title: Fair trade

text: Sales of fair trade products only took off with the arrival of the first Fairtrade certification initiatives. Although buoyed by growing sales, fair trade had been generally confined to small worldshops scattered across Europe and, to a lesser extent, North America. that these shops were too disconnected from the rhythm and the lifestyle of contemporary developed societies. The inconvenience of going to them to buy only a product or two was too high even for the most dedicated customers. The only way to increase sale opportunities was to offer fair trade products where consumers normally shop, in large distribution channels. The problem was to find a way to expand distribution without compromising consumer trust in fair trade products and in their origins.


title: Fair trade

text: A solution was found in 1988, when the first fair trade certification initiative, Max Havelaar, was created in the Netherlands under the initiative of Nico Roozen, Frans Van Der Hoff, and Dutch development NGO Solidaridad. The independent certification allowed the goods to be sold outside the worldshops and into the mainstream, reaching a larger consumer segment and boosting fair trade sales significantly. The labeling initiative also allowed customers and distributors alike to track the origin of the goods to confirm that the products were really benefiting the producers at the end of the supply chain.


title: Fair trade

text: The concept caught on: in ensuing years, similar non-profit Fairtrade labelling organizations were set up in other European countries and North America. In 1997, a process of convergence among "LIs" ("Labeling Initiatives") led to the creation of Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, an umbrella organization whose mission is to set fair trade standards, support, inspect, and certify disadvantaged producers, and harmonize the fair trade message across the movement.


title: Fair trade

text: In 2002, FLO launched an International Fairtrade Certification Mark. The goals were to improve the visibility of the Mark on supermarket shelves, facilitate cross border trade, and simplify procedures for both producers and importers. The certification mark is used in more than 50 countries and on dozens of different products, based on FLO's certification for coffee, tea, rice, bananas, mangoes, cocoa, cotton, sugar, honey, fruit juices, nuts, fresh fruit, quinoa, herbs and spices, wine, footballs, etc.


title: Fair trade

text: With ethical labeling, consumers can take moral responsibility for their economic decisions and actions. This supports the notion of fair trade practices as "moral economies". The presence of labeling gives consumers the feeling of "doing the right thing" with a simple purchase.


title: Fair trade

text: Labeling practices place the burden of getting certification on the producers in the Global South, furthering inequality between the Global North and the Global South. The process of securing certification is burdensome and expensive. Northern consumers are able to make a simple choice while being spared these burdens and expenses.


title: Fair trade

text: Consumers of fair trade products usually make the intentional choice to purchase fair trade goods based on , moral norms, and social norms.


title: Fair trade

text: University students have significantly increased their consumption of fair trade products over the last several decades. Women college students have a more favorable attitude than men toward buying fair trade products and they feel more morally obligated to do so. Women are also reported to have stronger intentions to buy fair trade products.


title: Fair trade

text: Producers organize and strive for fair trade certification for several reasons, either through religious ties, wants for social justice, wants for autonomy, political liberalization or simply because they want to be paid more for their labor efforts and products. Farmers are more likely to identify with organic farming than fair trade farming practices because organic farming is a visible way that these farmers are different from their neighbors and it influences the way they farm. They place importance on natural growing methods. Fair trade farmers are also more likely to attribute their higher prices to the quality of their products rather than fair market prices.


title: Fair trade

text: Fairtrade labelling (usually simply Fairtrade or Fair Trade Certified in the United States) is a certification system that allows consumers to identify goods that meet certain standards. Overseen by a standard-setting body (Fairtrade International) and a certification body (FLO-CERT), the system involves independent auditing of producers and traders to ensure the standards are met. For a product to carry either the International Fairtrade Certification Mark or the Fair Trade Certified Mark, it must come from FLO-CERT inspected and certified producer organizations. The crops must be grown and harvested in accordance with the standards set by FLO International. The supply chain must be monitored by FLO-CERT, to ensure the integrity of the labelled product.


title: Fair trade

text: Fairtrade certification purports to guarantee not only fair prices, but also ethical purchasing principles. These principles include adherence to ILO agreements such as those banning child and slave labour, guaranteeing a safe workplace and the right to unionise, adherence to the United Nations charter of human rights, a fair price that covers the cost of production and facilitates social development, and protection of the environment. The Fairtrade certification also attempts to promote long-term business relationships between buyers and sellers, crop pre-financing, and greater transparency throughout the supply chain.


title: Fair trade

text: The Fairtrade certification system covers a growing range of products, including bananas, honey, coffee, oranges, Cocoa bean, cocoa, cotton, dried and fresh fruits and vegetables, juices, nuts and oil seeds, quinoa, rice, spices, sugar, tea and wine. Companies offering products that meet Fairtrade standards may apply for licences to use one of the Fairtrade Certification Marks for those products. The International Fairtrade Certification Mark was launched in 2002 by FLO, and replaced twelve Marks used by various Fairtrade labelling initiatives. The new Certification Mark is currently used worldwide (with the exception of the United States). The Fair Trade Certified Mark is still used to identify Fairtrade goods in the United States.


title: Fair trade

text: The fair trade industry standards provided by Fairtrade International use the word "producer" in many different senses, often in the same specification document. Sometimes it refers to farmers, sometimes to the primary cooperatives they belong to, to the secondary cooperatives that the primary cooperatives belong to, or to the tertiary cooperatives that the secondary cooperatives may belong to but "Producer [also] means any entity that has been certified under the Fairtrade International Generic Fairtrade Standard for Small Producer Organizations, Generic Fairtrade Standard for Hired Labour Situations, or Generic Fairtrade Standard for Contract Production." The word is used in all these meanings in key documents. In practice, when price and credit are discussed, "producer" means the exporting organization, "For small producers' organizations, payment must be made directly to the certified small producers' organization". and "In the case of a small producers' organization [e.g. for coffee], Fairtrade Minimum Prices are set at the level of the Producer Organization, not at the level of individual producers (members of the organization)" which means that the "producer" here is halfway up the marketing chain between the farmer and the consumer. The part of the standards referring to cultivation, environment, pesticides, and child labour has the farmer as "producer".


title: Fair trade

text: An alternative trading organization (ATO) is usually a non-governmental organization (NGO) or mission-driven business aligned with the fair trade movement that aims "to contribute to the alleviation of poverty in developing regions of the world by establishing a system of trade that allows marginalized producers in developing regions to gain access to developed markets." ATOs have fair trade at the core of their mission and activities, using it as a development tool to support disadvantaged producers and to reduce poverty and combining their marketing with awareness-raising and campaigning.


title: Fair trade

text: ATOs are often based on political and religious groups, though their secular purpose precludes sectarian identification and evangelical activity. The grassroots political-action agenda of ATOs associates them with progressive political causes active since the 1960s: foremost, a belief in collective action and commitment to moral principles based on social, economic, and trade justice.


title: Fair trade

text: According to EFTA, the defining characteristic of ATOs is equal partnership and respect–partnership between the developing region producers and importers, shops, labelling organizations, and consumers. Alternative trade "humanizes" the trade process–making the producer-consumer chain as short as possible so that consumers become aware of the culture, identity, and conditions in which producers live. are committed to the principle of alternative trade, the need for , and the importance of awareness-raising and advocacy work. Examples of such organisations are Ten Thousand Villages, Greenheart Shop, Equal Exchange, and SERRV International in the U.S. and Equal Exchange Trading, Traidcraft, Oxfam Trading, Twin Trading, and Alter Eco in Europe as well as Siem Fair Trade Fashion in Australia.


title: Fair trade

text: The concept of a Fair Trade school or Fair Trade university emerged from the United Kingdom, where the Fairtrade Foundation maintains a list of colleges and schools that comply with the requirements to be labeled such a university. In order to be considered a Fair Trade University, a university must establish a Fairtrade School Steering Group. They must have a written and implemented, school-wide, fair trade policy. The school or university must be dedicated to selling and using Fair Trade products. They must learn and educate about Fair Trade issues. Finally, they must promote fair trade not only within the school but throughout the wider community.


title: Fair trade

text: A Fair Trade University develops all aspects of fair trade practices in their coursework. In 2007, the Director of the Environmental Studies program at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, David Barnhill, endeavored to become the first Fair Trade University. This received positive reactions from faculty and students. To begin, the university agreed that it would need support from four institutional groups—faculty, staff, support staff, and students—to maximize support and educational efforts. The University endorsed the Earth Charter and created a Campus Sustainability Plan to align with the efforts of becoming a Fair Trade University.


title: Fair trade

text: The University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh also offers courses in different disciplines that implement fair trade learning. They offer a business course with a trip to Peru to visit coffee farmers, an environmental science class that discusses fair trade as a way for cleaner food systems, an English course that focuses on the Earth Charter and the application of fair trade principles, and several upper-level anthropology courses focused on fair trade.


title: Fair trade

text: In 2010, the University of California, San Diego became the second Fair Trade University in the United States. UC San Diego considered the efforts of the Fairtrade Foundation in the UK, but wanted to be more detailed about how their declaration as a Fair Trade University would change the way on-campus franchises do business with the university. They required constant assessment and improvement. Being a Fair Trade University for UC San Diego is a promise between the university and the students about the continual effort by the university to increase the accessibility of fair trade-certified food and drinks and to encourage sustainability in other ways, such as buying from local, organic farmers and decreasing waste.


title: Fair trade

text: Fair Trade Universities have been successful because they are a "feel good" movement. Because the movement has an established history, it is not just a fad. It raises awareness about an issue and offers a solution. The solution is an easy one for college students to handle: paying about five cents more for a cup of coffee or tea.


title: Fair trade

text: Worldshops, or fair trade shops, are specialized retail outlets that offer and promote fair trade products. Worldshops also typically organize educational fair trade activities and play a role in trade justice and other . Worldshops are often not-for-profit organizations run by local volunteer networks. The movement emerged in Europe and a majority of worldshops are still based on the continent, but worldshops also exist in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Fair trade

text: Worldshops aim to make trade as direct and fair with the trading partners as possible. Usually, this means a producer in a developing country and consumers in industrialized countries. Worldshops aim to pay the producers a fair price that guarantees substinence and positive social development. They often cut out intermediaries in the import chain. A web movement began in the 2000s to provide fair trade items at fair prices to consumers. One is "Fair Trade a Day" on which a different fair trade item is featured each day.


title: Fair trade

text: Every year the sales of Fair Trade products grow close to 30% and in 2004 were worth over million. In the case of coffee, sales grow nearly 50% per year in certain countries. In 2002, 16,000 tons of Fairtrade coffee were purchased by consumers in 17 countries. "Fair trade coffee is currently produced in 24 countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia". The 165 FLO associations in Latin America and Caribbean are located in 14 countries and together export over 85% of the world's Fair Trade coffee. There is a North/South divide of fair trade products, with producers in the South and consumers in the North. Discrepancies in the perspectives of producers and consumers prompt disputes about how the purchasing power of consumers may or may not promote the development of southern countries. "Purchasing patterns of fairtrade products have remained strong despite the global economic downturn. In 2008, global sales of fairtrade products exceeded billion."


title: Fair trade

text: Africa’s labor market is becoming an integral fragment of the global supply chain (GSC) and is expected to attract foreign direct investment (FDI). As the continent closes its infrastructure gap, it increases its export to the world. Africa's exports, from places like South Africa, Ghana, Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya, were valued at million . Between 2004 and 2006, Africa expanded the number of FLO-certified producer groups from 78 to 171, nearly half of which are in Kenya; following closely behind are Tanzania and South Africa. The FLO products Africa is known for are tea, cocoa, flowers, and wine. In Africa smallholder cooperatives and plantations produce Fair Trade certified tea. Cocoa-producing countries in West Africa often form cooperatives that produce fair trade cocoa, such as Kuapa Kokoo in Ghana. West African countries without strong fair trade industries are subject to deterioration in cocoa quality as they compete with other countries for a profit. These countries include Cameroon, Nigeria, and the Ivory Coast.


title: Fair trade

text: Studies in the early 2000s showed that the income, education, and health of coffee producers involved with Fair Trade in Latin America improved in comparison to producers who were not participating. Brazil, Nicaragua, Peru, and Guatemala, having the biggest populations of coffee producers, use some of the for coffee production in Latin America and do so by taking part in Fair Trade.


title: Fair trade

text: Latin American countries are also large exporters of fair trade bananas. The Dominican Republic is the largest producer of fair trade bananas, followed by Mexico, Ecuador, and Costa Rica. Producers in the Dominican Republic set up associations rather than cooperatives so that individual farmers can each own their own land, but meet regularly.


title: Fair trade

text: Fundación Solidaridad was created in Chile to increase the earnings and social participation of handicraft producers. These goods are marketed locally in Chile and internationally. Fair trade handicraft and jewellery production has risen in recent years, aided by North American and European online retailers developing direct relationships to import and sell the products online. The sale of fair trade handicrafts online has aided the development of female artisans in Latin America.


title: Fair trade

text: The Asia Fair Trade Forum aims to increase the competitiveness of fair trade organizations in Asia in the global market. Garment factories in Asian countries including China, Burma and Bangladesh are regularly accused of human rights violations, including the use of child labour. These violations conflict with the principles outlined by fair trade certifiers. In India, Trade Alternative Reform Action (TARA) Projects, formed in the 1970s, worked to increase production capacity, quality standards, and entrance into markets for home-based craftsmen that were previously unattainable due to their lower caste identity. Fairtrade India was established in 2013 in Bangalore.


title: Fair trade

text: The Fair Trade Association of Australia and New Zealand (FTAANZ) supports two systems of fair trade: The first is as the Australia and New Zealand member of FLO International, which unites Fairtrade producer and labelling initiatives across Europe, Asia, Latin America, North America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. The second is the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), of more than 450 worldwide members, of which FTAANZ is one. Fairtrade (one word) refers to FLO-certified commodities and associated products. Fair trade (two words) encompasses the wider fair trade movement, including the Fairtrade commodities and other artisan craft products.


title: Fair trade

text: Fair trade commodities are import/export goods that are certified by a fair trade certification organization such as Fair Trade USA or World Fair Trade Organization. Such organizations are typically overseen by Fairtrade International. Fairtrade International sets international fair trade standards and supports fair trade producers and cooperatives. Sixty percent of the fair trade market consists of food products such as coffee, tea, cocoa, honey, and bananas. Non-food commodities include crafts, textiles, and flowers. Shima Baradaran of Brigham Young University suggests that fair trade techniques could child labor. Although fair trade represents only .01% of the food and beverage industry in the United States, it is growing rapidly.


title: Fair trade

text: Coffee is the most well-established fair trade commodity. Most Fair Trade coffee is "Coffea arabica," which is grown at high altitudes. Fair Trade markets emphasize the quality of coffee because they usually appeal to customers who are motivated by taste rather than price. The fair trade movement fixated on coffee first because it is a highly traded commodity for most producing countries, and almost half the world's coffee is produced by smallholder farmers. At first fair trade coffee was sold at small scale; now multinationals like Starbucks and Nestlé use fair trade coffee.


title: Fair trade

text: Internationally recognized Fair Trade coffee standards outlined by FLO are as follows: small producers are grouped in democratic cooperatives or groups; buyers and sellers establish long-term, stable relationships; buyers pay the producers at least the minimum Fair Trade price or, when the market price is higher, the market price; and, buyers pay a social premium of per pound of coffee to the producers. The current minimum Fair Trade price for high-grade, washed Arabica coffee is per pound; per pound if the coffee is organic.


title: Fair trade

text: The largest sources of fair trade coffee are Uganda and Tanzania, followed by Latin American countries such as Guatemala and Costa Rica. As of 1999, major importers of fair trade coffee included Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. There is a North/South divide between fair trade consumers and producers. North American countries are not yet among the top importers of fair trade coffee.


title: Fair trade

text: Starbucks began to purchase more fair trade coffee in 2001 because of charges of labor rights violations in Central American plantations. Several competitors, including Nestlé, followed suit. Large corporations that sell non-fair trade coffee take 55% of what consumers pay for coffee while only 10% goes to the producers. Small growers dominate the production of coffee, especially in Latin American countries such as Peru. Coffee is the fairly traded commodity, and an increasing number of producers are small farmers that own their own land and work in cooperatives. The incomes of growers of fair trade coffee beans depend on the market value of coffee where it is consumed, so farmers of fair trade coffee do not necessarily live above the poverty line or get completely for their commodity.


title: Fair trade

text: Unsustainable farming practices can harm plantation owners and laborers. Unsustainable practices such as using and unshaded growing are risky. Small growers who put themselves at economic risk by not having could lose money and resources due to fluctuating coffee prices, pest problems, or policy shifts.


title: Fair trade

text: The effectiveness of Fairtrade is questionable; workers on Fairtrade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the Fairtrade system.


title: Fair trade

text: As coffee becomes one of the most important export crops in certain regions such as northern Latin America, nature and agriculture are transformed. Increased productivity requires technological innovations, and the coffee agroecosystem has been changing. In the nineteenth century in Latin America, coffee plantations began replacing sugarcane and subsistence crops. Coffee crops became more managed; they were put into rows and unshaded, meaning diversity of the forest was decreased and Coffea trees shortened. As plant and tree diversity decreased, so did animal diversity. Unshaded plantations allow a higher density of Coffea trees, are less protected from wind and lead to more soil erosion. Technified coffee plantations also use chemicals such as fertilizers, insecticides, and fungicides.


title: Fair trade

text: Fair trade certified commodities must adhere to sustainable agro-ecological practices, including reduction of chemical fertilizer use, prevention of erosion, and protection of forests. Coffee plantations are more likely to be fair trade certified if they use traditional farming practices with shading and without chemicals. This protects the biodiversity of the ecosystem and ensures that the land will be usable for farming in the future and not just for short-term planting. In the United States, 85% of fair trade certified coffee is also organic.


title: Fair trade

text: Consumers typically have positive attitudes about products that are ethically made. These products may promise fair labor conditions, protection of the environment, and protection of human rights. Fair trade products meet standards like these. Despite positive attitudes toward ethical products such as fair trade commodities, consumers often are not willing to pay higher prices for fair trade coffee. The attitude-behavior gap can help explain why ethical and fair trade products take up less than 1% of the market. Coffee consumers may say they are willing to pay a premium for fair trade coffee, but most consumers are more concerned with the brand, label, and flavor of the coffee. However, socially conscious consumers with a commitment to buying fair trade products are more likely to pay the premium associated with fair trade coffee. When a sufficient number of consumers begin purchasing fair trade, companies will be more likely to carry fair trade products. Safeway Inc. began carrying fair trade coffee after individual consumers dropped off postcards asking for it.


title: Fair trade

text: The following coffee roasters and companies offer fair trade coffee or some roasts that are fair trade certified:


title: Fair trade

text: Many countries that export cocoa rely on it as their single export crop. In Africa in particular, governments tax cocoa as their main source of revenue. Cocoa is a permanent crop, which means that it occupies land for long periods of time and does not need to be replanted after each harvest.


title: Fair trade

text: Cocoa is farmed in the tropical regions of West Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. In Latin America, cocoa is produced in Costa Rica, Panama, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil. Much of the cocoa produced in Latin America is organic and regulated by an Internal control system. Bolivia has fair trade cooperatives that permit a fair share of money for cocoa producers. African cocoa-producing countries include Cameroon, Madagascar, São Tomé and Príncipe, Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, and Côte d'Ivoire. Côte d'Ivoire exports over a third of the world's cocoa beans. Southeast Asia accounts for about 14% of the world's cocoa production. Major cocoa-producing countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea.


title: Fair trade

text: Africa and other developing countries received low prices for their exported commodities such as cocoa, which caused poverty to abound. Fair trade seeks to establish a system of direct trade from developing countries to counteract this unfair system. Most cocoa comes from small family-run farms in West Africa. These farms have little market access and so rely on middlemen to bring their products to market. Sometimes middlemen are unfair to farmers. Farmers may join an Agricultural cooperative that pays farmers a fair price for their cocoa. One of the main tenets of fair trade is that farmers receive a fair price, but this does not mean that the higher price paid for fair trade cocoa goes directly to the farmers. Much of this money goes to community projects such as water wells rather than to individual farmers. Nevertheless, cooperatives such as fair trade-endorsed Kuapa Kokoo in Ghana are often the only Licensed Buying Companies that will give farmers a fair price and not cheat them or rig sales. Farmers in cooperatives per bag of cocoa beans. These arrangements are not always assured and fair trade organizations can't always buy all of the cocoa available to them from cooperatives.


title: Fair trade

text: Marketing of fair trade cocoa to European consumers often portrays cocoa farmers as dependent on western purchases for their livelihood and well-being. Showing African cocoa producers in this way is problematic because it is reminiscent of the imperialistic view that Africans cannot live happily without the help of westerners. It portrays the balance of power as being in favor of the consumers rather than the producers.


title: Fair trade

text: Consumers often aren't willing to pay the extra price for fair trade cocoa because they do not know what fair trade is. Activist groups can educate consumers about the unethical aspects of unfair trade and thereby promote demand for fairly traded commodities. Activism and ethical consumption not only promote fair trade but also act against powerful corporations such as Mars, Incorporated that refuse to acknowledge the use of forced child labor in the harvesting of their cocoa.


title: Fair trade

text: Smallholding farmers frequently lack access not only to markets but also to resources for sustainable cocoa farming practices. Lack of sustainability can be due to pests, diseases that attack cocoa trees, lack of farming supplies, and lack of knowledge about modern farming techniques. One issue pertaining to cocoa plantation sustainability is the amount of time it takes for a cocoa tree to produce pods. A solution is to change the type of cocoa tree being farmed. In Ghana, a hybrid cocoa tree yields two crops after three years rather than the typical one crop after five years.


title: Fair trade

text: The Harkin-Engel Protocol, also commonly known as the Cocoa Protocol, is an international agreement meant to end some of the world's worst forms of child labor, as well as forced labor in the cocoa industry. It was first negotiated by Senator Tom Harkin and Representative Eliot Engel after they watched a documentary that showed the cocoa industry's widespread issue of child slavery and trafficking. The parties involved agreed to a six-article plan:


title: Fair trade

text: Fair trade textiles are primarily made from fair trade cotton. By 2015, nearly 75,000 cotton farmers in developing countries had obtained fair trade certification. The minimum price that Fair trade pays allows cotton farmers to sustain and improve their livelihoods. Fair trade textiles are frequently grouped with fair trade crafts and goods made by artisans in contrast to cocoa, coffee, sugar, tea, and honey, which are agricultural commodities.


title: Fair trade

text: India, Pakistan, and West Africa are the primary exporters of fair trade cotton, although many countries grow fair trade cotton. Production of Fairtrade cotton was initiated in 2004 in four countries in West and Central Africa (Mali, Senegal, Cameroon, and Burkina Faso). Textiles and clothing are exported from Hong Kong, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.


title: Fair trade

text: Labour is different for textile production than for agricultural commodities because textile production takes place in a factory, not on a farm. Children are a source of cheap labor, and child labor is prevalent in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. Fair trade cooperatives ensure fair and safe labor practices, and do not allow child labor. Fair trade textile producers are most often women in developing countries. They struggle to meet consumer tastes in North America and Europe. In Nepal, textiles were originally made for household and local use. In the 1990s, women began joining cooperatives and exporting their crafts for profit. Now handicrafts are Nepal's largest export. It is often difficult for women to balance textile production, domestic responsibilities, and agricultural work. Cooperatives foster the growth of democratic communities in which women have a voice despite being historically in underprivileged positions. For fair trade textiles and other crafts to be successful in Western markets, World Fair Trade Organizations require a workforce of artisans in need of stable income, links from consumers to artisans, and a market for quality ethnic products.


title: Fair trade

text: Making cotton and textiles "fair trade" does not always benefit laborers. Burkina Faso and Mali export the largest amount of cotton in Africa. Although many cotton plantations in these countries attained fair trade certification in the 1990s, participation in fair trade strengthened existing power relations and inequalities that cause poverty in Africa rather than challenging them. Fair trade does not do much for farmers when it does not challenge the system that marginalizes producers. Despite not empowering farmers, the change to fair trade cotton has positive effects including female participation in cultivation.


title: Fair trade

text: Textiles and garments are intricate and require one individual , in contrast to the collective farming of coffee and cocoa beans. Textiles are not a straightforward commodity because to be fairly traded, there must be regulation in cotton cultivation, dyeing, stitching, and every other step in the process of textile production. Fair trade textiles are distinct from the sweat-free movement although the two movements intersect at the worker level.


title: Fair trade

text: Forced or unfair labor in textile production is not limited to developing countries. Charges of use of sweatshop labor are endemic in the United States. Immigrant women work long hours and receive less than minimum wage. In the United States, there is more of a stigma against child labor than forced labor in general. Consumers in the United States are willing to suspend the importation of textiles made with child labor in other countries but do not expect American exports to be suspended by other countries, even when produced using forced labor.


title: Fair trade

text: The following companies use fair trade production and/or distribution techniques for clothing and textiles:


title: Fair trade

text: With increasing media scrutiny of the conditions of fishermen, particularly in Southeast Asia, the lack of transparency and traceability in the seafood industry prompted new fair trade efforts. In 2014, Fair Trade USA created its Capture Fisheries Program that led to the first instance of Fair Trade fish being sold globally in 2015. The program "requires fishermen to source and trade according to standards that protect fundamental human rights, prevent forced and child labor, establish safe working conditions, regulate work hours and benefits, and enable responsible resource management."


title: Fair trade

text: Large transnational companies have started to use fair trade commodities in their products. In April 2000, Starbucks began offering fair trade coffee in all of their stores. In 2005, the company promised to purchase ten million pounds of fair trade coffee over the next 18 months. This would account for a quarter of the fair trade coffee purchases in the United States and 3% of Starbucks' total coffee purchases. The company maintains that increasing its fair trade purchases would require an unprofitable reconstruction of the supply chain. Fair trade activists have made gains with other companies: Sara Lee Corporation in 2002 and Procter & Gamble (the maker of Folgers) in 2003 agreed to begin selling a small amount of fair trade coffee. Nestlé, the world's biggest coffee trader, began selling a blend of fair trade coffee in 2005. In 2006, The Hershey Company acquired Dagoba, an organic and fair trade chocolate brand.


title: Fair trade

text: Much contention surrounds the issue of fair trade products becoming a part of large companies. Starbucks is still only 3% fair trade–enough to appease consumers, but not enough to make a real difference to small farmers, according to some activists. The ethics of buying fair trade from a company that is not committed to the cause are questionable; these products are only making a small dent in a big company even though these companies' products account for a significant portion of global fair trade.


title: Fair trade

text: There have been efforts to introduce fair trade practices to the luxury goods industry, particularly for gold and diamonds.


title: Fair trade

text: In parallel to efforts to commoditize diamonds, some industry players launched campaigns to introduce benefits to mining centers in the developing world. Rapaport Fair Trade was established with the goal "to provide ethical education for jewelry suppliers, buyers, first time or seasoned diamond buyers, social activists, students, and anyone interested in jewelry, trends, and ethical luxury."


title: Fair trade

text: The company's founder, Martin Rapaport, as well as Kimberley Process initiators Ian Smillie and Global Witness, are among several industry insiders and observers who have called for greater checks and certification programs among other programs to ensure protection for miners and producers in developing countries. Smillie and Global Witness have since withdrawn support for the Kimberley Process. Other concerns in the diamond industry include working conditions in diamond cutting centers as well as the use of child labor.


title: Fair trade

text: Fairtrade certified gold is used in manufacturing processes as well as for jewellery. The "Fairtrade Standard for Gold and Associated Precious Metals for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining" covers the requirements for gold products to identified as "Fairtrade". Silver and platinum are also Fairtrade precious metals.


title: Fair trade

text: In February 2011, the United Kingdom's Fairtrade Foundation became the first NGO to begin certifying gold under the fair trade rubric.


title: Fair trade

text: Fair trade also influences the porn industry. Feminist writers and academics advocate a pornography industry with mutual consent and no exploiting labor conditions for actors and actresses.


title: Fair trade

text: In 1994, the European Commission prepared the "Memo on alternative trade" in which it declared its support for strengthening fair trade and its intention to establish an EC Working Group on Fair Trade. The same year, the European Parliament adopted the "Resolution on promoting fairness and solidarity in North South trade", voicing its support for fair trade. In 1996, the Economic and Social Committee adopted an "Opinion on the European 'Fair Trade' marking movement". A year later, a resolution adopted by the European Parliament called on the European Commission to support fair trade banana operators, and the European Commission published a survey on "Attitudes of EU consumers to Fair Trade bananas", concluding that Fair Trade bananas would be commercially viable in several EU Member States.


title: Fair trade

text: In 1998, the European Parliament adopted the "Resolution on Fair Trade", which was followed by a Commission in 1999 that adopted the "Communication from the Commission to the Council on 'Fair Trade'". In 2000, public institutions in Europe started purchasing Fairtrade Certified coffee and tea, and the Cotonou Agreement made specific reference to the promotion of Fair Trade in article 23(g) and in the Compendium. The European Parliament and Council Directive 2000/36/EC also suggested promoting Fair Trade. In 2001 and 2002, several other EU papers explicitly mentioned fair trade, most notably the 2001 Green Paper on Corporate Social Responsibility and the 2002 Communication on Trade and Development.


title: Fair trade

text: In 2004, the European Union adopted "Agricultural Commodity Chains, Dependence and Poverty–A proposal for an EU Action Plan", with a specific reference to the fair trade movement, which has "been setting the trend for a more socio-economically responsible trade." In 2005, in the European Commission communication "Policy Coherence for Development–Accelerating progress towards attaining the Millennium Development Goals", fair trade is mentioned as "a tool for poverty reduction and sustainable development".


title: Fair trade

text: On July 6, 2006, the European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution on fair trade, recognizing the benefits achieved by the fair trade movement, suggesting the development of an EU-wide policy on fair trade, defining criteria that need to be fulfilled under fair trade to protect it from abuse, and calling for greater support for fair trade. "This resolution responds to the impressive growth of Fair Trade, showing the increasing interest of European consumers in responsible purchasing," said Green MEP Frithjof Schmidt during the plenary debate. Peter Mandelson, EU Commissioner for External Trade, responded that the resolution would be well received at the European Commission. "Fair Trade makes the consumers think and therefore it is even more valuable. We need to develop a coherent policy framework and this resolution will help us."


title: Fair trade

text: In 2005, French National Assembly member Antoine Herth issued the report "40 proposals to sustain the development of Fair Trade". The report was followed the same year by a law that would establish a commission to recognize fair trade Organisations. In parallel to the , also in 2006, the French chapter of ISO (AFNOR) adopted a reference document on Fair Trade after five years of discussion.


title: Fair trade

text: In 2006, Italian lawmakers debated how to introduce a law on fair trade in Parliament. A consultation process involving a wide range of stakeholders was launched in early October. A definition of fair trade was developed. However, its adoption is still pending as the efforts were stalled by the 2008 Italian political crisis.


title: Fair trade

text: The Dutch province of Groningen was sued in 2007 by coffee supplier Douwe Egberts for requiring its coffee suppliers to meet fair trade criteria, most notably the payment of a minimum price and a development premium to producer cooperatives. Douwe Egberts, which sells coffee brands under self-developed ethical criteria, believed the requirements were discriminatory. After several months of discussions and legal challenges, the province of Groningen prevailed. Coen de Ruiter, director of the Max Havelaar Foundation, called the victory a landmark event: "it provides governmental institutions the freedom in their purchasing policy to require suppliers to provide coffee that bears the fair trade criteria, so that a substantial and meaningful contribution is made in the fight against poverty through the daily cup of coffee".


title: Fair trade

text: While some studies claim fair trade is beneficial and efficient, other studies have been less favourable. Sometimes the criticism is intrinsic to fair trade, sometimes efficiency depends on the broader context such as the lack of government help or volatile prices in the global market.


title: Fair trade

text: Studies shows a significant number of consumers were content to pay higher prices for fair trade products, in the belief that this helps the poor. One ethical criticism of Fairtrade is that this premium over non-Fairtrade products does not reach the producers and is instead collected by businesses or by employees of co-operatives, or is used for unnecessary expenses. Some research finds the implementation of certain fair trade standards causes greater inequalities in markets where these rigid rules are inappropriate for the specific market.


title: Fair trade

text: The Fairtrade Foundation does not monitor how much retailers charge for fair trade goods, so it is rarely possible to determine how much extra is charged or how much of that premium reaches the producers. In four cases it has been possible to find out. One British café chain was passing on less than one percent of the extra charged to the exporting cooperative; in Finland, Valkila, Haaparanta, and Niemi found that consumers paid much more for Fairtrade, and that only 11.5% reached the exporter. Kilian, Jones, Pratt, and Villalobos talk of U.S. Fairtrade coffee getting per pound extra at retail, of which the exporter receives only 2%. Mendoza and Bastiaensen calculated that in the UK only 1.6%–18% of the extra charged for one product line reached the farmer. These studies assume that the importers paid the full Fairtrade price, which is not necessarily the case.


title: Fair trade

text: The Fairtrade Foundation does not monitor how much of the extra money paid to the exporting cooperatives reaches the farmer. The cooperatives incur costs in reaching fair trade standards, and these are incurred on all production, even if only a small amount is sold at fair trade prices. The most successful cooperatives appear to spend a third of the extra price received on this: some less successful cooperatives spend more than they gain. While this appears to be agreed by proponents and critics of fair trade, there is a dearth of economic studies setting out the actual revenues and what the money was spent on. FLO figures are that 40% of the money reaching the developing world is spent on "business and production", which would include these costs as well as costs incurred by any inefficiency and corruption in the cooperative or the marketing system. The rest is spent on social projects, rather than being passed on to farmers.


title: Fair trade

text: Differing anecdotes state farmers are paid more or less by traders than by fair trade cooperatives. Few of these anecdotes address the problems of price reporting in developing world markets, and few appreciate the complexity of the different price packages that may or may not include credit, harvesting, transport, processing, etc. Cooperatives typically average prices over the year, so they pay less than traders at some times, more at others. Bassett (2009) compares prices only where Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade farmers have to sell cotton to the same monopsonistic ginneries which pay low prices. Prices would have to be higher to compensate farmers for the increased costs they incur to produce fair trade. For instance, fair trade encouraged Nicaraguan farmers to switch to organic coffee, which resulted in a higher price per pound, but a lower net income because of higher costs and lower yields.


title: Fair trade

text: A 2015 study concluded that the low barriers to entry in a competitive market such as coffee undermines any effort to give higher benefits to producers through fair trade. They used data from Central America to establish that the producer benefits were close to zero. This is because there is an oversupply of certification, and only a fraction of produce classified as fair trade is actually sold on fair trade markets, just enough to recoup the costs of certification.


title: Fair trade

text: One reason for high prices is that fair trade farmers have to sell through a monopsonist cooperative, which may be inefficient or corrupt–certainly some private traders are more efficient than some cooperatives. They cannot choose the buyer who offers the best price, or switch when their cooperative is going bankrupt if they wish to retain fairtrade status. Fairtrade deviates from the free market ideal of some economists. Brink Lindsey calls fairtrade a "misguided attempt to make up for market failures" that encourages market inefficiencies and overproduction.


title: Fair trade

text: Critics argue that fair trade harms non-Fairtrade farmers. Fair trade claims that its farmers are paid higher prices and are given special advice on increasing yields and quality. Economists argue that if this is so, Fairtrade farmers will increase production. As the demand for coffee is highly elastic, a small increase in supply means a large fall in market price, so perhaps a million Fairtrade farmers get a higher price and 24 million others get a substantially lower price. Critics cite the example of farmers in Vietnam being paid a premium over the world market price in the 1980s, planting much coffee, then flooding the world market in the 1990s. The fair trade minimum price means that when the world market price collapses, it is the non-fair trade farmers, particularly the poorest, who have to cut down their coffee trees. This argument is supported by mainstream economists, not just free marketers.


title: Fair trade

text: Under EU law (Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices) the criminal offense of unfair trading is committed if (a) "it contains false information and is therefore untruthful or in any way, including overall presentation, deceives or is likely to deceive the average consumer, even if the information is factually correct", (b) "it omits material information that the average consumer needs… and thereby causes or is likely to cause the average consumer to take a transactional decision that he would not have taken otherwise", or (c) "fails to identify the commercial intent of the commercial practice… [which] causes or is likely to cause the average consumer to take a transactional decision that he would not have taken otherwise." Peter Griffiths (2011) points to false claims that fair trade producers get higher prices and to the almost universal failure to disclose the extra price charged for fair trade products, how much of this actually reaches the developing world, what this is spent on in the developing world, how much (if any) reaches farmers, and the harm that fair trade does to non-fair trade farmers. He also points to the failure to disclose when "the primary commercial intent" is to make money for retailers and distributors in rich countries.


title: Fair trade

text: Economist Philip Booth says that the selling techniques used by some sellers and supporters of fair trade are bullying, misleading, and unethical, such as the use of boycott campaigns and other pressure to force sellers to stock a product they think ethically suspect. However, the opposite has been argued, that a more participatory and multi-stakeholder approach to auditing might improve the quality of the process.


title: Fair trade

text: Some people argue that strategic use of labeling may help embarrass (or encourage) major suppliers into changing their practices. It may bring to light corporate vulnerabilities that activists can exploit. Or it may encourage ordinary people to get involved with broader projects of social change.


title: Fair trade

text: There are complaints that fair trade standards are inappropriate and may harm producers, sometimes making them work several months more for little return.


title: Fair trade

text: Enforcement of standards by Fairtrade was described as "seriously weak" by Christian Jacquiau. Paola Ghillani, who spent four years as president of Fairtrade Labelling Organizations, agreed that "certain arguments carry some weight". There are many complaints of poor enforcement: labourers on Fairtrade farms in Peru are paid less than the minimum wage; some non-Fairtrade coffee is sold as Fairtrade "the standards are not very strict in the case of seasonally hired labour in coffee production." "[S]ome fair trade standards are not strictly enforced." In 2006, a "Financial Times" journalist found that ten out of ten mills visited had sold uncertified coffee to co-operatives as certified. It reported on "evidence of at least one coffee association that received an organic, Fair Trade or other certifications despite illegally growing some 20 per cent of its coffee in protected national forest land."


title: Fair trade

text: Segments of the trade justice movement have criticized fair trade for focusing too much on individual small producer groups without advocating for trade policy changes that would have a larger effect on disadvantaged producers' lives. French author and RFI correspondent Jean-Pierre Boris championed this view in his 2005 book "Commerce inéquitable".


title: Fair trade

text: There have been political criticisms of fair trade from the left and the right. Some believe the fair trade system is not radical enough. Christian Jacquiau, in his book "Les coulisses du commerce équitable", calls for stricter fair trade standards and criticizes the fair trade movement for working within the current system (i.e., partnerships with mass retailers, multinational corporations, etc.) rather than establishing a new, fairer, fully autonomous (i.e., government monopoly) trading system. Jacquiau also supports significantly higher fair trade prices in order to maximize the effect since most producers only sell a portion of their crop under fair trade terms. that the fair trade approach is too rooted in a Northern consumerist view of justice that Southern producers do not participate in setting. "A key issue is therefore to make explicit who possesses the power to define the terms of Fairtrade, that is who possesses the power in order to determine the need of an ethic in the first instance, and subsequently command a particular ethical vision as the truth."


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Pastor Rafael Maldonado Motta (; born 9 March 1985) is a Venezuelan professional racing driver, who competed in Formula One for the Williams (2011–2013) and Lotus (2014–2015) teams and as a Pirelli test driver until 2017. Before entering Formula One, he won the 2010 GP2 Series championship. He became the first Venezuelan to win a Formula One Grand Prix when he won the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix for Williams, from his first and only pole position. It was also his only podium finish and his only win in Formula One.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado was born on 9 March 1985 in Maracay, Venezuela. He showed an early interest in racing, preferring to watch his uncles driving their YMCA go-karts. When Maldonado was four years old, he started competing in BMX racing and won a national championship.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado was invited to Kartódromo Carmencita Hernández in 1992 and was impressed with the karts that were running on the track. After that, he convinced his father to let him drive one. A year later, Maldonado had his first appearances in karting championships. Since at the time there was no proper category for his age, he competed against kids that were 10-12 year old.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado's first experience of formula racing was in Italy in 2003. He competed in the Italian Formula Renault Championship with Cram Competition, and was classified seventh in the drivers' championship. His notable results included three podium finishes and one pole position. Cram Competition also entered one round of the German Formula Renault Championship at Oschersleben.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In 2004, Maldonado ran a dual programme in Italian and Formula Renault 2000 Eurocup with Cram Competition. He won the Italian title, with eight wins and six pole positions from seventeen starts. In the European championship, he was classified eighth overall, with two wins. Maldonado also found the time to enter one round of the now defunct Formula Renault V6 Eurocup at Spa-Francorchamps, with a best finish of fifth place.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In November 2004, Maldonado was given an opportunity to test with the Minardi Formula One team at Misano in Italy. The team's former owner, Giancarlo Minardi, was present at the test and commented positively about Maldonado's performance.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In 2005, Maldonado progressed out of Formula Renault, but did not get the opportunity to complete a full season in any one series. He made four starts in the Italian F3000 Championship with Sighinolfi Auto Racing, in which one race win at the Autodromo dell'Umbria was enough to finish ninth overall. He also entered nine races (and made seven starts) in the Spanish-based World Series by Renault, with a best finish of seventh. However, his participation in the WSR was marred by a four-race ban for dangerous driving. He failed to slow down at the scene of an accident at Monaco, despite the presence of warning flags, and struck and seriously injured a marshal.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado secured a full-time drive in the Formula Renault 3.5 Series with Draco Racing in 2006. He was classified third overall, with three race wins, six further podium finishes, and five pole positions.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In a season that was marked by controversy Maldonado could have won the title were it not for a disqualification from first place at Misano for a technical infringement. Draco Racing lodged an appeal and the results of the championship remained provisional until Italy's "National Court of Appeal for Motorsport" upheld the stewards' decision at a hearing in January 2007. The lost fifteen points would have been enough to move him up from third to first in the standings, ahead of Alx Danielsson and Borja García.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado's performances in FR3.5 were enough to attract the interest of GP2 teams, and he signed a contract to drive for Trident Racing in 2007 after a successful test in late 2006. He took his first victory in only his fourth race in the series with a commanding win at Monaco. However, he had to miss the final four rounds of the season after breaking a collarbone during training, leaving him outside the championship top 10.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: He moved to the Piquet Sports team for 2008, his second year in the series. At midseason he had two poles and two podiums. He had a farcical sprint race in the wet at Silverstone – he stalled on the dummy grid, picked up a penalty for speeding in the pitlane as he joined the race, another penalty for passing under yellow flags, and crashed into Adrián Vallés and Kamui Kobayashi on the final lap. He started at the back of the grid for the Hungary feature race, but he moved up to finish fifth after staying out for longer than any other driver, and setting a succession of quick laps on these worn tyres. Four podium finishes—including a win at Spa—in the final six races saw him rise to fifth place in the drivers' championship by the end of the season.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: He signed to drive for the ART Grand Prix team during the 2009 season. As part of the deal, he also joined the team for three rounds of the 2008–09 GP2 Asia Series. Maldonado was often overshadowed by team-mate and 2009 champion Nico Hülkenberg, but Maldonado still finished sixth overall, helping ART to the teams title. He competed in the first round of the 2009 Euroseries 3000 season at the Autódromo Internacional do Algarve for Teamcraft Motorsport to gain experience of the track for the GP2 season finale. Maldonado won the first race, having started from second position.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado drove for the Rapax Team in the 2010 GP2 Series alongside Luiz Razia. He clinched the Championship in the penultimate event at Monza, Maldonado won six consecutive feature races on his way to winning the title (from Istanbul Park to Spa), which also took him to a total of ten race victories in GP2, which is a series record. Maldonado finished sixteen points ahead of Barwa Addax's Sergio Pérez. Rapax also won the Teams' Championship, five points ahead of Barwa Addax.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado was a target for a Campos Meta seat in . Campos team principal Adrián Campos said that Bruno Senna's team mate could be Pedro de la Rosa, Vitaly Petrov or Maldonado, but the team's financial problems and change of ownership changed the situation, and Karun Chandhok got the drive. It was then reported that Maldonado was close to signing a deal to be test and reserve driver for the Stefan Grand Prix team, which attempted to compete in the 2010 season following the withdrawal of the US F1 Team, which left a theoretical space for another new team. Stefan was barred from competing in the 2010 season.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Towards the end of the 2010 season, Maldonado was linked to the Williams team for , replacing former GP2 team-mate Nico Hülkenberg alongside Rubens Barrichello. He took part in the end-of-season young driver test at the Yas Marina Circuit in Abu Dhabi, driving for Williams and Hispania Racing, the rebranded Campos team. On 15 November, Williams confirmed that Hülkenberg had been dropped from the team's 2011 line-up, and Maldonado was duly announced as his replacement on 1 December. In addition to his on-track record, Maldonado also brought sponsorship from the Venezuelan government (through the state-owned PDVSA oil company) to the team.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado retired from his first race, the , due to transmission problems. In the , he failed to reach Q2 in qualifying and again dropped out of the race. He recorded his first finish in China, in eighteenth place. At the he reached Q3 for the first time, eventually qualifying in ninth position for the race. He made it into Q3 again in Monaco, qualifying eighth, and in the race was lying sixth with five laps remaining, when he collided with Lewis Hamilton, taking him out of the race. He then spun out of a very wet race in Canada. He then continued to have impressive qualifying pace with poor race pace at Britain, Germany, and Hungary, including a drive-through penalty at the latter for speeding in the pit lane. At the at Spa in qualifying, Maldonado was involved in an incident with Lewis Hamilton on an in-lap after Hamilton squeezed by him when both were on a hot lap. Maldonado appeared to swipe across Hamilton as they headed down to Eau Rouge. Maldonado received a five-place grid penalty for his actions and Hamilton a reprimand. But in the race he scored his first point in Formula One with a tenth-place finish. Maldonado did not score any more points for the rest of the season, nor did he reach Q3 for the rest of the season. His poor end to the season was magnified in Abu Dhabi; where he qualified 17th and started 23rd (after a ten-place grid penalty for using a 9th engine), and served a drive-through, and later a 30-second time penalty after the race, both for ignoring blue flags.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado finished nineteenth in the Drivers' Championship and on 1 December 2011, it was confirmed that he would be retained by Williams for the season.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado began the season alongside Brazil's Bruno Senna, for Williams. He started the season with promising pace, qualifying eighth for the . In the race, he was running strongly until he crashed out on the final lap, fighting with Fernando Alonso for fifth position. In the , Maldonado retired in the closing stages of the race while running in the points. He scored his first points of the season by finishing eighth in China. A puncture ended his race in Bahrain, after he qualified in seventeenth position. At the , Maldonado qualified second, next to Lewis Hamilton on the front row of the grid after strong pace from his Williams car during the race weekend. Maldonado was later promoted to his first pole position in his Formula One career after Hamilton was excluded from the results of qualifying, due to having insufficient fuel in his car. Maldonado was beaten to the first corner by Fernando Alonso, but regained the lead after the second round of pit stops. Maldonado held his lead after the third pit-stop phase, and held off Alonso and Kimi Räikkönen to win, becoming the first Venezuelan driver to finish on a Grand Prix podium in the process. He remains the most recent Williams driver to win a race . During post-race celebrations, a fire engulfed the Williams pit, and Maldonado was seen carrying his cousin to safety.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: At Monaco, he received a ten-place grid penalty for causing an avoidable collision with Sergio Pérez during a practice session (which subsequently may have led to Pérez's crash in qualifying, which caused the session to be red-flagged) and an additional five-place penalty for a gearbox change, meaning he started 24th and last on the grid. He retired due to an accident at the start of the race, when he ran into the back of Pedro de la Rosa's HRT who also retired with rear wing damage. At the end of second qualifying session in Canada, Maldonado crashed into the infamous "Wall of Champions" at the end of the lap in which he set the quickest sector 1 time, and was on course to bump Jenson Button out of Q3. Maldonado finished the qualifying session 17th and started the race from 22nd position after a five-place grid penalty after he was forced to change his gearbox due to damage suffered in the crash. Maldonado made good progress in the first stint, running as high as tenth mid-race, however after his pitstop he dropped back to seventeenth and finished the race in thirteenth place.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In Europe, Maldonado qualified third but dropped to fifth after the start and tenth after pitting under a safety car halfway through the race. Maldonado then passed several drivers including Red Bull's Mark Webber and was running fourth in the closing stages of the race. On lap 56 (the penultimate lap of the race), Maldonado was battling with McLaren's Lewis Hamilton for third place, however Hamilton forced Maldonado off the track at turn 12 and Maldonado returned to track and collided with Hamilton in turn 13, with Maldonado losing steering on the high curbs. Maldonado was able to continue and finished tenth with a broken front wing; Hamilton retired after he crashed into the tyre wall. Maldonado blamed Hamilton for the incident, however the stewards gave Maldonado a 20-second time penalty which dropped Maldonado out of the points to twelfth position. Maldonado qualified seventh in the British Grand Prix and ran as high as sixth before a pit-stop on lap 11 which dropped him into the midfield. Maldonado was subsequently involved in a collision with Sergio Pérez, which dropped him to last while Pérez retired on the spot. Maldonado eventually finished sixteenth, a lap down on winner Mark Webber. In television interviews, Pérez was damning of Maldonado's driving, calling him too dangerous and claiming he ruined other people's races. Pérez also called for the stewards to take tough action against Maldonado. Maldonado said the collision was a racing incident. The stewards penalised Maldonado by a reprimand and a fine of €10,000 with two penalties given due to the "serious nature" of the incident.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In Germany, Maldonado qualified a strong sixth in the wet qualifying, however he lost pace from lap 12 of the race when he hit debris which damaged his car, and finished the race in fifteenth. In Hungary, Maldonado qualified eighth, but a poor start dropped him to twelfth after lap one and thirteenth after the pitstops. Maldonado received a drive-through penalty for "causing an avoidable collision" in an overtaking move on Force India's Paul di Resta for twelfth; he dropped behind di Resta after the penalty and finished thirteenth. Maldonado was eleventh in the World Championship on 29 points as Formula One entered a five-week summer break, with his only points finishes coming from his win in Spain and eighth in China.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: At the Maldonado received a further three penalties. He was demoted from third on the grid to sixth for impeding Nico Hülkenberg in Q1. He then jumped the start of the race, and was deemed to cause a collision with Marussia's Timo Glock, resulting in two separate 5-place grid penalties, so was demoted by 10 places in Monza. Maldonado started the race in 22nd and finished in 11th, just 0.5 seconds behind Senna, who finished in the final points-paying position. In Singapore he qualified second, alongside pole-sitter Lewis Hamilton. In the race, he was in contention for a podium finish, retiring on lap 37 due to a hydraulic failure. In Japan Maldonado qualified 14th, starting 12th and finished the race 8th, his first points finish since he won in Spain nearly five months earlier.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Williams' form took a turn for the worse in Korea and Maldonado finished in 14th place after qualifying 15th. He once again managed to get into Q3 in India, but a mistake on his final attempt left him 9th on the grid. His race was disappointing as he got his tyre punctured by Kobayashi after having passed the Sauber driver. He eventually finished 16th. Maldonado returned to the sharp end of the grid in Abu Dhabi where he qualified fourth, which became third as Vettel was excluded from qualifying due to having insufficient fuel in his car. He kept third place at the start and was running at the same pace as cars around him until his KERS unit failed after the first safety car period of the race. Without KERS his car lost pace and he fell back to eventually finish fifth. Maldonado finished the season with a ninth place from ninth on the grid in the USA and a DNF after a second lap crash from sixteenth from the grid after a ten place penalty for a third reprimand after missing a weighbridge check in Brazil, as he finished fifteenth in the Championship on 45 points, the lowest Championship standing for a driver who won a race during an F1 season. Maldonado also received 14 penalties throughout the season, five ahead of Sergio Pérez and Michael Schumacher, Maldonado's grid penalties for both driving offences and gearbox changes totaled to 38 grid places, 1.8 per race.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: On 28 November 2012, Maldonado was retained by Williams for the season, where he was partnered by Finnish rookie Valtteri Bottas. At the start of the season Maldonado commented that the new FW35 chassis was a step back towards where the team were in . He failed to make it out of the first qualifying session at the first race, the , and qualified in 17th position, one place behind Bottas. Maldonado spun out in the race after 24 laps and consequently retired. At the following round in Malaysia, Maldonado did make the second qualifying session but was caught out by the rain meaning he failed to set a time and started the race 16th. He was running in 15th place in the closing stages of the race when he retired again – his third in succession in Malaysia – due to a KERS failure. At the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix, Maldonado and Chilton collided – when Maldonado overtook Chilton who stated he had not seen the Williams next to him entering the corner – and this brought out the red flag as the barrier became dislodged in the incident. Maldonado was not hurt in the crash. In the week following the announcement that Maldonado would not remain with the Williams team in , Maldonado accused his team of sabotage at the .


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: On 29 November 2013, Maldonado was signed by the Lotus F1 team, to partner Romain Grosjean in . He drove with number 13, which was barely used in Formula One before. Maldonado's engineer was Mark Slade, who previously engineered for Kimi Räikkönen.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: At the , Maldonado collided with Esteban Gutiérrez after making a pit stop, causing Gutiérrez's car to roll. For causing the incident, Maldonado was given a ten-second stop-go penalty during the race, and after the race, three points on his FIA Super Licence, and a five-place grid penalty for the . At the , Maldonado crashed into a wall in the pit lane during free practice. At the Maldonado crashed into the wall in the first part of qualifying. During the race the following day, Maldonado was deemed to have caused a collision when trying to pass Marcus Ericsson, and was given a five-second stop-go penalty. He was also given a point on his FIA Super Licence after the race, his fourth of the season. At Silverstone Maldonado again collided with Esteban Gutiérrez, launching his car spectacularly into the air although he was able to finish the race.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: In Hungary Maldonado lost control of his Lotus while heading to the grid, and in the race he crashed in to Jules Bianchi when attempting an overtake. At Spa-Francorchamps, Maldonado crashed during the second free practice session; the force of the impact required Maldonado to have a precautionary check-up at the circuit's medical centre. At the , Maldonado crashed during the second free practice session, causing a red flag. At the , Maldonado received a penalty for speeding behind the safety car, and another penalty for speeding in the pit lane, but still came home in ninth, registering his first – and ultimately, only – points-scoring finish of the 2014 season. He finished the season 16th in the Drivers' Championship.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado continued to drive for Lotus in the 2015 season. In March 2015, before the season started, the Lotus car suffered a brake failure causing him to crash during testing at Catalunya. At the , Maldonado was hit by Felipe Nasr and crashed out of the race at the second corner of the first lap after he overtook 3 cars at the start and was in 6th position. At the , Maldonado's car suffered a puncture after he was hit by Valtteri Bottas, and he was later given a 10-second time penalty for speeding behind the safety car. He accrued three penalty points on his licence for the infringement, taking his tally to eight within the previous year. At the , Maldonado suffered a brake issue that caused him to go off-track when entering the pits, and had to be recovered by the marshals. A couple of laps later he spun the car. On lap 49, Maldonado was hit by Jenson Button in a braking zone and spun; Maldonado was later forced to retire. At the start of the , Maldonado parked his car in the wrong grid slot, and accordingly, was given a 5-second time penalty. On the first lap of the race Maldonado was hit by Max Verstappen, damaging Verstappen's front wing; Maldonado also was hit by Massa's car, damaging its floor. Following the race, Maldonado admitted that his reputation for crashing comes because he takes more risks as he approaches the limits.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: At the , Maldonado was again involved in an incident – he was hit by team mate Romain Grosjean , who had just returned to the track after missing a braking point, causing rear wing damage to Maldonado's car. Despite the damage, Maldonado did not lose pace and was initially able to continue in seventh place; however, during his pitstop the team deemed the damage to be substantial enough to retire the car. At the , Maldonado was not able to profit from a season-best qualifying result of 8th due to a brake issue from the start of the race; Maldonado and Verstappen collided on the sixth lap, with Maldonado subsequently forced to retire from the race. After two 7th-place finishes in Canada and Austria, Romain Grosjean lost control of his car causing him to crash into his team mate Maldonado on the first lap at Silverstone, causing both Lotus cars to retire. At the , Sérgio Pérez tried to overtake Maldonado at the outside of the corner, Maldonado failed to leave enough room so the two collided, causing Pérez to spin. Maldonado was later penalised for his role in the incident. Maldonado was among numerous others that were penalised for speeding in the pit lane, and overtaking a Manor car under neutralised safety car conditions. Although the Manor (being lapped) let Maldonado deliberately pass him by the penalty wasn't withdrawn. At the midpoint of the season, the BBC journalist Andrew Benson rated Maldonado as the worst driver to that point, and stated that he "seems to be trying his utmost to find new ways to infuriate his employers and collect as many penalty points from the stewards as possible."


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Following the mid-season break during first practice at Spa, Maldonado crashed the car into the barriers. It was reported that the incident justified Lotus's decision to save their sole example of a new front-wing design they had brought to this race for his team-mate Romain Grosjean. On the second lap of the race Maldonado was in 7th but ran off track and hit a curb, sending a 17G shock through the car, which broke a clutch control valve, forcing him to retire. Despite the incident Maldonado was ambivalent saying "I don't care" about the damage he had caused to his car. At the next race, Monza, Maldonado tried to avoid the chaos in the first chicane but hit Hülkenberg damaging the suspension, forcing Maldonado to retire. Following this incident Mark Webber said that he does not think that Maldonado is talented enough to justify his drive in F1.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: At the Singapore Grand Prix, Maldonado ran off track, and when he rejoined he and Button collided. The diffuser of Maldonado's car was damaged in the incident. Immediately after the incident, world champion Button took to the radio to say about Maldonado "I should have known, he's mental". Soon after the incident, Lotus confirmed that Maldonado would drive for the team in 2016. In Japan, Maldonado started from outside the top 10, but got up to seventh immediately after the start. However, he was overtaken by Hülkenberg during the first stop, dropping him to eighth, where he remained until the end of the race. In Russia, he started in 14th position. He had made up six positions during the race to finish in eighth place, which became seventh as Räikkönen was penalised for causing an accident on the last lap. In the US Grand Prix, Maldonado started 13th, but had to take avoiding action in the first corner, which dropped him to 18th. Despite this, he managed to get back in the battle for the points, because of the high attrition in the race and two safety car periods, when he caught up the cars in front of him. In the end, he finished 8th. At the Brazilian Grand Prix, Maldonado ran into the side of Ericsson. Maldonado's Lotus team described the incident as an "oops", but the stewards considered the incident to be serious so imposed a 5-second penalty on Maldonado. Despite the penalty, he managed to finish in the points. At the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix Maldonado and Alonso collided, damaging Maldonado's car and forcing him to retire. Maldonado ended the season with 27 points and 14th place in the Drivers' World Championship. Commentators looked back at his career fondly while commenting on the inconsistency that had earned him the nickname ""Crashtor"".


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado was originally due to continue with Lotus for 2016, however, the team was bought by Renault, and Maldonado's contract was terminated following several problems with Maldonado's sponsor, PDVSA. He was replaced by former McLaren driver Kevin Magnussen.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado became a test driver for Pirelli, testing a GP2 car for 2017, to be able to develop the tires of the season. Maldonado had his first tests at the Mugello and Barcelona circuits.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Whilst driving in Formula One, Maldonado gained 4 penalty points in the season up to the , only equalled by Jules Bianchi. He was also the most reprimanded Formula One driver in , a clear 5 points ahead of his nearest rival, Michael Schumacher. In Maldonado also had 5 driver related reprimands, ranging from speeding in the pit-lane to causing collisions.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: With the announcement of the retirement of Nico Rosberg following the conclusion of the 2016, Maldonado negotiated with Sauber Motorsport for a return to Formula One, with no agreement being reached.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado also negotiated with IndyCar team KV Racing Technology, with no agreement being reached, and the team being sold due to financial difficulties.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: On 21 March 2018, DragonSpeed confirmed that Pastor Maldonado would contest the entire "superseason" of the World Endurance Championship, in the LMP2 category with an Oreca 07, together with Roberto González, as well as Nathanaël Berthon in the first two rounds, and Anthony Davidson in the rest. They managed to finish third in their category in the championship.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Pastor also competed in the 2019 24 Hours of Daytona in the LMP2 category, also with DragonSpeed and alongside Roberto González, Sebastián Saavedra and Ryan Cullen. They managed to be first in their category.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado is an outspoken political figure, which is rare in the racing world. He considers himself a socialist and was a friend of the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. He was one of the guards of honour at Chávez's funeral.


title: Pastor Maldonado

text: Maldonado married Venezuelan journalist Gabriela Tarkanyi on 15 December 2012, in Canaima, Venezuela. They had a baby girl named Victoria in September 2013.


title: Scarecrow

text: A scarecrow is a decoy or mannequin, often in the shape of a human. Humanoid scarecrows are usually dressed in old clothes and placed in open fields to discourage birds from disturbing and feeding on recently cast seed and growing crops. Scarecrows are used around the world by farmers, and are a notable symbol of farms and the countryside in popular culture.


title: Scarecrow

text: The common form of a scarecrow is a humanoid figure dressed in old clothes and placed in open fields to discourage birds such as crows or sparrows from disturbing and feeding on recently cast seed and growing crops. Machinery such as windmills have been employed as scarecrows, but the effectiveness lessens as animals become familiar with the structures.


title: Scarecrow

text: Since the invention of the humanoid scarecrow, more effective methods have been developed. On California farmland, highly-reflective aluminized PET film ribbons are tied to the plants to produce shimmers from the sun. Another approach is using automatic noise guns powered by propane gas. One winery in New York has even used inflatable tube men or airdancers to scare away birds.


title: Scarecrow

text: In "Kojiki", the oldest surviving book in Japan (compiled in the year 712), a scarecrow known as Kuebiko appears as a deity who cannot walk, yet knows everything about the world.


title: Scarecrow

text: Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story "Feathertop" is a scarecrow made and brought to life in 17th-century Salem, Massachusetts, by a witch in league with the devil. The basic framework of the story was used by American dramatist Percy MacKaye in his 1908 play "The Scarecrow".


title: Scarecrow

text: L. Frank Baum's tale "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" has a scarecrow as one of the main protagonists. The Scarecrow of Oz was searching for brains from the Great Wizard. The scarecrow was portrayed by Frank Moore in the 1914 film "His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz", by Ray Bolger in the 1939 film "The Wizard of Oz", by Justin Case in the 1985 film "Return to Oz", and by Michael Jackson in the 1978 musical film adaptation "The Wiz".


title: Scarecrow

text: Worzel Gummidge, a scarecrow who came to life in a friendly form, first appeared in series of novels by Barbara Euphan Todd in the 1930s and later in a popular television adaptation.


title: Scarecrow

text: The Scarecrow is the alter ego of the Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn, the smuggler hero in a series of novels written by Russell Thorndike. The story was made into the movie "Doctor Syn" in 1937, and again in 1962 as "Captain Clegg". It was taken up by Disney in 1963 and dramatized in the three-part TV miniseries "The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh" starring Patrick McGoohan; this was later re-edited and released theatrically as "Dr. Syn, Alias the Scarecrow".


title: Scarecrow

text: A film directed by Jerry Schatzberg in 1973 starring Al Pacino and Gene Hackman is titled "Scarecrow" and deals with two characters on a journey reminiscent of the one in L. Frank Baum's book.


title: Scarecrow

text: The Scarecrow is a character in the DC Comics universe, a supervillain and antagonist of Batman; Cillian Murphy portrays the character in Christopher Nolan's Batman trilogy. Similar characters, known as Scarecrow and Straw Man, have appeared in Marvel Comics.


title: Scarecrow

text: British band Pink Floyd recorded a song called "The Scarecrow" for their debut album, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn". John Cougar Mellencamp's album "Scarecrow", which peaked at No. 2 in 1985, spawned five Top 40 singles including "Rain on the Scarecrow" (#21).


title: Scarecrow

text: The song "Scarecrow People" on the XTC album "Oranges & Lemons" is a cautionary tale about the evolution of mankind to 'scarecrow people' who 'ain't got no brains' and 'ain't got no hearts' and are the result of humans destroying their world with wars and pollution.


title: Scarecrow

text: Melissa Etheridge recorded the song "Scarecrow" for her 1999 album "Breakdown". The song is actually about Matthew Shepard. The title makes reference to the bicyclist who found Shepard murdered and tied to a fence, and mistook him for a scarecrow upon first glance.


title: Scarecrow

text: Tobias Sammet recorded his third Avantasia album with a title "The Scarecrow", as a first part of Wicked Trilogy.


title: Scarecrow

text: A scarecrow named Scarecrow is one of the protagonists in Magic Adventures of Mumfie. Joe's Scarecrow Village in Cape Breton, Canada, is a roadside attraction displaying dozens of scarecrows.


title: Scarecrow

text: The Japanese village of Nagoro, on the island of Shikoku in the Tokushima Prefecture, has 35 inhabitants but more than 350 scarecrows.


title: Scarecrow

text: In the United Kingdom, where the use of scarecrows as a protector of crops dates from time immemorial and where there are a few different languages and several different dialects, there are a wide range of alternative names such as:


title: Scarecrow

text: In England, the Urchfont Scarecrow Festival was established in the 1990s and has become a major local event, attracting up to 10,000 people annually for the May Day Bank Holiday. Originally based on an idea imported from Derbyshire, it was the first Scarecrow Festival to be established in the whole of southern England.


title: Scarecrow

text: Belbroughton, north Worcestershire, holds an annual "Scarecrow Weekend" on the last weekend of each September since 1996, which raises money for local charities. The village of Meerbrook in Staffordshire holds an annual Scarecrow Festival during the month of May. Tetford and Salmonby, Lincolnshire, jointly host one.


title: Scarecrow

text: The festival at Wray, Lancashire, was established in the early 1990s and continues to the present day. In the village of Orton, Eden, Cumbria scarecrows are displayed each year, often using topical themes such as a Dalek exterminating a Wind turbine to represent local opposition to a wind farm.


title: Scarecrow

text: The village of Blackrod, near Bolton in Greater Manchester, holds a popular annual Scarecrow Festival over a weekend usually in early July.


title: Scarecrow

text: Norland, West Yorkshire, has a Scarecrow festival. Kettlewell in North Yorkshire has held an annual festival since 1994. In Teesdale, County Durham, the villages of Cotherstone, Staindrop and Middleton-in-Teesdale have annual scarecrow festivals.


title: Scarecrow

text: Scotland's first scarecrow festival was held in West Kilbride, North Ayrshire, in 2004, and there is also one held in Montrose. On the Isle of Skye, the Tattie bogal event is held each year, featuring a scarecrow trail and other events. Tonbridge in Kent also host an annual Scarecrow Trail, organised by the local Rotary Club to raise money for local charities. Gisburn, Lancashire, held its first Scarecrow Festival in June 2014.


title: Scarecrow

text: In the US, St. Charles, Illinois, hosts an annual Scarecrow Festival. Peddler's Village in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, hosts an annual scarecrow festival and presents a scarecrow display in September–October that draws tens of thousands of visitors.


title: Scarecrow

text: The 'pumpkin people' come in the autumn months in the valley region of Nova Scotia, Canada. They are scarecrows with pumpkin heads doing various things such as playing the fiddle or riding a wooden horse. Hickling, in the south of Nottinghamshire, is another village that celebrates an annual scarecrow event. It is very popular and has successfully raised a great deal of money for charity. Meaford, Ontario, has celebrated the Scarecrow Invasion since 1996.


title: Scarecrow

text: In the Philippines, the Province of Isabela has recently started a scarecrow festival named after the local language: the Bambanti Festival. The province invites all its cities and towns to participate for the festivities, which last a week; it has drawn tourists from around the island of Luzon.


title: Scarecrow

text: The largest gathering of scarecrows in one location is 3,812 and was achieved by National Forest Adventure Farm in Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire, UK, on 7 August 2014.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Tess is a 1979 drama film directed by Roman Polanski and starring Nastassja Kinski, Peter Firth, and Leigh Lawson. It is an adaptation of Thomas Hardy's 1891 novel "Tess of the d'Urbervilles". The screenplay was written by Gérard Brach, John Brownjohn, and Roman Polanski. The film received positive critical reviews upon release and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning three for Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: The events of the story are set in motion when a clergyman, Parson Tringham, has a chance conversation with John Durbeyfield, a simple farmer. Tringham is a local historian, and in the course of his research he has discovered the "Durbeyfields" are descended from the d'Urbervilles, a noble family whose lineage extends to the time of William the Conqueror. The family lost its land and prestige when the male heirs died out. The parson thinks Durbeyfield might like to know his origins as a passing historical curiosity.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Durbeyfield soon becomes fixated upon the idea of using his noble lineage to better his family's fortunes. Finding a wealthy family named d'Urberville living nearby, he and his wife send their daughter Tess to call on his presumed relations, and seek employment at the manor house. At the manor house live Alec d'Urberville and his mother. Tess is a beautiful girl, and Alec d'Urberville has an appetite for women. Alec and his mother know they are no relation to Tess, for their family name and coat of arms had been purchased. Finding her naive, penniless and attractive, he sets about taking advantage of the situation. He tries to get her alone, and attempts to seduce her with strawberries and roses, but these efforts are parried by Tess. In time, he rapes her.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Tess returns home and soon discovers she is pregnant. She is angry with her mother for placing her at risk when she knows so little of the world's cruelty. The baby is born sickly and dies. Sometime later, Tess goes to a dairy farm to work as a milkmaid. She meets Angel Clare, an aspiring young farmer from a respectable family. He believes Tess to be an unspoiled country girl, and completely innocent. The two fall in love, but Tess does not reveal her previous relationship with Alec until their wedding night. Disillusioned and heartbroken by the news, Angel rejects her.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Deserted by her husband, Tess meets Alec d'Urberville again. She at first angrily rebuffs his advances, but the death of her father puts the family in desperately hard times. Facing starvation, eviction and homelessness, Tess submits to Alec to support her mother and siblings.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Shortly afterwards, Angel Clare returns from travelling abroad. A disastrous missionary tour in Brazil has ruined his health. Humbled, and having had plenty of time to think, he feels remorse for his treatment of Tess. He succeeds in tracking her down but leaves heartbroken when he finds her living with Alec. Tess realizes that going back to Alec has ruined her chances of happiness with Angel, and she murders Alec.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Running away to find Angel, Tess is reconciled with him; he can finally accept and embrace her as his wife without passing moral judgment on her actions. They consummate their marriage, spending two nights of happiness together on the run from the law before Tess is captured sleeping at Stonehenge. An ending summary tells that she is convicted and hanged for murder.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Polanski was inspired to make the film by his wife Sharon Tate, who gave him a copy of "Tess of the d'Urbervilles." She said it would make a great film and expressed interest in playing the part of Tess. It was the last time Polanski saw her alive, as she was departing back for America while he stayed on a while longer in Europe to finish working on a film. She was murdered by the Manson Family on 9 August 1969 while he was away. The film is dedicated to her ("To Sharon") at the beginning.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Polanski wrote the screenplay in French with his usual collaborator Gérard Brach, then it was translated and expanded by John Brownjohn. The story line largely follows that of the book, although the role of Alec d'Urberville is toned down.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Costumes for the film were designed by Anthony Powell. He received his third Academy Award for this work.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Set in Dorset, England, the film was shot at various locations in France: Normandy (Cotentin, la Hague, Omonville-la-Rogue, Éculleville, Sainte-Croix-Hague, le Vast, Bricquebec, Saint-Jacques-de-Néhou), Brittany (Locronan, le Leslay) and Nord-Pas-de-Calais (Condette). Polanski was living in Europe as he was wanted as a fugitive after his conviction for sex with an underage girl in the United States. He had fled before sentencing and could have been extradited to the U.S. from the United Kingdom.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: Polanski intended the film to reflect an ancient peasant culture, which he had seen in Poland during World War II after fleeing the Kraków ghetto. The scenes also refer to the genre painting of the French artists Georges de La Tour of the 17th century and Gustave Courbet of the 19th century.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: During the third month of shooting, on 28 October 1978, the cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth died of a heart attack. Most of the scenes he had shot were exteriors that occur in the first half of the film. Ghislain Cloquet shot the remainder of the film, including most of the interior scenes. Both Unsworth and Cloquet were nominated and won an Academy Award for Best Cinematography. Cloquet alone was nominated for the César Award for Cinematography, which he won.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: The original musical score was composed by Philippe Sarde and orchestrated by Peter Knight. It was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. The melody played by the character Clare on a recorder is a popular Polish folk song "Laura i Filon".


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: "Tess" was released in theaters in the United States on 12 December 1980. During its entire theatrical run, the film grossed little over $20 million in the United States ($60 million in 2014 dollars), which made it the 33rd highest-grossing film of 1980.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: The film premiered in France in 1979 at a length of 186 minutes. Polanski writes in his autobiography that he felt that the cut was incomplete, rushed to meet the release date. The film premiered in 1980 in the U.S. at a re-edited length of 170 minutes. Later, overseas releases of the film in theaters and on home video ran as little as 136 minutes. The 170-minute cut is Polanski's approved version of the film. This version recently was restored in 4K from the original negative under Polanski's supervision, and he attended its premiere at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on reviews from 77 critics, with an average rating of 7.3/10 with the consensus: "A reverent adaptation of Thomas Hardy's novel, "Tess" marries painterly cinematography and unhurried pacing to create an epic ode to perseverance." On Metacritic the film has a score of 82% based on reviews from 15 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: In a review in "The New York Times", Janet Maslin described "Tess" as "a lovely, lyrical, unexpectedly delicate movie". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 4 out of 4 and wrote: "This is a wonderful film; the kind of exploration of doomed young sexuality that, like "Elvira Madigan", makes us agree that the lovers should never grow old."


title: Tess (1979 film)

text: "Tess" was nominated for six awards, including Best Picture, at the 53rd Academy Awards and won three. It was also nominated for four Golden Globe Awards (winning two), three British Academy Film Awards (winning one) and six César Awards (winning three).


title: Morana (goddess)

text: Marzanna (in Polish), Morė (in Lithuanian), Marena (in Russian), Mara (in Ukrainian), Morana (in Czech, Slovene and Serbo-Croatian), Morena (in Slovak and Macedonian) or Mora (in Bulgarian) is a pagan Slavic goddess associated with seasonal rites based on the idea of death and rebirth of nature. She is an ancient goddess associated with winter's death, rebirth and dreams. In ancient Slavic rites, the death of the Goddess Marzanna at the end of winter becomes the rebirth of Spring of the Goddess Kostroma (Russian), Lada or Vesna representing the coming of Spring.


title: Morana (goddess)

text: Some medieval Christian sources such as the Czech 13th century Mater Verborum compare her to the Greek goddess Hecate, associating her with sorcery. 15th century Polish chronicler Jan Długosz likened her in his "Annales" to Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture (together with another Slavic goddess Dziewanna). Lithuanian, Latvian and some Estonian sources, dated between the 13th and 14th century, note the worship of Morana, the mother of souls. The most contemporary historical theory supposes the settlement of Slavic people in and around the Baltic region, most probably spreading the worship of Morana and likely finding many similarities between the Baltic natives and their goddesses of death, rebirth and the afterlife. Some Norse ballads, their origin not yet verified, hint at the worship of Marzanna, noting the natural contrasts with the Norse beliefs in the afterlife.


title: Morana (goddess)

text: In modern times the rituals associated with Marzanna have lost their sacred character and are a pastime – an occasion to have fun and celebrate the beginning of spring. The tradition is usually celebrated around the spring equinox (March 21). Usually schoolchildren and young people participate in the celebrations alongside local folklore groups and other residents. A procession consisting of men, women and children carries handmade Marzanna (and often also "Marzaniok" dolls, the male counterpart to Marzanna) to the nearest river, lake or pond. The participants sing traditional songs and throw effigies of Marzanna into the water. Sometimes the effigies are first set on fire, or their clothes are torn. On the journey back to the village the focus falls on the copses, adorned with ribbons and blown egg shells. The procession, still singing, returns to the village. In some locations (e.g. in Brynica – a district of Miasteczko Śląskie), the beginning of spring is then celebrated with a feast.


title: Morana (goddess)

text: Marzanna's name most likely comes from the Proto-Indo-European root *mar-, *mor-, signifying death. The Slovak form of the theonym – "Ma(r)muriena" – suggests that the goddess may have originally been connected to the Roman god of war Mars (known under a variety of names, including "Marmor", "Mamers" and "Mamurius Veturius"). The connection to Mars is supported by, among others, Vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov, who underline that he was originally an agricultural deity.


title: Morana (goddess)

text: Other theories claim her name is derived from the same Indo-European root as Latin "mors" 'death' and Russian "mor" 'pestilence'. Some authors also likened her to mare, an evil spirit in Germanic and Slavic folklore, associated with nightmares and sleep paralysis. In Belarusian, Polish, Ukrainian and in some Russian dialects the word 'mara' means dream. But Vladimir Dahl says it means 'phantom', 'vision', 'hallucination'.