title: Hearing loss

text: Companies can also provide personal hearing protector devices tailored to both the worker and type of employment. Some hearing protectors universally block out all noise, and some allow for certain noises to be heard. Workers are more likely to wear hearing protector devices when they are properly fitted.


title: Hearing loss

text: Often interventions to prevent noise-induced hearing loss have many components. A 2017 Cochrane review found that stricter legislation might reduce noise levels. Providing workers with information on their sound exposure levels was not shown to decrease exposure to noise. Ear protection, if used correctly, can reduce noise to safer levels, but often, providing them is not sufficient to prevent hearing loss. Engineering noise out and other solutions such as proper maintenance of equipment can lead to noise reduction, but further field studies on resulting noise exposures following such interventions are needed. Other possible solutions include improved enforcement of existing legislation and better implementation of well-designed prevention programmes, which have not yet been proven conclusively to be effective. The conclusion of the Cochrane Review was that further research could modify what is now regarding the effectiveness of the evaluated interventions.


title: Hearing loss

text: The Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance has created a hearing impairment calculator based on the ISO 1999 model for studying threshold shift in relatively homogeneous groups of people, such as workers with the same type of job. The ISO 1999 model estimates how much hearing impairment in a group can be ascribed to age and noise exposure. The result is calculated via an algebraic equation that uses the A-weighted sound exposure level, how many years the people were exposed to this noise, how old the people are, and their sex. The model's estimations are only useful for people without hearing loss due to non-job related exposure and can be used for prevention activities.


title: Hearing loss

text: The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends neonatal hearing screening for all newborns.


title: Hearing loss

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics advises that children should have their hearing tested several times throughout their schooling:


title: Hearing loss

text: While the American College of Physicians indicated that there is not enough evidence to determine the utility of screening in adults over 50 years old who do not have any symptoms, the American Language, Speech Pathology and Hearing Association recommends that adults should be screened at least every decade through age 50 and at three-year intervals thereafter, to minimize the detrimental effects of the untreated condition on quality of life. For the same reason, the US Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion included as one of Healthy People 2020 objectives: to increase the proportion of persons who have had a hearing examination.


title: Hearing loss

text: Management depends on the specific cause if known as well as the extent, type and configuration of the hearing loss. Sudden hearing loss due to an underlying nerve problem may be treated with corticosteroids.


title: Hearing loss

text: Most hearing loss, that resulting from age and noise, is progressive and irreversible, and there are currently no approved or recommended treatments. A few specific kinds of hearing loss are amenable to surgical treatment. In other cases, treatment is addressed to underlying pathologies, but any hearing loss incurred may be permanent. Some management options include hearing aids, cochlear implants, middle ear implants, assistive technology, and closed captioning. This choice depends on the level of hearing loss, type of hearing loss, and personal preference. Hearing aid applications are one of the options for hearing loss management. For people with bilateral hearing loss, it is not clear if bilateral hearing aids (hearing aids in both ears) are better than a unilateral hearing aid (hearing aid in one ear).


title: Hearing loss

text: Globally, hearing loss affects about 10% of the population to some degree. It caused moderate to severe disability in 124.2 million people as of 2004 (107.9 million of whom are in low and middle income countries). Of these 65 million acquired the condition during childhood. At birth ~3 per 1000 in developed countries and more than 6 per 1000 in developing countries have hearing problems.


title: Hearing loss

text: Hearing loss increases with age. In those between 20 and 35 rates of hearing loss are 3% while in those 44 to 55 it is 11% and in those 65 to 85 it is 43%.


title: Hearing loss

text: A 2017 report by the World Health Organization estimated the costs of unaddressed hearing loss and the cost-effectiveness of interventions, for the health-care sector, for the education sector and as broad societal costs. Globally, the annual cost of unaddressed hearing loss was estimated to be in the range of $750–790 billion international dollars.


title: Hearing loss

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed the ISO 1999 standards for the estimation of hearing thresholds and noise-induced hearing impairment. They used data from two noise and hearing study databases, one presented by Burns and Robinson ("Hearing and Noise in Industry," Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1970) and by Passchier-Vermeer (1968). As race are some of the factors that can affect the expected distribution of pure-tone hearing thresholds several other national or regional datasets exist, from Sweden, Norway, South Korea, the United States and Spain.


title: Hearing loss

text: In the United States hearing is one of the health outcomes measure by the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a survey research program conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics. It examines health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States. Data from the United States in 2011-2012 found that rates of hearing loss has declined among adults aged 20 to 69 years, when compared with the results from an earlier time period (1999-2004). It also found that adult hearing loss is associated with increasing age, sex, ethnicity, educational level, and noise exposure. Nearly one in four adults had audiometric results suggesting noise-induced hearing loss. Almost one in four adults who reported excellent or good hearing had a similar pattern (5.5% on both sides and 18% on one side). Among people who reported exposure to loud noise at work, almost one third had such changes.


title: Hearing loss

text: People with extreme hearing loss may communicate through sign languages. Sign languages convey meaning through manual communication and body language instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This involves the simultaneous combination of hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. "Sign languages are based on the idea that vision is the most useful tool a deaf person has to communicate and receive information".


title: Hearing loss

text: Deaf culture refers to a tight-knit cultural group of people whose primary language is signed, and who practice social and cultural norms which are distinct from those of the surrounding hearing community. This community does not automatically include all those who are clinically or legally deaf, nor does it exclude every hearing person. According to Baker and Padden, it includes any person or persons who "identifies him/herself as a member of the Deaf community, and other members accept that person as a part of the community," an example being children of deaf adults with normal hearing ability. It includes the set of social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of communities that are influenced by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication. Members of the Deaf community tend to view deafness as a difference in human experience rather than a disability or disease. When used as a cultural label especially within the culture, the word "deaf" is often written with a capital "D" and referred to as "big D Deaf" in speech and sign. When used as a label for the audiological condition, it is written with a lower case "d".


title: Hearing loss

text: There also multiple educational institutions for both deaf and Deaf people, that usually use sign language as the main language of instruction. Famous institutions include Gallaudet University and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf in the US, and the National University Corporation of Tsukuba University of Technology in Japan.


title: Hearing loss

text: A 2005 study achieved successful regrowth of cochlea cells in guinea pigs. However, the regrowth of cochlear hair cells does not imply the restoration of hearing sensitivity, as the sensory cells may or may not make connections with neurons that carry the signals from hair cells to the brain. A 2008 study has shown that gene therapy targeting Atoh1 can cause hair cell growth and attract neuronal processes in embryonic mice. Some hope that a similar treatment will one day ameliorate hearing loss in humans.


title: Hearing loss

text: Recent research, reported in 2012 achieved growth of cochlear nerve cells resulting in hearing improvements in gerbils, using stem cells. Also reported in 2013 was regrowth of hair cells in deaf adult mice using a drug intervention resulting in hearing improvement. The Hearing Health Foundation in the US has embarked on a project called the Hearing Restoration Project. Also Action on Hearing Loss in the UK is also aiming to restore hearing.


title: Hearing loss

text: Researchers reported in 2015 that genetically deaf mice which were treated with TMC1 gene therapy recovered some of their hearing. In 2017, additional studies were performed to treat Usher syndrome and here, a recombinant adeno-associated virus seemed to outperform the older vectors.


title: Hearing loss

text: Besides research studies seeking to improve hearing, such as the ones listed above, research studies on the deaf have also been carried out in order to understand more about audition. Pijil and Shwarz (2005) conducted their study on the deaf who lost their hearing later in life and, hence, used cochlear implants to hear. They discovered further evidence for rate coding of pitch, a system that codes for information for frequencies by the rate that neurons fire in the auditory system, especially for lower frequencies as they are coded by the frequencies that neurons fire from the basilar membrane in a synchronous manner. Their results showed that the subjects could identify different pitches that were proportional to the frequency stimulated by a single electrode. The lower frequencies were detected when the basilar membrane was stimulated, providing even further evidence for rate coding.


title: Purity ring

text: Purity rings (also known as promise rings, abstinence rings, or chastity rings) are rings worn as a sign of chastity. Since the 1990s, in the United States, Christian organizations, especially Catholic and evangelical Christian groups, promoting virginity pledges and virginity before marriage, like True Love Waits and Silver Ring Thing, used the purity ring as a symbol of commitment.


title: Purity ring

text: Wearing a purity ring is typically accompanied by a religious vow to practice abstinence until marriage.


title: Purity ring

text: Chastity rings are part of the abstinence-only sex education movement and are intended to act as a physical reminder of their chastity vow.


title: Purity ring

text: Unaltered, formerly and commonly known as Silver Ring Thing (SRT), is an American virginity pledge program founded in 1995 by Denny Pattyn. The program encourages teens and young adults to remain sexually abstinent until marriage. For a few years, it was partially funded by the U.S. federal government. Drawing on Christian theology, SRT uses rock/hip hop concert-style events in an attempt to appeal to 21st-century teenagers. During the gathering, participants commit to a vow of sexual abstinence until marriage by purchasing rings. The organization's theme verse is .


title: Purity ring

text: In 2004, SRT began expanding operations into the United Kingdom, with mixed results. While some teenagers in the UK embraced the message of abstinence, some critics rejected and ridiculed SRT, saying it was anti-sex or unrealistic, and that it seemed unlikely that abstinence programs would attract widespread support in the UK because of the UK's differing attitude toward sexuality and sex education. The group's Assistant National Director for the UK, Denise Pfeiffer, said there was a real need for such a movement in the UK to curb what she sees as the ever-increasing rates of sexually transmitted infections and teenage pregnancies, both of which she claims are the highest in Western Europe.


title: Purity ring

text: In 2005, the ACLU of Massachusetts sued the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services because it believed SRT used tax dollars to promote Christianity. SRT presented a two-part programme: the first part about abstinence, the second about Christianity's role in abstinence. The ACLU claimed federal funding given to this program violated the separation of church and state. On August 22, 2005, the Department suspended SRT's US$75,000 federal grant until it submitted a "corrective action plan". In 2006, a corrective action plan was accepted by the department. The lawsuit was dismissed, and SRT received federal funding.


title: Purity ring

text: In the 2007 case "R (Playfoot) v Millais School Governing Body", 16-year-old Lydia Playfoot from UK alleged that her school had violated her rights by forbidding her from wearing a purity ring. The case was funded by the group Christian Concern. On July 16, 2007, the High Court ruled that Playfoot's human rights were not violated. Her father, Phil Playfoot, was the UK pastor for Silver Ring Thing at the time, and was ordered to pay £12,000 towards the school's costs.


title: Purity ring

text: True Love Waits (TLW) is an international Christian group that promotes sexual abstinence outside of marriage for teenagers and college students. TLW was created in April, 1993 by the Southern Baptists, and is sponsored by LifeWay Christian Resources. It is based on conservative Christian views of human sexuality.


title: Purity ring

text: The True Love Waits pledge states: "Believing that true love waits, I make a commitment to God, myself, my family, my friends, my future mate and my future children to be sexually abstinent from this day until the day I enter a biblical marriage relationship." In addition, they promote sexual purity, which encompasses not only abstaining from intercourse before marriage, but also abstaining from "sexual thoughts, sexual touching, pornography, and actions that are known to lead to sexual arousal."


title: Purity ring

text: By the late 1990s, Christian music groups were promoting the program, and events similar to youth rallies were held at Christian music concerts, providing an opportunity for adolescents to sign pledge cards.


title: Purity ring

text: In the first year of the campaign, over 102,000 young people signed the pledge, which was also taken up by other church groups including the Roman Catholic Church and Assemblies of God. The campaign spread across the US, making the use of occasions such as Valentine's Day to gain attention.


title: Purity ring

text: By 2004, groups supporting abstinence numbered in the hundreds. During the preceding decade, approximately 2.5 million American youth took the pledge of abstinence.


title: Purity ring

text: Various individuals advocate or have once advocated for purity rings. A dagger (†) denotes people who no longer advocate for the use of purity rings.


title: Purity ring

text: Some studies of the efficacy of virginity pledges have found they may be effective in delaying vaginal intercourse but ineffective in reducing the rate of sexually transmitted infection. They also reduce the likelihood of contraceptive use. Additionally, it has been reported that pledgers replace vaginal intercourse with other sexual activities, such as oral or anal sex. At least one study has found no difference in the sexual behavior of pledgers and non-pledgers after controlling for pre-existing differences between the groups.


title: Purity ring

text: Under the Bush administration, organizations that promote abstinence and encourage teens to sign virginity pledges or wear purity rings have received federal grants. The Silver Ring Thing, a subsidiary of a Pennsylvania evangelical church, has received more than $1 million from the government to promote abstinence and to sell its rings in the United States and abroad.


title: Purity ring

text: According to a study published in 2005 in the Journal of Adolescent Health, 21% of young adults who had taken the pledge had vaginal intercourse, 13% reported having practiced oral sex and 4% anal sex. In the 2011 book "Making Chastity Sexy: The Rhetoric of Evangelical Abstinence Campaigns", Christine Gardner criticizes True Love Waits for "using sex to sell abstinence" by promising more satisfying sexual activity within marriage for those who abstain from premarital sex; she argues that this rhetoric reinforces selfish desires for gratification, sets people up for divorce and dissatisfaction with marriage, and simply adapts "secular forms for religious ends". In 2014, Jimmy Hester, one of the main founders of the program, said that although some studies have shown that many young Christians have broken their commitments, it has served as a benchmark for some who have returned to the faith.


title: Purity ring

text: The Jonas Brothers made an abstinence pledge through True Love Waits as teens. The band and pledge are satirized in the 2009 "South Park" episode "The Ring". In 2013, Morgan Lee, a journalist of "The Christian Post", conducted an interview with Joe Jonas and wrote:


title: Purity ring

text: In 2019, the Lutheran minister Nadia Bolz-Weber called for people to send her their unwanted purity rings so that she could cast them into a sculpture of female anatomy. Apologetic minister Alisa Childers criticized Bolz-Weber for her project, but acknowledged that purity ring campaigns need to improve.


title: Toni Trucks

text: Trucks studied Musical Theatre at the University of Michigan School of Music, Theatre & Dance. Upon graduation, she moved to New York where she performed regionally before relocating to Los Angeles to make her television debut as the female lead on Showtime's comedy series "Barbershop". Her other television credits include "Hostages", "The Soul Man", "House", "All of Us", "Veronica Mars", "'Til Death", "Brothers", "" and the telefilms "Star Runners" and "Starstruck". She has made multiple guest appearances on "" and "Grimm".


title: Toni Trucks

text: Trucks is currently a series regular on CBS's military drama series "SEAL Team". She plays Lisa Davis, a US Navy Petty Officer Logistics Specialist responsible for making the arrangements to get the team and their gear where they need to be. She went to OCS and was commissioned as an ensign and assigned back to the SEAL team as their new intelligence officer. Trucks was also a series regular in the CBS legal drama, "Made in Jersey", about a working-class woman named Marina (Janet Montgomery) who uses her street smarts to compete with her more polished colleagues at a top New York law firm. Trucks played Cyndi Vega, Marina's lively secretary and "comradette" in arms. She also guest starred in the pilot of NBC's mid-season thriller "Do No Harm".


title: Toni Trucks

text: Her theater credits include "By the Way, Meet Vera Stark", "Cactus Flower", "Stormy Weather", "Kiss Me, Kate", "West Side Story", "Oklahoma!", "Follies", "Footloose", "Two Gentlemen of Verona", "Ragtime", "Sweet Charity", and "Children of Eden". Trucks studied theatre abroad at London's Marymount College and has over 17 years of dance training including ballet, modern, and tap.


title: Toni Trucks

text: Trucks co-starred in the 2012 Fox Searchlight film "Ruby Sparks". The film starred Paul Dano, Zoe Kazan, and was directed by Jonathan Dayton and Valerie Faris ("Little Miss Sunshine"). She is also featured in the final installment of the blockbuster hit series "Breaking Dawn" as Mary, a member of the American Nomadic Vampire coven.


title: Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878, when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which officially remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Three decades later, in 1908, Austria-Hungary provoked the Bosnian Crisis by formally annexing the occupied zone, establishing the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of Austria and Hungary.


text: Following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), in June and July 1878 the Congress of Berlin was organized by the Great Powers. The resulting Treaty of Berlin caused Bosnia and Herzegovina to nominally remain under sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, but was de facto ceded to Austria-Hungary, which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. According to article 25:


text: The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the administration of the Sanjak of Novi-Pazar, which extends between Serbia and Montenegro in a South-Easterly direction to the other side of Mitrovitza, the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia. To this end the governments of Austria-Hungary and Turkey reserve to themselves to come to an understanding on the details.


text: The Austro-Hungarian Army engaged in a major mobilization effort to prepare for the assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding by the end of June 1878 a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses and 112 cannons in the VI, VII, XX, and XVIII infantry divisions as well as a rear army in the Kingdom of Dalmatia. The primary commander was Josip Filipović; the forward XVIII infantry division was under the command Stjepan Jovanović, while the rear army commander in Dalmatia was Gavrilo Rodić. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October.


text: The Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time consisted of roughly 40,000 troops with 77 cannons, that combined with local militias to around 93,000 men. The Austro-Hungarian troops were occasionally met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there, and significant battles occurred near Čitluk, Stolac, Livno and Klobuk. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. Fierce resistance from Muslims was expected as Austro-Hungarians realized their occupation meant that Bosnian Muslims would lose their privileged status based on their religion.


text: Tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization.


text: The Austro-Hungarian administration advocated the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation. Joint Imperial Minister of Finance and Vienna-based administrator of Bosnia Béni Kállay thus endorsed Bosnian nationalism in the form of "Bošnjaštvo" ("Bosniakhood") with the aim to inspire in Bosnia's people 'a feeling that they belong to a great and powerful nation' and viewed Bosnians as ""speaking the Bosnian language and divided into three religions with equal rights."". Between 1861 and 1869, Topal Osman Pasha, an Ottoman Grand vizier had striven to do the same.


text: On the one hand, these policies attempted to insulate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its irredentist neighbors (Eastern Orthodox Serbia, Catholic Croatia, and the Muslim Ottoman Empire) and to marginalize the already circulating ideas of Serbian and Croatian nationhood among Bosnia's Orthodox and Catholic communities, respectively. On the other hand, the Habsburg administrators precisely used the existing ideas of nationhood (especially Bosnian folklore and symbolism) in order to promote their own version of "Bošnjak" patriotism that aligned with loyalty to the Habsburg state. Habsburg policies are thus best described not as anti-national, but as cultivating their own style of pro-imperial nationalisms. This policy had mixed results. Overall, most Serb and Croat politicians ultimately ignored or opposed the policy, but Serb and Croat politicians also tried and failed to secure the allegiance of Bosnian Muslim constituencies. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian officials actively promoted Bosnia and Herzegovina as new and flourishing crownlands. Habsburg officials publicized numerous exhibits on Bosnian history, folklore, and archaeology, with artists like Alphonse Mucha presenting the Bosnian pavilion at the Paris Exposition of 1900.


text: The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Kingdom of Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including Bosnia and Herzegovina.


text: Certain Muslim circles in Bosnia and Herzegovina published the newspaper "Bošnjak" ("Bosniak"). This newspaper caused fierce discussions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The newspaper supported Kállay's policy, whose goal was to strengthen Austro-Hungarian rule in occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although Kállay's policy was not widely accepted even amongst Muslims, "Bošnjak" nevertheless represented the national aspirations of some Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina.


text: Kállay's policy was finally defeated in 1896 and 1899, when Bosnian Serbs and Muslims called for religious and educational autonomy. Kállay's policy had some potential to resist Croatian and Serbian national aspirations, but after 1899 and 1900 his policy of promoting Bosnian identity had no significant effect.


text: After the death of Kallay, the policy was abandoned. By 1905, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections.


text: Soon after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the government took the area's religious activities and institutions under its sovereignty. Austro-Hungarian authorities issued regulations which made Muslim clergy Austro-Hungarian state officials, answering exclusively to them. This was to isolate Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire, and its clergy who were subordinate to the Sultan. The Muslims were largely unhappy with their new status, and formed Muslim political opposition. This Muslim opposition demanded, at first, Muslim religious autonomy from Austria-Hungary, but later, as it grew stronger, they demanded autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. The Muslim opposition tried to align itself with the Serbs, who were also demanding religious and educational autonomy. But unsolved agrarian relations between the Muslim leadership and the Serbs was an obstacle to any far-reaching alliance. The alliance that did form was only tactical. Later, the Muslim leadership emphasized Ottoman sovereignty over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and demanded the right to organize their religious activity under the aegis of the Shaykh al-Islām of the Ottoman Empire.


text: With Kállay's death in 1903, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina was liberalized. The national movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transformed into political parties. Muslims founded the Muslim National Organization (MNO) in 1906, Serbs formed the Serbian National Organization (SNO) in 1907, and Croats formed the Croat National Union (HNZ) in 1908. Another significant Croatian party, though less represented than the HNZ, was the Croatian Catholic Association (HKU).


text: The MNO considered Bosnia and Herzegovina to be part of the Ottoman Empire until the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918. They considered Austria-Hungary a European country assigned to control Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their main goal was to achieve Muslim religious autonomy and to maintain the agrarian relations that were in force at the time. In 1909 they achieved their religious autonomy.


text: Textbooks printed in Serbia and a number of other Serbian-language books were banned. Austro-Hungarian authorities signed a treaty with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople by which the Emperor gained control over the Serbian Orthodox Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for annual reimbursement. Serbs largely disapproved of Austro-Hungarian control over their religious institutions, and organised a struggle to gain their religious autonomy. The struggle was ended in their favour in 1905. After gaining religious autonomy, the Serbs gathered around four political groups, out of which three become notable. The notable groups became known by the names of their official newspapers, the "Srpska riječ" (Serbian Word), the Petar Kočić's "Narod i Otadžbina" (the People and Fatherland) and the Lazar Dimitrijević's "Dan" (the Day). Later they demanded unity under one party, which was approved to them, so they founded the Serbian People's Organisation. As a relative majority, the Serbs were a dominant political factor, and as such they demanded Bosnia and Herzegovina's autonomy from the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Serbian politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina was dominated by the three factions gathered around the three newspapers. The main problem of Serbian civic politics was the agrarian reaction. Serb peasants demanded to be liberated from feudal relations, while on the other hand they wanted to maintain cooperation with the Muslim People's Organisation in achieving national aspirations. The group gathered around Kočić's "Narod i Otadžbina" newspaper completely stood for Serbian peasantry against the Muslims in order to change the agrarian position of the peasantry. Kočić's group also banned any cooperation with the Austrian-Hungarian authorities. The group gathered around Dimitrijević also advocated a radical change of the agrarian relations and criticised the Serbian civic leadership for neglecting the peasantry, but they advocated cooperation with the Austro-Hungarian authorities in changing agrarian relations. The main goal of Serbian politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the removal of Austro-Hungarian authority in Bosnia and Herzegovina and annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Kingdom of Serbia. Their goals, however, were no obstacle to economic cooperation with the Austrian-Hungarian authorities.


text: In order to suppress national aspirations, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities tried to limit the activity of the Franciscans in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Emperor and the Holy See discussed the reestablishment of the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Emperor's goal was to have the Church in Bosnia subordinated to his secular power within the Church. In the end, in 1881, the Holy See yielded, on condition that the Emperor did not explicitly mention his authority in a bulla which he, however, did. After establishing secular power over the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Emperor established the cathedral in Sarajevo and named Archbishop Dr. Josip Štadler as its head. Just before the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Sabor asked the Emperor to alter the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina so it could be unified with the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the Kingdom of Dalmatia. The Emperor refused to accept this demand and dismissed the Sabor. This was done as the Austrian-Hungarian authorities had a plan to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its neighbouring Slavic countries, Croatia and Serbia, and to halt the national aspirations of the peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The authorities did not only suppress the Croatian and Serbian names, but also any flags, coats of arms and folk songs. Any activity that would emphasise a common interest of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina and those in the Triune Kingdom was suppressed from the start. As they were unable to form a political party, especially under Kállay's administration, Croats formed various musical societies, reading rooms, schools, economic institutions and newspapers. The authorities forbade these societies from using the word "Croatian", even though they allowed use of the word "Serbian" for Serbian societies. Only later was the use of the word "Croatian" allowed. This official policy was pushed by Hungarian circles, especially under Kállay and his successor Stephan Burián von Rajecz. The goal of their policy was to weaken the Croatian position in Bosnia and Herzegovina by strengthening the Serbian position, in order to make unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia less likely. Even though the authorities tried to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from the influence of neighbouring Slavic countries, Croatian people in Bosnia were nevertheless influenced by all three major political movements from Croatia, first the Illyrian movement, later Yugoslavism and Croatian nationalism.


text: In Croatian politics there were two factions and their formal political organising ran slowly. The fundamental reason for this Croatian political division was disagreement between the Franciscan Bosnian Province and the Archbishop's Chancery on the organisation of parishes within the archdiocese. The first initiative for creation of a Croatian political party came from the Croatian intelligentsia which gained support from the Franciscans. In 1908, after some preparations, it founded the Croatian People's Union with Ivo Pilar as its main ideologist. In its program, the HNZ advocated the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary and its unification with the rest of the Croatian lands. In relations with the Serbs, the HNZ stood for a strict reciprocity, rejecting the idea of Bosnia and Herzegovina's unification with any other country or its autonomy. The HNZ did not demand any changes in social relations or changes in the agrarian relations. They tried to maintain good relations with the Muslim population, which was the only way to gain political strength. Because of this, they were harshly criticized by the Štadler's Croatian Catholic Association (HKU) that advocated an end to the serf system. Pilar believed that the HNZ's goals could only be achieved if Croats gained support from the Muslim population, and at the same time, he criticised Štadler for his Catholic propaganda. Štadler, who was Pilar's main opponent, believed that Catholic Croats should not be educated in any way other than as Catholics, thus advocating segregation between Catholics and Muslims. The HKU, like the HNZ, advocated unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with other Croatian lands. It also promoted Christian morals, and unlike the HNZ, the HKU advocated the abolition of the serf system as they had no relations with the Muslims.


text: Even though Bosnia and Herzegovina was still part of the Ottoman Empire, at least formally, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities had factual control over the country. Austria-Hungary waited for a chance to incorporate Bosnia and Herzegovina formally as well. Any action concerning Bosnia and Herzegovina depended on international opinion, which Austrian-Hungarian authorities were aware of. They used the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire to finally annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Young Turk movement had gained support in mass protests throughout the Ottoman Empire during 1908, with their intention to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. The Austrian-Hungarian authorities were afraid that the revolution could spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina, as it had support from the Bosnian Muslims and the Serbs, who supported the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Ottoman Empire. On 7 September 1908, the SNO and the MNO demanded that Bosnia and Herzegovina accept the constitution as part of the Ottoman Empire.


text: On 5 October the Emperor Franz Joseph announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and ordered the Minister of Finance to compose a constitution for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation was announced in Sarajevo two days later, on 7 October. This annexation led to an international crisis, which was solved on 26 February 1909 when the Ottoman Empire recognised the annexation having received material compensation and on the Austrian-Hungarian garrisons leaving the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. By this, Bosnia and Herzegovina was formally under the Austrian-Hungarian sovereignty. On 21 March 1909, the German Empire sent an ultimatum to the Russian Empire to recognise the annexation, which Russia did immediately. Soon, the Kingdom of Serbia recognised the annexation on 31 March, the Kingdom of Montenegro doing so on 5 April.


text: The annexation caused unrest amongst the Muslim and Serb population. The Streifkorps (special counterinsurgency units) were reestablished in context of demonstrations in Serbia and in Montenegro against the annexation. The Muslims could not believe the sovereignty of the Sultan could be overturned with a proclamation, and that they were now ruled by a Christian emperor. The MNO and the SNO refused to give any official statement about the annexation. In Budapest they held a meeting on 11 October 1908 they issued the "Message to the People of Bosnia and Herzegovina", where they stated that the people couldn't reconcile with the Austrian-Hungarian occupation in 30 years and asked for the people to remain calm and wait for the decision of the superpowers. Both parties announced that they would continue the struggle for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, since all European countries had already recognised the annexation, the SNO and the MNO, who wanted to continue their activity as legitimate organisations, thus recognised the annexation; the SNO doing so in May 1909 and the MNO in February 1910. Unlike the Serbs and the Muslims, the Croats enthusiastically accepted the Austrian-Hungarian annexation. In an audience to the Emperor Franz Joseph, the representatives of the HNZ, Pilar, Nikola Mandić and Antonije Sunarić expressed the gratitude of the Croat people to the Emperor for the annexation at the end of October 1908. However, Croat enthusiasm did not endure, as Bosnia and Herzegovina failed to be joined with Croatia as expected.


text: In Bosnia and Herzegovina, every major ethnic group was represented by its political party. The Muslims were represented by the Muslim People's Organisation, the Serbs were represented by the Serbian People's Organisation, while the Croats were represented by the two political parties, the Croatian People's Union and the Croatian Catholic Association.


text: Bosnia and Herzegovina was governed jointly by Cisleithania (Austria) and the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (Hungary) through the joint Ministry of Finance. In the Ministry of Finance, there was the Bosnian Office which controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina over the Government based in Sarajevo. The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina was headed by a governor, who was also a commander of military forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The government was also composed of the governor's deputy and chiefs of departments. At first, the government had only three departments, administrative, financial and legislative. Later, other departments, including construction, economic, education, religion, and technical, were founded as well.


text: In the 1910 Constitution, the Emperor proclaimed Bosnia and Herzegovina to be unique administrative territory under responsible leadership of the joint finance minister. With the implementation of the constitution, the position of Bosnia and Herzegovina did not change. It remained a "corpus separatum" administrated by Austria and Hungary. The constitution implemented three new constitutions, the Diet of Bosnia, the National Council and the municipal councils. The Diet of Bosnia had very limited legislative powers. The main legislative power was in hands of the emperor, parliaments in Vienna and Budapest and the joint minister of finance. The Diet of Bosnia only proposed decisions which needed to be approved by the parliaments in both Vienna and Budapest. The Diet also had no impact on the administrative-political institutions, the National Council and the municipal councils and also it didn't have right to participate in every decision making; the Diet could participate only in decisions that mattered Bosnia and Herzegovina exclusively, while decisions on armed forces, commercial and traffic connections, customs and similar matters, were made by the parliaments in Vienna and Budapest.


text: The Austrian-Hungarian authorities left the Ottoman division of Bosnia and Herzegovina untouched, they only changed the names of divisional units. Thus the Bosnia Vilayet was renamed to "Reichsland", "sanjaks" were renamed to "Kreise", "kazas" were renamed to "Bezirke", while nahiyahs were renamed to "Exposituren". There were six "Kreise" and 54 "Bezirke". Head of the "Reichsland" was a "Landeschef", heads of the "Kreise" were "Kreisleiters" and heads of the "Bezirke" were "Bezirksleiters".


text: The region, which had been Islamised in the 15th and 16th centuries, largely retained its minority-Muslim population (which dropped from 38.7% in 1879 to 32.2% in 1910), as Austria-Hungary's December Constitution guaranteed freedom of religion and the authorities made no active attempts at conversion.


text: The emperor of Austria-Hungary had the ability to appoint and dismiss religious leaders and to control religious establishments financially through agreements created with the Pope, the Ecumenical Patriarchate, and the Sheikh-ul-Islam.


text: The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina led to great reforms of the Catholic Church in that country, after centuries in the Ottoman Empire. In 1881, Vrhbosna was elevated to an archdiocese, and the dioceses of Banja Luka and Mostar-Duvno were formed. Work began on the Sacred Heart Cathedral in Sarajevo in 1884 and was completed by 1889.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The Suleman octuplets are six male and two female children conceived via in vitro fertilization (IVF) and subsequently born to Nadya Suleman on January 26, 2009, in Bellflower, California. Residing in Lancaster, California, they are the first known octuplets to survive their infancy. The extremely controversial circumstances of their high-order multiple birth has led to debates in the field of assisted reproductive technology and an investigation by the Medical Board of California of the fertility specialist involved in the case.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Suleman's octuplets were conceived by in vitro fertilization (IVF) conducted by Dr. Michael Kamrava. Suleman claimed to have requested transfer of six embryos that she had accumulated from previous IVF treatments, despite being informed that the recommended guideline limit for a woman her age was three. She stated she wanted all six transferred, as they were all that remained from previous harvest cycles, and she neither wanted to destroy them nor to continue paying for their frozen storage. A subsequent Medical Board of California investigation revealed that 29 embryos remained in frozen storage; nevertheless, Suleman underwent a fresh embryo transfer cycle, and Dr. Kamrava transferred 12 fresh blastocysts into Suleman at her request.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The delivery (via a scheduled Caesarean section) involved 46 medical personnel and was practiced twice beforehand at the Kaiser Permanente Bellflower Medical Offices in Bellflower, California. Suleman carried the babies to 31 weeks. Doctors anticipated seven babies, so the eighth came as a surprise. Born over the course of five minutes, all eight babies were immediately reported in stable condition; though two required intubation and a ventilator, and another required extra oxygen.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The babies' names are Noah, Maliyah, Isaiah, Nariyah, Jonah, Makai, Josiah, and Jeremiah. Suleman stated that she chose biblical names and gave all eight the middle name Angel, and that their surname would be Solomon, after their biological father.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The following data from Kaiser Permanente indicate their birth order, birth time, weight, and given name at the time of discharge:


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Baby C (Isaiah) was the largest of the children at 3 lbs, 4 oz, and Baby E (Jonah) was the smallest. Baby H (Jeremiah) had not previously been visible on the ultrasound.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Two days after birth, five of the eight infants received their first tube-feeding of donated breast milk. Josiah rejected his first tube-feeding and was returned to intravenous feeding, as his stomach was unable to absorb breast milk. At that time, three of the other infants had been fed intravenously since birth and had yet to receive their first tube-feeding.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Six days after birth, all eight babies were breathing without assistance and were being fed donated breast milk, as well as intravenous nutritional supplements. A hospital spokesman said the octuplets were expected to remain in the hospital for several more weeks.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: One week after birth, the Suleman octuplets became the longest-living octuplets in United States history, as the smallest of the Chukwu octuplets born in Houston in 1998 died seven days after birth. Suleman set the Guinness World Record for the most children delivered at a single birth to survive.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Ten days after the birth of her octuplets, Suleman was released from the hospital. In her February 5, 2009, interview, Suleman stated that she held each of the octuplets for 45 minutes a day, holding the smallest, Jonah (born at 1 lb, 8 oz), the longest.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The hospital where the octuplets were expected to spend seven to twelve weeks, requested significant reimbursement from Medi-Cal, the state's Medicaid program, for care of the eight premature babies.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Suleman's mother stated that a single sperm donor named David Solomon was used to produce the octuplets as well as her previous six children. Suleman stated that she dated David once, but then realized that she only wanted him to father her children and not to pursue any relationship with him. The octuplets' grandfather and others have accused Suleman of making up a fictitious David Solomon, as she had used the name for the father on birth certificates of her other children, but with a different birthdate.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: On the February 23, 2009, edition of ABC's "Good Morning America", a man named Denis Beaudoin claimed to be the biological father of Suleman's children. He said they had dated from 1997 to 1999 and that Suleman asked him if he would donate the sperm. Beaudoin requested a paternity test to verify his claim. Suleman denied that he was the donor.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: Suleman's ex-husband, Marcos Gutierrez, who divorced Suleman in 2006, denied being the biological father.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: In 2009 the octuplets' maternal grandfather, 67-year-old Edward Doud Suleman, identifying himself as a former Iraqi military man, said he would be returning to his native Iraq as a translator and driver, in order to financially support his daughter and her fourteen children. Their grandmother, 69-year-old Angela Victoria Suleman, a retired teacher, has helped look after the first six children. She indicated that she was overwhelmed looking after them, and was critical of her daughter in her public statements in 2009. For example, she said that her daughter did not contribute toward housing or food costs.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: News of the octuplets caused an international media sensation. Much of the public response has been negative, including some death threats, which police are investigating. Suleman has even gone into hiding.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: There has been much public discussion about Nadya Suleman's decision to transfer, carry, and give birth to octuplets. Many expressed concern that her decision for more children, despite being unemployed and unmarried, would burden taxpayers via public support.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: State Senator Gloria Negrete McLeod introduced legislation to have fertility clinics placed under the jurisdiction of the Medical Board of California. The transfer of twelve embryos in a woman under 35 years of age who already had children raised many controversies and led to calls for legislation to limit the number of simultaneous embryo transfers.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: The Medical Board of California announced on February 6, 2009, that it was investigating Dr. Kamrava, the physician who transferred the embryos, in an attempt to substantiate if there was a violation of the standard of care. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine expressed interest in assisting the Board in its investigation. Kamrava had also provided fertility treatment to a 49-year-old woman who was uninsured, 5 months pregnant with quadruplets, and hospitalized at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center, where at least seven embryos were used. In October 2009, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine announced that it had expelled Dr. Kamrava.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: In January 2010, charges were filed with the California Medical Board in relation to the conception of the octuplets. The complaint also stated that Kamrava had exercised gross negligence, acted "beyond the reasonable judgment" of any physician, and used a number of embryos that "far exceeded" existing guidelines.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: On June 1, 2011, the California Board announced that Dr. Kamrava's license would be revoked effective July 1. The charges also included the assertion that fresh, non-frozen embryos were used each time.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: On May 8, 2013, the State Medical Board of Ohio denied Kamrava restoration of his medical license after he filed an appeal to practice there as it was the state where he was educated.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: According to "The New York Times", Kamrava hid his assets in the Cook Islands, making use of its asset-protection trust laws.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: A 2018 "New York Times" article stated that the octuplets at age nine were "small for their age, but they’re polite, they cook, they’re vegan, they read two books a month and do their homework without being prompted. In spite of all of the horror stories in the tabloids since birth, they’re model fourth graders." With 14 siblings in all, the children ate in shifts and some slept on the couch.


title: Suleman octuplets

text: In March 2019, the Australian current affairs program "Sunday Night" interviewed Suleman for the octuplets’ tenth birthday; it was noted that the Suleman household is run with “military precision”, and the children are “happy, healthy, and well-mannered”.


title: Parliament (band)

text: Parliament was an American funk band formed in the late 1960s by George Clinton as part of his Parliament-Funkadelic collective. More commercial and less rock-oriented than its sister act Funkadelic, Parliament drew on science-fiction and outlandish theatrics in their work. The band scored a number of Top 10 hits, including the million-selling 1976 single "Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof off the Sucker)," and Top 40 albums such as "Mothership Connection" (1975).


title: Parliament (band)

text: Parliament was originally The Parliaments, a doo-wop vocal group based at a Plainfield, New Jersey barbershop. The group was formed in the late 1950s and included George Clinton, Ray Davis, Fuzzy Haskins, Calvin Simon, and Grady Thomas. Clinton was the group leader and manager. The group scored a hit single in 1967 with "(I Wanna) Testify" (co-written by Clinton) on Revilot Records. To capitalize on this chart success, Clinton formed a touring band, featuring teenage barbershop employee Billy Nelson on bass and his friend Eddie Hazel on guitar, with the line-up eventually rounded out by Tawl Ross on guitar, Tiki Fulwood on drums, and Mickey Atkins on organ.


title: Parliament (band)

text: During a contractual dispute with Revilot, Clinton temporarily lost the rights to the name "The Parliaments", and signed the ensemble to Westbound Records as Funkadelic, which Clinton positioned as a funk-rock band featuring the five touring musicians with the five Parliaments singers as uncredited guests. With Funkadelic as a recording and touring entity in its own right, in 1970 Clinton relaunched the singing group, now known as Parliament, at first featuring the same ten members. Clinton was now the leader of two different acts, Parliament and Funkadelic, which featured the same members, but were marketed as creating two different types of funk.


title: Parliament (band)

text: The Parliament album entitled "Osmium" was released on Invictus Records in 1970, and was later reissued on CD with non-album tracks as both "Rhenium" and "First Thangs". "Osmium" featured a mostly psychedelic soul sound that was more similar to the Funkadelic albums of the period, than to the later Parliament albums. The song "The Breakdown" was released separately as a single, and reached No. 30 on the R&B chart in 1971. Due to continuing contractual problems and the fact that Funkadelic releases were more successful at the time, Clinton temporarily abandoned the name Parliament (which he revived in 1974).


title: Parliament (band)

text: Following "Osmium", the line-up of Parliament-Funkadelic began going through many changes and was expanded significantly, with the addition of important members such as keyboardist Bernie Worrell in 1970, singer/guitarist Garry Shider in 1971, and bassist Bootsy Collins (recruited from the James Brown backing band) in 1972. Dozens of singers and musicians would contribute to future Parliament-Funkadelic releases. Clinton relaunched Parliament in 1974 and signed the act to Casablanca Records. Parliament, now augmented by the Horny Horns (also recruited from James Brown's band) was positioned as a smoother R&B-based funk ensemble with intricate horn and vocal arrangements, and as a counterpoint to the guitar-based funk-rock of Funkadelic. By this point, Parliament and Funkadelic were touring as a combined entity known as Parliament-Funkadelic or simply P-Funk (which also became the catch-all term for George Clinton's rapidly growing stable of funk artists).


title: Parliament (band)

text: The album "Up for the Down Stroke" was released in 1974, with "Chocolate City" following in 1975. Both performed strongly on the "Billboard" R&B album chart and were moderately successful on the pop chart. Parliament began its period of greatest mainstream success with the concept album "Mothership Connection" (1975), the lyrics of which launched much of the P-Funk mythology. The subsequent albums "The Clones of Dr. Funkenstein" (1976), "Funkentelechy vs. the Placebo Syndrome" (1977), and "Motor Booty Affair" (1978) all reached high on both the R&B and Pop charts, while Funkadelic was also experiencing significant mainstream success. Parliament scored the No. 1 R&B singles "Flash Light" in 1977 and "Aqua Boogie" in 1978.


title: Parliament (band)

text: The rapidly expanding ensemble of musicians and singers in the Parliament-Funkadelic enterprise, as well as Clinton's problematic management practices, began to take their toll by the late 1970s. Original Parliaments members Fuzzy Haskins, Calvin Simon, and Grady Thomas, who had been with Clinton since the barbershop days in the late 1950s, departed acrimoniously in 1977, after disputes over Clinton's management. Other important group members like singer/guitarist Glenn Goins and drummer Jerome Brailey left Parliament-Funkadelic in 1978 after disputes over Clinton's management. Two further Parliament albums, "Gloryhallastoopid" (1979) and "Trombipulation" (1980) were less successful than the albums from the group's prime 1975-1978 period.


title: Parliament (band)

text: In the early 1980s, with legal difficulties arising from the multiple names used by multiple groups, as well as a shakeup at Casablanca Records, George Clinton dissolved Parliament and Funkadelic as recording and touring entities. However, many of the musicians in later versions of the two groups remained employed by Clinton. Clinton continued to release new albums regularly, sometimes under his own name and sometimes under the name George Clinton & the P-Funk All-Stars. The P-Funk All-Stars continued to record and tour into the 1990s and 2000s, and regularly perform classic Parliament songs.


title: Parliament (band)

text: Parliament reformed in January 2018 and released the song "I'm Gon Make U Sick O'Me", which features the rapper Scarface. This was the first new Parliament release in 38 years. Clinton also announced the title of a new Parliament album, "Medicaid Fraud Dogg", which was released on May 22, 2018. Most of the 23 tracks on the album were written by Clinton in collaboration with his son, Tracey Lewis. Guest musicians on the album include former long-time James Brown collaborators Fred Wesley and Alfred "Pee Wee" Ellis.


title: Coronet

text: A coronet is a small crown consisting of ornaments fixed on a metal ring. A coronet differs from other kinds of crowns in that a coronet never has arches, and from a tiara in that a coronet completely encircles the head, while a tiara does not.


title: Coronet

text: In other languages, this distinction is not made as usually the same word for "crown" is used irrespective of rank (, , , , etc.)


title: Coronet

text: Today, its main use is not as a headgear (indeed, many people entitled to a coronet never have a physical one created), but as a rank symbol in heraldry, adorning a coat of arms.


title: Coronet

text: The word stems from the Old French "coronete", a diminutive of "co(u)ronne" ('crown'), itself from the Latin "corona" (also 'wreath') and from the Ancient Greek "κορώνη" ("korōnē"; 'garland' or 'wreath').


title: Coronet

text: Traditionally, such headgear is used by nobles and by princes and princesses in their coats of arms, rather than by monarchs, for whom the word 'crown' is customarily reserved in English, while many languages have no such terminological distinction. As a coronet shows the rank of the respective noble, in the German and Scandinavian languages there is also the term "rangkrone" (literally 'rank crown').


title: Coronet

text: In the United Kingdom, a peer wears the coronet on one occasion only: for a royal coronation, when it is worn along with coronation robes, equally standardised as a luxurious uniform.


title: Coronet

text: In the peerages of the United Kingdom, the design of a coronet shows the rank of its owner, as in German, French and various other heraldic traditions. Dukes were the first individuals authorised to wear coronets. Marquesses acquired coronets in the 15th century, earls in the 16th and viscounts and barons in the 17th. Until the barons received coronets in 1661, the coronets of earls, marquesses and dukes were engraved while those of viscounts were plain. After 1661, however, viscomital coronets became engraved, while baronial coronets were plain. Coronets may not bear any precious or semi-precious stones.


title: Coronet

text: Since a person entitled to wear a coronet customarily displays it in their coat of arms above the shield and below the helmet and crest, this can provide a useful clue as to the owner of a given coat of arms. In Canadian heraldry, descendants of the United Empire Loyalists are entitled to use a Loyalist military coronet (for descendants of members of Loyalist regiments) or Loyalist civil coronet (for others) in their arms.


title: Coronet

text: Members of the British royal family often have coronets on their coats of arms, and may wear actual coronets at coronations (e.g., Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret at the 1937 coronation of their father as George VI). They were made, according to regulations made by King Charles II in 1661, shortly after his return from exile in France (getting a taste for its lavish court style; Louis XIV started monumental work at Versailles that year) during the Restoration. They vary depending on the prince's relationship to the monarch. Occasionally, additional royal warrants vary the designs for individuals. The most recent (and most comprehensive) royal warrant concerning coronets was the 19 November 1917 warrant of George V.


title: Coronet

text: The coronet of the heir apparent is distinctive in itself as it has a single arch with a globe and cross.


title: Coronet

text: There is evidence to support the wearing of coronets amongst Welsh royalty and nobility, particularly in the Kingdom of Gwynedd. Llywelyn's coronet was for a while kept with the English crown jewels.


title: Coronet

text: The hierarchy among the French nobility, which was identical for non-royal titles to the British hierarchy of peers, should not be understood to be as rigid in the ranking of titleholders as the latter. In particular, a title was not a good indication of actual preeminence or precedence: ancestry, marriages, high office, military rank and the family's historical renown counted far more than the precise title. Some distinguished families held a title no higher than count or even baron, but were proud of their ancient origin. Moreover, most of the nobility was legally untitled. Some hereditary titles could be acquired by a nobleman who purchased a "titled" fief, while "titres de courtoisie" ('courtesy titles') were freely assumed in the absence of strict regulation by the French crown and became more numerous than titles legally borne. In the 17th and 18th centuries, people assumed and used freely coronets of ranks that they did not have; and, in the 19th and 20th centuries abuse was still made of 'courtesy titles'. Titles continued to be granted until the Second Empire fell in 1870, and legally survive among their descendants.


title: Coronet

text: The only title that was never usurped under the" ancien régime", and rarely without some excuse afterwards, was the title of "duc", because it was so often attached to the rank peer of France, which carried specific legal prerogatives such as the right to a seat in the Parliament of Paris. As a result, the title of "duc" was actually, as well as nominally, at the top of the scale after the royal family and foreign princes, and a cut above all of the other nobility. During the "ancien régime", 'prince' was a rank, not a title, hence there was no coronet.


title: Coronet

text: The Holy Roman Empire, and consequently its successor states (Austria, Germany and others), had a system very similar to that of the British, although the design varied.


title: Coronet

text: Considering the religious nature of the Holy Roman Empire, one can say that, except for the short-lived Napoleonic states, no continental secular system of heraldry historically was so neatly regulated as under the British crown. Still, there are often traditions (often connected to the Holy Roman Empire, "e.g.", those in Sweden, Denmark or Russia) that include the use of crown and coronets. While most languages do not have a specific term for coronets, but simply use the word meaning "crown", it is possible to determine which of those crowns are for peerage or lower-level use, and thus can by analogy be called coronets.


title: Coronet

text: Precisely because there are many traditions and more variation within some of these, there is a plethora of continental coronet types. Indeed, there are also some coronets for positions that do not exist or entitle one to a coronet in the Commonwealth tradition. Such a case in French ("ancien", "i.e.", royal era) heraldry, where coronets of rank did not come into use before the 16th century, is the vidame, whose coronet (illustrated) is a metal circle mounted with three visible crosses (there is no documentary or archeological evidence that such a coronet was ever made).


title: Levellers

text: The Levellers were a political movement active during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms who were committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of Leveller thought was its populism, as shown by its emphasis on equal natural rights, and their practice of reaching the public through pamphlets, petitions and vocal appeals to the crowd.


title: Levellers

text: The Levellers came to prominence at the end of the First English Civil War (1642–1646) and were most influential before the start of the Second Civil War (1648–49). Leveller views and support were found in the populace of the City of London and in some regiments in the New Model Army. Their ideas were presented in their manifesto "Agreement of the People". In contrast to the Diggers, the Levellers opposed common ownership, except in cases of mutual agreement of the property owners.


title: Levellers

text: They were organised at the national level, with offices in a number of London inns and taverns such as The Rosemary Branch in Islington, which got its name from the sprigs of rosemary that Levellers wore in their hats as a sign of identification.


title: Levellers

text: From July 1648 to September 1649, they published a newspaper, "The Moderate", and were pioneers in the use of petitions and pamphleteering to political ends. They identified themselves by sea-green ribbons worn on their clothing.


title: Levellers

text: After Pride's Purge and the execution of Charles I, power lay in the hands of the Grandees in the Army (and to a lesser extent with the Rump Parliament). The Levellers, along with all other opposition groups, were marginalised by those in power and their influence waned. By 1650, they were no longer a serious threat to the established order.


title: Levellers

text: The term "leveller" had been used in 17th-century England as a term of abuse for rural rebels. In the Midland Revolt of 1607, the name was used to refer to those who levelled hedges and walls in enclosure riots.


title: Levellers

text: As a political movement, the term first referred to a faction of New Model Army Agitators and their London supporters who were allegedly plotting to assassinate Charles I of England. But the term was gradually attached to John Lilburne, Richard Overton, and William Walwyn and their "faction". Books published in 1647–1648 often reflect this terminological uncertainty. The public "identification" was largely due to the aspersions by Marchamont Needham, the author of the newspaper "Mercurius Pragmaticus". Lilburne, John Wildman and Richard Baxter later thought that Oliver Cromwell and Henry Ireton had applied the term to Lilburne's group during the Putney Debates of late 1647. Lilburne considered the term pejorative and called his supporters "Levellers so-called" and preferred "Agitators". The term suggested that the "Levellers" aimed to bring all down to the lowest common level. The leaders vehemently denied the charge of "levelling", but adopted the name because it was how they were known to the majority of people. After their arrest and imprisonment in 1649, four of the "Leveller" leaders – Walwyn, Overton, Lilburne and Thomas Prince – signed a manifesto in which they called themselves Levellers.


title: Levellers

text: The first ideological identification was due to Thomas Edwards, who, in his work "Gangraena" (1646), summed up Levellers' views and attacked their radical political egalitarianism that showed no respect for the constitution. The prime targets in part III of his work were the men who were to be recognized as the leaders of the Leveller party.


title: Levellers

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" dates the first written use of the term for a political movement to 1644, in Marchamont Needham's pamphlet "The Case for the Commonwealth of England Stated" which however dates from 1650. The OED notes the term was also used in a letter of 1 November 1647.


title: Levellers

text: The 19th-century historian S. R. Gardiner suggested that it existed as a nickname before this date. Blair Worden, the most recent historian to publish on the subject, concluded that the 1 November letter was the first recorded use of the term. The letter referred to extremists among the Army agitators: "They have given themselves a new name, viz. Levellers, for they intend to sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in the kingdom". Worden shows that the term first appeared in print in a book by Charles I called "His Majesties Most Gracious Declaration". This tract was a printing of a letter that had been read in the House of Lords on 11 November 1647. Although George Thomason did not date this tract, the last date internal to the document was Saturday 13 November 1647, suggesting a publication date of 15 November 1647.


title: Levellers

text: The Levellers' agenda developed in tandem with growing dissent within the New Model Army in the wake of the First Civil War. Early drafts of the Agreement of the People emanated from army circles and appeared before the Putney Debates of October and November 1647, and a final version, appended and issued in the names of prominent Levellers Lt. Col. Lilburne, Walwyn, Overton and Prince appeared in May 1649. It called for an extension of suffrage to include almost all the adult male population (but excluding wage-earners, for reasons mentioned below), electoral reform, biennial elections, religious freedom, and an end to imprisonment for debt. They were committed broadly to the abolition of corruption within the parliamentary and judicial process, toleration of religious differences, the translation of law into the common tongue and, arguably, something that could be considered democracy in its modern form – arguably the first time contemporary democratic ideas had been formally framed and adopted by a political movement. The Levellers have been seen as having undemocratic tendencies by some as they excluded household servants and those dependent upon charitable handouts from suffrage as Levellers feared that poor, dependent men would simply vote as their masters wished. It would also have excluded women; most adult women were married and, as wives, were legally and financially dependent on their husbands.


title: Levellers

text: Some Levellers like Lilburne argued that the English Common law, particularly the Magna Carta, was the foundation of English rights and liberties, but others, like William Walwyn, compared the Magna Carta to a "mess of potage". Lilburne also harked back in his writing to the notion of a Norman yoke that has been imposed on the English people and to some extent argued that the English were simply seeking to reclaim those rights they had enjoyed before the Conquest.


title: Levellers

text: Levellers tended to hold fast to a notion of "natural rights" that had been violated by the King's side in the Civil Wars (1642–1651). At the Putney Debates in 1647, Colonel Thomas Rainsborough defended natural rights as coming from the law of God expressed in the Bible. Richard Overton considered that liberty was an innate property of every person. Michael Mendle has demonstrated the development of Leveller ideas from elements of early parliamentarian thought as expressed by men such as Henry Parker.


title: Levellers

text: According to George Sabine, Levellers held to "the doctrine of consent by participation in the choice of representatives".


title: Levellers

text: In July 1645, John Lilburne was imprisoned for denouncing Members of Parliament who lived in comfort while the common soldiers fought and died for the Parliamentary cause. His offence was slandering William Lenthall, the Speaker of the House of Commons, whom he accused of corresponding with Royalists. He was freed in October 1645 after a petition requesting his release, signed by over 2,000 leading London citizens, was presented to the House of Commons.


title: Levellers

text: In July 1646, Lilburne was imprisoned again, this time in the Tower of London, for denouncing his former army commander, the Earl of Manchester, as a Royalist sympathiser because he had protected an officer who had been charged with treason. It was the campaigns to free Lilburne from prison that spawned the movement known as the Levellers. Richard Overton was arrested in August 1646 for publishing a pamphlet attacking the House of Lords. During his imprisonment, he wrote an influential Leveller manifesto, "An Arrow Against All Tyrants and Tyranny".


title: Levellers

text: The soldiers in the New Model Army elected "Agitators" from each regiment to represent them. These Agitators were recognised by the Army's commanders and had a seat on the General Council. However, by September 1647, at least five regiments of cavalry had elected new unofficial agitators and produced a pamphlet called "The Case of the Army truly stated". This was presented to the commander-in-chief, Sir Thomas Fairfax, on 18 October 1647. In this, they demanded a dissolution of Parliament within a year and substantial changes to the constitution of future Parliaments that were to be regulated by an unalterable "law paramount".


title: Levellers

text: The senior officers in the Army (nicknamed "Grandees") were angered by the "Case of the Army" and ordered the unofficial Agitators to give an account of their principles before the General Council of the Army. These debates, known as the Putney Debates, were held in St. Mary's Church, Putney, in the county of Surrey between 28 October and 11 November 1647. The Agitators were assisted by some civilians, notably John Wildman and Maximilian Petty, who had been connected to the Army as civilian advisers since July 1647. On 28 October, the Agitator Robert Everard presented a document entitled "An Agreement of the People". This manifesto, which was inherently republican and democratic, appeared to conflict with the terms of settlement that had already been endorsed by the General Council in July entitled "The Heads of the Proposals" The "Heads of the Proposals" contained many demands that looked towards social justice but relied upon the King to agree to them and bring them into law through acts of Parliament. The new Agitators, who distrusted the King, demanded that England be settled from "the bottom up" rather than the "top down" by giving the vote to most adult males. The debates help to throw light on the areas on which supporters of the Parliamentarian side agreed and those on which they differed. For example, Ireton asked whether the phrase in the Agreement "according to the number of the inhabitants" gave a foreigner just arrived in England and resident in a property the right to vote. He argued that a person must have a "permanent interest of this kingdom" to be entitled to vote, and that "permanent interest" means owning property, which is where he and the Levellers disagreed. To modern eyes, the debates seem to draw heavily on the Bible to lay out certain basic principles. This is to be expected in an age still racked by religious upheavals in the aftermath of the Reformation and particularly in an army where soldiers were, in part, selected for their religious zeal. It is notable that John Wildman resisted religious language, arguing that the Bible produced no model for civil government and that reason should be the basis of any future settlement.


title: Levellers

text: The Corkbush Field rendezvous on 17 November 1647, was the first of three meetings to take place as agreed in the Putney Debates. The Army commanders Thomas Fairfax and Cromwell were worried by the strength of support for Levellers in the Army, so they decided to impose "The Heads of the Proposals" as the army's manifesto instead of the Levellers' "Agreement of the People". When some refused to accept this (because they wanted the army to adopt the Levellers' document), they were arrested and one of the ringleaders, Private Richard Arnold, was executed. At the other two meetings, the troops who were summoned agreed to the manifesto without further protest.


title: Levellers

text: The Levellers' largest petition, titled "To The Right Honourable The Commons Of England", was presented to Parliament on 11 September 1648 after amassing signatories including about a third of all Londoners.


title: Levellers

text: On 30 October 1648, Thomas Rainsborough, a Member of Parliament and Leveller leader who had spoken at the Putney Debates, was killed during an attempt to abduct him. His funeral was the occasion for a large Leveller-led demonstration in London, with thousands of mourners wearing the Levellers' ribbons of sea-green and bunches of rosemary for remembrance in their hats.


title: Levellers

text: On 20 January 1649, a version of the "Agreement of the People" that had been drawn up in October 1647 for the Army Council and subsequently modified was presented to the House of Commons.


title: Levellers

text: At the end of January 1649, Charles I of England was tried and executed for treason against the people. In February, the Grandees banned petitions to Parliament by soldiers. In March, eight Leveller troopers went to the commander-in-chief of the New Model Army, Thomas Fairfax, and demanded the restoration of the right to petition. Five of them were cashiered out of the army.


title: Levellers

text: In April, 300 infantrymen of Colonel John Hewson's regiment, who declared that they would not serve in Ireland until the Levellers' programme had been realised, were cashiered without arrears of pay. This was the threat that had been used to quell the mutiny at the Corkbush Field rendezvous. Later that month, in the Bishopsgate mutiny, soldiers of the regiment of Colonel Edward Whalley stationed in Bishopsgate London made demands similar to those of Hewson's regiment; they were ordered out of London. When they refused to go, 15 soldiers were arrested and court martialed. Six of their number were sentenced to death. Of these, five were later pardoned, while Robert Lockyer (or Lockier), a former Levellers agitator, was hanged on 27 April 1649. "At his burial a thousand men, in files, preceded the corpse, which was adorned with bunches of rosemary dipped in blood; on each side rode three trumpeters, and behind was led the trooper’s horse, covered with mourning; some thousands of men and women followed with black and green ribbons on their heads and breasts, and were received at the grave by a numerous crowd of the inhabitants of London and Westminster."


title: Levellers

text: In 1649, Lieutenant-Colonel John Lilburne, William Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and Richard Overton were imprisoned in the Tower of London by the Council of State (see above). It was while the leaders of the Levellers were being held in the Tower that they wrote an outline of the reforms the Levellers wanted, in a pamphlet entitled "An Agreement Of The Free People Of England" (written on 1 May 1649). It includes reforms that have since been made law in England, such as the right to silence, and others that have not been, such as an elected judiciary.


title: Levellers

text: Shortly afterwards, Cromwell attacked the "Banbury mutineers", 400 troopers who supported the Levellers and who were commanded by Captain William Thompson. Several mutineers were killed in the skirmish. Captain Thompson escaped only to be killed a few days later in another skirmish near the Diggers community at Wellingborough. The three other leaders – William Thompson's brother, Corporal Perkins, and John Church – were shot on 17 May 1649. This destroyed the Levellers' support base in the New Model Army, which by then was the major power in the land. Although Walwyn and Overton were released from the Tower, and Lilburne tried and acquitted, the Leveller cause had effectively been crushed.


title: Levellers

text: In the 1724 Levellers Rising in Dumfries and Galloway, a number of men who took part in it were called "Dykebreakers" (a dyke being a Scottish term for a stone wall without cement). They first met at the annual Horse Fair at Kelton Hill. They were confronted by six troops of dragoons, after which nocturnal attacks continued for six months, making it the most serious rural disturbance in 18th-century Scotland. The most troublesome of these Levellers were transported to the plantations of North America as punishment.


title: Levellers

text: The word was also used in Ireland during the 18th century to describe a secret revolutionary society similar to the Whiteboys.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: The Clausius–Clapeyron relation, named after Rudolf Clausius and Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron, specifies the temperature dependence of pressure, most importantly vapor pressure, at a discontinuous phase transition between two phases of matter of a single constituent. Its relevance to meteorology and climatology is the increase of the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere by about 7% for every 1 °C (1.8 °F) rise in temperature.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: On a pressure–temperature ("P"–"T") diagram, the line separating the two phases is known as the coexistence curve. The Clapeyron relation gives the slope of the tangents to this curve. Mathematically,


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where formula_2 is the slope of the tangent to the coexistence curve at any point, formula_3 is the specific latent heat, formula_4 is the temperature, formula_5 is the specific volume change of the phase transition, and formula_6 is the specific entropy change of the phase transition. The Clausius–Clapeyron equation


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: expresses this in a more convenient form just in terms of the latent heat, for moderate temperatures and pressures.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Using the state postulate, take the specific entropy formula_8 for a homogeneous substance to be a function of specific volume formula_9 and temperature formula_4.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: The Clausius–Clapeyron relation characterizes behavior of a closed system during a phase change at constant temperature and pressure. Therefore,


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where formula_14 is the pressure. Since pressure and temperature are constant, the derivative of pressure with respect to temperature does not change. Therefore, the partial derivative of specific entropy may be changed into a total derivative


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: and the total derivative of pressure with respect to temperature may be factored out when integrating from an initial phase formula_16 to a final phase formula_17, to obtain


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where formula_19 and formula_20 are respectively the change in specific entropy and specific volume. Given that a phase change is an internally reversible process, and that our system is closed, the first law of thermodynamics holds


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where formula_22 is the internal energy of the system. Given constant pressure and temperature (during a phase change) and the definition of specific enthalpy formula_23, we obtain


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: This result (also known as the Clapeyron equation) equates the slope formula_2 of the coexistence curve formula_33 to the function formula_34 of the specific latent heat formula_3, the temperature formula_4, and the change in specific volume formula_5. Instead of the specific, corresponding molar values may also be used.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Suppose two phases, formula_16 and formula_17, are in contact and at equilibrium with each other. Their chemical potentials are related by


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: (where formula_8 is the specific entropy, formula_9 is the specific volume, and formula_45 is the molar mass) to obtain


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: When the phase transition of a substance is between a gas phase and a condensed phase (liquid or solid), and occurs at temperatures much lower than the critical temperature of that substance, the specific volume of the gas phase formula_48 greatly exceeds that of the condensed phase formula_49. Therefore, one may approximate


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: at low temperatures. If pressure is also low, the gas may be approximated by the ideal gas law, so that


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where formula_14 is the pressure, formula_53 is the specific gas constant, and formula_4 is the temperature. Substituting into the Clapeyron equation


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: for low temperatures and pressures, where formula_3 is the specific latent heat of the substance. Instead of the specific, corresponding molar values (i.e. formula_3 in kJ/mol and = 8.31 J mol K) may also be used.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Let formula_59 and formula_60 be any two points along the coexistence curve between two phases formula_16 and formula_17. In general, formula_3 varies between any two such points, as a function of temperature. But if formula_3 is approximated as constant,


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: These last equations are useful because they relate equilibrium or saturation vapor pressure and temperature to the latent heat of the phase change, "without" requiring specific volume data. For instance, for water near its normal boiling point, with a molar enthalpy of vaporization of 40.7 kJ/mol and = 8.31 J mol K,


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Clapeyron considered a Carnot process of "wet steam" with horizontal isobars. As the pressure is a function of temperature alone, the isobars are also isotherms. If the process involves an infinitesimal amount of water, formula_70, and an infinitesimal difference in temperature formula_71, the amount of heat absorbed is


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: The ratio of these quantities is the efficiency of the carnot engine, formula_75. Substituting and rearranging gives


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: For transitions between a gas and a condensed phase with the approximations described above, the expression may be rewritten as:


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: where, formula_14 is the pressure in bar, formula_53 is the specific gas constant ("i.e.", the gas constant divided by the molar mass), T, the absolute temperature and formula_80 is a constant. For a liquid-gas transition, formula_3 is the specific latent heat (or specific enthalpy) of vaporization; for a solid-gas transition, formula_3 is the specific latent heat of sublimation. If the latent heat is known, then knowledge of one point on the coexistence curve, for instance (1 bar, 373 K) for water, determines the rest of the curve. Conversely, the relationship between formula_83 and formula_84 is linear, and so linear regression is used to estimate the latent heat.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Atmospheric water vapor drives many important meteorologic phenomena (notably precipitation), motivating interest in its dynamics. The Clausius–Clapeyron equation for water vapor under typical atmospheric conditions (near standard temperature and pressure) is


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: The temperature dependence of the latent heat formula_90 (and of the saturation vapor pressure formula_91) cannot be neglected in this application. Fortunately, the August–Roche–Magnus formula provides a very good approximation:


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: In the above expression, formula_91 is in hPa and formula_4 is in Celsius, whereas everywhere else on this page, formula_4 is an absolute temperature (e.g. in Kelvin).


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: (This is also sometimes called the "Magnus" or "Magnus–Tetens" approximation, though this attribution is historically inaccurate.) But see also this discussion of the accuracy of different approximating formulae for saturation vapour pressure of water.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Under typical atmospheric conditions, the denominator of the exponent depends weakly on formula_4 (for which the unit is Celsius). Therefore, the August–Roche–Magnus equation implies that saturation water vapor pressure changes approximately exponentially with temperature under typical atmospheric conditions, and hence the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere increases by about 7% for every 1 °C rise in temperature.


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: One of the uses of this equation is to determine if a phase transition will occur in a given situation. Consider the question of how much pressure is needed to melt ice at a temperature formula_97 below 0 °C. Note that water is unusual in that its change in volume upon melting is negative. We can assume


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: To provide a rough example of how much pressure this is, to melt ice at −7 °C (the temperature many ice skating rinks are set at) would require balancing a small car (mass = 1000 kg) on a thimble (area = 1 cm).


title: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: While the Clausius–Clapeyron relation gives the slope of the coexistence curve, it does not provide any information about its curvature or second derivative. The second derivative of the coexistence curve of phases 1 and 2 is given by


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Aleksander Reed Skarlatos (; born October 10, 1992) is an American former Army National Guard soldier who, along with Spencer Stone, Anthony Sadler and three others, stopped a gunman on a Paris-bound train travelling from Amsterdam via Brussels in August 2015. He was awarded the United States Army's Soldier's Medal from U.S. President Barack Obama. All six received France's highest decoration, the "Chevalier" of the Legion of Honour, from French president François Hollande. The Americans were also awarded the medal of the city of Arras.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Skarlatos competed on season 21 of ABC's "Dancing with the Stars" with pro dancer Lindsay Arnold as his partner. They finished in third place. Skarlatos, along with his friends, portrayed themselves in the Clint Eastwood-directed movie "", based on their autobiography, which was written with reporter Jeffrey Stern. He was the Republican nominee for Oregon's 4th congressional district in the 2020 United States House of Representatives elections, but was defeated by incumbent Democrat Peter DeFazio. He ran again to represent Oregon in the 4th congressional district in the 2022 House elections, but was defeated by Democratic state Labor Commmissioner Val Hoyle.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Aleksander Reed Skarlatos was born in Castro Valley, California. His father, Emanuel Skarlatos, immigrated to the United States from Agia Galini, Greece as a child. He was raised in Sacramento County, California, where he first met Spencer Stone and Anthony Sadler while attending a parochial school in Fair Oaks. Skarlatos graduated from Roseburg High School and attended Umpqua Community College.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: On August 21, 2015, Skarlatos, Anthony Sadler and United States Air Force serviceman Spencer Stone, high school friends from Skarlatos' former home of Carmichael, California, were traveling together on the Thalys high-speed train 9364 from Amsterdam bound for Paris via Brussels during a European vacation. Skarlatos was returning from serving in Afghanistan. A 25-year-old Moroccan, Ayoub El-Khazzani, exited the train car's toilet, armed with an AKM assault rifle, a Luger pistol, and a box knife. He carried magazines holding 270 rounds of ammunition for the assault rifle in a rucksack.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Two passengers, a Frenchman, "Damien A.," and 51-year-old Mark Moogalian, an American expatriate living in Paris, tried to disarm the gunman. Moogalian wrested the rifle from him but was shot by the Luger while trying to protect his wife. Stone ran toward and attacked the gunman but was slashed while trying to subdue him. Arriving next to the struggle, Skarlatos grabbed the pistol out of El-Khazzani's hand, then picked up the rifle, striking the terrorist in the head with its muzzle. Sixty-two-year-old British businessman Chris Norman also helped subdue the gunman. Though badly cut, Stone - who received wrestling training in the Air Force - choked El-Khazzani until he was unconscious. El-Khazzani was tied up and then Stone, who also had some military medical training, delivered lifesaving assistance to Moogalian by compressing an exposed, bleeding artery.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: El-Khazzani and three of his alleged accomplices were tried in November 2020. Moogalian, Stone, Sadler, and Skarlatos were scheduled to testify, but Stone's testimony was delayed because he was hospitalized in France for undisclosed reasons. Skarlatos gave prime credit for preventing what could have been a mass killing to Stone, saying, "I do not feel like a hero because we were just doing what we had to to survive. I think Spencer is probably a hero because he was the first one" to take down El-Khazzani. "We only got involved because Spencer needed our help." El Khazzani was sentenced to life in prison for attempted murders and conspiracy to commit an act of terrorism. His accomplices were found guilty as well: Bilal Chatra was sentenced to 27 years in prison; Rédouane El Amrani Ezzerrifi was sentenced to seven years, and Mohamed Bakkali was sentenced to 25 years. Abdelhamid Abaaoud was the mastermind of the train attack, as well as an attack in Brussels that killed 31 people, and a series of attacks in November 2015 that killed 130 in Paris, including a bombing at the night club Bataclan that killed 90 people. Abaaoud was killed in a police raid of his hideout in Saint-Denis a few days later.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: After the events of August 22, 2015, Skarlatos and his friends received international attention for their actions in thwarting the attack. French president François Hollande awarded Skarlatos, Stone, and Sadler, as well as Norman, France's highest decoration, Knights of the Legion of Honour ("Chevaliers de la Légion d'honneur"). Hollande said the men "faced [off] with terror" and that they "gave us a lesson in courage, in will, and therefore in hope." French Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve and British Prime Minister David Cameron praised the men for their bravery.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: The White House expressed gratitude for "courage and quick thinking of several passengers, including U.S. service members, who selflessly subdued the attacker..." U.S. President Barack Obama telephoned the three Americans, thanking them for their heroic actions. General Philip M. Breedlove of the U.S. European Command in Stuttgart, added his praise, calling the three Americans heroes for their actions which "clearly illustrate the courage and commitment our young men and women have all the time, whether they are on duty or on leave."


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Kevin Johnson, mayor of Sacramento, California, held a parade to honor Skarlatos, Sadler, Stone, and the victims of the September 11 attacks. Megyn Kelly of Fox News Channel's "The Kelly File" asked Skarlatos whether he had a different appreciation of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. "I feel so much more connected to terrorist attacks and things like that, and victims of terrorist attacks," Skarlatos said. "That easily could have been us if any one of six or seven things went a different way."


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Skarlatos joined the Oregon Army National Guard in 2012, achieving the rank of Specialist. He completed a nine-month deployment in Afghanistan with the National Guard's 186th Infantry Regiment, 41st Infantry Brigade Combat Team in 2015. The acting adjutant general of Oregon Guard referred to Skarlatos as "a true citizen soldier who displayed the courage each of us would hope to find in ourselves." A month prior to the terrorist event on the high-speed train in France, Skarlatos had reenlisted for an additional twoyears. He left military service in November 2017.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: In October 2016, it was announced that Skarlatos, Spencer Stone and Anthony Sadler would make an appearance on "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" as a part of the show's special "Hometown Heroes" week which would premiere on October 31, 2016.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Skarlatos was a competitor in season 21 of "Dancing with the Stars". He was partnered with professional dancer Lindsay Arnold. He said that he was inspired to participate on the show by Noah Galloway, a soldier who was on the previous season of the series. Skarlatos and Arnold made it to the finals of the show and finished in third place.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: In July 2017, it was announced that Clint Eastwood would direct the upcoming biographical , starring them, along with actresses Jenna Fischer and Judy Greer. Filming began on July 11, 2017. The film was released in the United States on February 9, 2018. The film received a score of 23% on Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregation website.


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: Skarlatos ran for Douglas County Commissioner in his home state of Oregon in the 2018 midterm elections, but he lost to businessman Tom Kress. Skarlatos said on election night that his opponent's 2% lead made the race still incredibly close, continuing, "We have a lot of great people and I think we're going to have a better response from the exterior of the county, so I'm still very optimistic." He wasn't surprised by Kress's lead, saying, "He's outspending us by 2 to 1 and took his campaign really negative."


title: Alek Skarlatos

text: In 2019, Skarlatos announced that he was running as a candidate in the 2020 elections to represent Oregon's 4th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives as a Republican.