title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: A number of groups of Jews of Iran have split off since ancient times. They are now recognized as separate communities, such as the Bukharan Jews and Mountain Jews. In addition, there are several thousand in Iran who are, or who are the direct descendants of, Jews who have converted to Islam and the Bahá'í Faith.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Iranian Mandaeans live mainly in the Khuzestan Province in southern Iran. Mandeans are a Mandaic-speaking ethno-religious group who follow their own distinctive Gnostic, monotheistic religion called Mandaeism, sometimes also known as Sabianism (after the mysterious Sabians mentioned in the Quran, a name historically claimed by several religious groups). They venerate John the Baptist (Yaḥyā ibn Zakarīyā) as their greatest prophet. They number some 10,000 people in Iran, though Alarabiya has put their number as high as 60,000 in 2011.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Armenian settlements in Iran dates back millennia. Ever since antiquity, Armenians and Iranians have always had significant interactions with each other. These interactions include cultural, linguistic, economic, and more.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Armenians used to inhabit a large portion of modern-day northern Iran, most significantly on the western shores of Lake Urmia.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Armenians and Iranians shared many cultural and religious characteristics. Before the 3rd century AD, no other country had as much influence over Armenia as Parthia. Intermarriage between the Parthian and Armenian nobility was very common, and for a large portion of Armenian history, much of Armenia was ruled by the modern-day Iranians.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: In 1604, Shah Abbas I relocated 500,000 Armenians from his Armenian lands to an area in Isfahan called New Julfa. Most of the Armenians Shah Abbas I relocated were from Nakhichevan, Julfa, hence the name new Julfa.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The newly formed Armenian community in Isfahan played a considerable role in Iran's economic and cultural development. Shah Abbas I granted the Armenians monopoly over silk and gave them many other trade incentives. Thus, the Armenian community quickly became very wealthy. The Armenians were given these trade incentives due to the immense trade routes they covered around the globe. Additionally, Armenians were also known for their honesty regarding trade. Furthermore, the policies of Shah Abbas proved to be very successful for the Iranian economy, where after a brief period of time, the Iranian economy was booming.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: After the success of the Armenian community in New Julfa, the Armenians of New Julfa migrated to other major countries. They formed other settlements connecting many of these newly formed Armenian settlements to Isfahan, Iran. These settlements were in the Philippines, India, Venice, France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Russia. Thus, all these led to creating a new age for Iran where Iranian goods traveled the world and were consumed by Europeans and Indians.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The current Iranian-Armenian population is somewhere around 500,000. They mostly live in Tehran and Jolfa district. After the Iranian Revolution, many Armenians immigrated to Armenian diasporic communities in North America and western Europe. Today the Armenians are Iran's largest Christian religious minority, followed by Assyrians.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Iranian Georgians are Twelver Shia Muslims, whereas the vast majority of Georgians elsewhere in the world are Christian.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Georgian language is the only Caucasian language fully functioning in Iran and it's spoken only by those that live in Fereydan and Fereydunshahr, and in smaller pockets all over Iran. Almost all other communities of Iranian Georgians in Iran have already lost their language, but retain a clear Georgian identity.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Once a very large minority in Iran mainly due to mass deportations by the various early modern age and modern age Iranian empires (Safavids, Afsharids, and Qajars), of their Georgian subjects, nowadays, due to intermarrying and assimilating the number of Georgians in Iran is estimated to be over 100,000.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: The Georgian language is still used by many of the Georgians in Iran. The centre of Georgians in Iran is Fereydunshahr, a small city 150 km to the west of Isfahan. The western part of Isfahan province is historically called Fereydan. In this area there are 10 Georgian towns and villages around Fereydunshahr. In this region the old Georgian identity is retained the best compared to other places in Iran. In many major Iranian cities, such as Tehran, Isfahan, Karaj and Shiraz, and Rasht live Georgians too.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: In many other places such as Najafabad, Rahmatabad, Yazdanshahr and Amir Abad (near Isfahan) there are also Georgian pockets and villages. In Mazandaran Province in northern Iran, there are ethnic Georgians too. They live in the town of Behshahr, and also in Behshahr county, in Farah Abad, and many other places, which are usually called "Gorji Mahalle" (Georgian Neighbourhood). Most of these Georgians no longer speak the Georgian language, but retain aspects of Georgian culture and a Georgian identity. Some argue that Iranian Georgians retain remnants of Christian traditions, but there is no evidence for this.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Like with the Georgians, once a very large minority in Iran all the way from the Safavid to the Qajar era, the vast majority of the Circassians have been assimilated into the population nowadays. However, significant numbers remain present, and they are the second-largest Caucasian ethnic group in the nation after the Georgians.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: "There is scarce a Gentleman in Persia, whose Mother is not a Georgian, or a Circassian Woman; to begin with the King, who commonly is a Georgian, or a Circassian by the Mother's side."


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Circassians alongside the Georgians were imported en masse by the Shahs to fulfil roles in the civil administration, the military, and the royal Harem, but also as craftsmen, farmers, amongst other professions.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Circassian women were both in Ottoman Turkey and Persia desired for their beauty, while the men were known as fearsome warriors.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Notable Iranians of Circassian descent of the past include Teresia Sampsonia, Shah Abbas II, Shah Suleiman I, Pari Khan Khanum (daughter of Shah Tahmasp, involved in many court intrigues), Shamkhal Sultan, Jamshid Beg (the assassinator of Shah Ismail II), and Anna Khanum.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Traces of Circassian settlements have lasted into the 20th century, and small pockets still exist scattered over the country, even after centuries of absorbing and assimilating, such as in Fars, Rasht, Aspas, Gilan, Mazandaran, and the capital Tehran (due to contemporary internal migration). Their total number nowadays is unknown due to heavy assimilation and lack of censuses based on ethnicity, but are known to be significant. Due to the same assimilation however, no sizeable number speaks the Circassian language anymore.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Most of the large Circassian migrational waves towards mainland Iran stem from the Safavid and Qajar era, however a certain amount also stem from the relatively recent arrivals that migrated as the Circassians were displaced from the Caucasus in the 19th century. A Black African population exists due to historical slavery.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: A substantial number of Russians arrived in the early 20th century as refugees from the Russian Revolution, but their number has dwindled following the Iran crisis of 1946 and the Iranian Revolution.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: In the 20th to 21st centuries, there has been limited immigration to Iran from Turkey, Iraqis (especially huge numbers during the 1970s known as Moaveds), Afghanistan (mostly arriving as refugees in 1978), Lebanese (especially in Qom, though a Lebanese community has been present in the nation for centuries),


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Indians (mostly arriving temporarily during the 1950s to 1970s, typically working as doctors, engineers, and teachers), Koreans (mostly in the 1970s as labour migrants), China (mostly since the 2000s working in engineering or business projects), and Pakistan, partly due to labour migrants and partly to Balochi ties across the Iranian-Pakistani border.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: About 200,000 Iraqis arrived as refugees in 2003, mostly living in refugee camps near the border; an unknown number of these has since returned to Iraq.


title: Ethnicities in Iran

text: Over the same period, there has also been substantial emigration from Iran, especially since the Iranian revolution (see Iranian diaspora, Human capital flight from Iran, Jewish exodus from Iran), especially


title: Control unit

text: The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that directs the operation of the processor. A CU typically uses a binary decoder to convert coded instructions into timing and control signals that direct the operation of the other units (memory, arithmetic logic unit and input and output devices, etc.).


title: Control unit

text: Most computer resources are managed by the CU. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices. John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture. In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction.


title: Control unit

text: The simplest computers use a multicycle microarchitecture. These were the earliest designs. They are still popular in the very smallest computers, such as the embedded systems that operate machinery.


title: Control unit

text: In a multicycle computer, the control unit often steps through the instruction cycle successively. This consists of fetching the instruction, fetching the operands, decoding the instruction, executing the instruction, and then writing the results back to memory. When the next instruction is placed in the control unit, it changes the behavior of the control unit to complete the instruction correctly. So, the bits of the instruction directly control the control unit, which in turn controls the computer.


title: Control unit

text: The control unit may include a binary counter to tell the control unit's logic what step it should do.


title: Control unit

text: Multicycle control units typically use both the rising and falling edges of their square-wave timing clock. They operate a step of their operation on each edge of the timing clock, so that a four-step operation completes in two clock cycles. This doubles the speed of the computer, given the same logic family.


title: Control unit

text: Many computers have two different types of unexpected events. An interrupt occurs because some type of input or output needs software attention in order to operate correctly. An exception is caused by the computer's operation. One crucial difference is that the timing of an interrupt cannot be predicted. Another is that some exceptions (e.g. a memory-not-available exception) can be caused by an instruction that needs to be restarted.


title: Control unit

text: Control units can be designed to handle interrupts in one of two typical ways. If a quick response is most important, a control unit is designed to abandon work to handle the interrupt. In this case, the work in process will be restarted after the last completed instruction. If the computer is to be very inexpensive, very simple, very reliable, or to get more work done, the control unit will finish the work in process before handling the interrupt. Finishing the work is inexpensive, because it needs no register to record the last finished instruction. It is simple and reliable because it has the fewest states. It also wastes the least amount of work.


title: Control unit

text: Exceptions can be made to operate like interrupts in very simple computers. If virtual memory is required, then a memory-not-available exception must retry the failing instruction.


title: Control unit

text: It is common for multicycle computers to use more cycles. Sometimes it takes longer to take a conditional jump, because the program counter has to be reloaded. Sometimes they do multiplication or division instructions by a process, something like binary long multiplication and division. Very small computers might do arithmetic, one or a few bits at a time. Some computers have very complex instructions that take many steps.


title: Control unit

text: Many medium-complexity computers pipeline instructions. This design is popular because of its economy and speed.


title: Control unit

text: In a pipelined computer, instructions flow through the computer. This design has several stages. For example, it might have one stage for each step of the Von Neumann cycle. A pipelined computer usually has "pipeline registers" after each stage. These store the bits calculated by a stage so that the logic gates of the next stage can use the bits to do the next step.


title: Control unit

text: It is common for even numbered stages to operate on one edge of the square-wave clock, while odd-numbered stages operate on the other edge. This speeds the computer by a factor of two compared to single-edge designs.


title: Control unit

text: In a pipelined computer, the control unit arranges for the flow to start, continue, and stop as a program commands. The instruction data is usually passed in pipeline registers from one stage to the next, with a somewhat separated piece of control logic for each stage. The control unit also assures that the instruction in each stage does not harm the operation of instructions in other stages. For example, if two stages must use the same piece of data, the control logic assures that the uses are done in the correct sequence.


title: Control unit

text: When operating efficiently, a pipelined computer will have an instruction in each stage. It is then working on all of those instructions at the same time. It can finish about one instruction for each cycle of its clock. When a program makes a decision, and switches to a different sequence of instructions, the pipeline sometimes must discard the data in process and restart. This is called a "stall." When two instructions could interfere, sometimes the control unit must stop processing a later instruction until an earlier instruction completes. This is called a "pipeline bubble" because a part of the pipeline is not processing instructions. Pipeline bubbles can occur when two instructions operate on the same register.


title: Control unit

text: Interrupts and unexpected exceptions also stall the pipeline. If a pipelined computer abandons work for an interrupt, more work is lost than in a multicycle computer. Predictable exceptions do not need to stall. For example, if an exception instruction is used to enter the operating system, it does not cause a stall.


title: Control unit

text: Speed? For the same speed of electronic logic, it can do more instructions per second than a multicycle computer. Also, even though the electronic logic has a fixed maximum speed, a pipelined computer can be made faster or slower by varying the number of stages in the pipeline. With more stages, each stage does less work, and so the stage has fewer delays from the logic gates.


title: Control unit

text: Economy? A pipelined model of a computer often has the least logic gates per instruction per second, less than either a multicycle or out-of-order computer. Why? The average stage is less complex than a multicycle computer. An out-of-order computer usually has large amounts of idle logic at any given instant. Similar calculations usually show that a pipelined computer uses less energy per instruction.


title: Control unit

text: However, a pipelined computer is usually more complex and more costly than a comparable multicycle computer. It typically has more logic gates, registers and a more complex control unit. In a like way, it might use more total energy, while using less energy per instruction. Out-of-order CPUs can usually do more instructions per second because they can do several instructions at once.


title: Control unit

text: Control units use many methods to keep a pipeline full and avoid stalls. For example, even simple control units can assume that a backwards branch, to a lower-numbered, earlier instruction, is a loop, and will be repeated. So, a control unit with this design will always fill the pipeline with the backwards branch path. If a compiler can detect the most frequently-taken direction of a branch, the compiler can just produce instructions so that the most frequently taken branch is the preferred direction of branch. In a like way, a control unit might get hints from the compiler: Some computers have instructions that can encode hints from the compiler about the direction of branch.


title: Control unit

text: Some control units do branch prediction: A control unit keeps an electronic list of the recent branches, encoded by the address of the branch instruction. This list has a few bits for each branch to remember the direction that was taken most recently.


title: Control unit

text: Some control units can do speculative execution, in which a computer might have two or more pipelines, calculate both directions of a branch, and then discard the calculations of the unused direction.


title: Control unit

text: Results from memory can become available at unpredictable times because very fast computers cache memory. That is, they copy limited amounts of memory data into very fast memory. The CPU must be designed to process at the very fast speed of the cache memory. Therefore, the CPU might stall when it must access main memory directly. In modern PCs, main memory is as much as three hundred times slower than cache.


title: Control unit

text: To help this, out-of-order CPUs and control units were developed to process data as it becomes available. (See next section)


title: Control unit

text: But what if all the calculations are complete, but the CPU is still stalled, waiting for main memory? Then, a control unit can switch to an alternative thread of execution whose data has been fetched while the thread was idle. A thread has its own program counter, a stream of instructions and a separate set of registers. Designers vary the number of threads depending on current memory technologies and the type of computer. Typical computers such as PCs and smart phones usually have control units with a few threads, just enough to keep busy with affordable memory systems. Database computers often have about twice as many threads, to keep their much larger memories busy. Graphic processing units (GPUs) usually have hundreds or thousands of threads, because they have hundreds or thousands of execution units doing repetitive graphic calculations.


title: Control unit

text: When a control unit permits threads, the software also has to be designed to handle them. In general-purpose CPUs like PCs and smartphones, the threads are usually made to look very like normal time-sliced processes. At most, the operating system might need some awareness of them. In GPUs, the thread scheduling usually cannot be hidden from the application software, and is often controlled with a specialized subroutine library.


title: Control unit

text: A control unit can be designed to finish what it can. If several instructions can be completed at the same time, the control unit will arrange it. So, the fastest computers can process instructions in a sequence that can vary somewhat, depending on when the operands or instruction destinations become available. Most supercomputers and many PC CPUs use this method. The exact organization of this type of control unit depends on the slowest part of the computer.


title: Control unit

text: When the execution of calculations is the slowest, instructions flow from memory into pieces of electronics called "issue units." An issue unit holds an instruction until both its operands and an execution unit are available. Then, the instruction and its operands are "issued" to an execution unit. The execution unit does the instruction. Then the resulting data is moved into a queue of data to be written back to memory or registers. If the computer has multiple execution units, it can usually do several instructions per clock cycle.


title: Control unit

text: It is common to have specialized execution units. For example, a modestly priced computer might have only one floating-point execution unit, because floating point units are expensive. The same computer might have several integer units, because these are relatively inexpensive, and can do the bulk of instructions.


title: Control unit

text: One kind of control unit for issuing uses an array of electronic logic, a "scoreboard"" that detects when an instruction can be issued. The "height" of the array is the number of execution units, and the "length" and "width" are each the number of sources of operands. When all the items come together, the signals from the operands and execution unit will cross. The logic at this intersection detects that the instruction can work, so the instruction is "issued" to the free execution unit. An alternative style of issuing control unit implements the Tomasulo algorithm, which reorders a hardware queue of instructions. In some sense, both styles utilize a queue. The scoreboard is an alternative way to encode and reorder a queue of instructions, and some designers call it a queue table.


title: Control unit

text: With some additional logic, a scoreboard can compactly combine execution reordering, register renaming and precise exceptions and interrupts. Further it can do this without the power-hungry, complex content-addressable memory used by the Tomasulo algorithm.


title: Control unit

text: If the execution is slower than writing the results, the memory write-back queue always has free entries. But what if the memory writes slowly? Or what if the destination register will be used by an "earlier" instruction that has not yet issued? Then the write-back step of the instruction might need to be scheduled. This is sometimes called "retiring" an instruction. In this case, there must be scheduling logic on the back end of execution units. It schedules access to the registers or memory that will get the results.


title: Control unit

text: Retiring logic can also be designed into an issuing scoreboard or a Tomasulo queue, by including memory or register access in the issuing logic.


title: Control unit

text: Out of order controllers require special design features to handle interrupts. When there are several instructions in progress, it is not clear where in the instruction stream an interrupt occurs. For input and output interrupts, almost any solution works. However, when a computer has virtual memory, an interrupt occurs to indicate that a memory access failed. This memory access must be associated with an exact instruction and an exact processor state, so that the processor's state can be saved and restored by the interrupt. A usual solution preserves copies of registers until a memory access completes.


title: Control unit

text: Also, out of order CPUs have even more problems with stalls from branching, because they can complete several instructions per clock cycle, and usually have many instructions in various stages of progress. So, these control units might use all of the solutions used by pipelined processors.


title: Control unit

text: Some computers translate each single instruction into a sequence of simpler instructions. The advantage is that an out of order computer can be simpler in the bulk of its logic, while handling complex multi-step instructions. x86 Intel CPUs since the Pentium Pro translate complex CISC x86 instructions to more RISC-like internal micro-operations.


title: Control unit

text: In these, the "front" of the control unit manages the translation of instructions. Operands are not translated. The "back" of the CU is an out-of-order CPU that issues the micro-operations and operands to the execution units and data paths.


title: Control unit

text: Many modern computers have controls that minimize power usage. In battery-powered computers, such as those in cell-phones, the advantage is longer battery life. In computers with utility power, the justification is to reduce the cost of power, cooling or noise.


title: Control unit

text: Most modern computers use CMOS logic. CMOS wastes power in two common ways: By changing state, i.e. "active power," and by unintended leakage. The active power of a computer can be reduced by turning off control signals. Leakage current can be reduced by reducing the electrical pressure, the voltage, making the transistors with larger depletion regions or turning off the logic completely.


title: Control unit

text: Active power is easier to reduce because data stored in the logic is not affected. The usual method reduces the CPU's clock rate. Most computer systems use this method. It is common for a CPU to idle during the transition to avoid side-effects from the changing clock.


title: Control unit

text: Most computers also have a "halt" instruction. This was invented to stop non-interrupt code so that interrupt code has reliable timing. However, designers soon noticed that a halt instruction was also a good time to turn off a CPU's clock completely, reducing the CPU's active power to zero. The interrupt controller might continue to need a clock, but that usually uses much less power than the CPU.


title: Control unit

text: These methods are relatively easy to design, and became so common that others were invented for commercial advantage. Many modern low-power CMOS CPUs stop and start specialized execution units and bus interfaces depending on the needed instruction. Some computers even arrange the CPU's microarchitecture to use transfer-triggered multiplexers so that each instruction only utilises the exact pieces of logic needed.


title: Control unit

text: One common method is to spread the load to many CPUs, and turn off unused CPUs as the load reduces. The operating system's task switching logic saves the CPUs' data to memory. In some cases, one of the CPUs can be simpler and smaller, literally with fewer logic gates. So, it has low leakage, and it is the last to be turned off, and the first to be turned on. Also it then is the only CPU that requires special low-power features. A similar method is used in most PCs, which usually have an auxiliary embedded CPU that manages the power system. However, in PCs, the software is usually in the BIOS, not the operating system.


title: Control unit

text: Theoretically, computers at lower clock speeds could also reduce leakage by reducing the voltage of the power supply. This affects the reliability of the computer in many ways, so the engineering is expensive, and it is uncommon except in relatively expensive computers such as PCs or cellphones.


title: Control unit

text: Some designs can use very low leakage transistors, but these usually add cost. The depletion barriers of the transistors can be made larger to have less leakage, but this makes the transistor larger and thus both slower and more expensive. Some vendors use this technique in selected portions of an IC by constructing low leakage logic from large transistors that some processes provide for analog circuits. Some processes place the transistors above the surface of the silicon, in "fin fets", but these processes have more steps, so are more expensive. Special transistor doping materials (e.g. hafnium) can also reduce leakage, but this adds steps to the processing, making it more expensive. Some semiconductors have a larger band-gap than silicon. However, these materials and processes are currently (2020) more expensive than silicon.


title: Control unit

text: Managing leakage is more difficult, because before the logic can be turned-off, the data in it must be moved to some type of low-leakage storage.


title: Control unit

text: Some CPUs make use of a special type of flip-flop (to store a bit) that couples a fast, high-leakage storage cell to a slow, large (expensive) low-leakage cell. These two cells have separated power supplies. When the CPU enters a power saving mode (e.g. because of a halt that waits for an interrupt), data is transferred to the low-leakage cells, and the others are turned off. When the CPU leaves a low-leakage mode (e.g. because of an interrupt), the process is reversed.


title: Control unit

text: Older designs would copy the CPU state to memory, or even disk, sometimes with specialized software. Very simple embedded systems sometimes just restart.


title: Control unit

text: All modern CPUs have control logic to attach the CPU to the rest of the computer. In modern computers, this is usually a bus controller. When an instruction reads or writes memory, the control unit either controls the bus directly, or controls a bus controller. Many modern computers use the same bus interface for memory, input and output. This is called "memory-mapped I/O". To a programmer, the registers of the I/O devices appear as numbers at specific memory addresses. x86 PCs use an older method, a separate I/O bus accessed by I/O instructions.


title: Control unit

text: A modern CPU also tends to include an interrupt controller. It handles interrupt signals from the system bus. The control unit is the part of the computer that responds to the interrupts.


title: Control unit

text: There is often a cache controller to cache memory. The cache controller and the associated cache memory is often the largest physical part of a modern, higher-performance CPU. When the memory, bus or cache is shared with other CPUs, the control logic must communicate with them to assure that no computer ever gets out-of-date old data.


title: Control unit

text: Many historic computers built some type of input and output directly into the control unit. For example, many historic computers had a front panel with switches and lights directly controlled by the control unit. These let a programmer directly enter a program and debug it. In later production computers, the most common use of a front panel was to enter a small bootstrap program to read the operating system from disk. This was annoying. So, front panels were replaced by bootstrap programs in read-only memory.


title: Control unit

text: Most PDP-8 models had a data bus designed to let I/O devices borrow the control unit's memory read and write logic. This reduced the complexity and expense of high speed I/O controllers, e.g. for disk.


title: Control unit

text: The Xerox Alto had a multitasking microprogrammable control unit that performed almost all I/O. This design provided most of the features of a modern PC with only a tiny fraction of the electronic logic. The dual-thread computer was run by the two lowest-priority microthreads. These performed calculations whenever I/O was not required. High priority microthreads provided (in decreasing priority) video, network, disk, a periodic timer, mouse, and keyboard. The microprogram did the complex logic of the I/O device, as well as the logic to integrate the device with the computer. For the actual hardware I/O, the microprogram read and wrote shift registers for most I/O, sometimes with resistor networks and transistors to shift output voltage levels (e.g. for video). To handle outside events, the microcontroller had microinterrupts to switch threads at the end of a thread's cycle, e.g. at the end of an instruction, or after a shift-register was accessed. The microprogram could be rewritten and reinstalled, which was very useful for a research computer.


title: Control unit

text: Thus a program of instructions in memory will cause the CU to configure a CPU's data flows to manipulate the data correctly between instructions. This results in a computer that could run a complete program and require no human intervention to make hardware changes between instructions (as had to be done when using only punch cards for computations before stored programmed computers with CUs were invented).


title: Control unit

text: Hardwired control units are implemented through use of combinational logic units, featuring a finite number of gates that can generate specific results based on the instructions that were used to invoke those responses. Hardwired control units are generally faster than the microprogrammed designs.


title: Control unit

text: This design uses a fixed architecture—it requires changes in the wiring if the instruction set is modified or changed. It can be convenient for simple, fast computers.


title: Control unit

text: A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed; however, it has little flexibility. A complex instruction set can overwhelm a designer who uses ad hoc logic design.


title: Control unit

text: The hardwired approach has become less popular as computers have evolved. Previously, control units for CPUs used ad hoc logic, and they were difficult to design.


title: Control unit

text: The idea of microprogramming was introduced by Maurice Wilkes in 1951 as an intermediate level to execute computer program instructions. Microprograms were organized as a sequence of "microinstructions" and stored in special control memory. The algorithm for the microprogram control unit, unlike the hardwired control unit, is usually specified by flowchart description. The main advantage of a microprogrammed control unit is the simplicity of its structure. Outputs from the controller are by microinstructions. The microprogram can be debugged and replaced very like software.


title: Control unit

text: A popular variation on microcode is to debug the microcode using a software simulator. Then, the microcode is a table of bits. This is a logical truth table, that translates a microcode address into the control unit outputs. This truth table can be fed to a computer program that produces optimized electronic logic. The resulting control unit is almost as easy to design as microprogramming, but it has the fast speed and low number of logic elements of a hard wired control unit. The practical result resembles a Mealy machine or Richards controller.


title: Manobala

text: Manobala (born 8 December 1953) is an Indian film director, producer, actor and comedian who predominantly plays supporting roles in Tamil-language films.


title: Manobala

text: He started his career in Tamil cinema in the early 1970s and with Kamal Haasan's reference became as assistant director with Bharathiraja for his 1979 film "Puthiya Vaarpugal".


title: The Vampyre

text: "The Vampyre" is a short work of prose fiction written in 1819 by John William Polidori taken from the story Lord Byron told as part of a contest among Polidori, Mary Shelley, Lord Byron, and Percy Shelley. The same contest produced the novel "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus". "The Vampyre" is often viewed as the progenitor of the romantic vampire genre of fantasy fiction. The work is described by Christopher Frayling as "the first story successfully to fuse the disparate elements of vampirism into a coherent literary genre."


title: The Vampyre

text: Aubrey meets the mysterious Lord Ruthven at a social event when he comes to London. After briefly getting to know Ruthven, Aubrey agrees to go travelling around Europe with him, but leaves him shortly after they reach Rome when he learns that Ruthven seduced the daughter of a mutual acquaintance. Alone, he travels to Greece where he falls in love with an innkeeper's daughter, Ianthe. She tells him about the legends of the vampire, which are very popular in the area.


title: The Vampyre

text: This romance is short-lived as Ianthe is unfortunately killed, found with her throat torn open. The whole town believes it to be the work of the evil vampire. Aubrey does not make the connection that this coincidentally happens shortly after Lord Ruthven comes to the area. Aubrey makes up with him and rejoins him in his travels, which becomes his undoing. The pair are attacked by bandits on the road and Ruthven is mortally wounded. On his deathbed, Ruthven makes Aubrey swear an oath that he will not speak of Ruthven or his death for a year and a day, and once Aubrey agrees, Lord Ruthven dies laughing.


title: The Vampyre

text: Aubrey returns to London and is amazed when Ruthven appears shortly thereafter, alive and well and living under a new identity. Ruthven reminds Aubrey of his oath and then begins to seduce Aubrey's sister. Helpless to protect his sister, Aubrey has a nervous breakdown. Upon recovering, Aubrey learns that Ruthven is engaged to his sister, and they are due to be married on the day his oath will end. He writes a letter to his sister explaining everything in case something happens to him before he can warn her in person. Aubrey does in fact die, and his letter does not arrive in time. Ruthven marries Aubrey's sister, and kills her on their wedding night, found drained of blood with Ruthven long gone into the night.


title: The Vampyre

text: "The Vampyre" was first published on 1 April 1819 by Henry Colburn in the "New Monthly Magazine" with the false attribution "A Tale by Lord Byron". The name of the work's protagonist, "Lord Ruthven", added to this assumption, for that name was originally used in Lady Caroline Lamb's novel "Glenarvon" (from the same publisher), in which a thinly-disguised Byron figure was named Clarence de Ruthven, Earl of Glenarvon. Despite repeated denials by Byron and Polidori, the authorship often went unclarified. In the following issue, dated May 1, 1819, Polidori wrote a letter to the editor explaining "that though the groundwork is certainly Lord Byron's, its development is mine".


title: The Vampyre

text: The tale was first published in book form by Sherwood, Neely, and Jones in London, Paternoster-Row, in 1819 in octavo as The Vampyre; A Tale in 84 pages. The notation on the cover noted that it was: "Entered at Stationers' Hall, March 27, 1819". Initially, the author was given as Lord Byron. Later printings removed Byron's name and added Polidori's name to the title page.


title: The Vampyre

text: The story was an immediate popular success, partly because of the Byron attribution and partly because it exploited the gothic horror predilections of the public. Polidori transformed the vampire from a character in folklore into the form that is recognized today—an aristocratic fiend who preys among high society.


title: The Vampyre

text: The story has its genesis in the summer of 1816, the Year Without a Summer, when Europe and parts of North America underwent a severe climate abnormality. Lord Byron and his young physician John Polidori were staying at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva and were visited by Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelley, and Claire Clairmont. Kept indoors by the "incessant rain" of that "wet, ungenial summer", over three days in June the five turned to telling fantastical tales, and then writing their own. Fueled by ghost stories such as the "Fantasmagoriana", William Beckford's "Vathek", and quantities of laudanum, Mary Shelley produced what would become "Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus". Polidori was inspired by a fragmentary story of Byron's, "Fragment of a Novel" (1816), also known as "A Fragment" and "The Burial: A Fragment", and in "two or three idle mornings" produced "The Vampyre".


title: The Vampyre

text: Polidori's work had an immense impact on contemporary sensibilities and ran through numerous editions and translations. That influence has extended into the current era as the text is seen as "canonical" and – together with Bram Stoker's "Dracula" and others – is "often even cited as almost folkloric sources on vampirism". An adaptation appeared in 1820 with Cyprien Bérard's novel "Lord Ruthwen ou les Vampires", falsely attributed to Charles Nodier, who himself then wrote his own dramatic version, "Le Vampire", a play which had enormous success and sparked a "vampire craze" across Europe. This includes operatic adaptations by Heinrich Marschner (see "Der Vampyr") and Peter Josef von Lindpaintner (see "Der Vampyr"), both published in the same year. Nikolai Gogol, Alexandre Dumas and Aleksey Tolstoy all produced vampire tales, and themes in Polidori's tale would continue to influence Bram Stoker's "Dracula" and eventually the whole vampire genre. Dumas makes explicit reference to Lord Ruthven in "The Count of Monte Cristo", going so far as to state that his character "The Comtesse G..." had been personally acquainted with Lord Ruthven.


title: The Vampyre

text: In Kim Newman's "Anno Dracula" series, Lord Ruthven is a prominent character. In the "Anno Dracula" universe he becomes a prominent figure in British politics following the ascent of Dracula to power. He is a Conservative Prime Minister in the period of the first novel and continues to hold power throughout the 19th century. Described as the "Great Political Survivor", as of 1991 he succeeds Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister (opposed to John Major).


title: The Vampyre

text: In 1819, "", an American novella by Uriah D’Arcy, was published, taking advantage of "The Vampyre"’s popularity.


title: The Vampyre

text: In 2016 it was announced that the studio Britannia Pictures would be releasing a feature-length adaptation of "The Vampyre". Production for the film was slated to begin in late 2018, with filming taking place in the UK, Italy and Greece. The film would be directed by Rowan M. Ashe and was scheduled for release in October 2019.


title: The Vampyre

text: Earlier adaptations of Polidori's story include the 1945 film "The Vampire's Ghost" starring John Abbott as the Lord Ruthven character "Webb Fallon", with the setting changed from England and Greece to Africa. Also, "", based on the opera "Der Vampyr" by Heinrich Marschner and the Polidori story, was filmed and broadcast on BBC 2 on December 2, 1992, with the Lord Ruthven character's name changed to "Ripley", who is frozen in the late eighteenth century but revives in modern times and becomes a successful businessman.


title: The Vampyre

text: In England, James Planché's play "The Vampire, or The Bride of the Isles" was first performed in London in 1820 at the Lyceum Theatre based on Charles Nodier's "Le Vampire", which in turn was based on Polidori. Such melodramas were satirised in "Ruddigore", by Gilbert and Sullivan (1887), a character called Sir Ruthven must abduct a maiden, or he will die.


title: The Vampyre

text: In 1988, American playwright Tim Kelly created a drawing room adaptation of "The Vampyre" for the stage, popular among community theaters and high school drama clubs.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Ambrosius Aurelianus (; Anglicised as Ambrose Aurelian and called Aurelius Ambrosius in the "Historia Regum Britanniae" and elsewhere) was a war leader of the Romano-British who won an important battle against the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, according to Gildas. He also appeared independently in the legends of the Britons, beginning with the 9th-century "Historia Brittonum". Eventually, he was transformed by Geoffrey of Monmouth into the uncle of King Arthur, the brother of Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, as a ruler who precedes and predeceases them both. He also appears as a young prophet who meets the tyrant Vortigern; in this guise, he was later transformed into the wizard Merlin.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people whom Gildas identifies by name in his sermon "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae", and the only one named from the 5th century. "De Excidio" is considered the oldest extant British document about the so-called Arthurian period of Sub-Roman Britain. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as:


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Some basic information on Ambrosius can be deduced from the brief passage: Ambrosius was possibly of high birth and very likely a Christian (Gildas says that he won his battles "with God's help"). Ambrosius's parents were slain by the Saxons and he was among the few survivors of their initial invasion.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: According to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: "Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens [meaning the Romano-British inhabitants] were victorious." Due to Gildas's description of him, Ambrosius is one of the figures called the Last of the Romans.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Two points in Gildas's description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' family "had worn the purple". Roman emperors and male Patricians wore clothes with a purple band to denote their class so the reference to purple may be to an aristocratic heritage. Roman military tribunes ("tribuni militum"), senior officers in Roman legions, wore a similar purple band so the reference may be to a family background of military leadership. The tradition was old, as the togas and pallia of already ancient senators and tribunes were trimmed with the purple band. In the church, "the purple" is a euphemism for blood and therefore "wearing the purple" may be a reference to martyrdom or a bishop's robe. In addition, in the later Roman Empire both Roman consuls and governors of consular rank also wore clothes with a purple fringe. The "Notitia Dignitatum", a Roman catalogue of official posts, lists four or five provincial governors in Roman Britain and two of them were of consular rank. One was the governor of Maxima Caesariensis and the other that of Valentia. The parent who wore the purple may well have been one of these governors, whose names were not recorded.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: It has been suggested by historian Alex Woolf that Ambrosius may have been related to the 5th-century Romano-British usurpers Marcus or Gratian – Woolf expresses a preference based on nomenclature for Marcus. Frank D. Reno, an Arthurian scholar, has instead argued that the name "Aurelianus" indicates the descent of Ambrosius from the Illyrian Roman emperor Aurelian (reigned 270–275). Aurelian's military campaigns included the conquest of the Gallic Empire. N. J. Higham suggests that Ambrosius may have been distantly related to imperial families of the late Roman Empire, such as the Theodosian dynasty. Branches of this particular dynasty were known to be active in western Roman provinces like Hispania.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Mike Ashley instead focuses on the name "Ambrosius" and its possible connection to Saint Ambrosius, a fourth-century Bishop of Milan, who also served as consular governor in areas of Roman Italy. The father of the Bishop is sometimes claimed to be a fourth century Praetorian prefect of Gaul named Aurelius Ambrosius, whose areas included Britain, though some modern scholars doubt that Saint Ambrosius was related to this man (instead identifying his father with an official named Uranius mentioned in an extract from the Theodosian Code). Ashley suggests that Ambrosius Aurelianus was related to the two Aurelii Ambrosii. Tim Venning points out that the name "Aurelianus" could be the result of a Roman adoption. When a boy was adopted into a new gens (clan), he received the family names of his new family but was often additionally called by a cognomen indicating his descent from his original family. The additional cognomen often had the form "-anus". When Gaius Octavius from gens Octavia was adopted by his uncle Gaius Julius Caesar, he was often distinguished from his adoptive father by the addition "Octavianus". In this case, Ambrosius may have been a member of gens Aurelia who was adopted by another gens/family.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The second question is the meaning of the word "avita": Gildas could have meant "ancestors", or intended it to mean more specifically "grandfather" – thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of Badon. Lack of information prevents sure answers to these questions.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: N. J. Higham wrote a book on Gildas and the literary tropes that he used. He has suggested that Gildas may have had considerable motive for drawing attention to Ambrosius. He was not attempting to write a historical biography of the man, according to Higham, but setting him as an example to his contemporaries. It was essential to the philosophy of Gildas that Briton leaders who achieved victory over the barbarians were only able to do so because of divine aid. And only those who had superior Christian virtues were deserving of this aid. Ambrosius Aurelianus was apparently known for at least one such victory over the barbarians. To fit him into his worldview, Gildas was almost required to feature the former warrior as a man of exceptional virtues and obedience to God. He was made to fit Gildas's version of a model leader.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Higham also suggests that the Roman lineage of Ambrosius was highlighted for a reason. Gildas was apparently intentionally connecting him with the legitimate authority and military virtues of the Romans. He was also contrasting him with the subsequent Briton rulers whose reigns lacked in such legitimacy.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Gildas is a primary source for the Battle of Badon, yet he never mentions the names of the combatants. Therefore, we cannot know if Ambrosius Aurelianus or his successors took part in the battle. The names of the Saxon leaders in the battle are also not recorded.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The identities of Ambrosius's descendants are unknown, since Gildas never identifies them by name. It is safe to assume that they were Gildas's contemporaries and known to the author. Higham suggests that they were prominent figures of the time. Their lineage and identities were probably sufficiently familiar to his intended audience that they did not have to be named. The work portrays Ambrosius's descendants as inferior to their ancestor as part of his criticism on rulers of his time, according to Higham. Those criticised were likely aware that the vitriol was intended for them, but probably would not challenge a work offering such a glowing report of their illustrious ancestor.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Mike Ashley suggests that the descendants of Ambrosius could include other people named by Gildas. He favours the inclusion in this category of one Aurelius Caninus ("Aurelius the dog-like"), whom Gildas accuses of parricide, fornication, adultery, and warmongering. His name "Aurelius" suggests Romano-British descent. The insulting nickname "Caninus" was probably invented by Gildas himself, who similarly insults other contemporary rulers. Due to the name used by Gildas, there are theories that this ruler was actually named Conan/Cynan/Kenan. Some identify him with Cynan Garwyn, a 6th-century King of Powys, though it is uncertain if he was a contemporary of Gildas or lived one or two generations following him. Another theory is that this ruler did not reign in Britain but in Brittany. Caninus, in this view, might be Conomor ("Great Dog"). Conomor is considered a likelier contemporary of Gildas. Conomor was likely from Domnonée, an area of Brittany controlled by British immigrants from Dumnonia. He might be remembered in British legend as Mark of Cornwall.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Gildas primarily features the Saxons as barbarian raiders; their invasions involved a slow and difficult process of military conquest. By AD 500, possibly the time described by Gildas, Anglo-Saxons controlled the Isle of Wight, Kent, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and coastal areas of Northumberland and Yorkshire. The rest of the former Roman Britain was still under the control of the local Britons or remnants of the Roman provincial administration. Gildas also mentions depopulation of cities and this probably reflects historical facts. Londinium, once a major city, was completely abandoned during the 5th century.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Bede follows Gildas's account of Ambrosius in his "Ecclesiastical History of the English People", but in his "Chronica Majora" he dates Ambrosius's victory to the reign of the Emperor Zeno (474–491).


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Bede's treatment of the 5th century history of Great Britain is not particularly valuable as a source. Until about the year 418, Bede could choose between several historical sources and often followed the writings of Orosius. Following the end of Orosius's history, Bede apparently lacked other available sources and relied extensively on Gildas. Entries from this period tend to be close paraphrases of Gildas's account with mostly stylistic changes. Bede's account of Ambrosius Aurelianus has been translated as following:


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The "Historia Brittonum", attributed to Nennius, preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. Despite the traditional attribution, the authorship of the work and the period of its writing are open questions for modern historians. There are several extant manuscript versions of the work, varying in details. The most important ones have been dated to between the 9th and the 11th century. Some modern scholars think it unlikely that the work was composed by a single writer or compiler, suggesting that it may have taken centuries to reach its final form, though this theory is not conclusive.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: In Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius. This is the first mention of Ambrosius in the work. According to Frank D. Reno, this would indicate that Ambrosius's influence was formidable, since Vortigern considered him more of a threat than northern invaders and attempts to restore Roman rule in Britain. The chapter relates events following the end of Roman rule in Britain and preceding Vortigern's alliance with the Saxons.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The most significant appearance of Ambrosius is the story about Ambrosius, Vortigern, and the two dragons beneath Dinas Emrys, "Fortress of Ambrosius" in Chapters 40–42. In this account, Ambrosius is still an adolescent but has supernatural powers. He intimidates Vortigern and the royal magicians. When it is revealed that Ambrosius is the son of a Roman consul, Vortigern is convinced to cede to the younger man the castle of Dinas Emrys and all the kingdoms in the western part of Britain. Vortigern then retreats to the north, in an area called Gwynessi. This story was later retold with more detail by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his fictionalised "Historia Regum Britanniae", conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of Myrddin the visionary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native Celtic inhabitants of Britain over the Saxons and the Normans. Geoffrey also introduces him into the "Historia" under the name Aurelius Ambrosius as one of three sons of Constantine III, along with Constans and Uther Pendragon.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: In Chapter 48, Ambrosius Aurelianus is described as "king among all the kings of the British nation". The chapter records that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the regions of Buellt and Gwrtheyrnion by Ambrosius. Finally, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a Battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, ESE of Amesbury near Salisbury), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus. The author dates this battle as taking place 12 years from the reign of Vortigern.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: It is not clear how these various traditions about Ambrosius relate to each other, or whether they come from the same tradition; it is very possible that these references are to different men with the same name. Frank D. Reno points out that the works call all these men "Ambrosius"/"Emrys". The cognomen "Aurelianus" is never used. The "Historia Brittonum" dates the battle of Guoloph to "the twelfth year of Vortigern", by which the year 437 seems to be meant. This is perhaps a generation before the battle that Gildas may imply was commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The text never identifies who Ambrosius's father is, just gives his title as a Roman consul. When an adolescent Ambrosius speaks of his father, there is no suggestion that this father is deceased. The boy is not identified as an orphan. The exact age of Ambrosius is not given in his one encounter with Vortigern. Frank D. Reno suggests that he might be as young as 13 years old, barely a teenager.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: It is impossible to know to what degree Ambrosius actually wielded political power, and over what area. Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown as being in conflict in the "Historia Brittonum", and some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius and the other by Vortigern. J. N. L. Myres built upon this suspicion and speculated that belief in Pelagianism reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Subsequent historians accepted Myres's speculation as fact, creating a narrative of events in 5th century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of the conflict between these two figures is that the "Historia Brittonum" is preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in Powys. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the "Historia Brittonum", which include his alleged practice of incest.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The identity of Ambrosius's last mentioned enemy, Vitalinus, is somewhat obscure. Various manuscripts of the "Historia" and translations also render his name as "Guitolin," "Guitolini," and "Guitholini." He is mentioned in chapter 49 as one of four sons of Gloiu and co-founder of the city of Gloucester. No other background information is given. There are theories that Gloiu is also the father of Vortigern, but the genealogy is obscure and no supporting primary text can be found. There have been further attempts to identify Vitalinus with a pro-Vortigern or anti-Roman faction in Britain, opposed to the rise of the Romano-British Ambrosius. However, this is rendered problematic since Vitalinus seems to also have a Romano-British name. The traditional view of pro-Roman and pro-Briton factions active in this period might oversimplify a more complex situation.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Ambrosius appears briefly in the "Gesta Regum Anglorum" ("Deeds of the Kings of the English") by William of Malmesbury. Despite its name, the work attempted to reconstruct British history in general by drawing together the varying accounts of Gildas, Bede, Nennius, and various chroniclers. The work features Ambrosius as the apparent employer of Arthur. The relevant passage has been translated as follows:


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: William swiftly shifts attention from Ambrosius to Arthur, and proceeds to narrate Arthur's supposed victory in the Battle of Badon. The narrative is probably the first to connect Ambrosius and Arthur. William had to reconcile the accounts of Gildas and Bede who implied that Ambrosius was connected to the battle, and that of Nennius which clearly stated that it was Arthur who was connected to the battle. He solved the apparent discrepancy by connecting both of them to it. Ambrosius as the king of the Britons and Arthur as his most prominent general and true victor of the battle.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Ambrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae" with the slightly garbled name "Aurelius Ambrosius", now presented as son of a King Constantine. King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, and the two remaining sons (Ambrosius and Uther, still very young) are quickly hustled into exile in Brittany. (This does not fit with Gildas' account, in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, the two brothers return from exile with a large army when Vortigern's power has faded. They destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. They go on to defeat the Saxon leader Hengist in two battles at Maisbeli (probably Ballifield, near Sheffield) and Cunengeburg. Hengist is executed and Ambrosius becomes king of Britain. However, he is poisoned by his enemies, and Uther succeeds him. The text identifies the poisoner as Eopa.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Judgements tend to vary wildly of the value of Geoffrey as both a historian and a literary storyteller. He has been praised for giving us detailed information about an otherwise obscure period and possibly preserving information from lost sources, and condemned for an excessive use of artistic licence and possibly inventing stories wholecloth.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey changed the word "Aurelianus" to "Aurelius", which is the name of a Roman gens. Geoffrey retains the story of Emrys and the dragons from Nennius, but identifies the figure with Merlin. Merlin is Geoffrey's version of a historical figure known as Myrddin Wyllt. Myrddin is only mentioned once in the "Annales Cambriae", at an entry dated to 573. The name of Merlin is given in Latin as Ambrosius Merlinus. "Merlinus" may have been intended as the agnomen of a Roman or Romano-British individual like Ambrosius.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Elements of Ambrosius Aurelianus, the traditional warrior king, are used by Geoffrey for other characters. Ambrosius' supposed supernatural powers are passed to Merlin. Geoffrey's Aurelius Ambrosius rises to the throne but dies early, passing the throne to a previously unknown brother called Uther Pendragon. The role of warrior king is shared by Uther and his son Arthur.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey also uses the character Gloiu, father of Vitalinus/Vitolinus, derived from Nennius. He names this character as a son of Claudius and appointed by his father as Duke of the Welsh. His predecessor as Duke is called Arvirargus. Assuming that Claudius and Arvirargus are supposed to be contemporaries, then this Claudius is the Roman emperor Claudius I (reigned 41–54). It seems unlikely that Claudius would have living grandsons in the 5th century, four centuries following his death. Reno suggests that Claudius II (reigned 268–270) would be a more likely "Claudius" to have living descendants in the 5th century.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey for the first time gives a genealogy of Ambrosius. He is supposedly a paternal nephew of , King of Brittany, son of Constantine and an unnamed Briton noblewoman, adoptive grandson (on his mother's side) of Guthelinus/Vitalinus, Bishop of London, younger brother of Constans and older brother of Uther Pendragon. Ambrosius and Uther are supposedly raised by their adoptive maternal grandfather Guthelinus/Vitalinus. It is not explicitly covered in Geoffrey's narrative, but this genealogy makes Constantine and his children descendants of Conan Meriadoc, legendary founder of the line of Kings of Brittany. Conan is also featured in the "Historia Regum Britanniae", where he is appointed king by Roman emperor Magnus Maximus (reigned 383–388).


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Constantine's reign is placed by Geoffrey as following the Groans of the Britons mentioned by Gildas. Constantine is reported killed by a Pict and his reign is followed by a brief succession crisis. Candidates for the throne included all three sons of Constantine, but there were problems for their eventual rise to the throne. Constans was a monk, and Ambrosius and Uther were underage and still in their cradle. The crisis is resolved when Vortigern places Constans on the throne, and then serves as his chief adviser and power behind the throne. When Constans is killed by the Picts serving as bodyguards of Vortigern, Vortigern feigns anguish and has the killers executed. Ambrosius is still underage and Vortigern rises to the throne.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: The chronology offered by Geoffrey for the early life of Ambrosius contradicts Gildas and Nennius, and is also internally inconsistent. The Groans of the Britons involves an appeal by the Britons to Roman consul "Agitius". This person has been identified with Flavius Aetius (d. 454), magister militum ("master of soldiers") of the Western Roman Empire and consul of the year 446. The Groans are generally dated to the 440s and 450s, preceding the death of Aetius. If Geoffrey's Constantine rose to the throne immediately following the Groans, this would place his reign in this period. Geoffrey gives a 10-year reign for Constantine and his marriage lasts just as long. However the eldest son Constans is clearly older than 10 years by the time his father dies. He is already an adult candidate of the throne and has had time to follow a monastic career. Even assuming there is a time gap between the death of Constantine and the adulthood of Constans, his younger brothers


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey's narrative has an underage Ambrosius, if not a literal infant, in the 460s. Accounts deriving from Gildas and Nennius place Ambrosius in the prime of his life in the same decade. Most telling is that Geoffrey has Vortigern rising to the throne in the 460s. Nennius places the rise of Vortigern in the year 425, and Vortigern is entirely absent in chronologies of the 460s. Suggesting that he was deceased by that time.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey's narrative includes as a major character Hengist, as leader of the Saxons. He is featured as the father of Queen Rowena and father-in-law of Vortigern. Other Saxon characters in the narrative tend to receive less attention by the writer, but their names tend to correspond to Anglo-Saxons known from other sources. Henginst's supposed son Octa is apparently Octa of Kent, a 6th-century ruler variously connected to Hengist as a son or descendant. The other son, Ebissa, is more difficult to identify. He might correspond to kinsmen of Hengist variously identified as "Ossa", "Oisc", and "Aesc". A minor Saxon character called "Cherdic" is probably Cerdic of Wessex, though elsewhere Geoffrey calls the same king "Cheldric". He actually may appear under three different names in the narrative, since Geoffrey elsewhere calls the interpreter of Hengist "Ceretic", a variant of the same name.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey, in the last chapters featuring Vortigern, has the king served by magicians. This detail derives from Nennius, though Nennius was talking about Vortigern's "wise men". They may not have been magic users but advisers. Vortigern's encounter with Emrys/Merlin takes place in this part of the narrative. Merlin warns Vortigern that Ambrosius and Uther have already sailed for Britain and are soon to arrive, apparently to claim his throne. Ambrosius soon arrives at the head of the army and is crowned king. He besieges Vortigern at the castle of "Genoreu", which is identified with Nennius' "Cair Guorthigirn" ("Fort Vortigern") and the hillfort at Little Doward. Ambrosius burns the castle down and Vortigern dies with it.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Having killed Vortigern, Ambrosius next turns his attention to Hengist. Despite the fact that no earlier military actions of Ambrosius are recorded, the Saxons have already heard of his bravery and battle prowess. They immediately retreat beyond the Humber. Hengist soon amasses a massive army to face Ambrosius. His army counts 200,000 men and Ambrosius' only 10,000 men. He marches south and the first battle between the two armies takes place in Maisbeli, where Ambrosius emerges the victor. It is unclear what location Geoffrey had in mind. Maisbeli translates to "the field of Beli", and could be related to the Beli Mawr of Welsh legend and/or the Celtic god Belenus. Alternatively it could be a field where the Beltane festival was celebrated. Geoffrey could derive the name from a similar-sounding toponym. For example, Meicen of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North"), traditionally identified with Hatfield.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Following his defeat, Hengist retreats towards Cunungeburg. Geoffrey probably had in mind Conisbrough, not far from Hatfield. Ambrosius leads his army against the new position of the Saxons. The second battle is more evenly fought, and Hengist has a chance to achieve victory. However, Ambrosius receives reinforcements from Brittany and the tide of the battle turns in favour of the Britons. Hengist himself is captured by his old enemy Eldol, Consul of Gloucester and decapitated. Soon after the battle, the surviving Saxon leaders Octa and Eosa submit themselves to Ambrosius' rule. He pardons them and grants them an area near Scotland. The area is not named, but Geoffrey could be basing this on Bernicia, a real Ango-Saxon kingdom covering areas in the modern borders of Scotland and England.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Geoffrey closely connects the deaths of Vortigern and Hengist, which are elsewhere poorly recorded. Vortigern historically died in the 450s, and various dates for the death of Hengist have been proposed, between the 450s and the 480s. Octa of Kent, the supposed son and heir of Hengist, was still alive in the 6th century and seems to belong to a later historical era than his father. The ruling family of the Kingdom of Kent were called the Oiscingas, a term identifying them as descendants of Oisc of Kent, not of Hengist. In effect, none of them was likely a literal son of Hengist and their relation to Hengist may have been a later invention. Geoffrey did not invent the connection, but his sources here were likely legendary in nature.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Following his victories and the end of the wars, Ambrosius organises the burial of killed nobles at Kaercaradduc. Geoffrey identifies this otherwise unknown location with Caer-Caradog (Salisbury). Ambrosius wants a permanent memorial for the slain and assigns the task to Merlin. The result is the so-called Giants' Ring. Its location in the vicinity of Salisbury has led to its identification with Stonehenge, though Geoffrey never uses that term. Stonehenge is closer to Amesbury than Salisbury. The ring formation of the monument could equally apply to Avebury, the largest stone circle in Europe.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: In Welsh legend and texts, Ambrosius appears as "Emrys Wledig" (Emperor Ambrose). The term "Wledig" is a title used by senior royal and military commanders who have achieved notable success. The term is mostly used for famous figures such as Cunedda, though a few obscure figures have been given the title. For example the Roman emperor Magnus Maximus is known as "Macsen Wledig" when he appears in Welsh folklore.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: In Robert de Boron's "Merlin" he is called simply "Pendragon" and his younger brother is named "Uter", which he changes to "Uterpendragon" after the death of the elder sibling. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from Wace's "Roman de Brut". Wace usually only refers to "li roi" ("the king") without naming him, and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet "Pendragon" as the name of his brother.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Richard Carew's "Survey of Cornwall" (1602) drew on an earlier French writer, Nicholas Gille, who mentions Moigne, brother of Aurelius and Uther, who was duke of Cornwall, and "governer of the Realme" under Emperor Honorius.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: Léon Fleuriot has suggested Ambrosius is identical to Riothamus, a Brythonic leader who fought a major battle against the Goths in France around the year 470. Fleuriot argues that Ambrosius led the Britons in the battle, in which he was defeated and forced to retreat to Burgundy. Fleuriot proposed that he then returned to Britain to continue the war against the Saxons.


title: Ambrosius Aurelianus

text: It has been suggested that the place-name Amesbury in Wiltshire might preserve the name of Ambrosius, and that perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century. Scholars such as Shimon Applebaum have found a number of place names through the Midland dialect regions of Britain that incorporate the "ambre-" element; examples include Ombersley in Worcestershire, Ambrosden in Oxfordshire, Amberley in Herefordshire, Amberley in Gloucestershire, and Amberley in West Sussex. These scholars have claimed that this element represents an Old English word "amor", the name of a woodland bird. However, Amesbury in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman wrote the screenplay for the film "Capote", for which he received an Academy Award nomination, an Independent Spirit, Boston Society of Film Critics, and Los Angeles Film Critics Association awards. He received a second Academy Award nomination for co-writing the script to "Foxcatcher" in 2014.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman is also known for several acting roles, including Val Goldman in the film "The Birdcage", and Vincent Gray on the CBS television series "Judging Amy".


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman, one of three siblings, was born in Silver Spring, Maryland, the son of Linda (née Roth), a psychoanalyst, and Stanley Futterman, a lawyer. He was raised in Conservative Judaism in an "intellectual family". Futterman grew up in Larchmont, New York, and graduated from Mamaroneck High School in 1985 and Columbia University in 1989.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman is married to television writer and producer Anya Epstein (sister of baseball executive Theo Epstein and granddaughter of Philip G. Epstein, Academy Award-winning screenwriter of "Casablanca"), with whom he has two daughters.


title: Dan Futterman

text: In 1991, Futterman landed his first stage role in the WPA production "Club Soda". He also succeeded Joe Mantello as the voluble Louis Ironson in Tony Kushner's Tony award-winning play "Angels in America" on Broadway in 1993. Futterman portrayed an American diplomat's son who runs into trouble in South Africa in Jon Robin Baitz's "A Fair Country" (1996). He portrayed a slick card player with big dreams in ""Dealer's Choice"" (1997).


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman's first film role was as a thug who menaces Robin Williams in "The Fisher King" (1991). He appeared as a teacher in the romantic comedy "Breathing Room/'Til Christmas" (1996). "Far Harbor/Mr. Spreckman's Boat" (also 1996) was an ensemble piece which featured Futterman as a smarmy doctor in an interracial relationship. Also in 1996 he played Val, the son of gay lovers and nightclub owners Albert and Armand (again with Robin Williams) in "The Birdcage". He also appeared as the American half of a pair of twenty-something con artists in London in "Shooting Fish" (1997). He also had the leading role as a befuddled young gay man seeking for his missing lover in the NYC-based award-winning drama/thriller "Urbania". He played "Joe" in the 2002 film Enough, with Jennifer Lopez. Futterman's most recent film is "A Mighty Heart" (2007) with Angelina Jolie; he portrays murdered journalist Daniel Pearl.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman has also made several guest appearances in primetime television. He costarred with Mickey Rourke as a teacher who clashes with a priest in "Thicker Than Blood" (TNT, 1998) and appeared alongside Ron Eldard and Martin Donovan in the World War II drama "When Trumpets Fade" (HBO, 1998). In 1999, Futterman made the leap to series TV, co-starring as the brother of the central character on the CBS series "Judging Amy". Futterman also had a recurring role as the on-again, off-again boyfriend of one of the four sisters (Kiele Sanchez) on The WB drama "Related". He also guest-starred in a four-episode story arc on the sitcom "Will & Grace". Futterman was slated to appear in a recurring role on the new ABC drama "Brothers & Sisters", also written by Jon Robin Baitz, but bowed out due to scheduling conflicts. He filmed an appearance alongside former "Birdcage" costar Calista Flockhart playing her fiancée, but that version of the pilot underwent massive rewrites and never aired. Previously he also played a metrosexual man (pastry chef Stephan) on "Sex and the City".


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman wrote the screenplay for "Capote", and Futterman's friend Bennett Miller directed the film. Futterman and Miller graduated together from Mamaroneck High School and have been friends since 7th grade. The two recruited another old friend, actor Philip Seymour Hoffman, to star as Truman Capote, and began the process of getting the independent film made. Futterman and Hoffman were Executive Producers of the film. Futterman was recognized with several award nominations, including an Oscar nod for Best Adapted Screenplay.


title: Dan Futterman

text: In 2007, Futterman stated that he would focus on his writing career, and was adapting the novel "Everything Changes" into a film script for Columbia Pictures.


title: Dan Futterman

text: From 2007 to 2010, Futterman and Epstein were writers and executive producers for the HBO drama series "In Treatment".


title: Dan Futterman

text: In late 2009, Futterman and Epstein were in development with HBO to write and executive-produce a half-hour drama series called "T" about a trans man going through gender transition; it is based on a story from the radio show "This American Life", and Ira Glass and Alissa Shipp of "This American Life" were slated to be executive producers as well. The series, scheduled as part of SundanceTV's 2013–2014 lineup, was to be written by Futterman and his wife, Anya Epstein.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman, with E. Max Frye, wrote the screenplay for another Miller-directed film, "Foxcatcher" (2014), a biographical drama film starring Steve Carell, Channing Tatum, and Mark Ruffalo. He and Frye were nominated for Best Original Screenplay at the 87th Academy Awards.


title: Dan Futterman

text: Futterman not only writes and acts in movies and on television, but often co-produces these projects as well. He has frequently written scripts and executive produced alongside his wife, such as on the HBO series "In Treatment". Futterman also adapted and produced a ten-part series for Fox, "Gracepoint". Futterman, Lawrence Wright and Alex Gibney are executive producers of "The Looming Tower" for Hulu in 2018. He is the showrunner of the 2021 Showtime series "American Rust".


title: Matteo Lane

text: Matteo Lane was born in 1986, raised in Arlington Heights, Illinois, and lived on the North Side. Though his mother, Lane is of Mexican and Italian descent. His father is a Vietnam War veteran and is of Irish descent. Lane's Italian family originates from Agrigento and Messina in Sicily. He was nicknamed Matteo by his Italian family. Lane, who is gay, has an older brother who is also gay. He speaks English, Italian, Spanish, and French, and studied German in high school. Lane started to sing opera at the age of 15 under vocal coach Nick Falco. At the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, he studied oil painting and drawing. Lane studied art for five months in Umbria as an oil painter and opera singer before returning to Chicago.


title: Matteo Lane

text: As a singer, Lane performed in bars in Boystown before starting his comedy career circa 2011 at open mics in Chicago. He moved to New York to work as a storyboard artist circa 2012. In an interview, Lane stated that it was "the most boring job in the world." He later quit the position to pursue comedy. After being featured in "New Faces" at the 2014 Just for Laughs festival, MTV invited Lane to appear on "Guy Code". He was later in "Joking Off" and was cast in MTV's "Ladylike" along with Nicole Byer, Jade Catta-Preta, and Blair Socci. Lane was on a panel for a segment about Kim Davis on "The Nightly Show with Larry Wilmore". In 2018, Lane represented Italy at "The Ethnic Show" at the Just For Laughs festival in Montreal. He is the host of the Snapchat comedy "Ghost Hunt".


title: Matteo Lane

text: Lane is an advocate for the gay community. He has been the victim of several homophobic incidents during his shows. On being an openly gay comedian, Lane reports, "I think it's slowly getting better but it's all such new territory in so many ways. I'm not saying they are not gay comics that have existed — I know these people exist”. He added that "I'm just saying this is the first time ever that gay, queer, male comedians are sort of on the spotlight that straight comedians are being seen in. So it's all kind of just new. It's all new and discovered and all new territory. I think it's exciting."


title: Matteo Lane

text: His favorite performance venues in New York City are Comedy Cellar, The Stand, and New York Comedy Club. He is a co-star and creator of the IFC series "Janice and Jeffrey".


title: Matteo Lane

text: Lane and Emma Willmann are co-hosts of a queer-themed podcast, "Inside the Closet". They are both also featured in Netflix's The Comedy Lineup. On May 1, 2018, Lane and Nico Tortorella were featured on a "Nancy" podcast.


title: Matteo Lane

text: On coming out, Lane stated in an interview that "I've spent my entire life feeling shame for being gay and once I came out of the closet, I realized that I'm proud to be gay." Lane's favorite singers are Mariah Carey, Patti LaBelle, Whitney Houston, Celine Dion, and Jennifer Hudson. He is a long-time friend of composer and pianist Henry Koperski, with whom he sometimes performs.


title: Matteo Lane

text: In a 2017 interview, Lane stated that while he does not discuss Donald Trump directly in his acts, his "material in itself is a stand against Trump."


title: Matteo Lane

text: In 2018, Lane was recognized by "The Advocate" as one of the LGBT Icons, Innovators, and Disruptors for his work in the field of stand-up comedy.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Roger Allan Jenkins (born 30 September 1955) is a British financier and former international athlete. He is the brother of former World no.1 ranked 400m runner, Olympic medalist, convicted drug runner, and informant David Jenkins.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: From 1994 to 2009, he worked for Barclays in a variety of roles, including as chief executive of Barclays Capital's Private Equity Group, and from April 2008 as Executive Chairman of Investment Banking and Investment Management for the Middle East.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In 2008, he played a key role raising capital for Barclays Group in June and October 2008 totaling over 9 billion pounds from amongst others, the Qatar Investment Authority, Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani. He left Barclays in the summer of 2009 and in 2011 joined the Management Committee and Investment Committee of the Brazilian investment bank BTG Pactual until 2013.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Estimates suggested that Jenkins earned about £40 million during the years from 2005 to 2009, making him reputedly the highest paid banker in the City of London.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins was born in Scotland, the son of an oil refinery manager. He attended Edinburgh Academy and studied economics at Heriot-Watt University graduating with an Honors Degree. He was an Associate of the Chartered Institute of Bankers (ACIB) and received his Diploma in Financial Studies from the Institute.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In his youth he was an accomplished sprinter, representing Scotland and Great Britain from 1973 to 1978 and competed at the European Championships in 1974, the Commonwealth Games in 1978, and numerous internationals. He won a silver medal at the World Student Games in Rome in 1975 at 400m. Both Roger and his brother David feature prominently in the book "A Life In A Day In A Year" by Peter Hoffmann which describes their athletics training at Meadowbank Sports Centre, Edinburgh, and their racing careers between 1973 and 1978.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins worked briefly at BP after graduation in 1977 and joined Barclays as a graduate trainee in 1978. From 1982 to 1984 he was head of private placements at Barclays's investment banking division, Barclays de Zoete Wedd (BZW), in New York City, leaving in 1987 to work for Kleinwort Benson, where he was a Director and Co-Head of Financial Markets and he stayed for seven years. He rejoined Barclays in 1994 to set up a group advising companies on tax and regulatory management.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins developed an expertise in structuring and analysing the tax regimes of various countries. His group became Barclays Capital Structured Capital Markets. It recruited beyond banking and included Iain Abrahams, a former lawyer at Slaughter and May.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In 2009, "The Guardian" reported tales of a macho culture inside the Structured Capital Markets division, where, one source claimed, "the deals are so big you never say billion or million, you just say 16 bucks or 16 quid which meant billion". The same source suggested that tax avoidance "was so big it became the engine of growth for the whole of the investment banking arm".


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: The Salz report stated that between 2000 and 2011 the SCM business generated revenue of 9.5 billion pounds. (Guardian Jill Treanor).


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: A 2006 investigation by "The Wall Street Journal", alleged that in 2003, Jenkins and his team had set up a company co-owned by Barclays and the US bank Wachovia, Augustus Funding LLC, which was incorporated in Delaware but also had a London address and British directors. Although the company had no employees, products or customers, in 2004, it registered pretax profits of $317 million from assets such as Danish mortgage securities and U.S. Treasuries, on which it paid UK taxes of $94 million.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: According to "The Wall Street Journal", thanks to "elaborate structure and cash flows", both Barclays and Wachovia were able to take credit for a full payment of the tax, meaning the $94 million could be claimed twice (a so-called "double dip"). The report suggested that Augustus Funding was one of at least nine structures involving US banks set up by Barclays. Barclays called the account of the transactions "materially inaccurate", while a statement from Wachovia said that they had "complied with all applicable laws and regulations".


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins played a key role in the selling of Barclays' iShares asset management business to CVC, the private equity firm but that did not close and Barclays Global Investors was then sold to the US firm BlackRock for $13.5 billion in June 2009.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins left Barclays in August 2009. He retained a consultancy role with the bank while establishing his own advisory business, Elkstone, based on his contacts in the Middle East.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In February 2010, Jenkins launched an advisory firm in Dublin, Elkstone Capital, looking at opportunities created by the Irish financial crisis. "If you are sitting in Dublin today, there are tremendous opportunities, from capital raising to restructuring to acquisitions," he said. Nonetheless, Jenkins left Elkstone Capital in December 2011 without doing any deals.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In October 2011, it was announced that Jenkins had joined BTG Pactual as a managing partner and would sit on the bank's global management and investment committees.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In 2016 he invested in a fund to acquire a cannabis cultivation facility in Northern California, and subsequently that ownership was sold.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: Jenkins married Catherine McDowell in 1980, a banker at Barclays, and had one daughter. In 1999 he married Sanela Dijana Ćatić, whom he had met in the gym at the Barbican, where Roger Jenkins was living after the end of his first marriage. Diana is a Bosnian Muslim who was born in Bosnia but migrated to London from Sarajevo during the Bosnian War. Jenkins has said that they had "a bit of a hippy marriage". They have two children.


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In 2011 it was announced that their marriage had come to "a natural end" in 2009 and they jointly filed for divorce in late 2011. Diana said she still loves her husband but she needs to be free, saying, "this is my time to be me".


title: Roger Jenkins (banker)

text: In February 2018, Jenkins announced his engagement to Larissa Andrade, a Brazilian model and actress 29 years his junior living in Los Angeles and on 11 August 2018 they were married in Txai, Bahia, Brazil and subsequently divorced in December 2021.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Anthony Green (born April 15, 1982) is an American singer from Doylestown, Pennsylvania. He is currently the lead singer of Circa Survive, Saosin, The Sound of Animals Fighting, and L.S. Dunes, while also maintaining a solo career. He was previously in the bands Audience of One, Jeer at Rome, High and Driving, and Zolof the Rock and Roll Destroyer. Green is known for his distinctive, high vocal timbre.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Anthony Green's first band formed in 1997 while he was in high school with classmate and musician Tommy Dougherty (Junction 232). The band originally had Dougherty on guitar and Green on bass and vocals. Eventually, they recruited drummer Evan Madden. Green wanted to name the band 'Saosin', but Dougherty and Madden decided against it. Before settling on the "Audience of One" name, they played a few shows under the name "Handsome Pete" in 1998 and one show under the name "The Bill Bixby Experience". Due to problems with Evan's availability to practice and play shows, they sought out a new drummer.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Green and Dougherty switched bass and guitar duties. Green met drummer J.D. Foster (Makeshift/Yellow 5) at Days Away's first show in summer of 1998. Foster tried out and musically they clicked right away. The band recorded an LP entitled, "I Remember When This All Meant Something" at Skylight Studio in the summer of 1999. It was released on Break Even Records on December 3, 1999.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: During the summer of 2000, Greg Itzen (Days Away/Like Lions) was welcomed into the band as a second guitar player. As a four-piece, they recorded a four-song demo EP at Skylight Studio. That fall, two of the members went off to college and one enlisted in the military. Audience of One was deemed 'on hiatus'.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: From April 12–13, 2000, a four-song demo EP for a hardcore/metal project called "Jeer at Rome" was recorded at Skylight Studio. The band was composed of Anthony Green (vocals), Steve Mensick (guitar), Mike Lepone (guitar), Chris Mensick (bass) and Luke Carmen (drums) The self-titled demo was released on compact disc. They played a handful of shows during the spring and summer of 2000, but apparently dissolved soon afterward.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Anthony sang on seven songs on Zolof The Rock & Roll Destroyer's self-titled first album. The recordings took place mostly in 2000 and 2001 and were released in early 2002. At that time, the band consisted of Rachel Minton (vocals and keyboards), Anthony Green (vocals and backup vocals), Vince Ratti (guitar and keyboards), Bob Bonocore (vocals and bass) and Rick Delello (drums). Green and Zolof parted ways in early 2002 due to Green's need to "work some things out" in his personal life. They still remain good friends. One year later, Ratti and Minton helped Anthony record vocals over the Saosin instrumental demo recordings, then known as 'The Gift'. Two years later, Green contributed vocals to the Zolof The Rock & Roll Destroyer song "This Was All A Bad Idea" off of their album "The Popsicle EP" [2004]. In 2012, Ratti mixed Circa Survive's fourth album, "Violent Waves". Minton also contributed backup vocals to the song 'Suitcase'.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Green recorded a four-song EP in 2002 at Ratti's Skylight Studio in Fairless Hills, PA. Green recorded most of the instruments himself except for drums and some keyboard parts. Tim Arnold (Days Away/Good Old War) supplied the drums and Ratti and Minton tracked some of the keyboard parts. The recording was shared on the internet since early 2004 and ended up being officially released on the deluxe version of "Avalon" on August 5, 2008, on Photo Finish Records.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: The original lineup of Saosin consisted of Anthony Green (vocals), Beau Burchell (guitar), Justin Shekoski (guitar), Zach Kennedy (bass) and Pat Magrath (drums). Their first album, an EP, consisting of 5 songs, was recorded in February and March 2003. Magrath was a studio musician hired to play drums on the album. The drum parts were written largely by Burchell with Alex Rodriguez in mind. Rodriguez was to assume the role of drummer, but he had obligations playing drums for the band Open Hand at the time. Chris Warner filled in on drums during early rehearsals. Kennedy quit the band due to personal reasons. Chris Sorenson took the spot as bassist. Before they began playing shows, Danny King replaced Warner as drummer. After only a handful of shows, Rodriguez finally took over as Saosin's permanent drummer.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: The band released the EP "Translating the Name" on June 17, 2003. It was an immediate underground success and was immensely popular on online forums and music sites. Preorders of the album came with a bonus CD containing two acoustic versions of songs from the EP. "Translating The Name" (2003) has sold an estimated 62,000 copies as of 2008. Green quit Saosin in mid-February 2004.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: It was announced on February 20, 2014, that Anthony Green would be reuniting with his former band Saosin for the Skate and Surf festival on May 17, 2014. More shows were quickly booked for May, June and September totaling eight reunion shows during 2014. Anthony Green has hinted at the possibility of recording new material with Saosin after the most of the tour cycle for Circa Survive's fifth album, Descensus has completed. Saosin has announced that they will be playing some shows in California and Texas in January 2015. The band released a new single "Silver String" on March 16, 2016, while on tour.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Shortly after the release of "Silver String", it was announced that Green decided to ultimately stay with Saosin, while still maintaining his role as lead vocals for Circa Survive and as a solo artist. The band released their first LP since 2009, "Along the Shadow" in May 2016 through Epitaph Records. It peaked at #45 on the Billboard 100 chart.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Green was (from between 2004–2008) part of another side project with members of Finch, Rx Bandits, Days Away and Chiodos under the alias of The Skunk (each member of The Sound of Animals Fighting was equipped with an animal mask to hide their personas and give the band creative inspiration). Three studio albums were recorded during their time together, "Tiger and the Duke" (2004), "Lover, the Lord Has Left Us..." (2006) and "The Ocean and the Sun" (2008). They played four shows in August 2006 of which one was recorded for a live DVD entitled, "We Must Become the Change We Want to See" (2007). In March 2014, they reunited for a seven show tour, and in Feb/March 2019 for an eight show tour, playing songs from all three albums.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Immediately after quitting Saosin, Green and Colin Frangicetto (This Day Forward) founded Philadelphia-based Circa Survive, which signed with Equal Vision Records. This new project changed his musical vision from post-hardcore to a more experimental rock sound. Very early on Brendan Ekstrom (This Day Forward) was recruited on guitar. By the end of summer 2004, the lineup was solidified with Nick Beard (Taken) on bass and Stephen Clifford (Reflux) on drums.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Within a year, they had released a limited edition tour EP, "The Inuit Sessions", and a full-length album, "Juturna". They released their second album, "On Letting Go", in May 2007. They parted ways with Equal Vision in August 2008. Their third album, "Blue Sky Noise", was released in April 2010 on Atlantic Records. In November 2010, they released an EP called "Appendage" also on Atlantic Records. Their self-produced fourth album, "Violent Waves", was released on August 28, 2012. Their fifth album, "Descensus" was released on November 24, 2014, on Sumerian Records. Their sixth album, The Amulet, was released on September 22, 2017. Their seventh & eighth release were two thematically linked EPs, 'A Dream About Love' (October 12, 2021) and 'A Dream About Death' (February 4, 2022), both released on Rise Records


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: On August 26, 2022, L.S. Dunes' debut album, "Past Lives" (2022), was announced accompanied by the release of their first single, "Permanent Rebellion". The new band features Anthony Green, My Chemical Romance's Frank Iero, Coheed and Cambria's Travis Stever and Thursday's Tim Payne and Tucker Rule.


title: Anthony Green (musician)

text: Green announced his plans to record his first solo album in December 2007. "Avalon" was recorded at The Big House in Avalon, New Jersey between late February and early March 2008. Keith Goodwin, Dan Schwartz and Tim Arnold of the band Good Old War played various instruments on the album. Two music videos were shot before the album was released. "Dear Child (I've Been Dying To Reach You)" was shot on May 31, 2008, and released on July 23, 2008. "She Loves Me So" was shot in late July 2008 and released on December 15, 2008. "Avalon" was released on August 5, 2008, peaking at #44 on the "Billboard" 200 in the United States. Anthony named the album after being inspired by his father. "my dad said you should call it avalon-"