title: Knot theory

text: "Classical" knot invariants include the knot group, which is the fundamental group of the knot complement, and the Alexander polynomial, which can be computed from the Alexander invariant, a module constructed from the infinite cyclic cover of the knot complement . In the late 20th century, invariants such as "quantum" knot polynomials, Vassiliev invariants and hyperbolic invariants were discovered. These aforementioned invariants are only the tip of the iceberg of modern knot theory.


title: Knot theory

text: A knot polynomial is a knot invariant that is a polynomial. Well-known examples include the Jones and Alexander polynomials. A variant of the Alexander polynomial, the Alexander–Conway polynomial, is a polynomial in the variable "z" with integer coefficients .


title: Knot theory

text: The Alexander–Conway polynomial is actually defined in terms of links, which consist of one or more knots entangled with each other. The concepts explained above for knots, e.g. diagrams and Reidemeister moves, also hold for links.


title: Knot theory

text: Consider an oriented link diagram, "i.e." one in which every component of the link has a preferred direction indicated by an arrow. For a given crossing of the diagram, let formula_23 be the oriented link diagrams resulting from changing the diagram as indicated in the figure:


title: Knot theory

text: The original diagram might be either formula_24 or formula_25, depending on the chosen crossing's configuration. Then the Alexander–Conway polynomial, formula_26, is recursively defined according to the rules:


title: Knot theory

text: The second rule is what is often referred to as a skein relation. To check that these rules give an invariant of an oriented link, one should determine that the polynomial does not change under the three Reidemeister moves. Many important knot polynomials can be defined in this way.


title: Knot theory

text: The following is an example of a typical computation using a skein relation. It computes the Alexander–Conway polynomial of the trefoil knot. The yellow patches indicate where the relation is applied.


title: Knot theory

text: gives a link deformable to one with 0 crossings (it is actually the unlink of two components) and an unknot. The unlink takes a bit of sneakiness:


title: Knot theory

text: which implies that "C"(unlink of two components) = 0, since the first two polynomials are of the unknot and thus equal.


title: Knot theory

text: Since the Alexander–Conway polynomial is a knot invariant, this shows that the trefoil is not equivalent to the unknot. So the trefoil really is "knotted".


title: Knot theory

text: Actually, there are two trefoil knots, called the right and left-handed trefoils, which are mirror images of each other (take a diagram of the trefoil given above and change each crossing to the other way to get the mirror image). These are not equivalent to each other, meaning that they are not amphichiral. This was shown by Max Dehn, before the invention of knot polynomials, using group theoretical methods . But the Alexander–Conway polynomial of each kind of trefoil will be the same, as can be seen by going through the computation above with the mirror image. The "Jones" polynomial can in fact distinguish between the left- and right-handed trefoil knots .


title: Knot theory

text: William Thurston proved many knots are hyperbolic knots, meaning that the knot complement (i.e., the set of points of 3-space not on the knot) admits a geometric structure, in particular that of hyperbolic geometry. The hyperbolic structure depends only on the knot so any quantity computed from the hyperbolic structure is then a knot invariant .


title: Knot theory

text: Geometry lets us visualize what the inside of a knot or link complement looks like by imagining light rays as traveling along the geodesics of the geometry. An example is provided by the picture of the complement of the Borromean rings. The inhabitant of this link complement is viewing the space from near the red component. The balls in the picture are views of horoball neighborhoods of the link. By thickening the link in a standard way, the horoball neighborhoods of the link components are obtained. Even though the boundary of a neighborhood is a torus, when viewed from inside the link complement, it looks like a sphere. Each link component shows up as infinitely many spheres (of one color) as there are infinitely many light rays from the observer to the link component. The fundamental parallelogram (which is indicated in the picture), tiles both vertically and horizontally and shows how to extend the pattern of spheres infinitely.


title: Knot theory

text: This pattern, the horoball pattern, is itself a useful invariant. Other hyperbolic invariants include the shape of the fundamental parallelogram, length of shortest geodesic, and volume. Modern knot and link tabulation efforts have utilized these invariants effectively. Fast computers and clever methods of obtaining these invariants make calculating these invariants, in practice, a simple task .


title: Knot theory

text: A knot in three dimensions can be untied when placed in four-dimensional space. This is done by changing crossings. Suppose one strand is behind another as seen from a chosen point. Lift it into the fourth dimension, so there is no obstacle (the front strand having no component there); then slide it forward, and drop it back, now in front. Analogies for the plane would be lifting a string up off the surface, or removing a dot from inside a circle.


title: Knot theory

text: In fact, in four dimensions, any non-intersecting closed loop of one-dimensional string is equivalent to an unknot. First "push" the loop into a three-dimensional subspace, which is always possible, though technical to explain.


title: Knot theory

text: Four-dimensional space occurs in classical knot theory, however, and an important topic is the study of slice knots and ribbon knots. A notorious open problem asks whether every slice knot is also ribbon.


title: Knot theory

text: Since a knot can be considered topologically a 1-dimensional sphere, the next generalization is to consider a two-dimensional sphere (formula_31) embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean space (formula_32). Such an embedding is knotted if there is no homeomorphism of formula_32 onto itself taking the embedded 2-sphere to the standard "round" embedding of the 2-sphere. Suspended knots and spun knots are two typical families of such 2-sphere knots.


title: Knot theory

text: The mathematical technique called "general position" implies that for a given "n"-sphere in "m"-dimensional Euclidean space, if "m" is large enough (depending on "n"), the sphere should be unknotted. In general, piecewise-linear "n"-spheres form knots only in ("n" + 2)-dimensional space , although this is no longer a requirement for smoothly knotted spheres. In fact, there are smoothly knotted formula_34-spheres in 6"k"-dimensional space; e.g., there is a smoothly knotted 3-sphere in formula_35 . Thus the codimension of a smooth knot can be arbitrarily large when not fixing the dimension of the knotted sphere; however, any smooth "k"-sphere embedded in formula_36 with formula_37 is unknotted. The notion of a knot has further generalisations in mathematics, see: Knot (mathematics), isotopy classification of embeddings.


title: Knot theory

text: Every knot in the "n"-sphere formula_38 is the link of a real-algebraic set with isolated singularity in formula_39 .


title: Knot theory

text: An "n"-knot is a single formula_38 embedded in formula_41. An "n"-link consists of "k"-copies of formula_38 embedded in formula_41, where "k" is a natural number. Both the formula_44 and the formula_45 cases are well studied, and so is the formula_46 case.


title: Knot theory

text: Two knots can be added by cutting both knots and joining the pairs of ends. The operation is called the "knot sum", or sometimes the "connected sum" or "composition" of two knots. This can be formally defined as follows : consider a planar projection of each knot and suppose these projections are disjoint. Find a rectangle in the plane where one pair of opposite sides are arcs along each knot while the rest of the rectangle is disjoint from the knots. Form a new knot by deleting the first pair of opposite sides and adjoining the other pair of opposite sides. The resulting knot is a sum of the original knots. Depending on how this is done, two different knots (but no more) may result. This ambiguity in the sum can be eliminated regarding the knots as "oriented", i.e. having a preferred direction of travel along the knot, and requiring the arcs of the knots in the sum are oriented consistently with the oriented boundary of the rectangle.


title: Knot theory

text: The knot sum of oriented knots is commutative and associative. A knot is "prime" if it is non-trivial and cannot be written as the knot sum of two non-trivial knots. A knot that can be written as such a sum is "composite". There is a prime decomposition for knots, analogous to prime and composite numbers . For oriented knots, this decomposition is also unique. Higher-dimensional knots can also be added but there are some differences. While you cannot form the unknot in three dimensions by adding two non-trivial knots, you can in higher dimensions, at least when one considers "smooth" knots in codimension at least 3.


title: Knot theory

text: Traditionally, knots have been catalogued in terms of crossing number. Knot tables generally include only prime knots, and only one entry for a knot and its mirror image (even if they are different) . The number of nontrivial knots of a given crossing number increases rapidly, making tabulation computationally difficult . Tabulation efforts have succeeded in enumerating over 6 billion knots and links . The sequence of the number of prime knots of a given crossing number, up to crossing number 16, is 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 7, 21, 49, 165, 552, 2176, 9988, , , ... . While exponential upper and lower bounds for this sequence are known, it has not been proven that this sequence is strictly increasing .


title: Knot theory

text: The first knot tables by Tait, Little, and Kirkman used knot diagrams, although Tait also used a precursor to the Dowker notation. Different notations have been invented for knots which allow more efficient tabulation .


title: Knot theory

text: The early tables attempted to list all knots of at most 10 crossings, and all alternating knots of 11 crossings . The development of knot theory due to Alexander, Reidemeister, Seifert, and others eased the task of verification and tables of knots up to and including 9 crossings were published by Alexander–Briggs and Reidemeister in the late 1920s.


title: Knot theory

text: The first major verification of this work was done in the 1960s by John Horton Conway, who not only developed a new notation but also the Alexander–Conway polynomial . This verified the list of knots of at most 11 crossings and a new list of links up to 10 crossings. Conway found a number of omissions but only one duplication in the Tait–Little tables; however he missed the duplicates called the Perko pair, which would only be noticed in 1974 by Kenneth Perko . This famous error would propagate when Dale Rolfsen added a knot table in his influential text, based on Conway's work. Conway's 1970 paper on knot theory also contains a typographical duplication on its non-alternating 11-crossing knots page and omits 4 examples — 2 previously listed in D. Lombardero's 1968 Princeton senior thesis and 2 more subsequently discovered by Alain Caudron. [see Perko (1982), Primality of certain knots, Topology Proceedings] Less famous is the duplicate in his 10 crossing link table: 2.-2.-20.20 is the mirror of 8*-20:-20. [See Perko (2016), Historical highlights of non-cyclic knot theory, J. Knot Theory Ramifications].


title: Knot theory

text: In the late 1990s Hoste, Thistlethwaite, and Weeks tabulated all the knots through 16 crossings . In 2003 Rankin, Flint, and Schermann, tabulated the alternating knots through 22 crossings . In 2020 Burton tabulated all prime knots with up to 19 crossings .


title: Knot theory

text: This is the most traditional notation, due to the 1927 paper of James W. Alexander and Garland B. Briggs and later extended by Dale Rolfsen in his knot table (see image above and List of prime knots). The notation simply organizes knots by their crossing number. One writes the crossing number with a subscript to denote its order amongst all knots with that crossing number. This order is arbitrary and so has no special significance (though in each number of crossings the twist knot comes after the torus knot). Links are written by the crossing number with a superscript to denote the number of components and a subscript to denote its order within the links with the same number of components and crossings. Thus the trefoil knot is notated 3 and the Hopf link is 2. Alexander–Briggs names in the range 10 to 10 are ambiguous, due to the discovery of the Perko pair in Charles Newton Little's original and subsequent knot tables, and differences in approach to correcting this error in knot tables and other publications created after this point.


title: Knot theory

text: The Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation, also called the Dowker notation or code, for a knot is a finite sequence of even integers. The numbers are generated by following the knot and marking the crossings with consecutive integers. Since each crossing is visited twice, this creates a pairing of even integers with odd integers. An appropriate sign is given to indicate over and undercrossing. For example, in this figure the knot diagram has crossings labelled with the pairs (1,6) (3,−12) (5,2) (7,8) (9,−4) and (11,−10). The Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation for this labelling is the sequence: 6, −12, 2, 8, −4, −10. A knot diagram has more than one possible Dowker notation, and there is a well-understood ambiguity when reconstructing a knot from a Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation.


title: Knot theory

text: The Conway notation for knots and links, named after John Horton Conway, is based on the theory of tangles . The advantage of this notation is that it reflects some properties of the knot or link.


title: Knot theory

text: The notation describes how to construct a particular link diagram of the link. Start with a "basic polyhedron", a 4-valent connected planar graph with no digon regions. Such a polyhedron is denoted first by the number of vertices then a number of asterisks which determine the polyhedron's position on a list of basic polyhedra. For example, 10** denotes the second 10-vertex polyhedron on Conway's list.


title: Knot theory

text: Each vertex then has an algebraic tangle substituted into it (each vertex is oriented so there is no arbitrary choice in substitution). Each such tangle has a notation consisting of numbers and + or − signs.


title: Knot theory

text: An example is 1*2 −3 2. The 1* denotes the only 1-vertex basic polyhedron. The 2 −3 2 is a sequence describing the continued fraction associated to a rational tangle. One inserts this tangle at the vertex of the basic polyhedron 1*.


title: Knot theory

text: A more complicated example is 8*3.1.2 0.1.1.1.1.1 Here again 8* refers to a basic polyhedron with 8 vertices. The periods separate the notation for each tangle.


title: Knot theory

text: Any link admits such a description, and it is clear this is a very compact notation even for very large crossing number. There are some further shorthands usually used. The last example is usually written 8*3:2 0, where the ones are omitted and kept the number of dots excepting the dots at the end. For an algebraic knot such as in the first example, 1* is often omitted.


title: Knot theory

text: Conway's pioneering paper on the subject lists up to 10-vertex basic polyhedra of which he uses to tabulate links, which have become standard for those links. For a further listing of higher vertex polyhedra, there are nonstandard choices available.


title: Knot theory

text: Gauss code, similar to the Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation, represents a knot with a sequence of integers. However, rather than every crossing being represented by two different numbers, crossings are labeled with only one number. When the crossing is an overcrossing, a positive number is listed. At an undercrossing, a negative number. For example, the trefoil knot in Gauss code can be given as: 1,−2,3,−1,2,−3


title: Knot theory

text: Gauss code is limited in its ability to identify knots. This problem is partially addressed with by the extended Gauss code.


title: Knot theory

text: Circuit topology is an alternative framework to knot theory and can describe and categorise knots and tangles. Knot theory considers any entangled chain as a connected sum of prime knots. Prime knots cannot be divided and they are undecomposable. Circuit topology, in turn, splits any entangled chains (including prime knots) into basic structural units called soft contacts (s-contacts), and lists simple rules how s-contacts can be put together. These rules can be considered as binary operations defined on s-contacts. There are 3 main operations which put two s-contacts in series (S), in parallel (P), or in cross (X); and two supplementary operations, which make s-contacts concerted (C), or add subscripts (Sub). Circuit topology is a non-polynomial approach but comes with a string notation, which can be put in correspondence with Alexander polynomials in knot theory.


title: Knot theory

text: There are a number of introductions to knot theory. A classical introduction for graduate students or advanced undergraduates is . Other good texts from the references are and . Adams is informal and accessible for the most part to high schoolers. Lickorish is a rigorous introduction for graduate students, covering a nice mix of classical and modern topics. is suitable for undergraduates who know point-set topology; knowledge of algebraic topology is not required.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The swifts are a family, Apodidae, of highly aerial birds. They are superficially similar to swallows, but are not closely related to any passerine species. Swifts are placed in the order Apodiformes with hummingbirds. The treeswifts are closely related to the true swifts, but form a separate family, the Hemiprocnidae.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Resemblances between swifts and swallows are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar life styles based on catching insects in flight.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The family name, Apodidae, is derived from the Greek ἄπους ("ápous"), meaning "footless", a reference to the small, weak legs of these most aerial of birds. The tradition of depicting swifts without feet continued into the Middle Ages, as seen in the heraldic martlet.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Taxonomists have long classified swifts and treeswifts as relatives of the hummingbirds, a judgment corroborated by the discovery of the Jungornithidae (apparently swift-like hummingbird-relatives) and of primitive hummingbirds such as "Eurotrochilus". Traditional taxonomies place the hummingbird family (Trochilidae) in the same order as the swifts and treeswifts (and no other birds); the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy treated this group as a superorder in which the swift order was called Trochiliformes.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The taxonomy of the swifts is complicated, with genus and species boundaries widely disputed, especially amongst the swiftlets. Analysis of behavior and vocalizations is complicated by common parallel evolution, while analyses of different morphological traits and of various DNA sequences have yielded equivocal and partly contradictory results.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The Apodiformes diversified during the Eocene, at the end of which the extant families were present; fossil genera are known from all over temperate Europe, between today's Denmark and France, such as the primitive swift-like "Scaniacypselus" (Early–Middle Eocene) and the more modern "Procypseloides" (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – Early Miocene). A prehistoric genus sometimes assigned to the swifts, "Primapus" (Early Eocene of England), might also be a more distant ancestor.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Swifts are among the fastest of birds in level flight, and larger species like the white-throated needletail have been reported travelling at up to . Even the common swift can cruise at a maximum speed of 31 metres per second (). In a single year the common swift can cover at least 200,000 km, and in a lifetime, about two million kilometers; enough to fly to the Moon and back five times over.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The wingtip bones of swiftlets are of proportionately greater length than those of most other birds. Changing the angle between the bones of the wingtips and forelimbs allows swifts to alter the shape and area of their wings to increase their efficiency and maneuverability at various speeds. They share with their relatives the hummingbirds a unique ability to rotate their wings from the base, allowing the wing to remain rigid and fully extended and derive power on both the upstroke and downstroke. The downstroke produces both lift and thrust, while the upstroke produces a negative thrust (drag) that is 60% of the thrust generated during the downstrokes, but simultaneously it contributes lift that is also 60% of what is produced during the downstroke. This flight arrangement might benefit the bird's control and maneuverability in the air.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The swiftlets or cave swiftlets have developed a form of echolocation for navigating through dark cave systems where they roost. One species, the Three-toed swiftlet, has recently been found to use this navigation at night outside its cave roost too.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Swifts occur on all the continents except Antarctica, but not in the far north, in large deserts, or on many oceanic islands. The swifts of temperate regions are strongly migratory and winter in the tropics. Some species can survive short periods of cold weather by entering torpor, a state similar to hibernation.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Many have a characteristic shape, with a short forked tail and very long swept-back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang. The flight of some species is characterised by a distinctive "flicking" action quite different from swallows. Swifts range in size from the pygmy swiftlet ("Collocalia troglodytes"), which weighs 5.4 g and measures long, to the purple needletail ("Hirundapus celebensis"), which weighs and measures long.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The nest of many species is glued to a vertical surface with saliva, and the genus "Aerodramus" use only that substance, which is the basis for bird's nest soup. Other swifts select holes and small cavities in walls. The eggs hatch after 19 to 23 days, and the young leave the nest after a further six to eight weeks. Both parents assist in raising the young.


title: Swift (bird)

text: Swifts as a family have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs, resembling tubenoses in these developmental factors. Young birds reach a maximum weight heavier than their parents; they can cope with not being fed for long periods of time, and delay their feather growth when undernourished. Swifts and seabirds have generally secure nest sites, but their food sources are unreliable, whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful.


title: Swift (bird)

text: All swifts eat insects, such as dragonflies, flies, ants, aphids, wasps and bees as well as aerial spiders. Prey is typically caught in flight using the beak. Some species, like the chimney swift, hunt in mixed species flocks with other aerial insectivores such as members of Hirundinidae (swallows).


title: Swift (bird)

text: No swift species has become extinct since 1600, but BirdLife International has assessed the Guam swiftlet as endangered and lists the Atiu, dark-rumped, Seychelles, and Tahiti swiftlets as vulnerable; twelve other species are near threatened or lack sufficient data for classification.


title: Swift (bird)

text: The hardened saliva nests of the edible-nest swiftlet and the black-nest swiftlet have been used in Chinese cooking for over 400 years, most often as bird's nest soup. Over-harvesting of this expensive delicacy has led to a decline in the numbers of these swiftlets, especially as the nests are also thought to have health benefits and aphrodisiac properties. Most nests are built during the breeding season by the male swiftlet over a period of 35 days. They take the shape of a shallow cup stuck to the cave wall. The nests are composed of interwoven strands of salivary cement and contain high levels of calcium, iron, potassium, and magnesium.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (sometimes "Paccioli" or "Paciolo"; 1447 – 19 June 1517) was an Italian mathematician, Franciscan friar, collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, and an early contributor to the field now known as accounting. He is referred to as the father of accounting and bookkeeping and he was the first person to publish a work on the double-entry system of book-keeping on the continent. He was also called Luca di Borgo after his birthplace, Borgo Sansepolcro, Tuscany.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: Several of his works were plagiarised from Piero della Francesca, in what has been called "probably the first full-blown case of plagiarism in the history of mathematics".


title: Luca Pacioli

text: Luca Pacioli was born between 1446 and 1448 in the Tuscan town of Sansepolcro where he received an abbaco education. This was education in the vernacular ("i.e.", the local tongue) rather than Latin and focused on the knowledge required of merchants. His father was Bartolomeo Pacioli; however, Luca Pacioli was said to have lived with the Befolci family as a child in his birth town Sansepolcro. He moved to Venice around 1464, where he continued his own education while working as a tutor to the three sons of a merchant. It was during this period that he wrote his first book, a treatise on arithmetic for the boys he was tutoring. Between 1472 and 1475, he became a Franciscan friar. Thus, he could be referred to as Fra ('Friar') Luca.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: In 1475, he started teaching in Perugia as a private teacher before becoming first chair in mathematics in 1477. During this time, he wrote a comprehensive textbook in the vernacular for his students. He continued to work as a private tutor of mathematics and was instructed to stop teaching at this level in Sansepolcro in 1491. In 1494, his first book, , was published in Venice. In 1497, he accepted an invitation from Duke Ludovico Sforza to work in Milan. There he met, taught mathematics to, collaborated, and lived with Leonardo da Vinci. In 1499, Pacioli and Leonardo were forced to flee Milan when Louis XII of France seized the city and drove out their patron. Their paths appear to have finally separated around 1506. Pacioli died at about the age of 70 on 19 June 1517, most likely in Sansepolcro, where it is thought that he had spent much of his final years.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: The majority of the second volume of was a slightly rewritten version of one of Piero della Francesca's works. The third volume of Pacioli's "Divina proportione" was an Italian translation of Piero della Francesca's Latin book "De quinque corporibus regularibus". In neither case did Pacioli include an attribution to Piero. He was severely criticized for this and accused of plagiarism by sixteenth-century art historian and biographer Giorgio Vasari. R. Emmett Taylor (1889–1956) said that Pacioli may have had nothing to do with the translated volume "Divina proportione", and that it may just have been appended to his work. However, no such defense can be presented concerning the inclusion of Piero della Francesca's material in Pacioli's Summa.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: Pacioli dramatically affected the practice of accounting by describing the double-entry accounting method used in parts of Italy. This revolutionized how businesses oversaw their operations, enabling improved efficiency and profitability. The "Summa"'s section on accounting was used internationally as an accounting textbook up to the mid-16th century. The essentials of double-entry accounting have for the most part remained unchanged for over 500 years. "Accounting practitioners in public accounting, industry, and not-for-profit organizations, as well as investors, lending institutions, business firms, and all other users for financial information are indebted to Luca Pacioli for his monumental role in the development of accounting."


title: Luca Pacioli

text: The ICAEW Library's rare book collection at Chartered Accountants' Hall holds the complete published works of Luca Pacioli. Sections of two of Pacioli's books, 'Summa de arithmetica' and 'Divina proportione' can be viewed online using Turning the Pages, an interactive tool developed by the British Library.


title: Luca Pacioli

text: Luca Pacioli also wrote an unpublished treatise on chess, "De ludo scachorum" ("On the Game of Chess"). Long thought to have been lost, a surviving manuscript was rediscovered in 2006, in the 22,000-volume library of Count Guglielmo Coronini-Cronberg in Gorizia. A facsimile edition of the book was published in Pacioli's home town of Sansepolcro in 2008. Based on Leonardo da Vinci's long association with the author and his having illustrated "Divina proportione", some scholars speculate that Leonardo either drew the chess problems that appear in the manuscript or at least designed the chess pieces used in the problems.


title: Demilitarized zone

text: A demilitarized zone (DMZ or DZ) is an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. A DZ often lies along an established frontier or boundary between two or more military powers or alliances. A DZ may sometimes form a "de facto" international border, such as the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Other examples of demilitarized zones are a 9-mile wide area between Iraq and Kuwait; Antarctica (preserved for scientific exploration and study); and outer space (space more than from the earth's surface).


title: Demilitarized zone

text: Many demilitarized zones are considered neutral territory because neither side is allowed to control it, even for non-combat administration. Some zones remain demilitarized after an agreement has awarded control to a state which (under the DZ terms) had originally ceded its right to maintain military forces in the disputed territory. It is also possible for powers to agree on the demilitarization of a zone without formally settling their respective territorial claims, enabling the dispute to be resolved by peaceful means such as diplomatic dialogue or an international court.


title: Demilitarized zone

text: Several demilitarized zones have also unintentionally become wildlife preserves because their land is unsafe for construction or less exposed to human disturbances (including hunting). Examples include the Korean Demilitarized Zone, the Cypriot Demilitarized Zone (The Green Line), and the former Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone which divided Vietnam into two countries (North Vietnam and South Vietnam) from 21 July 1954 to 2 July 1976.


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki (; ]) is a free and open-source flashcard program using spaced repetition, a technique from cognitive science for memorization. The name comes from the Japanese word for "memorization" ().


title: Anki (software)

text: The SM-2 algorithm, created for SuperMemo in the late 1980s, forms the basis of the spaced repetition methods employed in the program. Anki's implementation of the algorithm has been modified to allow priorities on cards and to show flashcards in order of their urgency.


title: Anki (software)

text: The cards are presented using HTML and may include text, images, sounds, videos, and LaTeX equations. The decks of cards, along with the user's statistics, are stored in the open SQLite format.


title: Anki (software)

text: Cards are generated from information stored as "notes". Notes are analogous to database entries and can have an arbitrary number of fields. For example, with respect to learning a language, a note may have the following fields and example entries:


title: Anki (software)

text: This example illustrates what some programs call a three-sided flashcard, but Anki's model is more general and allows any number of fields to be combined in various cards.


title: Anki (software)

text: The user can design cards that test the information contained in each note. One card may have a question (expression) and an answer (pronunciation, meaning).


title: Anki (software)

text: By keeping the separate cards linked to the same fact, spelling mistakes can be adjusted against all cards at the same time, and Anki can ensure that related cards are not shown in too short a spacing.


title: Anki (software)

text: A special note type allows generation of cloze deletion cards (in Anki 1.2.x, those were ordinary cards with cloze markup added using a tool in the fact editor).


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki supports synchronization with a free (but proprietary) online service called AnkiWeb. This allows users to keep decks synchronized across multiple computers and to study online or on a cell phone.


title: Anki (software)

text: There also is a third-party open-source (AGPLv3) AnkiWeb alternative, called ankisyncd, which users can run on their own local computers or servers.


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki can automatically fill in the reading of Japanese and Chinese text. Since version 0.9.9.8.2, these features are in separate plug-ins.


title: Anki (software)

text: More than 750 add-ons for Anki are available, often written by third-party developers. They provide support for speech synthesis, enhanced user statistics, image occlusion, incremental reading, more efficient editing and creation of cards through batch editing, modifying the GUI, simplifying import of flashcards from other digital sources, adding an element of gamification, etc.


title: Anki (software)

text: While Anki's user manual encourages the creation of one's own decks for most material, there is still a large and active database of shared decks that users can download and use. Available decks range from foreign-language decks (often constructed with frequency tables) to geography, physics, biology, chemistry and more. Various medical science decks, often made by multiple users in collaboration, are also available.


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki's current scheduling algorithm is derived from SM-2 (an older version of the SuperMemo algorithm), though the algorithm has been significantly changed from SM-2 and is also far more configurable. One of the most apparent differences is that while SuperMemo provides users a 6-point grading system (0 through 5, inclusive), Anki only provides at most 4 grades (again, hard, good, and easy). Anki also has significantly changed how review intervals grow and shrink (making many of these aspects of the scheduler configurable through deck options), though the core algorithm is still based on SM-2's concept of ease factors as the primary mechanism of evolving card review intervals.


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki was originally based on the SM-5 algorithm, but the implementation was found to have seemingly incorrect behaviour (harder cards would have their intervals grow more quickly than easier cards in certain circumstances) leading the authors to switch Anki's algorithm to SM-2 (which was further evolved into the modern Anki algorithm). At the time, this led Elmes to claim that SM-5 and later algorithms were flawed which was strongly rebutted by Piotr Woźniak, the author of SuperMemo. Since then, Elmes has clarified that it is possible that the flaw was due to a bug in their implementation of SM-5 (the SuperMemo website does not describe SM-5 in complete detail), but added that due to licensing requirements Anki will not use any newer versions of the SuperMemo algorithm. The prospect of community-funded licensing of newer SuperMemo algorithms is often discussed among users. However, there exists a greater focus on development of the software itself and its features. The latest SuperMemo algorithm in 2019 is SM-18.


title: Anki (software)

text: Some Anki users who have experimented with the Anki algorithm and its settings have published configuration recommendations, made add-ons to modify Anki's algorithm, or developed their own separate software.


title: Anki (software)

text: The flashcards and learning progress can be synchronized both ways with Anki using AnkiWeb. With AnkiDroid it is possible to have the flashcards read in several languages using text-to-speech (TTS). If a language does not exist in the Android TTS engine (e.g. Russian in the Android version Ice Cream Sandwich), a different TTS engine such as SVOX TTS Classic can be used.


title: Anki (software)

text: The oldest mention of Anki that the developer Damien Elmes could find in 2011 was dated 5 October 2006, which was thus declared Anki's birthdate.


title: Anki (software)

text: While Anki may primarily be used for language learning or a classroom setting, many have reported other uses for Anki: scientist Michael Nielsen uses it to remember complex topics in a fast-moving field, while others are using it to remember memorable quotes, the faces of business partners or medical residents, or to remember business interviewing strategies.


title: Anki (software)

text: In 2010, Roger Craig obtained the then-all-time record for single-day winnings on the quiz show "Jeopardy!" after using Anki to memorize a vast number of facts.


title: Anki (software)

text: Anki is quickly becoming an important resource for many medical students in the US. A study in 2015 at Washington University School of Medicine found that 31% of students who responded to a medical education survey reported using Anki as a study resource. The same study found a positive relationship between the number of unique Anki cards studied and USMLE Step 1 scores in a multi-variate analysis. Some third-party resources, such as Boards and Beyond, have Anki decks based on them. The AnKing Overhaul deck for Anki aggregates information from multiple third-party resources and has become the primary method of USMLE Step1 and Step2 study for many students.


title: Anki (software)

text: An unrelated flashcard program called Anki for Palm OS was created by Copera, Inc. (formerly known as Cooperative Computers, Inc.) and released at the PalmSource conference in February 2002. Anki for Palm OS was sold from 2002 to 2006 as a commercial product. In late 2007, Copera, Inc. decided to release Anki for Palm OS as freeware.


title: Company secretary

text: A Company Secretary is a senior position in a citizen sector establishment. Also known as Compliance Officers, it is one of the positions that is a part of the key managerial personnel (which usually includes the CEO & CFO) of any company. In large American and Canadian publicly listed corporations, a Company Secretary is typically named a Corporate Secretary. A Company Secretary is responsible for the efficient administration of a company, particularly with regard to ensuring compliance with statutory and regulatory requirements and for ensuring that decisions of the board of directors are implemented.


title: Company secretary

text: Despite the name, the role is not clerical or secretarial. The company secretary ensures that an organisation complies with relevant legislation and regulation, and keeps board members informed of their legal responsibilities. Company secretaries are the company's named representative on legal documents, and it is their responsibility to ensure that the company and its directors operate within the law. It is also their responsibility to register and communicate with shareholders, to ensure that dividends are paid and to maintain company records, such as lists of directors and shareholders, and annual accounts.


title: Company secretary

text: In many countries, private companies have traditionally been required by law to appoint one person as a company secretary, and this person will also usually be a senior board member.


title: Company secretary

text: Company secretaries in all sectors have high level responsibilities including governance structures and mechanisms, corporate conduct within an organisation's regulatory environment, board, shareholder and trustee meetings, compliance with legal, regulatory and listing requirements, the training and induction of non-executives and trustees, contact with regulatory and external bodies, reports and circulars to shareholders/trustees, management of employee benefits such as pensions and employee share schemes, insurance administration and organisation, the negotiation of contracts, risk management, property administration and organisation and the interpretation of financial accounts.


title: Company secretary

text: Company secretaries are the primary source of advice on the conduct of business and this can span everything from legal advice on conflicts of interest, through accounting advice on financial reports, to the development of strategy and corporate planning.


title: Company secretary

text: Among public companies in North America, providing advice on corporate governance issues is an increasingly important role for corporate secretary. Many shareholders, particularly institutional investors, view sound corporate governance as essential to board and company performance. They are quite vocal in encouraging boards to perform frequent corporate governance reviews and to issue written statements of corporate governance principles. The corporate secretary is usually the executive to assist directors in these efforts, providing information on the practices of other companies, and helping the board to tailor corporate governance principles and practices to fit the board's needs and expectations of investors. In some companies, the role of the corporate secretary as corporate governance adviser has been formalised, with a title such as Chief Governance Officer added to their existing title.


title: Company secretary

text: In view of the important roles the company secretary plays in business, PLCs and large companies require the company secretary to be suitably trained, experienced and professionally qualified for these responsibilities.


title: Company secretary

text: In the UK, the company secretary may be qualified by virtue of examination and membership of The Chartered Governance Institute (CGI), which is the main qualification specifically for company secretaries. CGI is the body dedicated to the advancement and recognition of professional administration based on a combination of degree-level studies, carefully vetted experience and sponsorship by two people of professional status. Only a person thus qualified is entitled to be designated a 'Chartered Secretary' or 'Chartered Company Secretary'. The Faculty of Secretaries and Administrators founded in 1930 is the second body of corporate secretaries in the United Kingdom and now has a strong emphasis on equality work and governance and its members are designated 'corporate secretaries' or 'certified public secretaries'. It is expected that company secretaries of publicly quoted companies will be professionally qualified through CGI, one of the chartered professional bodies in the accountancy profession, or have appropriate training and experience through another body.


title: Company secretary

text: In Malaysia, the Companies Act 2016 requires that every company to appoint at least one secretary. The secretary has to be appointed within the first 30 days after incorporation or a penalty is imposed on the Directors, running into a risk of being blacklisted. The responsibilities of the secretary include the following:


title: Company secretary

text: Only an individual who satisfies the requirement in the "Companies Act 2016", section 235 (2) may be appointed a company secretary. The only professional body in Malaysia that awards the Chartered Secretary (FCIS/ACIS) qualification is the Malaysian Institute of Chartered Secretaries and Administrators (MAICSA), which is a division of the Chartered Governance Institute, United Kingdom. In addition to the qualifications specified in the "Companies Act 2016", section 235 (2), a company secretary must also hold a current practising certificate issued by the Companies Commission of Malaysia (Suruhanjaya Syarikat Malaysia).


title: Company secretary

text: In India, "The Institute of Company Secretaries of India" (ICSI) regulates the profession of company secretaries . ICSI is a statutory professional body which has more than 65,000 associate members.


title: Company secretary

text: Chartered Secretaries are employed as chairs, chief executives and non-executive directors, as well as executives and company secretaries. Some chartered secretaries are also known in their own companies as corporate secretarial executives/managers or corporate secretarial directors.


title: Company secretary

text: Many corporate secretaries of North American public companies are lawyers and some serve as their corporation's general counsel. While this can be helpful in the execution of their duties it can also create ambiguity as to what is legal advice, protected by privilege, and what is business advice.


title: Company secretary

text: Since 8 April 2008 there has been no legal requirement for a private company in the UK to have a company secretary unless the company's articles of association state otherwise. If a private company doesn't have a company secretary then the company secretarial duties and responsibilities fall upon the directors of the company. With the increase in the number of social enterprises and community interest companies there is often a demand for a company secretary in the voluntary and community sectors as well as ordinary private trading companies. A public company in the UK must still have a formally appointed company secretary.


title: Company secretary

text: Chartered Secretaries are the sixth highest paid employees in the UK according to the Office for National Statistics Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (March 2010).


title: Company secretary

text: The exact responsibilities of the company secretary depend on the size and nature of the company and there is no statutory definition of what these are, but it generally includes some or all of the following:


title: Company secretary

text: In Singapore, The Companies Act, Section 171 requires that every business has a Company Secretary that must reside in Singapore. The Secretary has to be appointed within the first 6 months after incorporation. If the company has only one director, he or she cannot be the Corporate Secretary. The responsibilities of the Corporate Secretary include the following:


title: Company secretary

text: In China, every listed company is required to have a board secretary. According to article 124 of 2005 Company Law, every listed company is required to have a secretary to the board of directors. The responsibilities of board secretary include preparing meetings of shareholders and boards of directors, maintaining company records and shareholders information, dealing with information disclosure etc. Relevant listing rules in China further clarify that the secretary of the Board is a managerial position. Such listing rules discuss duties of board secretary in details. According to ""Special Provisions of the State Council Concerning the Flotation and Listing Abroad of Stocks by Limited Stock Companies"", ""Guidance for the Articles of Listed Company", "Stock Listing Rules of the Shanghai Stock Exchange" and "Stock Listing Rules of the Shenzhen Stock Exchange"," the secretary of the Board is classified as the senior management team. From those listing rules, the board secretary, or the secretary of the board of directors, in China is comparable as the company secretary in many other countries.


title: Company secretary

text: In South Africa, all public and state-owned company must appoint a company secretary. The roles and responsibilities of the company secretary are defined in the "Companies Act, No 71 of 2008". For publicly listed companies, these roles were clarified and expanded by the King IV report. In addition, non-profit companies that have voluntarily adopted the "Enhanced Accountability and Transparency" provisions of the Companies Act must appoint a company secretary whose role is comparable to that of a public company.


title: Company secretary

text: In Sri Lanka, the "Companies Act, No. 07 of 2007" requires that each registered company has a company secretary. A company secretary is required to be registered with the Department of Registrar of Companies, to function as a company secretary. Eligibility to function as a secretary are;


title: Louis Partridge

text: Louis Partridge (born 3 June 2003) is an English actor. He started his acting career in small roles in short films such as "Beneath Water" and "About a Dog". He is best known for his role as Tewkesbury in the Netflix original films "Enola Holmes" in 2020 and "Enola Holmes 2" in 2022, starring alongside Millie Bobby Brown and Henry Cavill, as well as his role playing Sid Vicious in the miniseries "Pistol".


title: Louis Partridge

text: Partridge is said to have a long-term relationship with his girlfriend, who is from the south of England.


title: Louis Partridge

text: Partridge made his acting debut in a 2014 short movie "Beneath Water". He initially gained recognition as Piero de' Medici in "Medici" and appeared in "Paddington 2". He rose to even more prominence when he played Tewkesbury in "Enola Holmes". He reprised the role in the film's sequel. In 2019, he joined the cast of "The Lost Girls", playing the immortal boy Peter Pan.


title: Louis Partridge

text: In January 2021, Partridge joined the cast of FX's "Pistol" as the titular band's bassist Sid Vicious. Later that year in October, he was cast in the epic fantasy romance "Ferryman". Partridge then branched out to the thriller genre, joining the cast of Apple TV's "Disclaimer" in May 2022.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Chapultepec Castle () is located on top of Chapultepec Hill in Mexico City's Chapultepec park. The name "Chapultepec" is the Nahuatl word "chapoltepēc" which means "on the hill of the grasshopper". The castle has such unparalleled views and terraces that explorer James F. Elton wrote they “can't be surpassed in beauty in any part of the world."


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: It is located at the entrance to Chapultepec Park at a height of 2,325 meters above sea level. The site of the hill was a sacred place for Aztecs, and the buildings atop it have served several purposes during its history, including those of Military Academy, Imperial residence, Presidential residence, observatory, and since the 1940s, the National Museum of History. Chapultepec Castle, along with Iturbide Palace, also in Mexico City, are the only royal palaces in North America which were inhabited by monarchs.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: It was built during the Viceroyalty of New Spain as a summer house for the highest colonial administrator, the viceroy. It was given various uses, from a gunpowder warehouse to a military academy in 1841. It was remodeled and added to and became the official residence of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and his consort Empress Carlota during the Second Mexican Empire (1864–67). In 1882, President Manuel González declared it the official residence of the President. With few exceptions, all succeeding presidents lived there until 1939, when President Lázaro Cárdenas turned it into a museum.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: In 1785 Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez ordered the construction of a stately home for himself at the highest point of Chapultepec Hill. Francisco Bambitelli, Lieutenant Colonel of the Spanish Army and engineer, drew up the blueprint and began the construction on August 16 of the same year. After Bambitelli's departure to Havana, Captain Manuel Agustín Mascaró took over the leadership of the project and during his tenure the works proceeded at a rapid pace. Mascaró was accused of building a fortress with the intent of rebelling against the Spanish Crown from there. de Gálvez, the viceroy, died suddenly on November 8, 1786, fueling speculation that he was poisoned. No evidence has yet been found which supports this claim.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Lacking a head engineer, the Spanish Crown ordered that the building be auctioned at a price equivalent to one-fifth of the quantity thus far spent on its construction. After finding no buyers Viceroy Juan Vicente de Güemes Pacheco de Padilla y Horcasitas intended the building to house the General Archive of the Kingdom of the New Spain; that idea was not to come to fruition either despite already having the blueprints adapted for this purpose. German scientist Alexander von Humboldt visited the site in 1803 and condemned the Royal Treasury's sale of the palace’s windows to raise funds for the Crown. The building was finally bought in 1806 by the municipal government of Mexico City.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Chapultepec Castle was abandoned during the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821) and for many years later, until 1833. In that year the building was decreed to become the location of the Military College (Military Academy) for cadet training; as a sequence of several structural modifications had to be done, including the addition of the watchtower known as "Caballero Alto" ("Tall Knight").


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: On September 13, 1847, the Niños Héroes ("Boy Heroes") died defending the castle while it was taken by United States forces during the Battle of Chapultepec of the Mexican–American War. They are honored with a large mural on the ceiling above the main entrance to the castle.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: The United States Marine Corps honors its role in the Battle of Chapultepec and the subsequent occupation of Mexico City through the first line of the "Marines' Hymn," From the Halls of Montezuma. Marine Corps tradition maintains that the red stripe worn on the trousers of officers and noncommissioned officers, and commonly known as the blood stripe commemorates the high number of Marine NCOs and officers killed storming the castle of Chapultepec in September 1847. As noted, the usage "Halls of Montezuma" is factually wrong - as the building was erected by the Spanish rulers of Mexico, more than two centuries after the Aztec Emperor Montezuma was overthrown.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Several new rooms were built on the second floor of the palace during the tenure of President Miguel Miramón, who was also an alumnus of the Military Academy.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: When Mexican conservatives invited Maximilian von Hapsburg to establish the Second Mexican Empire, the castle, now known as Castillo de Miravalle, became the residence of the emperor and his consort in 1864. The Emperor hired several European and Mexican architects to renovate the building for the royal couple, among them Julius Hofmann, Carl Gangolf Kayser, Carlos Schaffer, Eleuterio Méndez and Ramón Cruz Arango, The architects designed several projects, which followed a neoclassical style and made the palace more habitable as a royal residence. European architects Kayser and Hofmann worked on several other revival castles, including Neuschwanstein Castle – built by Maximilian's Wittelsbach cousin Ludwig II of Bavaria twenty years after Chapultepec's renovation.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Botanist Wilhelm Knechtel was in charge of creating the roof garden on the building. Additionally, the Emperor brought from Europe countless pieces of furniture, objets d'art and other fine household items that are exhibited to this day.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: At the time, as the castle was on the outskirts of Mexico City, Maximilian ordered the construction of a straight boulevard (modeled after the great boulevards of Europe, such as Vienna's Ringstrasse and the Champs-Élysées in Paris), to connect the Imperial residence with the city center. He named the new boulevard "Paseo de la Emperatriz" ("Promenade of the Empress") in honor of his wife Empress Carlota. Following the reestablishment of the Republic in 1867 by President Benito Juárez and the end of the civil war to oust the French invaders and defeat their Mexican conservative allies, the boulevard was renamed Paseo de la Reforma, after the Liberal reform.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: The castle fell into disuse after the fall of the Second Mexican Empire in 1867. In 1876, a decree established it as an Astronomical, Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory on the site, which was opened in 1878 during the presidency of Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. However, the observatory was only functional for five years until they decided to move it to the former residence of the Archbishop in Tacubaya. The reason was to allow the return of the Colegio Militar to the premises as well as transforming the building into the presidential residence.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: The palace underwent several structural changes from 1882 and during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz (1876-1880; 1884-1911). When Díaz was overthrown at the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution it remained the presidential residence. Presidents Francisco I. Madero (1911–13), Venustiano Carranza (1915–20), Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924-28), Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and Abelardo Rodríguez. It was used for a time as an official guest house or residence for foreign dignitaries.


title: Chapultepec Castle

text: Finally on February 3, 1939, President Lázaro Cárdenas decreed a law establishing Chapultepec Castle as the National Museum of History, with the collections of the former National Museum of Archaeology, History and Ethnography, (now the National Museum of Cultures). The museum was opened on September 27, 1944 during the presidency of Manuel Avila Camacho. President Cárdenas moved the official Mexican presidential residence to Los Pinos, and never lived in Chapultepec Castle.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: The Engin Blindé de Reconnaissance et de Combat Jaguar (English: "Armoured Reconnaissance and Combat Vehicle Jaguar") or EBRC Jaguar is a French armoured reconnaissance vehicle that will replace the French Army's AMX 10 RC and ERC 90 Sagaie reconnaissance and fire support vehicles as well as the VAB Mephisto.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: According to the French Army's 2020 Defense White Paper it plans to retire its AMX 10 RC and ERC 90 Sagaie vehicles beginning in 2020, and replace them with up to 250 examples of a new armored reconnaissance vehicle. A consortium of Nexter, Thales, and Renault Trucks Defense was formed to develop and produce the new vehicle. The same consortium also builds the VBMR Griffon multi-role armored vehicle for the French Army, which shares 70% of its components with the EBRC Jaguar.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: On 6 December 2014, French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced that deliveries will commence in 2020 and a first tranche of 20 Jaguars and 319 Griffons was ordered in April 2017. A second tranche for 271 Griffons and 42 Jaguars was ordered on 24 September 2020. In total the French Army plans to buy 1,872 Griffons and 300 Jaguars.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: On 22 June 2017, the Belgian cabinet approved a plan to purchase 60 Jaguars and 417 Griffons for a cost of €1.1 billion. These vehicles will replace the Belgian Army's Piranha IIIC armored personnel carriers, Pandur I reconnaissance vehicles and Dingo 2 infantry mobility vehicles. The deal includes spare parts and secure communications equipment and deliveries are planned to commence in 2025.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: The consortium building the "Griffon" and "Jaguar" is contractually obliged to keep the price per Jaguar under €1 million, therefore the vehicles are based on a 6×6 commercial all-terrain truck chassis and use standard commercial truck engines. The engines have been adapted to use a wider range of fuel. The Jaguar has an overpressure system to maintain constant overpressure in the armored troop compartment to protect it against chemical, biological and radiological threats. For service in hot climates the Jaguar is equipped with air conditioning.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: The vehicle is built with STANAG 4569 Level 4 armor protection, giving it defense against 14.5×114mm armor-piercing rounds, 155mm artillery shell splinters, and mine blasts. Electronic defenses include the Thales Group Barage active jamming device to counter IEDs, two sets of Antares missile warning alert systems, a TDA Armements active blocking system, and a roof-mounted Metravib Pilar V gunfire locator.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: The Jaguar's primary weapon, mounted in a two-man turret, is the CTA International CT40 cannon firing 40mm case telescoped ammunition with a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute and a maximum effective range of 1,500 meters. Two Akeron MP anti-tank guided missiles are fitted to the turret launcher with two reloads stored inside. It also carries a 7.62mm remote controlled machine gun mounted on top of the turret and eight smoke grenades. The Jaguar can lift its cannon 45° up, allowing it to fire on aerial targets.


title: EBRC Jaguar

text: The EBRC Jaguar is featured in the 2021 first-person shooter "Battlefield 2042", where it is referred to as the EBAA Wildcat. In-game it is utilized by both the American and Russian factions.


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4 is an action-adventure video game developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch. It is the fourth installment in , based on the "One Piece" franchise. It is a sequel to the 2015 game "". It was released on March 27, 2020.


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: The game features game play similar to the previous installments. The game has its own original story that takes the Wano arc from One Piece and changes it. It also features four new multiplayer modes called Giant Boss Battle, Total Bounty Battle, Timed Defense Battle, and Territory Battle .


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: This story takes the unfinished Wano arc and modifies the plot, with Cavendish and Bartolomeo appearing in the arc to help the captured Straw Hat crew escape their cells. As the battle intensifies between Big Mom and Kaido, a new enemy appears in the form of Blackbeard and his crew. Fighting Blackbeard, Big Mom, and Kaido's crew, players are met with a final battle against Kaido who turns into a dragon after defeating Big Mom, Blackbeard, and Kaido's underlings. Luffy must defeat Kaido at the end and end the suffering of Wano that Kaido brings. The story has one ending, so winning is the only option, which plays a cut scene of everyone cheering and celebrating the freedom that Luffy gave to the Wano people. This arc has an original ending while the manga Wano arc was still on going at the time of its release.


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: 52 characters are playable in the game, 43 of which are base-game characters , while 9 additional characters were added later via DLC.


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: On November 27, 2019 an interview was done with a brand manager for Bandai Namco Entertainment who knew how the game was being developed. The interview was conducted by Bleeding Cool, a news site that mostly covers games, comics, TV, and films. Randy Le talks about how the game returning to the series is something they wanted to bring back for awhile. Randy Le goes on to talk about combat and the different enemies in the game: giant enemies, fast, and even more character battles than the past Pirate Warriors game. Randy Le does not answer any of the other questions asked to prevent spoilers.


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: "IGN" Mitchell Saltzman gave the game a score of 8 out of 10, saying "Pirate Warriors 4 is a great One Piece-flavored spin on the Musou genre with a deep roster and simple but fun combat".


title: One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4

text: The PlayStation 4 version of "One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4" was the second best-selling retail game during its first week on sale in Japan, with 75,998 copies being sold. The Switch version was the third bestselling retail game during the same week, selling 61,571 copies. , "One Piece: Pirate Warriors 4" has sold over 1 million copies, becoming the fastest entry in the "Pirate Warriors" series to achieve that milestone. As of August 2022, it has sold over 2 million copies.


title: Herzeleid

text: Herzeleid (; "Heartbreak") is the debut studio album by German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein, first released on 25 September 1995 via Motor Music.


title: Herzeleid

text: After signing up with Motor Music, the band was instructed to search for a producer, a position they didn't even know about since it wasn't usual in East Germany. They first suggested Bob Rock and Rick Rubin, but the label asked them to be less ambitious. The role was ultimately assigned to Jacob Hellner, known for his work with Clawfinger.


title: Herzeleid

text: Guitarist Richard Kruspe recalls the band's struggle during their time in Stockholm, Sweden, where the album was recorded. Because there wasn't a language that both members and producer could speak, the band couldn't properly express their disapproval of the way Hellner was making them sound. This was solved with the help of Dutch engineer Ronald Prent, who served as a middleman between Rammstein and Hellner.


title: Herzeleid

text: It took them seven days to finish the first song, due to the band's constant disapproval of Hellner's and Prent's inputs. In a 2019 interview to "Metal Hammer" Prent said every time there was a decision to be made, the members would host what he called a "German Conference" – outdoor meetings that could last from ten minutes to two hours until all six members reached an agreement.


title: Herzeleid

text: The first song written for this album was "Rammstein", which was also the first song ever written by the band. The last song to be written was most likely "Asche zu Asche" since it was not played at their concerts in 1994, unlike all the other songs. A few songs were written in English before they were translated into German. There are also songs from that era that did not make it onto the album, including:


title: Herzeleid

text: The album's title translates as "heartbreak", and it reflects personal problems that every band member was going through around the time of the album's preparation, particularly Kruspe and vocalist Till Lindemann, who were breaking up with their respective girlfriends.


title: Herzeleid

text: The original cover caused controversy when it was originally revealed. It shows the band topless and sweaty. The press said Rammstein depicted themselves in this image as "Herrenmenschen". Guitarist Kruspe said: "Das ist völliger Quatsch, das ist einfach nur ein Foto" ("Totally stupid. It's just a photo"). He did however express his embarrassment in 2016 saying that the band looked "gay...like an ad for a gay porno film." Lindemann added, that it was a quick shot on a parking lot somewhere in Berlin. North American versions had a different cover, consisting of the band members' faces from the inside of the original booklet, placed side by side.


title: Herzeleid

text: Rammstein's first commercial logo was made for Herzeleid by Dirk Rudolph. This variation uses a thinner "T" character than what is used in later logos.


title: Herzeleid

text: In 2005, "Herzeleid" was ranked number 303 in "Rock Hard" magazine's book of "The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time".


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Eddie (also known as Eddie the Head) is the mascot for the English heavy metal band Iron Maiden. He is a perennial fixture of the group's artwork, appearing in all of their album covers (as well as most of their singles) and in their merchandise, which includes T-shirts, posters and action figures. On top of this, Eddie features in all of the band's concerts, as well as in the first-person shooter video game, "Ed Hunter", the mobile game, "Iron Maiden: Legacy of the Beast" and a pinball game with the same name in 2018.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Originally a papier-mâché mask used in Iron Maiden's stage backdrop, the band transferred the name "Eddie" from the mask to an illustration by Derek Riggs, which was used as the band's debut album cover. Although he is occasionally described as "zombie-like" in the press, Eddie assumes a different guise relating to the themes of individual albums and their corresponding world tours, and has appeared as a cyborg, an Egyptian mummy and a lobotomised mental patient, amongst others.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: The first version of Eddie was a mask made by an art student who was friends with Dave "Lights" Beazley, then in charge of lighting, pyrotechnics and other effects for Iron Maiden's live show. According to Beazley, the original mask was a papier-mâché mould of his own face, which was then used in the band's backdrop, consisting of lights and the band's logo. At the end of their live set, during the "Iron Maiden" song, a fish tank pump was used to squirt fake blood out of the mask's mouth, which typically covered their then-drummer Doug Sampson. After this initial incarnation, Beazley constructed a larger mask out of fiberglass, equipped with flashing eyes and the ability to release red smoke from its mouth.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: The band's bassist and founding member Steve Harris states that the name "Eddie" comes from the original mask being referred to as "The Head", which sounded like "Ead" in the band members' London accent. According to guitarist Dave Murray the name was also inspired by an old joke:


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: ""A wife had a baby, but it was born with only a head and no body. 'Don't worry,' says the doctor. 'Bring him back in five years time, and we'll probably have a body for him'. So five years go by, and there's Eddie the 'Ead, as his parents have called him, sitting on the mantelpiece, when in walks his dad. 'Son,' he says, 'today's a very special day. It's your fifth birthday, and we've got a very special surprise for you.' 'Oh no,' says Eddie. 'Not another fucking hat!"


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Once Iron Maiden had secured a record contract with EMI, the band's manager Rod Smallwood decided that the band needed "that one figure who utterly stamped his presence and image on the band in a way that was obvious enough to make a good album cover." After seeing some of his artwork on a Max Middleton poster, Smallwood set up a meeting with Derek Riggs and asked to see some of his other illustrations, in the midst of which was the band's first album cover. Originally created as an idea for a punk record (which Riggs states in the "12 Wasted Years" documentary was based on an alleged Japanese soldier's skull stuck to an American tank), the band had extra hair added to the illustration, making it more suitable to their style of music, and transferred the name from the original masks they used onstage. Surmising that the creature had "great visual continuity," Smallwood decided it would be used for all of the band's artwork.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Smallwood claims that Rupert Perry, EMI's then managing director, came up with the idea that Eddie could become a more active part of the band's concerts, originally portrayed by Smallwood himself, wearing an Eddie mask and a leather jacket. The classic "walk-on" Eddie was created for The Beast on the Road tour by Dave Beasley after seeing a pantomime version of "Jack and the Beanstalk", which used similar giants, consisting of "basically a bloke on stilts but dressed up to look about tall." As the band's stage show expanded, an additional gigantic Eddie was also incorporated at the back of the set during "Iron Maiden", which, like the "walk-on" Eddie, would match the theme of the current tour, such as the , mummified version used during the World Slavery Tour, which shot sparks from its eyes.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Eddie's debut appearance was on the band's first single cover, "Running Free", in which his face was covered by a shadow to protect his identity before the release of the band's first album. Since then, Eddie has assumed a different guise for each cover, such as a "mummified Egyptian god" for "Powerslave", a lobotomised mental patient for "Piece of Mind", emerging from a grave in "Live After Death", and a cyborg for "Somewhere in Time". In addition to the band's album covers and live shows, the character also appears in merchandise including T-shirts, posters and action figures, as well as the group's two video games: the 1999 first-person shooter, "Ed Hunter", and the 2016 role-playing game, "Iron Maiden: Legacy of the Beast". On top of this, Eddie is featured as an unlockable character in "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4".


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Some of the band's artworks have proved controversial, such as the cover of "Sanctuary," in which Eddie can be seen standing over the corpse of Margaret Thatcher. It was claimed that Iron Maiden were banned from releasing the single without censoring the cover, blacking out Thatcher's face, although Riggs has since claimed that this was fabricated by the band's management to gain publicity in the British tabloids.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: The artwork for the band's third album, "The Number of the Beast", depicted Eddie controlling Satan like a marionette. Originally created by Riggs for the "Purgatory" single cover, but deemed too good by Smallwood and withheld for the next studio release, the image, along with the record's title track, led to the Moral Majority labelling Iron Maiden as Satanists and organising public burnings of their back-catalogue in the United States, which in turn gave them a large amount of publicity.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: During the course of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, Eddie, specifically as he appeared on the sleeve of "The Trooper", became an unofficial mascot of the Ulster Freedom Fighters loyalist paramilitary group and was the main figure on a number of the group's murals. During The Final Frontier World Tour in 2011, after Iron Maiden did not perform "The Trooper" in Belfast, Blabbermouth.net reported that there had been speculation amongst fans that this was due to the artwork's use in murals.


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: Gibson.com described Eddie in 2008 as "the most recognizable metal icon in the world and one of the most versatile too," while in 2009, "Gigwise" called him "perhaps the most enduring band mascot of all time." Many artists who have been influenced by Iron Maiden hold their artwork in high regard, with Joey Jordison, former member of Slipknot commenting that he bought his first album "on the strength of the cover alone" and Corey Taylor, also of Slipknot, stating that "there wasn't a dude that I hung out with that wasn't trying to draw Eddie on their schoolbooks." Steve-O, from Jackass, says that they have "the coolest album covers in the music industry" and Lars Ulrich, of Metallica, comments that "they had the best packaging, the coolest T-shirts — everything." Mick Wall describes Eddie as "the immortal soul of Iron Maiden, the defining symbol of the eternally youthful, blissfully uncompromising spirit of the band's music."


title: Eddie (Iron Maiden)

text: From 1980 onwards, the band's Eddie artwork was provided exclusively by Derek Riggs until 1992, when the band decided to accept contributions from other artists, with Smallwood explaining that they "wanted to upgrade Eddie for the '90s. We wanted to take him from this sort of comic-book horror creature and turn him into something a bit more straightforward so that he became even more threatening." Since then, Riggs has contributed much less to the band's artwork, creating part of one studio album, one single and two compilation covers, while the band have employed a number of different artists:


title: Public library

text: A public library is a library that is accessible by the general public and is usually funded from public sources, such as taxes. It is operated by librarians and library paraprofessionals, who are also civil servants.


title: Public library

text: There are five fundamental characteristics shared by public libraries: they are generally supported by taxes (usually local, though any level of government can and may contribute); they are governed by a board to serve the public interest; they are open to all, and every community member can access the collection; they are entirely voluntary, no one is ever forced to use the services provided and they provide library and information services services without charge.


title: Public library

text: Public libraries exist in many countries across the world and are often considered an essential part of having an educated and literate population. Public libraries are distinct from research libraries, school libraries, academic libraries and other special libraries. Their mandate is to serve the general public's information needs rather than the needs of a particular school, institution, or research population. Public libraries also provide free services such as preschool story times to encourage early literacy among children. They also provide a quiet study and learning areas for students and professionals and foster the formation of book clubs to encourage the appreciation of literature by the young and adults. Public libraries typically allow users to borrow books and other materials outside the library premises temporarily, usually for a given period of time. They also have non-circulating reference collections and provide computer and Internet access to their patrons.


title: Public library

text: The culmination of centuries of advances in the printing press, moveable type, paper, ink, publishing, and distribution, combined with an ever-growing information-oriented middle class, increased commercial activity and consumption, new radical ideas, massive population growth and higher literacy rates forged the public library into the form that it is today.


title: Public library

text: Public access to books is not new. Romans made scrolls in dry rooms available to patrons of the baths, and tried with some success to establish libraries within the empire.


title: Public library

text: In the middle of the 19th century, the push for truly public libraries, paid for by taxes and run by the state gained force. Matthew Battles states that:


title: Public library

text: It was in these years of class conflict and economic terror that the public library movement swept through Britain, as the nation's progressive elite recognized that the light of cultural and intellectual energy was lacking in the lives of commoners.


title: Public library

text: Public libraries were often started with a donation, or were bequeathed to parishes, churches, schools or towns. These social and institutional libraries formed the base of many academic and public library collections of today.


title: Public library

text: The establishment of circulating libraries in the 18th century, by booksellers and publishers provided a means of gaining profit and creating social centers within the community. The circulating libraries not only provided a place to sell books, but also a place to lend books for a price. These circulating libraries provided a variety of materials including the increasingly popular novels. Although the circulating libraries filled an important role in society, members of the middle and upper classes often looked down upon these libraries that regularly sold material from their collections and provided materials that were less sophisticated.


title: Public library

text: Circulating libraries also charged a subscription fee. However, these fees were set to entice their patrons, providing subscriptions on a yearly, quarterly or monthly basis, without expecting the subscribers to purchase a share in the circulating library. This helped patrons who could not afford to buy books, to be able to borrow books to read, and then return. This also created a more popular demand, as book fees were growing, and more books were being copied. Circulating libraries were very popular; the first one was located in 1725, in Edinburgh, Scotland by Allan Ramsay.


title: Public library

text: Circulating libraries were not exclusively lending institutions and often provided a place for other forms of commercial activity, which may or may not be related to print. This was necessary because the circulating libraries did not generate enough funds through subscription fees collected from its borrowers. As a commerce venture, it was important to consider the contributing factors such as other goods or services available to the subscribers.


title: Public library

text: The Malatestiana Library (), also known as the Malatesta Novello Library, is a public library dating from 1452 in Cesena, Emilia-Romagna (Italy). It was the first European civic library, i.e. belonging to the Commune and open to everybody. It was commissioned by the Lord of Cesena, Malatesta Novello. The works were directed by Matteo Nuti of Fano (a scholar of Leon Battista Alberti) and lasted from 1447 to 1452.


title: Public library

text: Historian Yahya of Antioch (d. 1066) reported that the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah () financed and established libraries open to the public, where anyone, even the simple non-specialists, could choose whatever books they wanted and have them copied by public scribes, free of charge. However, as with many of his other decisions, Al-Hakim later ordered this policy to be reversed.


title: Public library

text: In Cesena, Italy, the first community-run public library, the Malatestiana Library, was established in 1447, provided both secular and religious texts in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and was fully open to all members of the public.


title: Public library

text: Another early library also allowing access to the public was Kalendars or Kalendaries, a brotherhood of clergy and laity who were attached to the Church of All-Halloween or All Saints in Bristol, England. Records show that in 1464, provision was made for a library to be erected in the house of the Kalendars. A reference is made to a deed of that date by which it was "appointed that all who wish to enter for the sake of instruction shall have 'free access and recess' at certain times."


title: Public library

text: In 1598, Francis Trigge established a library in a room above St. Wulfram's Church in Grantham, Lincolnshire and decreed that it should be open to the clergy and residents of the surrounding neighborhood. Some scholars consider this library an "ancestor" to public libraries since its patrons did not need to belong to an existing organization like a church or college to use it. However, all the books in the library were chained to stalls and unavailable to borrow, hence its name: the Francis Trigge Chained Library.


title: Public library

text: In the early years of the 17th century, many famous collegiate and town libraries were founded in England. Norwich City library was established in 1608 (six years after Thomas Bodley founded the Bodleian Library, which was open to the "whole republic of the learned") and Chetham's Library in Manchester, which claims to be the oldest public library in the English-speaking world, opened in 1653.


title: Public library

text: Biblioteca Palafoxiana in Puebla City, Mexico, is recognized by UNESCO for being the first public library in the Americas. It was founded in 1646 by Juan de Palafox y Mendoza.


title: Public library

text: In his seminal work "Advis pour dresser une bibliothèque" (1644) the French scholar and librarian Gabriel Naudé asserted that only three libraries in all Europe granted in his times regular access to every scholar, namely the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the Biblioteca Angelica in Rome, and the Bodleian Library in Oxford.


title: Public library

text: Claude Sallier, the French philologist and churchman, operated an early form of a public library in the town of Saulieu from 1737 to 1750. He wished to make culture and learning accessible to all people.


title: Public library

text: The Załuski Library (, ) was built in Warsaw 1747–1795 by Józef Andrzej Załuski and his brother, Andrzej Stanisław Załuski, both Roman Catholic bishops. The library was open to the public and was the first Polish public library, the biggest in Poland, and one of the earliest public libraries in Europe.


title: Public library

text: At the start of the 18th century, libraries were becoming increasingly public and were more frequently lending libraries. The 18th century saw the switch from closed parochial libraries to lending libraries. Before this time, public libraries were parochial in nature, and libraries frequently chained their books to desks. Libraries also were not uniformly open to the public. In 1790, The Public Library Act would not be passed for another sixty-seven years.


title: Public library

text: Even though the British Museum existed at this time and contained over 50,000 books, the national library was not open to the public or even to most of the population. Access to the Museum depended on passes, for which there was sometimes a waiting period of three to four weeks. Moreover, the library was not open for browsing. Once a pass to the library had been issued, the reader was taken on a tour of the library. Many readers complained that the tour was much too short. Similarly, the Bibliothèque du Roi in Paris required a potential visitor to be “carefully screened” and, even after this stipulation was met, the library was open only two days per week and only to view medallions and engravings, not books.


title: Public library

text: However, up until the mid-19th century, there were virtually no public libraries in the sense in which we now understand the term, i.e., libraries provided with public funds and freely accessible to all. Only one important library in Britain, namely Chetham's Library in Manchester, was fully and freely accessible to the public. The Chesshyre Library in Halton, Cheshire was founded as a free public library in 1733 for all "divines of the Church of England or other gentlemen or persons of letters," but it was limited to just 422 volumes of mostly ecclesiastical and legal works. In Germany, there was another occurrence of an accessible public library. The Ducal Library at Wolfenbüttel was open “every weekday morning and afternoon” and loaned its books to the public. Between 1714 and 1799, the library loaned 31,485 books to 1,648 different users. These types of public libraries, much closer to the present-day concept of the public library, were extremely rare as most libraries remained difficult to access.


title: Public library

text: In A.D 1820, the State Central Library, Kerala started functioning in Trivandrum, India, which is not only India's first public library but also the first such institution outside of Europe. However, there had come into being a whole network of library provisions on a private or institutional basis. Subscription libraries, both private and commercial, provided the middle to upper classes with a variety of books for moderate fees.


title: Public library

text: The increase in secular literature at this time encouraged the spread of lending libraries, especially commercial subscription libraries. Commercial subscription libraries began when booksellers began renting out extra copies of books in the mid-18th century. Steven Fischer estimates that in 1790, there were "about six hundred rental and lending libraries, with a clientele of some fifty thousand." The mid-to-late 18th century saw a virtual epidemic of feminine reading as novels became more and more popular. Novels, while frowned upon in society, were extremely popular. In England, there were many who lamented at the "villainous profane and obscene books," and the opposition to the circulating library, on moral grounds, persisted well into the 19th century. Still, many establishments must have circulated many times the number of novels as of any other genre.


title: Public library

text: In 1797, Thomas Wilson wrote in "The Use of Circulating Libraries": "Consider that for a successful circulating library, the collection must contain 70% fiction". However, the overall percentage of novels mainly depended on the proprietor of the circulating library. While some circulating libraries were almost completely novels, others had less than 10% of their overall collection in the form of novels. The national average start of the 20th century hovered around novels comprising about 20% of the total collection. Novels varied from other types of books in many ways. They were read primarily for enjoyment instead of for study. They did not provide academic knowledge or spiritual guidance; thus, they were read quickly and far fewer times than other books. These were the perfect books for commercial subscription libraries to lend. Since books were read for pure enjoyment rather than for scholarly work, books needed to become both cheaper and smaller. Small duodecimo editions of books were preferred to the large folio editions. Folio editions were read at a desk, while the small duodecimo editions could be easily read like the paperbacks of today. The French journalist Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote that the books were also separated into parts so that readers could rent a section of the book for some hours instead of a full day. This allowed more readers could have access to the same work at the same time, making it more profitable for the circulating libraries.


title: Public library

text: Much like paperbacks of today, many of the novels in circulating libraries were unbound. At this period of time, many people chose to bind their books in leather. Many circulating libraries skipped this process. Circulating libraries were not in the business of preserving books; their owners wanted to lend books as many times as they possibly could. Circulating libraries have ushered in a completely new way of reading. Reading was no longer simply an academic pursuit or an attempt to gain spiritual guidance. Reading became a social activity. Many circulating libraries were attached to the shops of milliners or drapers. They served as much for social gossip and the meeting of friends as coffee shops do today.


title: Public library

text: Another factor in the growth of subscription libraries was the increasing cost of books. In the last two decades of the century, especially, prices were practically doubled, so that a quarto work cost a guinea, an octavo 10 shillings or 12 shillings, and a duodecimo cost 4 shillings per volume. Price apart, moreover, books were difficult to procure outside London since local booksellers could not afford to carry large stocks. Commercial libraries, since they were usually associated with booksellers and also since they had a greater number of patrons, were able to accumulate greater numbers of books. The United Public Library was said to have a collection of some 52,000 volumes – twice as many as any private-subscription library in the country at that period. These libraries, since they functioned as a business, also lent books to non-subscribers on a per-book system.


title: Public library

text: Despite the existence of these subscription libraries, they were only accessible to those who could afford the fees and to those with time to read during the daylight. As stated by James Van Horn Melton, “one should not overstate the extent to which lending libraries ‘democratized’ reading” since “they were probably less important for creating new readers than for enabling those who already read to read more." For many people, these libraries, though more accessible than libraries such as the British Library, were still largely an institution for the middle and upper classes.


title: Public library

text: Private-subscription libraries functioned in much the same manner as commercial subscription libraries, though they varied in many important ways. One of the most popular versions of the private-subscription library was the "gentlemen only" library. The gentlemen's subscription libraries, sometimes known as proprietary libraries, were nearly all organized on a common pattern. Membership was restricted to the proprietors or shareholders, and ranged from a dozen or two to between four and five hundred. The entrance fee, i.e. the purchase price of a share, was in early days usually a guinea, but rose sharply as the century advanced, often reaching four or five guineas during the French wars; the annual subscription, during the same period, rose from about six shillings to ten shillings or more. The book-stock was, by modern standards, small (Liverpool, with over 8,000 volumes in 1801, seems to have been the largest), and was accommodated, at the outset, in makeshift premises–-very often over a bookshop, with the bookseller acting as librarian and receiving an honorarium for his pains.


title: Public library

text: The Liverpool subscription library was a gentlemen-only library. In 1798, it was renamed the Athenaeum when it was rebuilt with a newsroom and coffeehouse. It had an entrance fee of one guinea and annual subscription of five shillings. An analysis of the registers for the first twelve years provides glimpses of middle-class reading habits in a mercantile community at this period. The largest and most popular sections of the library were History, Antiquities, and Geography, with 283 titles and 6,121 borrowings, and Belles Lettres, with 238 titles and 3,313 borrowings. The most popular single work was John Hawkesworth's "Account of Voyages ... in the Southern Hemisphere" (3 vols) which was borrowed on 201 occasions. The records also show that in 1796, membership had risen by 1/3 to 198 subscribers (of whom 5 were women) and the titles increased five-fold to 4,987. This mirrors the increase in reading interests. A patron list from the Bath Municipal Library shows that from 1793 to 1799, the library held a stable 30% of their patrons as female.


title: Public library

text: It was also uncommon for these libraries to have buildings designated solely as the library building during the 1790s, though in the 19th century, many libraries would begin building elaborate permanent residences. Bristol, Birmingham, and Liverpool were the few libraries with their own building. The accommodations varied from the shelf for a few dozen volumes in the country stationer's or draper's shop, to the expansion to a back room, to the spacious elegant areas of Hookham's or those at the resorts like Scarborough, and four in a row at Margate.


title: Public library

text: Private-subscription libraries held a greater amount of control over both membership and the types of books in the library. There was almost a complete elimination of cheap fiction in the private societies. Subscription libraries prided themselves on respectability. The highest percentage of subscribers were often landed proprietors, gentry, and old professions.


title: Public library

text: Towards the end of the 18th century and in the first decades of the 19th century, the demand for books and general education made itself felt among social classes generated by the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. The late-18th century saw a rise in subscription libraries intended for the use of tradesmen. In 1797, there was established at Kendal what was known as the Economical Library, "designed principally for the use and instruction of the working classes." There was also the Artizans' library established at Birmingham in 1799. The entrance fee was 3 shillings, and the subscription was 1 shilling 6 pence per quarter. This was a library of general literature. Novels, at first excluded, were afterwards admitted on condition that they did not account for more than one-tenth of the annual income.


title: Public library

text: In 1835, and against government opposition, James Silk Buckingham, MP for Sheffield and a supporter of the temperance movement, was able to secure the Chair of the select committee which would examine "the extent, causes, and consequences of the prevailing vice of intoxication among the labouring classes of the United Kingdom" and propose solutions. Francis Place, a campaigner for the working class, agreed that "the establishment of parish libraries and district reading rooms, and popular lectures on subjects both entertaining and instructive to the community might draw off a number of those who now frequent public houses for the sole enjoyment they afford". Buckingham introduced to Parliament a Public Institution Bill allowing boroughs to charge a tax to set up libraries and museums, the first of its kind. Although this did not become law, it had a major influence on William Ewart MP and Joseph Brotherton MP, who introduced a bill which would "[empower] boroughs with a population of 10,000 or more to raise a ½d for the establishment of museums". This became the Museums Act 1845.


title: Public library

text: The advocacy of Ewart and Brotherton then succeeded in having a select committee set up to consider public library provision. The Report argued that the provision of public libraries would steer people towards temperate and moderate habits. With a view to maximising the potential of current facilities, the committee made two significant recommendations. They suggested that the government should issue grants to aid the foundation of libraries and that the Museums Act 1845 should be amended and extended to allow for a tax to be levied for the establishment of public libraries.


title: Public library

text: Objections were raised about the increase in taxation, the potential infringement on private enterprise and the existing library provision such as mechanics' institutes and the fear that it would give rise to "unhealthy social agitation". The Bill passed through Parliament as most MPs felt that public libraries would provide facilities for self-improvement through books and reading for all classes, and that the greater levels of education attained by providing public libraries would result in lower crime rates.


title: Public library

text: Under the terms of the Museums Act of 1845, the municipalities of Warrington and Salford established libraries in their museums. Warrington Municipal Library opened in 1848.