence that in speech, the final "-ī" was dropped so the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliteration, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written ἐφφαθά. This could be from the Aramaic "ethpthaḥ", the passive imperative of the verb "pthaḥ", 'to open', since the "th" could assimilate in western Aramaic. The pharyngeal "ḥ" was often omitted in Greek transcriptions in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean speech.


title: Language of Jesus

text: In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח or אפתח. This word was adopted as the official motto of Gallaudet University, the United States' most prominent school for the deaf.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Abba, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) [standing for the Hebrew "Abijah" ()], common in Mishnaic Hebrew and still used in Modern Hebrew (written Αββά[ς] in Greek, and "’abbā" in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατήρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. In Aramaic, it would be אבא.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Aramaic "Bar Abba" (בר אבא), literally "Son of the Father".


title: Language of Jesus

text: In Aramaic, it could be ממון (or, in the typical Aramaic "emphatic" state suggested by the Greek ending, ממונא). This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew, but its occurrence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th century Punic may indicate that it had a more general "common Semitic background".


title: Language of Jesus

text: In the New Testament, the word "Mamōnâs" is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could be either מרנא תא ("marana tha", "Lord, come!") or מרן אתא ("maran atha", "Our Lord has come").


title: Language of Jesus

text: This phrase, among the Sayings of Jesus on the cross, is given in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί. The Markan version is Ἐλωΐ, Ἐλωΐ, λαμὰ σαβαχθανί ("elōi" rather than "ēli" and "lama" rather than "lema").


title: Language of Jesus

text: Overall, both versions appear to be Aramaic rather than Hebrew because of the verb ("šbq") "abandon", which is originally Aramaic. The "pure" Biblical Hebrew counterpart to this word, ("‘zb") is seen in the second line of Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version ("ēlī ēlī lāmā ‘azabtānī") attributed in some Jewish interpretations to King David cited as Jesus' ancestor in Matthew's Genealogy of Jesus if the Eli, Eli version of Jesus' outcry is taken; he may be quoting the version given in an Aramaic Targum (surviving Aramaic Targums do use "šbq" in their translations of the Psalm 22 ).


title: Language of Jesus

text: The Markan word for "my god", Ἐλωΐ, definitely corresponds to the Aramaic form אלהי, "elāhī". The Matthean one, Ἠλί, fits in better with the אלי of the original Hebrew Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abundantly in Aramaic as well.


title: Language of Jesus

text: In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah ("Ēlīyā" in Aramaic).


title: Language of Jesus

text: Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalize this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (ēli ēli lama zaphthani). The Alexandrian, Western and Caesarean textual families all reflect harmonization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The Aramaic word form "šəḇaqtanī" is based on the verb "šəḇaq"/"šāḇaq", 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect tense ending "-t" (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix "-anī" (1st person singular: 'me').


title: Language of Jesus

text: The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek text translated as English jot and tittle is found "iota" and "keraia". Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι; still, it is the smallest of all the Greek majuscules) and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it probably represents the Hebrew yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. "Keraia" is a hook or serif.


title: Language of Jesus

text: In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning "religious gift" or "offering".


title: Language of Jesus

text: This word is derived from הושע נא. It is generally considered to be a quote from Psalms 118:25 "O , save (us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was הושיעה נא. The shortened form הושע could be either Aramaic or Hebrew.


title: Language of Jesus

text: Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is "bar" (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic "bar"), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, "ben", is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:


title: Language of Jesus

text: Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργές (Boanērges).


title: Language of Jesus

text: There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is "bnē", 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοάνη (boanē), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be "rḡaš" ('tumult') Aramaic (רגיש), or "rḡaz" ('anger') Aramaic (רגז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, "r‘am" (due to the similarity of "s" to the final "m"). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as "bnay ra‘mâ". The Peshitta reads ܒܢܝ ܪܓܫܝ "bnay rḡešy", which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.


title: Language of Jesus

text: In these passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated (Kēphâs).


title: Language of Jesus

text: The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, "kēpā", meaning 'rock' or 'stone'. The final sigma ("ς") is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and Corinth. He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter.


title: Language of Jesus

text: According to Clement of Alexandria, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus' "Seventy Apostles". Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles, though this is perhaps Clement's way of deflecting the condemnation from Simon Peter. In 1708, a French Jesuit, Jean Hardouin, wrote a dissertation that argues "Peter" was actually "another Peter", thus the emphasis of using the name Cephas (Aramaic for "Peter"). In 1990 Bart D. Ehrman wrote an article on the "Journal of Biblical Literature", similarly arguing that Peter and Cephas should be understood as different people, citing the writing of Clement of Alexandria and the Epistula Apostolorum and in support of his theory; Ehrman's article received a detailed critique by Dale Allison, who argued that Peter and Cephas are the same person. Ehrman later retracted his proposal, deeming it "highly unlikely".


title: Language of Jesus

text: Thomas () is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the name Didymus (), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek —Thōmâs—comes from the Aramaic "tōmā", "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθά) and Greek (Δορκάς). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of "Ṭḇīthā", the female form of ("Ṭaḇyā"). Both names mean 'gazelle'.


title: Language of Jesus

text: It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (), are similar to the "talitha kum" phrase used by Jesus.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανῆ (Gethsēmanē). It represents the Aramaic "Gath-Šmānē", meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).


title: Language of Jesus

text: In Aramaic, it could be ܓܕܣܡܢ. This place name is more properly an Aramaized version of an original Hebrew place name. "Gath" גת is a normal word for press in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive press though; and "shemanei" שמני is the Hebrew word "shemanim" שמנים meaning "oils", the plural form of the word "shemen" שמן, the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in a construct form ("-ei" instead of the ordinary plural suffix "-im"). The word in Aramaic for "oil" is more properly "mišḥa" (משחא), as also attested in Jewish writings in Aramaic from the Galilee (see Caspar Levias, A Grammar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986).


title: Language of Jesus

text: "Gagūltā" Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply "Kranion" (Κρανίον) 'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic counterpart. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.


title: Language of Jesus

text: In Aramaic, it could be ܓܓܘܠܬܐ. Though this word has the Aramaic final form "-ta" / "-tha", it is otherwise also closer to the Hebrew word for skull, "gulgolet" גולגולת, than to the Aramaic form.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, "War", V.ii.1, #51, the word "Gabath" means "high place", or "elevated place", so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.


title: Language of Jesus

text: The place of Judas Iscariot's death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ἀκελδαμά ("Akeldama"); other manuscript versions give Ἀχελδαμάχ ("Acheldamach"), Ἁκελδαμά ("Hakeldama"), Ἁχελδαμά ("Hacheldama") and Ἁκελδαμάχ ("Hakeldamach"). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably "ḥqēl dmā", 'field of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of "kh" at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the Book of "Sirakh" (). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers.


title: Language of Jesus

text: "Bethesda" was originally the name of a pool in Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known as the "Sheep Pool". Its name in Aramaic means "House of Grace". It is associated with healing. In John 5, Jesus was reported healing a man at the pool.


title: Language of Jesus

text: For other Aramaic place names in the New Testament beginning with "beth" ("house of"), see Bethabara, Bethany, Bethphage and Bethsaida and Bethlehem.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that improve on the original species in qualities such as color, shape, scent, and long-lasting blooms. There are many examples of fine ornamental plants that can provide height, privacy, and beauty for any garden. These ornamental perennial plants have seeds that allow them to reproduce. One of the beauties of ornamental grasses is that they are very versatile and low maintenance. Almost any types of plant have ornamental varieties: trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses, succulents. aquatic plants, herbaceous perennials and annual plants. Non-botanical classifications include houseplants, bedding plants, hedges, plants for cut flowers and foliage plants. The cultivation of ornamental plants comes under floriculture and tree nurseries, which is a major branch of horticulture.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Commonly, ornamental garden plants are grown for the display of aesthetic features including flowers, leaves, scent, overall foliage texture, fruit, stem and bark, and aesthetic form. In some cases, unusual features may be considered to be of interest, such as the prominent thorns of "Rosa sericea" and "cacti".


title: Ornamental plant

text: The cultivation of ornamental plants in gardening began in ancient civilizations around 2000 BC. Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings of the 1500 BC show physical evidence of ornamental horticulture and landscape design. The wealthy pharaohs of Amun had plenty of lands to grow all different kinds of ornamental plants.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Ornamental plants and trees are distinguished from utilitarian and crop plants, such as those used for agriculture and vegetable crops, and for forestry or as fruit trees. This does not preclude any particular type of plant being grown both for ornamental qualities in the garden, and for utilitarian purposes in other settings. Thus lavender is typically grown as an ornamental plant in gardens, but may also be grown as a crop plant for the production of lavender oil.


title: Ornamental plant

text: The term "ornamental plant" is used here in the same sense that it is generally used in the horticultural trades, in which they are often just called "ornamentals". The term largely corresponds to 'garden plant', though the latter is much less precise, as any plant may be grown in a garden. Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for display purposes, rather than functional ones. While some plants are both ornamental and functional, people usually use the term “ornamental plants” to refer to plants which have no value beyond being attractive, although many people feel that this is value enough. Ornamental plants are the keystone of ornamental gardening, and they come in a range of shapes, sizes, and colors suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Some ornamental plants are foliage plants grown mainly or entirely for their showy foliage; this is especially true of houseplants. Their foliage may be deciduous, turning bright orange, red, and yellow before dropping off in the fall, or evergreen, in which case it stays green year-round. Some ornamental foliage has a striking appearance created by lacy leaves or long needles, while other ornamentals are grown for distinctively colored leaves, such as silvery-gray ground covers and bright red grasses, among many others.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Other ornamental plants are cultivated for their blooms. Flowering ornamental plants are a key aspect of most gardens, with many flower gardeners preferring to plant a variety of flowers so that the garden is continuously in flower through the spring and summer. Depending on the types of plants being grown, the flowers may be subtle and delicate, or large and showy, with some ornamental plants producing distinctive aromas. Ornamental plants are beneficial.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Ornamental grasses and grass-like plants are valued in home landscapes for their hardiness, ease of care, dramatic appearance, and a wide variety of colors, textures, and sizes available. Many ornamental types of grass are true grasses (Poaceae), however, several other families of grass-like plants are typically marketed as ornamental grasses. These include the sedges (Cyperaceae), rushes (Juncaceae), restios (Restionaceae), and cat-tails (Typhaceae). All are monocotyledons, typically with narrow leaves and parallel veins. Most are herbaceous perennials, though many are evergreen and some develop woody tissues. Ornamental grasses are popular in many countries. They bring striking linear form, texture, color, motion, and sound to the garden, throughout the year.


title: Ornamental plant

text: Ornamental grasses are popular in many colder hardiness zones for their resilience to cold temperatures and aesthetic value throughout the fall and winter seasons.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Linear Tape-Open (LTO) is a magnetic tape data storage technology originally developed in the late 1990s as an open standards alternative to the proprietary magnetic tape formats that were available at the time. Hewlett Packard Enterprise, IBM, and Quantum control the LTO Consortium, which directs development and manages licensing and certification of media and mechanism manufacturers.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The standard form-factor of LTO technology goes by the name Ultrium, the original version of which was released in 2000 and stored of data in a cartridge. The ninth generation of LTO Ultrium was announced in 2020 and can hold in a cartridge of the same physical size.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Upon introduction, LTO Ultrium rapidly defined the "super tape" market segment and has consistently been the best-selling super tape format. LTO is widely used with small and large computer systems, especially for backup.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Starting in the 1950s, half-inch (12.7 mm) magnetic tape on open reels has been used for data storage since the 1950s, starting with the IBM 7 track and later IBM 9 track.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In the mid-1980s, IBM and DEC put this kind of tape into a single reel, enclosed cartridge. Although the physical tape was nominally the same size, the technologies and intended markets were significantly different and there was no compatibility between them. IBM called its format the 3480 (after the 3480, the one product that used it) and designed it to meet the demanding requirements of its mainframe products. DEC originally called theirs CompacTape, but later it was renamed DLT and sold to Quantum Corporation.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In the late 1980s, Exabyte's Data8 format, derived from Sony's dual-reel cartridge 8 mm video format, saw some popularity, especially with UNIX systems. Sony followed this success with their own now-discontinued 8 mm data format, Advanced Intelligent Tape (AIT).


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: By the late 1990s, Quantum's DLT and Sony's AIT were the leading options for high-capacity tape storage for PC servers and UNIX systems. These technologies were (and still are) tightly controlled by their owners. Consequently, there was little competition between vendors and the prices were relatively high.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: To counter this, IBM, HP and Seagate formed the LTO Consortium, which introduced a more open format focusing on the same mid-range market segment. Much of the technology is an extension of the work done by IBM at its Tucson lab during the previous 20 years. Initial plans called for two LTO formats: Ultrium with half-inch tape on a single reel, optimized for high capacity, and Accelis with 8 mm tape on dual reels, optimized for low latency.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In 2000, and around the time of the release of LTO-1, Seagate's magnetic tape division was spun off as Seagate Removable Storage Solutions, later renamed Certance, which was subsequently acquired by Quantum.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Despite the initial plans for two form-factors of LTO technology, only Ultrium was ever produced. The other proposed format was Accelis, developed in 1997 for fast access to data by using a two-reel cartridge that loads at the midpoint of the 8 mm wide tape to minimize access time. IBM's (short-lived) 3570 Magstar MP product pioneered this concept. The real-world performance never exceeded that of the Ultrium tape format, so there was never a demand for Accelis and no drives or media were commercially produced. As of 2008, LTO Ultrium was very popular and there were no commercially available LTO Accelis drives or media. In common usage, LTO generally refers only to the Ultrium form factor.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The first generation of Ultrium tapes were going to be available with four types of cartridge, holding 10 GB, 30 GB, 50 GB, and 100 GB. Only the full length 100 GB tapes were produced.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: As of 2020, nine generations of LTO Ultrium technology have been made available and five more are planned. Between generations, there are strict compatibility rules that describe how and which drives and cartridges can be used together.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: While data capacity and speed figures vary with "uncompressed or compressed" data, most manufacturers list compressed capacities and speeds on their marketing material. Capacities are often stated on tapes as double the actual value, assume that data will be compressed with a 2:1 ratio (IBM uses a 3:1 compression ratio in the documentation for its mainframe tape drives. Sony uses a 2.6:1 ratio for SAIT). See Compression below for algorithm descriptions and the table above for allowable LTO compression ratios.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The units for data capacity and data transfer rates generally follow the "decimal" SI prefix convention (e.g. mega = 10), not the binary interpretation of a decimal prefix (e.g. mega = 2).


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Drives usually support variable-speed operation to dynamically match the data rate flow. This nearly eliminates tape backhitching or "shoe-shining", maximizing overall throughput and device/tape life.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In contrast to other tape technologies, an Ultrium cartridge is rigidly defined by a particular generation of LTO technology and cannot be used in any other way (with the exception of LTO-M8, see below). While Ultrium drives are also defined by a particular generation, they are required to have some level of compatibility with older generations of cartridges. The rules for compatibility between generations of drives and cartridges are as follows:


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: For example, an LTO-2 cartridge can never be used by an LTO-1 drive and even though it can be used in an LTO-3 drive, it performs as if it were in an LTO-2 drive.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Within the compatibility rules stated above, drives and cartridges from different vendors are expected to be interchangeable. For example, a tape written on any one vendor's drive should be fully readable on any other vendor's drive that is compatible with that generation of LTO.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: LTO Ultrium tape is laid out with four wide data bands sandwiched between five narrow servo bands. The tape head assembly, that reads from and writes to the tape, straddles a single data band and the two adjacent servo bands. The tape head has 8, 16, or 32 data read/write head elements and 2 servo read elements. The set of 8, 16, or 32 tracks are read or written in a single, one-way, end-to-end pass that is called a "wrap". The tape head shifts laterally to access the different wraps within each band and also to access the other bands.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Writing to a blank tape starts at band 0, wrap 0, a forward wrap that runs from the beginning of the tape (BOT) to the end of the tape (EOT) and includes a track that runs along one side of the data band. The next wrap written, band 0, wrap 1, is a reverse wrap (EOT to BOT) and includes a track along the other side of the band. Wraps continue in forward and reverse passes, with slight shifts toward the middle of the band on each pass. The tracks written on each pass "partially overlap" the tracks written on the previous wrap of the same direction, like roof shingles. The back and forth pattern, working from the edges into the middle, conceptually resembles a coiled serpent and is known as linear serpentine recording.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: When the first data band is filled (they are filled in 3, 1, 0, 2 order across the tape), the head assembly is moved to the second data band and a new set of wraps is written in the same linear serpentine manner. The total number of tracks on the tape is (4 data bands) × (11 to 52 wraps per band) × (8, 16, or 32 tracks per wrap). For example, an LTO-2 tape has 16 wraps per band, and thus requires 64 passes to fill.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Since LTFS is an open standard, LTFS-formatted tapes are usable by a wide variety of computing systems.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The block structure of the tape is logical so interblock gaps, file marks, tape marks and so forth take only a few bytes each. In LTO-1 and LTO-2, this logical structure has CRC codes and compression added to create blocks of 403,884 bytes. Another chunk of 468 bytes of information (including statistics and information about the drive that wrote the data and when it was written) is then added to create a "dataset". Finally error correction bytes are added to bring the total size of the dataset to 491,520 bytes (480 KiB) before it is written in a specific format across the eight heads. LTO-3 and LTO-4 use a similar format with 1,616,940-byte blocks.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The tape drives use a strong error correction algorithm that makes data recovery possible when lost data is within one track. Also, when data is written to the tape it is verified by reading it back using the read heads that are positioned just "behind" the write heads. This allows the drive to write a second copy of any data that fails the verify without the help of the host system.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: While specifications vary somewhat between different drives, a typical LTO-3 drive will have a maximum rewind time of about 80 seconds and an average access time (from beginning of tape) of about 50 seconds. Because of the serpentine writing, rewinding often takes less time than the maximum. If a tape is written to full capacity, there is no rewind time, since the last pass is a reverse pass leaving the head at the beginning of the tape (number of tracks ÷ tracks written per pass is always an even number).


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: LTO tape is designed for 15 to 30 years of archival storage. If tapes are archived for longer than 6 months they have to be stored at a temperature between 16 and 25 °C (61 to 77 °F) and between 20 – 50% RH.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Both drives and media should be kept free from airborne dust or other contaminants from packing and storage materials, paper dust, cardboard particles, printer toner dust etc.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Depending on the generation of LTO technology, a single LTO tape should be able to sustain approximately 200-364 full file passes. There is a large amount of lifespan variability in actual use. One full file pass is equal to writing enough data to fill an entire tape and takes between 44 and 208 end-to-end passes. Regularly writing only 50% capacity of the tape results in half as many end-to-end tape passes for each scheduled backup, and thereby doubles the tape lifespan. LTO uses an automatic verify-after-write technology to immediately check the data as it is being written, but some backup systems explicitly perform a completely separate tape reading operation to verify the tape was written correctly. This separate verify operation doubles the number of end-to-end passes for each scheduled backup, and reduces the tape life by half.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The original release of LTO technology defined an optional data compression feature. Subsequent generations of LTO have introduced new optional technology, including WORM, encryption, and partitioning features.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Compliance-verified licensed manufacturers of LTO technology media at one time were EMTEC, Imation, Fujifilm, Maxell, TDK, and Sony. All other brands of media are manufactured by these companies under contract. Since its bankruptcy in 2003, EMTEC no longer manufactures LTO media products. Imation ended all magnetic tape production in 2011, but continued making cartridges using TDK tape. They later withdrew from all data storage markets, and changed their name to Glassbridge Enterprises in 2017. TDK withdrew from the data tape business in 2014. Verbatim and Quantegy both licensed LTO technology, but never manufactured their own compliance-verified media. Maxell also withdrew from the market.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In addition to the data cartridges, there are also Universal Cleaning Cartridges (UCC), which work with all drives.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The colors of LTO Ultrium cartridge shells are mostly consistent, though not formally standardized; HP is the notable exception. Sometimes similar, rather than identical, colors are used by different manufacturers (slate-blue and blue-gray; green, teal, and blue-green; dark red and burgundy).


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: WORM (write once, read many) cartridges are two-tone: the top half of the shell is the normal color of that generation for that manufacturer, and the bottom half of the shell is a light gray.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Every LTO cartridge has a cartridge memory chip inside it. It is made up of 511, 255, or 128 blocks of memory, where each block is 32 bytes for a total of 16 KiB for LTO-6 to 8; 8 KiB for LTO-4 and 5; and 4 KiB on LTO-1 to 3 and cleaning cartridges. This memory can be read or written, one block at a time, via a non-contacting passive 13.56 MHz RF interface. This memory is used to identify tapes, to help drives discriminate between different generations of the technology, and to store tape-use information. Every LTO drive has a cartridge memory reader in it. The non-contact interface has a range of 20 mm. External readers are available, both built into tape libraries and PC based. One such reader, Veritape, connects by USB to a PC and integrates with analytical software to evaluate the quality of tapes. This device is also rebranded as the Spectra MLM Reader and the Maxell LTO Cartridge Memory Analyzer. Proxmark3 and other generic RFID readers are also able to read data.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The LTO cartridge label in tape library applications commonly uses the bar code symbology of USS-39. A description and definition is available from the Automatic Identification Manufacturers (AIM) specification Uniform Symbol Specification (USS-39) and the ANSI MH10.8M-1993 ANSI Barcode specification.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The tape inside an LTO cartridge is wound around a single reel. The end of the tape is attached to a perpendicular leader pin that is used by an LTO drive to reliably grasp the end of the tape and mount it in a take-up reel inside the drive. Older single-reel tape technologies, such as 9 track tape and DLT, used different means to load tape onto a take-up reel. When a cartridge is not in a drive, the pin is held in place at the opening of the cartridge with a small spring. A common reason for a cartridge failing to load into a drive is the misplacement of the leader pin as a result of the cartridge having been dropped. The plastic slot where the pin is normally held is deformed by the drop and the leader pin is no longer in the position that the drive expects it to be.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The magnetic servo tracks on the tape are factory encoded. Using a bulk eraser, degaussing, or otherwise exposing the cartridge to a strong magnetic field, will erase the servo tracks along with the data tracks, rendering the cartridge unusable. Erasing the data tracks without destroying the servo tracks requires special equipment. The erasing head used in these erasers has four magnetic poles that match the width and the location of the data bands. The gaps between the poles correspond to the servo tracks, which are not erased. Tapes erased by this equipment can be recorded again.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Although keeping a tape drive clean is important, normal cleaning cartridges are abrasive and frequent use will shorten the drive's lifespan. LTO drives have an internal tape head cleaning brush that is activated when a cartridge is inserted. When a more thorough cleaning is required the drive signals this on its display and/or via Tape Alert flags. Cleaning cartridge lifespan is usually from 15 to 50 cleanings. There are 2 basic methods of initiating a cleaning of a drive: robot cleaning and software cleaning. In addition to keeping the tape drive clean, it is also important to keep the media clean. Debris on the media can be deposited onto drive components that are in contact with the tape. This debris can result in increased media wear which generates more debris. Removing excessive debris from tape can reduce the number of data errors. Cleaning of the media requires special equipment. These cleaners are also used by Spectra Logic to clean new media that is marketed as "CarbideClean" media. HP LTO Gen.1 drives have a cleaning strategy that will prevent the drive from using the cleaning tape if it is not needed. In a change of strategy, HP LTO Gen 2, 3 and 4 drives will always clean when a Universal Cleaning Cartridge is inserted, whether the drive requires cleaning or not.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: , compliance-verified licensed manufacturers of current LTO technology mechanisms are IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Quantum, although both Hewlett Packard and Quantum have stopped new development of drive mechanisms. The mechanisms, also known as tape drives or streamers, are available in Full-height and Half-height form factors. These drives are frequently packaged into external desktop enclosures or carriers that fit into a robotic tape library.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: In the course of its existence, LTO has succeeded in completely displacing all other low-end/mid-range tape technologies such as AIT, DLT, DAT/DDS, and VXA. And after the exit of Oracle StorageTek T10000 of the high-end market, only the IBM 3592 series is still under active development. LTO also competes against hard disk drives (HDDs), and its continuous improvement has prevented the predicted "death of tape" at the hands of disk.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The presence of five certified media manufacturers and four certified mechanism manufacturers for a while produced a competitive market for LTO products. However, , there are only two manufacturers developing media, Sony and Fuji, and only IBM is developing mechanisms.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: The LTO organization publishes annual media shipments measured in both units and compressed capacity. In 2017, a record 108,457 petabytes (PB) of total tape capacity (compressed) shipped, an increase of 12.9 percent over the previous year. Cartridge unit shipments decreased to about 18 million units down from a peak of about 27 million units in 2008.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Public information on tape drive sales is not readily available. Unit shipment peaked at about 800,000 units in 2008, but have declined since then to about 400,000 units in 2010, and to less than 250,000 by the end of 2018


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: As HDD prices have dropped, disk has become cheaper relative to tape drives and cartridges. , at any capacity, the cost of a new LTO tape drive plus one cartridge is much greater than that of a new HDD of the same or greater storage capacity. However, most new tape cartridges still have a lower price per gigabyte than HDDs, so that at very large subsystem capacities, the total price of tape-based subsystems can be lower than HDD based subsystems, particularly when the higher operating costs of HDDs are included in any calculation.


title: Linear Tape-Open

text: Tape is also used as "offline" copy, which can be protection against ransomware that cipher or delete data (e.g. tape is pulled out of the tape library, blocked from writing after making copy or using WORM technology). In 2019, many businesses used tape for backup and archiving.


title: The Wraith

text: The Wraith is a 1986 independently made American action-fantasy film, produced by John Kemeny, written and directed by Mike Marvin, and starring Charlie Sheen, Sherilyn Fenn, Nick Cassavetes, and Randy Quaid. The film was theatrically released November 21, 1986 on just 88 screens in the United States by New Century Vista Film Company (later New Century Entertainment Corporation).


title: The Wraith

text: In the town of Brooks, Arizona, Packard Walsh, the leader of a gang of car thieves, coerces people with fast cars into racing with the winner of the race taking ownership of the loser's car. Packard controls everyone through intimidation including Keri Johnson, whom he views as his property. Keri's boyfriend, Jamie Hankins, was the victim of an unsolved murder and Keri, who was with him, has no memory of the traumatic event.


title: The Wraith

text: Jake Kesey arrives in Brooks riding a dirt bike. He befriends Billy Hankins (Jamie's brother) and Keri. While swimming at a river, Jake is shown to have knife scars on his neck and back.


title: The Wraith

text: Packard's control of the illegal races comes to an end when an all-black Dodge M4S Turbo Interceptor supercar appears with a driver covered head-to-toe in black body armor and helmet, and metal braces resembling those worn by victims of physical trauma. The driver challenges Packard's gang to a race, ending in high-speed, explosive crashes in which two gang members are both killed. Their bodies appear unharmed afterwards except for burned-out eye sockets. The Turbo Interceptor then reconstructs itself and eludes the pursuing Sheriff Loomis in a cloud of glowing light.


title: The Wraith

text: Two more gang members, Skank and Gutterboy, are killed when the Turbo Interceptor races through the gang's warehouse, causing an explosion. With Packard's gang mostly gone, Rughead, the gang's tech-geek, figures out why the gang had been targeted. When Loomis arrives at the scene of the destruction, Rughead tells him Packard and his gang had murdered Jamie Hankins.


title: The Wraith

text: After Packard witnesses Keri kissing Jake, he kidnaps her and beats up Billy when he tries to intervene. When Packard tries driving to California, Keri resists. As he exits the car and pulls a knife on her, the Turbo Interceptor arrives and challenges Packard to a race. Packard accepts and is then killed in an explosive head-on collision with the Turbo Interceptor, like the rest of his gang were. Loomis calls off the hunt for the mysterious driver, believing it to be futile.


title: The Wraith

text: As Keri arrives home that night, the Turbo Interceptor pulls up and Jake emerges. Keri realizes that Jake is a revived form of her dead boyfriend Jamie, who had returned for a chance to rekindle their past relationship. He then asks her to wait for him because he has one last thing to do. Jake then gives his car to Billy. When Billy asks who he is Jake says that Billy already knows and as he rides off on his dirt bike, Billy realizes Jake is Jamie. Jake picks up Keri, whom Loomis is watching from a distance. Together they ride off along the desert highway into the moonlight.


title: The Wraith

text: "The Wraith" was shot entirely in and around Tucson, Arizona; shots of the hilly road leading into the fictional "Brooks, AZ" were filmed on Freeman Road on the city's south side. Keri's (Sherilyn Fenn) home is located at 2128 East 5th Street; however, "Big Kay's Burgers" was a set built especially for the film at 2755 East Benson Highway, and it no longer exists.


title: The Wraith

text: Sheriff Loomis goes to talk to Skank and Gutterboy at the Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, at the airplane graveyard where they both work. The film's swimming hole is located in Sabino Canyon, off North Upper Sabino Canyon Road. The curvy mountain road where Packard and his gang challenge other cars to deadly races is the General Hitchcock/Catalina/Mount Lemmon Highway that winds through natural stone monoliths north of the city. Skank and Gutterboy chase after Jamie and Keri down North 4th Avenue at East 7th Street. The portion of the chase that leads into a tunnel is the since-redone tunnel on North 4th Avenue, where it crosses under railroad tracks; Jake and Keri are seen riding down the road through Sabino Canyon Recreation Area (near Sabino Lake Dam) northeast of Tucson.


title: The Wraith

text: Bruce Ingram, a camera operator, died during the filming of one of the car chases; another crew member was seriously injured.


title: The Wraith

text: The Dodge M4S Turbo Interceptor used in the film was originally a pace car built by Chrysler Corporation and PPG Industries. Six copies were made for use in the film: two stunt cars made from molds of the original car and four non-drivable "dummies" that were destroyed during filming. During production, the real Dodge Turbo Interceptor was used in close-ups. That original was located at the Walter P. Chrysler Museum in Auburn Hills, MI until 2016, when the museum closed permanently.


title: The Wraith

text: The music score was composed and performed by Michael Hoenig and J. Peter Robinson, two famous synth composers of film and TV series Soundtracks. The soundtrack LP was recorded by Rick Hart and entirely played on a NED Synclavier II.


title: The Wraith

text: "The Wraith" was released in the United States on November 21, 1986. In the Philippines, the film was released as "Black Moon Rising: Part-2" on April 29, 1987, connecting it to the unrelated film "Black Moon Rising" starring Tommy Lee Jones. In Germany, it was released on June 11, 1987, under the title "Interceptor - Phantom der Ewigkeit" (Interceptor - Phantom of Eternity).


title: The Wraith

text: "The Wraith" received mixed reviews from critics. Film historian and critic Leonard Maltin dismissed the film as "... for those who favor fast cars and lots of noise." In the "Time Out" review, editor John Pym saw "The Wraith" having "comic-strip killer car thieves" with "...the best joke having one of the thugs knowing the word 'wraith.'"


title: The Wraith

text: Following its theatrical run, the film was featured on television in an episode of "Cinema Insomnia."


title: The Wraith

text: In 1987 the film was released to VHS video by Lightning Video, then on LaserDisc by Image Entertainment; it was then released in 2003 on DVD by Platinum Disc Corporation (now Echo Bridge Home Entertainment). In spite of having no special features and only being available in the pan-and-scan format, there is footage retained that was missing on the original VHS and LaserDisc releases. LionsGate released a widescreen Special Edition DVD on March 2, 2010, which included the previously missing footage.


title: Advent calendar

text: An Advent calendar is used to count the days of Advent in anticipation of Christmas. Since the date of the First Sunday of Advent varies, falling between November 27 and December 3 inclusive, many reusable Advent calendars made of paper or wood begin on December 1; others start from the First Sunday of Advent and thus include the last few days of November that begin the liturgical season of Advent.


title: Advent calendar

text: The Advent calendar was first used by German Lutherans in the 19th and 20th centuries, and has since then spread to other Christian denominations.


title: Advent calendar

text: Traditional Advent calendars feature the manger scene, Saint Nicholas and winter weather, while others range in theme, from sports to technology. They come in a multitude of forms, from a simple paper calendar with flaps covering each of the days to fabric pockets on a background scene to painted wooden boxes with cubby holes for small items.


title: Advent calendar

text: Many Advent calendars take the form of a large rectangular card with "Doors", one for each day of December leading up to and including Christmas Eve (December 24) or Christmas Day (December 25). Consecutive doors are opened every day leading up to Christmas, beginning on the start of the Advent season for that year, or simply on December 1, as is the case of reusable Advent calendars. Often the doors are distributed across the calendar in no particular order. The calendar doors open to reveal an image, a poem, a portion of a story (such as the story of the Nativity of Jesus), or a small gift, such as a toy or a chocolate item. Often, each door has a Bible verse and Christian prayer printed on it, which Christians incorporate as part of their daily Advent devotions.


title: Advent calendar

text: There are many variations of Advent calendars; some European villages create advent calendars on buildings or even so-called "living" Advent calendars, where different windows are decorated for each day of Advent.


title: Advent calendar

text: In Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, there is also a tradition of having a "Julekalender" (Swedish: "Julkalender", Finnish: "Joulukalenteri", Icelandic: "Jóladagatal"; the local word for a Yule—or Christmas—calendar) in the form of a television or radio show, starting on December 1 and ending on Christmas Eve (December 24).


title: Advent calendar

text: Such a show first aired on radio in 1957 in the form of the Swedish radio series "Barnens adventskalender"; the first televised show of the genre aired in 1960 in the form of the Swedish program "Titteliture". The first "julekalender" aired in Denmark was "Historier fra hele verden" in 1962. The televised "julkalender" or "julekalendar" has now extended into the other Nordic countries; in Finland, for example, the show is called "Joulukalenteri".


title: Advent calendar

text: Over the years, there have been several kinds of "julekalender"; some are directed at children, some at both children and adults, and some directed at adults alone. There is a "Julkalender" radio show in Sweden, which airs in the days leading up to Christmas. A classic example of a "julekalender" enjoyed by children (as well as adults, if purely for nostalgic reasons) is the 1979 Norwegian television show "Jul i Skomakergata"; another is the 1990 Icelandic television show "Á baðkari til Betlehem".


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Between the Buried and Me, often abbreviated as BTBAM, is an American progressive metal band from Raleigh, North Carolina. Formed in 2000, the band consists of Tommy Giles Rogers Jr. (lead vocals, keyboards), Paul Waggoner (lead guitar, backing vocals), Dustie Waring (rhythm guitar, lead guitar), Dan Briggs (bass, keyboards), and Blake Richardson (drums).


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Their debut eponymous album was released through Lifeforce Records in 2002, shifting to Victory Records for subsequent releases until their signing to Metal Blade in 2011, where Between the Buried and Me released their first extended play, "" that year, and its full-length follow-up "" the following year. Their seventh studio album, "Coma Ecliptic", was released in July 2015. Their eighth album "Automata I" was released in March 2018, and their ninth album, "Automata II", was released in July 2018. Their tenth album, "Colors II" (a follow up to 2007's "Colors"), was released in August 2021.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: The band was formed in 2000 in Raleigh, North Carolina after the demise of the metalcore bands From Here On and Prayer for Cleansing, of which Rogers, Waggoner, and Goodyear were members. Nick Fletcher and Jason King subsequently joined on guitar and bass respectively. The name "Between the Buried and Me" was chosen after a section of lyrics in the Counting Crows song "Ghost Train".


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Between the Buried and Me's first release was a demo containing three songs, all of which were re-recorded for the band's self-titled debut album, released through Lifeforce Records in 2002. The song "Aspirations" became the band's first music video. The album was not initially successful but did manage to catch the attention of Victory Records, to which they later signed. Victory reissued the album in 2004 as an enhanced CD. The band toured in support of their first album with Canadian metalcore group The End.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In August 2003, Between the Buried and Me traveled to Q Division Studios in Somerville, Massachusetts to record their second record, "The Silent Circus", released in October the same year. It was later re-released in 2006 with a live DVD of the band's performance at The Cat's Cradle in Chapel Hill, North Carolina on July 17, 2005. Mark Castillo played drums on "The Silent Circus", replacing Goodyear.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: After the release of "The Silent Circus", the band went through numerous members before the current lineup was assembled for their third album, "Alaska". On drums, Mark Castillo was replaced by Jason Roe, and later by Blake Richardson. On guitar, Fletcher was replaced by Shane Blay, and later by Dustie Waring. And on bass, King was replaced by Kevin Falk, and later by Dan Briggs. This remains the current lineup.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In September 2005, Between the Buried and Me released "Alaska". The album released the songs "Selkies: The Endless Obsession", "The Primer", and "Backwards Marathon" as singles. In the following year, the band released their first cover album, "The Anatomy Of", a collection of covers of bands that influenced them, including Metallica, King Crimson, Pantera, Faith No More, Queen, Pink Floyd, Earth Crisis, Counting Crows, and Soundgarden.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In early 2006, Between the Buried and Me was on tour supporting Bleeding Through along with Every Time I Die and Haste the Day. They were also on the Ozzfest 2006 Second Stage. In late 2006, they were on the Radio Rebellion Tour headlined by Norma Jean.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In September 2007, Between the Buried and Me released their fourth studio album (fifth if including "The Anatomy Of"), "Colors". Band members called it "a 65 minute opus of non stop pummeling beautiful music... we have described this release as 'new wave polka grunge'." The band also described the album as "adult contemporary progressive death metal".


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In September 2007, after the release of "Colors", the band went on tour with Animosity and Horse the Band. Giant (now known as BraveYoung) also supported their shows in the US. The run concluded with their November 4 appearance at the Saints and Sinners Fest in Asbury Park, New Jersey. In December 2007, they again embarked on a headlining tour, supported by August Burns Red and Behold... The Arctopus. The band were also the main support on The Dillinger Escape Plan's 2008 UK tour. Between the Buried and Me were one of the acts that took part at "Progressive Nation '08", the first in what became an annual progressive music festival, also featuring Dream Theater, Opeth, and 3.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Starting in summer 2008 and continuing in the fall, they performed as a supporting act for Children of Bodom's US headlining tour, alongside The Black Dahlia Murder. In early December 2008, they went on a short four-show tour around the Carolinas and Georgia (US) with other bands from the Carolinas, such as He Is Legend, Advent, and Nightbear. Between the Buried and Me finished a month-long tour of Australia on January 9 with headliners Bleeding Through, As Blood Runs Black, In Trenches, and The Abandonment. In September 2009, Between the Buried and Me performed a Canadian Tour with Killswitch Engage and In Flames co-headlining, along with the support of Protest the Hero.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On May 31, 2009, the group went into the studio to record their fifth album (sixth if including "The Anatomy Of"), "The Great Misdirect". They released the single "Obfuscation" on September 29 and the album on October 27.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In February 2010, Between the Buried and Me supported Mastodon along with Baroness on their US headlining tour. During the summer of 2010, they were on the Cool Tour with As I Lay Dying, Underoath, War of Ages, The Acacia Strain, Architects, Cancer Bats, and Blessthefall.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In early 2010, Between the Buried and Me toured across North America with Cynic, Devin Townsend, and Scale the Summit. Afterwards, they traveled to Europe supporting Lamb of God, along with Job for a Cowboy and August Burns Red.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In February 2011, Between the Buried and Me were confirmed to play at the New England Metal & Hardcore Festival on Saturday, April 16 in Worcester, MA. They were main support for Hatebreed. In April and May 2011 they headlined a tour featuring Job for a Cowboy, The Ocean, and on select dates Cephalic Carnage.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Between the Buried and Me stated their move from Victory to Metal Blade Records and quickly released an EP entitled "" on April 12, 2011. In May, Victory Records announced the release of a greatest hits album as a three-disc set. On January 16, 2012, Between the Buried and Me revealed that work on the full-length second part to "The Parallax" had begun and was later released as "" on October 9, 2012.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Between the Buried and Me also announced a headlining European tour beginning in Paris on September 2, 2011, and continuing throughout the mainland and into the UK, ending up in Moscow on September 30. The tour was supported by Animals as Leaders. In July 2011, the band announced their headlining North American "Saints&Sinners Tour" playing throughout November and December with Animals as Leaders and TesseracT. The band created a few medleys just for this tour, and performed songs that they hadn't played in years. They co-headlined the 2012 Summer Slaughter under Cannibal Corpse with numerous other metal bands such as Exhumed, Job for a Cowboy, The Faceless, and Veil of Maya, followed by a co-headlining tour through Europe and UK with Periphery and The Safety Fire.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In fall 2013 they embarked on The Future Sequence Tour, where they played "The Parallax II: Future Sequence" all the way through. Support was provided by The Faceless, The Contortionist, and The Safety Fire.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On February 14, 2014, it was announced Between the Buried and Me would record and release a live album for "The Parallax II: Future Sequence", playing it in its entirety with additional instruments, including a saxophone, percussionists, flute, and a string quartet. The release, titled "Future Sequence: Live at the Fidelitorium", was released September 30, 2014.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On March 17, 2015, they announced that "Coma Ecliptic" will be released through Metal Blade Records on July 7, 2015, and released a song titled "Memory Palace" on July 10.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: From 2015 - 2017, Between the Buried and Me went out on their "Coma Ecliptic World Tour" and headlined with / co-headlined for August Burns Red, Animals as Leaders, Devin Townsend Project, Fallujah, Enslaved, and The Contortionist.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: The band released "Coma Ecliptic: Live" on April 28, 2017, which has their entire "Coma Ecliptic" album played live in its entirety.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In the fall of 2017, Between the Buried and Me toured for the "Colors 10th Anniversary Tour" where they performed the whole album.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Recording of the band's upcoming eighth full-length album began on July 31, 2017 and finished on September 6, with the release date scheduled in early 2018.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On December 28, 2017, bassist Dan Briggs posted footage of a song they had finished recording separate from the eighth studio album completed in September 2017. It was later revealed to be their interpretation of The Dear Hunter's track "The Tank" for an exclusive 7-inch split with the band.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In January 2018, the band announced "Automata", a two-part studio album. "Automata I" was announced a release date of March 9, 2018, via Sumerian Records. The second part, "Automata II", was released on July 13, 2018.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Their "Between the Buried and Me Spring 2018 Tour" was announced as well, spanning March 2 to April 7, 2018, across the contiguous United States. The tour would be supported by The Dear Hunter with special guests Leprous. Additionally, it was announced on the Thomas Giles Instagram how their exclusive split 7-inch single with The Dear Hunter would be available for VIP package buyers on the tour. The split 7-inch would contain each band recording their interpretation of an existing song from the other band.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: The band then headlined the entire 2018 portion of the Summer Slaughter tour. They were joined up with bands such as Born of Osiris, Veil of Maya, ERRA, The Agony Scene, Allegaeon, Terror Universal, Soreption, and Entheos.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In early 2019, they toured "Automata II" in the US beginning in February and ending in March. Opening acts were Astronoid and TesseracT, except for a few dates.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: In spring 2020, the band was set to headline a 20th anniversary tour across North America, with the first set composed of songs spanning their career and the second set being "The Great Misdirect" performed in its entirety. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band postponed the tour until it was safe to tour again. The tour was rebranded as a 21st anniversary tour in 2021 and kicked off in Atlanta on August 3 of that year.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: The band revealed on November 16, 2020, that they have been writing their upcoming tenth studio album and are recording it for a scheduled release sometime in 2021.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On June 24, 2021, the band announced the release of their new album "Colors II" (follow-up to 2007's "Colors") through SiriusXM's Liquid Metal channel. The album was released on August 20, 2021. The album's first single, "Fix the Error", was released online on June 25, 2021, along with a music video on July 7.


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: Between the Buried and Me's general musical style has been stated by critics to be primarily a blend of progressive metal, technical death metal, progressive metalcore, avant-garde metal, and metalcore along with various musical styles: "One minute the band may be playing thrash metal and the next they're flowing into death metal growls and thick guitar riffs... the metal take on things can seemingly change in a flash as lead singer Tommy Rogers fleshes out his vocals and utilizes the keyboards to create something that sounds more like it should be on a Smashing Pumpkins album".


title: Between the Buried and Me

text: On the band's cover album, "The Anatomy Of", the band pays tribute to many of their diverse influences, including Sepultura, Metallica, Blind Melon, Mötley Crüe, Queen, King Crimson, Soundgarden, Faith No More, Pantera, Pink Floyd, Depeche Mode, Earth Crisis, and The Smashing Pumpkins.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Nicola James Capaldi (2 August 1944 – 28 January 2005) was an English singer-songwriter and drummer. His musical career spanned more than four decades. He co-founded the progressive rock band Traffic in 1967 with Steve Winwood with whom he co-wrote the majority of the band's material. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a part of Traffic's original lineup.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi also performed with Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Alvin Lee, Cat Stevens, and Mylon LeFevre, and wrote lyrics for other artists, such as "Love Will Keep Us Alive" and "This is Reggae Music". As a solo artist he scored more than a half dozen chart hits in various countries, the best-known being "That's Love" as well as his cover of "Love Hurts".


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi was born Nicola James Capaldi in Evesham, Worcestershire, to English parents Marie (Née Couchier) and Nicholas Capaldi. His father was born Nicola Capaldi in 1913 in Evesham to Italian parents. As a child Capaldi studied piano and voice with his father, a music teacher, and by his teens he was playing drums with his friends. At age 14 he founded the band the Sapphires and served as their lead vocalist. At 16 he took an apprenticeship at a factory in Worcester, where he met Keith Miller and Dave Mason. In 1963 he formed the Hellions, with Mason on guitar and Gordon Jackson on rhythm guitar, while Capaldi himself switched to drums. In August 1964, Tanya Day took the Hellions to the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany, as her backing group. The Spencer Davis Group were staying at the same hotel as the Hellions and it was there that Steve Winwood befriended Capaldi and Mason.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Back in Worcester, the Hellions provided backing to visiting performers including Adam Faith and Dave Berry. By the end of 1964, they had a London residency at the Whisky a Go Go Club. In 1964–65 the band released three singles, but none charted. Later that year John "Poli" Palmer joined the band on drums and Capaldi became the lead vocalist.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The Hellions moved back to Worcester in 1966 where they changed their name to the Revolution, releasing a fourth single that also failed to chart. Disillusioned, Dave Mason left the band. Capaldi replaced Mason with Luther Grosvenor and renamed the band Deep Feeling. Capaldi, Jackson, and Palmer wrote original songs for the band that were heavier than the Hellions repertoire. They played gigs in Birmingham and the surrounding Black Country area; former Yardbirds manager Giorgio Gomelsky offered them a recording contract. They recorded several studio tracks from 1966 to 1968 which remained unreleased until 2009, when the album "Pretty Colours" was released by Sunbeam Records.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi and the band played frequently in London, and Jimi Hendrix played guitar with them at the Knuckles Club as an unknown musician. Back in Birmingham Capaldi would occasionally join his friends Mason, Winwood, and Chris Wood for after-hours impromptu performances at The Elbow Room club on Aston High Street. Early in 1967 they formalised this arrangement by forming Traffic, and Deep Feeling disbanded. In 1968, Capaldi, Winwood, and Mason contributed backing music to a solo album by Gordon Jackson.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The new band was signed by Island Records and rented a quiet cottage in Aston Tirrold, Berkshire, to write and rehearse new material. The cottage did not remain quiet and had frequent visitors including Eric Burdon, Eric Clapton, and Pete Townshend as well as Trevor Burton (of The Move) amongst many others.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi wrote the lyrics for Traffic's first single "Paper Sun", which appeared in the UK singles chart at number 5 in summer 1967. This was the beginning of a songwriting partnership between him and Winwood which would produce the overwhelming majority of Traffic's songs: With the exception of "No Face, No Name, No Number", Capaldi would pen a lyric first, and then hand it over to Winwood to write the music.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Despite his key role in writing the band's material, Capaldi rarely did lead vocals with Traffic, and his lyrics were nearly always keyed towards Winwood's soulful voice rather than his own more hard-edged vocal style.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Two more Traffic singles were released successfully in 1967, and in December the band released the album "Mr. Fantasy". After one further album, "Traffic", the group disbanded.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi formed another band with Mason, Wood, and Mick Weaver but the creative tensions that had caused Mason to leave Traffic remained and the resulting quartet lasted only until March 1969. In January 1970 Capaldi and Wood joined Winwood in the studio to record Winwood's solo album. These sessions were so successful that the three of them reformed Traffic to release the album "John Barleycorn Must Die". They then toured the UK and the US with an expanded line-up, which would go on to produce the hit albums "Welcome to the Canteen" and "The Low Spark of High Heeled Boys". The title track of the latter, a cynical treatise on the music industry, would prove to be one of Capaldi's most famous lyrics. In addition, "Rock and Roll Stew (part 1)", a rare instance of a Traffic song with Capaldi on lead vocal, was a minor hit in the USA.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: With Traffic on hiatus due to Steve Winwood's struggles with peritonitis, Capaldi recorded a solo album "Oh How We Danced" in 1972. This set contained a broad variety of musical styles and featured contributions from Free guitarist Paul Kossoff, the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, and several members of Traffic. It was well received by critics and proved to be a modest success in the US, encouraging Capaldi to pursue a solo career alongside his work with Traffic.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: After two more albums with Traffic, the group took a short break, allowing Capaldi to record "Whale Meat Again", which was slightly less successful than his debut both in terms of reviews and sales. The title track was a thoroughly hard rocking and unapologetic environmentalist tirade; aggressive sociopolitical-themed songs became a recurring theme in Capaldi's work. He began work on his third solo album, "Short Cut Draw Blood", alongside recording "When the Eagle Flies" with Traffic. As the band set off on the supporting tour, an early single from "Short Cut", "It's All Up to You", made the UK Top 40. Though Capaldi's first major solo hit, it proved only a prelude to the album's chief success. Traffic disbanded after the tour, leaving Capaldi to focus all his efforts on his solo career. "Short Cut Draw Blood" appeared the following year. In October 1975, a single taken from the album, a cover version of The Everly Brothers' "Love Hurts", reached number four in the UK chart and charted worldwide. The album is considered by many to be his masterpiece, tackling issues such as the environment, government corruption, and drugs. He also embarked on a very brief acting career, appearing in the rarely seen 30-minute short film "Short Ends" (1976), which was directed by Esther Anderson and co-starred Judy Geeson and Hilary Baker.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: However, events would conspire to prevent Capaldi from consolidating his solo stardom. He began working on his next album, "Play it by Ear", alongside serving as a major collaborator on Steve Winwood's first solo album. "Play it by Ear" took an unusually long time to record, and in the meantime, his long-standing relationship with Island Records fell apart. The album was cancelled as a result, even though an advance single, "Goodbye My Love" (no connection to "Goodbye Love" from Capaldi's previous album), had already been released. Capaldi later described his leaving Island Records as "a leap into the wilderness." Due to these delays, it was over two years after "Short Cut Draw Blood" that another Jim Capaldi album appeared.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: At this time Capaldi wrote the soundtrack to the award-winning film "The Contender", his last recording with the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section as his backing band, and correspondingly put together a new backing band for himself called the Contenders. The group consisted of Pete Bonas (guitar), Chris Parren (miscellaneous keyboards), Ray Allen (saxophone, backing vocals, percussion), and Phil Capaldi (backing vocals, percussion). Bonas was a particularly significant collaborator, and would co-write many of Capaldi's songs. The band chiefly supported him on tour; only one album, "Electric Nights", featured the Contenders on every track. At the encouragement of his new label, RSO Records, Capaldi began venturing into disco. His first album with the label, "The Contender", was released in the US with the title "Daughter of the Night" and a partially different set of songs. However, the album's internationally released single, "Daughter of the Night", failed to make a major impact.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The follow-up, 1979's "Electric Nights", was more successful. "Shoe Shine", which combined disco rhythms and melodies with an angry lead vocal and lyrics about poverty and destitution, reached number 11 in France and also entered Billboard's Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart. However, despite including both hard rockers such as "Elixir of Life" and "Hotel Blues" and laments such as "Short Ends" and "Wild Geese" alongside the disco-flavoured numbers, Capaldi retained no fondness for his two albums with RSO, later saying "frankly, they got buried under a pile of disco."


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Switching record labels again, Capaldi dropped the disco elements entirely for his next two albums, "The Sweet Smell of... Success" (1980) and "Let the Thunder Cry" (1981). The albums were evenly split between mellow pop and embittered hard rock, with "Success" sporting a morbid before/after cover, and some tracks incorporated a Latin influence from Capaldi's new home, Brazil. However, though "Child in the Storm" reached number 75 in the Netherlands, there was nothing resembling a major hit, not even the folk arrangement of Traffic's "The Low Spark of High-Heeled Boys".


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The album "Let the Thunder Cry" was released in Brazil by Young/RGE in early 1981 and spawned two big hits there: "Old Photographs", a cover version of "Casinha branca" originally recorded by Gilson in 1979; and "Favella Music". "Old Photographs" became a hit after it was included in the international soundtrack of the Rede Globo soap opera "Brilhante" in late 1981. "Favella Music" was also a hit in late 1981.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi and Winwood had maintained a working partnership since Traffic's dissolution, contributing to nearly all of each other's solo albums. With his eighth solo album, Capaldi enlisted his old partner as a major collaborator. For the first time, Capaldi played most of the drums himself, and he would continue to do so on future solo albums. However, most of the tracks on "Fierce Heart" were mixed to place emphasis on the synthesizers, often muting Capaldi's vocals. This synth-heavy pop sound was exactly what 1980s audiences were looking for, and "That's Love" became his biggest hit in the US, climbing to number 28 in the summer of 1983. Another single from the album, "Living on the Edge", made it to number 75, while the album made it to 91 in the "Billboard" 200.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: This time Capaldi was able to quickly produce a follow-up, but despite his recent success and appearances by Steve Marriott, Snowy White, and Carlos Santana, 1984's "One Man Mission" failed to produce a hit. The album leaned more towards hard rock than "Fierce Heart", but drum machines and synthesizers remained major components.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: In 1988, Capaldi released "Some Come Running". Though the album failed to live up to commercial expectations, it reached number 183 in the USA and number 46 in Sweden, while achieving two hit singles in the Netherlands. Though Eric Clapton and George Harrison appeared on "Oh Lord, Why Lord", it was "Something so Strong" which became his biggest hit in the Netherlands, breaking the top 40 and powering the album itself into the charts.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: "Some Come Running" essentially marked the end of Capaldi's career as a solo artist. He would not record another solo album for well over a decade, though a greatest hits compilation, "Prince of Darkness", was released in 1995 and made the charts in the Netherlands.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi's success as a lyricist continued throughout his life. In 1990 "One and Only Man", a Steve Winwood song for which Capaldi wrote the lyrics, reached the Top 20 in the USA. He was a five times winner of BMI/Ascap Awards for the "most played compositions in America", and sales of songs written or co-written by him exceeded 25 million units. He numbered Bob Marley among his friends, and they travelled together while Marley was writing the "Catch A Fire" album. Capaldi wrote the lyrics to "This Is Reggae Music".


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi was noted for the extent of his collaborations with other musicians. In 1973, he played drums at Eric Clapton's Rainbow Concert and on some Clapton studio sessions. Capaldi collaborated with Robert Calvert of Hawkwind on his critically acclaimed 1974 solo album Captain Lockheed and the Starfighters, contributing as a vocal actor on the concept album's theatrical sections between songs. In the 1980s, Capaldi collaborated with Carlos Santana contributing songs and ideas to Santana's projects and in the 1990s he co-wrote (with Paul Carrack) the song "Love Will Keep Us Alive", which was eventually used on the Eagles' successful "Hell Freezes Over" album. In 1993, Traffic reformed and toured the US and UK. Capaldi and Winwood recorded a new album, "Far from Home", without the other members of the band. In 1998 he paired up again with Mason on an extensive American tour.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: In 2001, Capaldi's eleventh solo album "Living on the Outside" featured George Harrison, Steve Winwood, Paul Weller, Gary Moore, and Ian Paice. George Harrison played guitar on the track "Anna Julia", an English translation of a song by the Brazilian band Los Hermanos and Capaldi played at the Concert for George in 2002.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi married Brazilian-born Aninha E S Campos in 1975 in All Saints Church, Marlow and in 1976 toured with his band Space Cadets before moving to Brazil in 1977.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: He had two daughters, Tabitha born in 1976 and Tallulah born in 1979. The Capaldis lived in the Bahia region of Brazil until the beginning of 1980 and while there he became heavily involved with environmental issues. They maintained homes in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, and Ipanema, Rio de Janeiro. The track "Favela Music" on his 1981 album "Let The Thunder Cry" arose from his love of Brazil, and he worked with several Brazilian composers.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Capaldi was a friend and supporter of the London School of Samba and played with the bateria on at least one occasion. He did a lot of charitable work for organisations in Brazil, such as the Associação Beneficiente São Martinho street children's charity in Lapa, Rio de Janeiro, which the LSS also supported between 1994 and 2001. His wife was also the "Porta Bandeira" (flag bearer) of the LSS in the 1994 and 1995 Notting Hill Carnival parades.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Outside his music and environmental activism, Capaldi also assisted his wife in her work with Jubilee Action to help Brazilian street children. Because of this charity work, Capaldi and his wife were guests of Tony Blair at the Prime Minister's country house, Chequers. He remained professionally active until his final illness prevented him from working on plans for a 2005 reunion tour of Traffic. He died of stomach cancer in Westminster, London, on 28 January 2005, aged 60.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: Following his death, several tributes in celebration of Capaldi's life and music came out under the name "Dear Mr Fantasy". The first was a tribute concert that took place at the Roundhouse in Camden Town, London on Sunday, 21 January 2007. Guests included Bill Wyman (Rolling Stones), Jon Lord (Deep Purple), Gary Moore (Thin Lizzy), Steve Winwood (Traffic), Cat Stevens (aka Yusuf Islam), Joe Walsh (The Eagles), Paul Weller (The Jam), Pete Townshend (The Who), Jim's brother Phil, and many more. The performances were evenly split between Capaldi's solo songs and his work with Traffic. All profits went to The Jubilee Action Street Children Appeal. A recording of the concert was released as a double CD set the same year.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The second such tribute, "Dear Mr. Fantasy: The Jim Capaldi Story", is a four-disc boxed set released in July 2011. Though a slight majority of the tracks came from Capaldi's solo albums, it also included some of his work with the Hellions, Deep Feeling, and Traffic, a few rare non-album tracks, and more than ten previously unreleased recordings, including a song co-written with George Harrison in 1997. The box was also packaged with extensive liner notes, compiling a number of photos and essays.


title: Jim Capaldi

text: The third and final tribute is a book of Capaldi's handwritten lyrics, released in November 2011. The ideas of a boxed set and lyrics book had been conceived by Capaldi shortly before he died, and their releases were prepared by his widow in fulfilment of a last promise to him.


The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was a United States federal agency founded on March 3, 1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958, the agency was dissolved and its assets and personnel were transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NACA is an initialism, i.e., pronounced as individual letters, rather than as a whole word (as was NASA during the early years after being established).


title: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

text: Among other advancements, NACA research and development produced the NACA duct, a type of air intake used in modern automotive applications, the NACA cowling, and several series of NACA airfoils, which are still used in aircraft manufacturing.


text: During World War II, NACA was described as "The Force Behind Our Air Supremacy" due to its key role in producing working superchargers for high altitude bombers, and for producing the laminar wing profiles for the North American P-51 Mustang. NACA also helped in developing the area rule that is used on all modern supersonic aircraft, and conducted the key compressibility research that enabled the Bell X-1 to break the sound barrier.


text: NACA was established on March 13, 1915, by the federal government through enabling legislation as an emergency measure during World War I to promote industry, academic, and government coordination on war-related projects. It was modeled on similar national agencies found in Europe: the French "L'Etablissement Central de l'Aérostation Militaire" in Meudon (now "Office National d'Etudes et de Recherches Aerospatiales"), the German Aerodynamic Laboratory of the University of Göttingen, and the Russian Aerodynamic Institute of Koutchino (replaced in 1918 with the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI), which is still in existence). The most influential agency upon which the NACA was based was the British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.


text: In December 1912, President William Howard Taft had appointed a National Aerodynamical Laboratory Commission chaired by Robert S. Woodward, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Legislation was introduced in both houses of Congress early in January 1913 to approve the commission, but when it came to a vote, the legislation was defeated.


text: Charles D. Walcott, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution from 1907 to 1927, took up the effort, and in January 1915, Senator Benjamin R. Tillman, and Representative Ernest W. Roberts introduced identical resolutions recommending the creation of an advisory committee as outlined by Walcott. The purpose of the committee was "to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight with a view to their practical solution, and to determine the problems which should be experimentally attacked and to discuss their solution and their application to practical questions". Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote that he "heartily [endorsed] the principle" on which the legislation was based. Walcott suggested the tactic of adding the resolution to the Naval Appropriations Bill.


text: According to one source, "The enabling legislation for the NACA slipped through almost unnoticed as a rider attached to the Naval Appropriation Bill, on March 3, 1915." The committee of 12 people, all unpaid, were allocated a budget of $5,000 per year.


text: President Woodrow Wilson signed it into law the same day, thus formally creating the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, as it was called in the legislation, on the last day of the 63rd Congress.


text: The act of Congress creating NACA, approved March 3, 1915, reads, "...It shall be the duty of the advisory committee for aeronautics to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight with a view to their practical solution. ... "


text: On January 29, 1920, President Wilson appointed pioneering flier and aviation engineer Orville Wright to NACA's board. By the early 1920s, it had adopted a new and more ambitious mission: to promote military and civilian aviation through applied research that looked beyond current needs. NACA researchers pursued this mission through the agency's impressive collection of in-house wind tunnels, engine test stands, and flight test facilities. Commercial and military clients were also permitted to use NACA facilities on a contract basis.


text: In 1922, NACA had 100 employees. By 1938, it had 426. In addition to formal assignments, staff were encouraged to pursue unauthorized "bootleg" research, provided that it was not too exotic. The result was a long string of fundamental breakthroughs, including "thin airfoil theory" (1920s), "NACA engine cowl" (1930s), the "NACA airfoil" series (1940s), and the "area rule" for supersonic aircraft (1950s). On the other hand, NACA's 1941 refusal to increase airspeed in their wind tunnels set Lockheed back a year in their quest to solve the problem of compressibility encountered in high speed dives made by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning.


text: The full-size Langley wind tunnel operated at no more than and the then-recent tunnels at Moffett could only reach . These were speeds Lockheed engineers considered useless for their purposes. General Henry H. Arnold took up the matter and overruled NACA objections to higher air speeds. NACA built a handful of new high-speed wind tunnels, and Mach 0.75 () was reached at Moffett's wind tunnel late in 1942.


text: NACA's first wind tunnel was formally dedicated at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory on June 11, 1920. It was the first of many now-famous NACA and NASA wind tunnels. Although this specific wind tunnel was not unique or advanced, it enabled NACA engineers and scientists to develop and test new and advanced concepts in aerodynamics and to improve future wind tunnel design.


text: In the years immediately preceding World War II, NACA was involved in the development of several designs that served key roles in the war effort. When engineers at a major engine manufacturer were having issues producing superchargers that would allow the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress to maintain power at high altitude, a team of engineers from NACA solved the problems and created the standards and testing methods used to produce effective superchargers in the future. This enabled the B-17 to be used as a key aircraft in the war effort. The designs and information gained from NACA research on the B-17 were used in nearly every major U.S. military powerplant of the Second World War. Nearly every aircraft used some form of forced induction that relied on information developed by NACA. Because of this, U.S.-produced aircraft had a significant power advantage above 15,000 feet, which was never fully countered by Axis forces.


text: After the war had begun, the British government sent a request to North American Aviation for a new fighter. The offered P-40 Tomahawk fighters were considered too outdated to be a feasible front line fighter by European standards, and so North American began development of a new aircraft. The British government chose a NACA-developed airfoil for the fighter, which enabled it to perform dramatically better than previous models. This aircraft became known as the P-51 Mustang.


text: Although the Bell X-1 was commissioned by the Air Force and flown by Air Force test pilot Chuck Yeager, when it exceeded Mach 1 NACA was officially in charge of the testing and development of the aircraft. NACA ran the experiments and data collection, and the bulk of the research used to develop the aircraft came from NACA engineer John Stack, the head of NACA's compressibility division. Compressibility is a major issue as aircraft approach Mach 1, and research into solving the problem drew heavily on information collected during previous NACA wind tunnel testing to assist Lockheed with the P-38 Lightning.


text: The X-1 program was first envisioned in 1944 when a former NACA engineer working for Bell Aircraft approached the Army for funding of a supersonic test aircraft. Neither the Army nor Bell had any experience in this area, so the majority of research came from the NACA Compressibility Research Division, which had been operating for more than a year by the time Bell began conceptual designs. The Compressibility Research Division also had years of additional research and data to pull from, as its head engineer was previously head of the high speed wind tunnel division, which itself had nearly a decade of high speed test data by that time. Due to the importance of NACA involvement, Stack was personally awarded the Collier Trophy along with the owner of Bell Aircraft and test pilot Chuck Yeager.


text: In 1951, NACA Engineer Richard Whitcomb determined the area rule that explained transonic flow over an aircraft. The first uses of this theory were on the Convair F-102 project and the F11F Tiger. The F-102 was meant to be a supersonic interceptor, but it was unable to exceed the speed of sound, despite the best effort of Convair engineers. The F-102 had actually already begun production when this was discovered, so NACA engineers were sent to quickly solve the problem at hand. The production line had to be modified to allow the modification of F-102s already in production to allow them to use the area rule. (Aircraft so altered were known as "area ruled" aircraft.) The design changes allowed the aircraft to exceed Mach 1, but only by a small margin, as the rest of the Convair design was not optimized for this. As the F-11F was the first design to incorporate this during initial design, it was able to break the sound barrier without having to use afterburner.


text: Because the area rule was initially classified, it took several years for Whitcomb to be recognized for his accomplishment. In 1955 he was awarded the Collier Trophy for his work on both the Tiger and the F-102.


text: The most important design resulting from the area rule was the B-58 Hustler, which was already in development at the time. It was redesigned to take the area rule into effect, allowing greatly improved performance. This was the first US supersonic bomber, and was capable of Mach 2 at a time when Soviet fighters had only just attained that speed months earlier. The area rule concept is now used in designing all transonic and supersonic aircraft.


text: NACA experience provided a powerful model for World War II research, the postwar government laboratories, and NACA's successor, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).


text: NACA also participated in development of the first aircraft to fly to the "edge of space", North American's X-15. NACA airfoils are still used on modern aircraft.


text: On November 21, 1957, Hugh Dryden, NACA's director, established the Special Committee on Space Technology. The committee, also called the Stever Committee after its chairman, Guyford Stever, was a special steering committee that was formed with the mandate to coordinate various branches of the federal government, private companies as well as universities within the United States with NACA's objectives and also harness their expertise in order to develop a space program.


text: Wernher von Braun, technical director at the US Army's Ballistic Missile Agency would have a Jupiter C rocket ready to launch a satellite in 1956, only to have it delayed, and the Soviets would launch "Sputnik 1" in October 1957.


text: On January 14, 1958, Dryden published "A National Research Program for Space Technology", which stated:


text: On March 5, 1958, James Killian, who chaired the President's Science Advisory Committee, wrote a memorandum to the President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Titled, "Organization for Civil Space Programs", it encouraged the President to sanction the creation of NASA. He wrote that a civil space program should be based on a "strengthened and redesignated" NACA, indicating that NACA was a "going Federal research agency" with 7,500 employees and $300 million worth of facilities, which could expand its research program "with a minimum of delay".


text: As of their meeting on May 26, 1958, committee members, starting clockwise from the left of the above picture:


title: Herm Edwards

text: Herman Edwards Jr. (born April 27, 1954) is an American football coach and former cornerback who was most recently the head football coach at Arizona State. He played in the National Football League (NFL) for ten seasons, primarily with the Philadelphia Eagles. Edwards was also a head coach in the NFL from 2001 to 2008 with the New York Jets and Kansas City Chiefs. Following the conclusion of his NFL coaching career, Edwards was a football analyst at ESPN from 2009 to 2017. He returned to coaching in 2018 when he was named the head coach of Arizona State's football team.


title: Herm Edwards

text: As a player, Edwards is known for scoring the game-winning touchdown off a fumble recovery in 1978's Miracle at the Meadowlands. During his NFL coaching tenure, he reached the playoffs four times, three times with the Jets and once with the Chiefs. His most successful season was in 2002 when he led the Jets to a division title, which is the franchise's most recent. Edwards became popular as a coach and broadcaster for short, punchy declarations dubbed "Hermisms" by fans. The message "You play to win the game!", which he delivered during a Jets press conference, would become the title of his self-help book.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Edwards was born on an Army base in Eatontown, New Jersey, the son of an American World War II veteran and his German wife. He graduated from Monterey High School in Monterey, California. Edwards played college football at the University of California, Berkeley in 1972 and 1974, at junior college Monterey Peninsula College in 1973, and at San Diego State University (SDSU) in his senior year, 1975. He graduated from SDSU with a degree in criminal justice. He helped promote Monterey County Special Olympics for several years. His public involvement helped educate Monterey County residents about the importance of athletics with the developmentally disabled.


title: Herm Edwards

text: In the NFL, Edwards played nine seasons with the Philadelphia Eagles from 1977 to 1985, making a championship appearance with the team in Super Bowl XV. His 33 career interceptions is one short of the franchise record. He never missed a game in his nine seasons with the Eagles, remaining active with the team for 135 consecutive regular season games until being cut by incoming head coach Buddy Ryan in 1986. Edwards went on to play briefly for the Los Angeles Rams and Atlanta Falcons in 1986 before announcing his retirement.


title: Herm Edwards

text: The highlight of Edwards' playing career occurred in the twelfth game of the 1978 season, in the final seconds of a game against the New York Giants at the Meadowlands on November 19. The Giants led 17–12 and the Eagles had no time-outs remaining, but instead of simply taking the snap from center and kneeling, Giants quarterback Joe Pisarcik attempted to hand the ball off to running back Larry Csonka. However, the ball came loose and Edwards picked it up and returned it for a touchdown, enabling the Eagles to win This play became known in Philadelphia as "The Miracle at the Meadowlands" and in New York City as simply "The Fumble." The Eagles made the playoffs and the Giants finished at


title: Herm Edwards

text: Philadelphia's implementation of the victory formation, which was designed as a result of “The Miracle at the Meadowlands”, was known as the "Herman Edwards play."


title: Herm Edwards

text: After his playing career ended, Edwards became a defensive assistant at San Jose State (1987–1989), then was an NFL scout and defensive backs coach with the Kansas City Chiefs (1990–1995), for former Browns, Chiefs, Redskins, and Chargers coach Marty Schottenheimer. With the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1996–2000), he was a defensive backs/assistant head coach under Tony Dungy. On January 28, 2001, Edwards was hired as head coach of the New York Jets.


title: Herm Edwards

text: In his five years as the Jets head coach, Edwards compiled a regular season record, including a stretch during his final twenty regular season games with the club, and a record in the playoffs. Edwards decided to run a 4–3 "Cover 2" defense. Although many fans and players questioned Edwards' decisions, the Jets had mild success in Edwards' first two seasons, reaching the playoffs in both. The Jets were the sixth seed in 2001, losing on the road in the first round to the Oakland Raiders . In 2002, the Jets squeaked into the playoffs with a record, due to winning the tie-breakers in a three-way tie for the AFC East Division lead with the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins. The Jets advanced through the Wildcard round this time, which led to a return trip to Oakland. Once again, Edwards and the Jets came up short, losing to the Raiders. Following a disappointing season in 2003, the Jets reached the divisional round of the AFC playoffs once more in 2004, where they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers In 2005, a year marred by injuries, inconsistent play, lack of player development, and rumors swirling about Edwards possibly leaving the organization, Edwards led the Jets to a woeful record. Following the end of the season, the Jets made the highly unusual move of trading a coach—Edwards—to another team (the Kansas City Chiefs), in exchange for a player to be chosen in round four of the 2006 draft. Overall, Edwards' tenure as head coach of the Jets was marred by chronic clock management problems, an ultra-conservative "play not to lose" mentality, and a lack of any discernible defensive philosophy, despite Edwards' supposed expertise in the Cover 2 defense. The Jets replaced Edwards by hiring Eric Mangini, a senior assistant coach with the New England Patriots.


title: Herm Edwards

text: Following the 2005 season, Chiefs president Carl Peterson hinted to the press about interest in hiring Edwards that could have been considered tampering. The Jets granted permission to the Chiefs to speak with Edwards. At the time, Edwards had two years remaining on his contract with the Jets. However, Peterson wanted Edwards (a longtime personal acquaintance) to succeed head coach Dick Vermeil, who was Edwards' coach on the Eagles and had just retired.


title: Herm Edwards

text: As the rumors started swirling, a war of words between the two teams began to start up in the media. In the midst of all the speculation, Edwards tried to use what leverage he thought he had with the Jets to get a contract extension and hefty pay raise from the Jets, which only served to further anger the club's owner. Eventually, the two teams worked out a deal, and the Chiefs sent the Jets a fourth-round pick in the 2006 NFL Draft as compensation (the Jets later used this selection to take Leon Washington).