title: Prizzi's Honor

text: Things come to a head in California when, acting as if everything were alright, Charley comes home to his wife. Each pulls a weapon simultaneously in the bedroom. Irene ends up dead, and Charley ends up back in New York, missing her, but consoled by Maerose.


title: Prizzi's Honor

text: As well as working with his actress daughter, John Huston hired Meta Carpenter Wilde, the script supervisor who worked with him on "The Maltese Falcon" (1941) and Rudi Fehr, his film editor from "Key Largo" (1948).


title: Prizzi's Honor

text: Anjelica Huston was paid the SAG-AFTRA scale rate of $14,000 for her role in "Prizzi's Honor". When her agent called up the movie's producer to request if she could be paid more, she was told "Go to hell. Be my guest — ask for more money. We don't even want her in this movie." Huston, who was not only John Huston's daughter but also Jack Nicholson's girlfriend at the time, wrote in her 2014 memoir "Watch Me" that she later overheard a production worker saying, "Her father is the director, her boyfriend's the star, and she has no talent." She would go on to win the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance.


title: Prizzi's Honor

text: A 25-year old Stanley Tucci made his film debut in "Prizzi's Honor", playing the minor role of a mafia goon.


title: Prizzi's Honor

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Prizzi's Honor" holds an approval rating of 85% based on 40 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critics consensus states: "Disturbing and sardonic, "Prizzi's Honor" excels at black comedy because director John Huston and his game ensemble take the farce deadly seriously."


title: Prizzi's Honor

text: Pauline Kael wrote: "This John Huston picture has a ripe and daring comic tone. It revels voluptuously in the murderous finagling of the members of a Brooklyn Mafia family, and rejoices in their scams. It's like "The Godfather" acted out by "The Munsters". Jack Nicholson's average-guyness as Charley, the clan's enforcer, is the film's touchstone: this is a baroque comedy about people who behave in ordinary ways in grotesque circumstances, and it has the juice of everyday family craziness in it." Roger Ebert gave the film three and half stars out of four and wrote: "This is the most bizarre comedy in many a month, a movie so dark, so cynical and so funny that perhaps only Jack Nicholson and Kathleen Turner could have kept straight faces during the love scenes."


title: Bret Baier

text: William Bret Baier ( ; born August 4, 1970) is the host of "Special Report with Bret Baier" on the Fox News Channel and the chief political correspondent for Fox. He previously worked as the network's Chief White House Correspondent and Pentagon correspondent.


title: Bret Baier

text: Baier was born in Rumson, New Jersey, to a family of mixed German and Irish origins. Raised Catholic, he attended Marist School, a private Roman Catholic high school in Atlanta, Georgia, graduating in 1988. Baier then attended the methodist DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, graduating in 1992 with a BA degree in political science and English. At DePauw, he became a member of the Xi Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity.


title: Bret Baier

text: Baier began his television career with a local station WJWJ TV16 on Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, before joining WRAL-TV, then CBS affiliate in Raleigh, North Carolina. He sent an audition tape to Fox News in 1998, and was hired as the network's Atlanta bureau chief. On September 11, 2001, he drove from Georgia to Arlington, Virginia, to cover the attack on the Pentagon. He never returned to the Atlanta bureau and was instead tapped as the network's Pentagon correspondent, remaining at the post for five years and taking 11 trips to Afghanistan and 13 trips to Iraq.


title: Bret Baier

text: He was named Fox News's White House correspondent in 2007, covering the administration of George W. Bush. In the fall of 2007, he began substituting for Brit Hume, then the anchor of "Special Report", on Fridays.


title: Bret Baier

text: On December 23, 2008, Hume anchored his final show and announced Baier would replace him as anchor of "Special Report". He hosted his first show as permanent anchor on January 5, 2009.


title: Bret Baier

text: In October 2021, Baier promoted his new book "To Rescue the Republic: Ulysses S. Grant, the Fragile Union, and the Crisis of 1876" on "The Late Show" with Stephen Colbert.


title: Bret Baier

text: Baier, who served as an altar boy in his youth, is a practicing Roman Catholic and attends Holy Trinity Catholic Church in Georgetown.


title: Bret Baier

text: Baier and his wife Amy have two sons, Daniel and Paul. Paul was born with cardiac problems and before the child's open-heart surgery in 2008, President George W. Bush invited Baier and his wife and son to the Oval Office for a visit and had the White House physician update him on Paul's progress. In 2009, Baier was named a "Significant Sig" by the Sigma Chi Fraternity.


title: Maile Flanagan

text: Maile Flanagan () is an American television, film, and voice actress known for her work in cartoons, anime and video games. Some of her prominent roles include Naruto Uzumaki in the English dub of "Naruto", Piggley Winks in "Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks" and Terry Perry in "Lab Rats". She has made guest appearances in several television series such as "ER", "Shameless", "Bad Teacher", "The Office" and "Grey's Anatomy".


title: Maile Flanagan

text: Her live action work include appearances in "Phone Booth" (2002), "The Number 23" (2007), "Evan Almighty" (2007), "500 Days of Summer" (2009) and "" (2011).


title: Maile Flanagan

text: She has numerous theater credits including working with writer/director Justin Tanner in his plays "Oklahomo!", "Wife Swappers", "Pot Mom", and "Zombie Attack!"


title: Maile Flanagan

text: Flanagan was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. Her father worked for the U.S. military intelligence. In 1969, her family was stationed in Bangkok, Thailand and when she was ten, they moved to Germany.


title: Maile Flanagan

text: She graduated from a Department of Defense (DOD) school Munich America High School (MAHS) in 1983. In 1987, Flanagan graduated from Boston College with a degree in political science concentrating in history and mathematics.


title: Maile Flanagan

text: After a brief stint in Washington, D.C., Flanagan moved to Minneapolis and worked in theater roles and did stand-up comedy. She was in the comedy troupe Every Mother's Nightmare with Wayne Wilderson, Tom McCarthy and Nancy Walls. In 1996, she moved to Los Angeles with the stage production of "The Bad Seed", which won an LA Weekly Theater Award for Best Comedy Ensemble.


title: Maile Flanagan

text: Flanagan's first major voice role in animation was as the Piggley Winks in "Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks" for which she was nominated for an Annie Award in 2005, the same year she was cast as the title character, Naruto Uzumaki in the English dub version of "Naruto", she has since consistently voiced the kid, teen and adult incarnations of Naruto in all of its properties including numerous spin-offs and video game adaptations for over 15 years. She also earned an Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program for her performance in "Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks" in 2006.


title: Maile Flanagan

text: In 2009, Flanagan provided the voice of Mother Aardvark in the of Ice Age film series. Also in 2009, she appeared in Marc Webb's romantic comedy drama "500 Days of Summer". The following year, she lent her voice to Orangu-Tammy in the animated film "Kung-Fu Magoo".


title: Maile Flanagan

text: From 2012, Flanagan starred as Terry Perry, principal of the Mission Creek High School in the Disney XD live-action comedy series "Lab Rats", she was in the show for four seasons until it ended in 2016. She reprised the role again in the 2016 spinoff of the series called "". She also had a recurring role as Connie in the third and fourth season of the Showtime comedy-drama TV series "Shameless".


title: Gary Richrath

text: Gary Dean Richrath (October 18, 1949 – September 13, 2015) was an American guitarist, best known as the lead guitarist and a songwriter for the band REO Speedwagon from 1970 until 1989.


title: Gary Richrath

text: Richrath was born in Peoria, Illinois, on October 18, 1949, to Curtis and Eunice Richrath, and grew up in East Peoria, Illinois. Originally playing saxophone in the school band, he took up guitar as a teenager, becoming self-taught. He graduated from East Peoria Community High School in 1967.


title: Gary Richrath

text: Richrath wrote, performed on and sang on some of REO Speedwagon's early hits, including "Golden Country" (1972), "Ridin' the Storm Out" (1973), "Find My Fortune" (1973), "Son of a Poor Man" (1973), "Wild as the Western Wind" (1974), "(Only A) Summer Love" (1976), "Flying Turkey Trot" (1976), "Only the Strong Survive" (1979) “In Your Letter” (1980) and "Take It On the Run" (1981).


title: Gary Richrath

text: In 1977, he and other members of the band took over production, which resulted in the band's first platinum album.


title: Gary Richrath

text: Along with playing lead guitar, Richrath sang lead vocals on "Find My Fortune" (1973), "Wild as the Western Wind" (1974), "Dance" (1975), "Any Kind of Love" (1976), "Only a Summer Love" (1976), "Breakaway" (1976) and "Tonight" (1976).


title: Gary Richrath

text: Richrath left the band in 1989, and with his new band named Richrath, released the album "Only the Strong Survive" in 1992.


title: Gary Richrath

text: On November 22, 2013, REO Speedwagon and Styx announced a benefit concert titled "Rock to the Rescue" to raise money for families affected by a tornado in central Illinois. The concert was held on December 4, 2013 in Bloomington, Illinois. Richrath reunited with the band for a performance of "Ridin' the Storm Out" to end their set at the sold-out concert. Richrath stayed on stage to help with the encore of "With a Little Help From My Friends" along with REO Speedwagon, Styx, Richard Marx and others. Families affected by the storm and first-responders sat near the stage at this concert.


title: Gary Richrath

text: Richrath died on September 13, 2015, with news of his death confirmed by his former REO Speedwagon bandmate Kevin Cronin. He was 65 years old. Speaking to the Songfacts website in 2017, Cronin disclosed the cause of Richrath's death: "He had some stomach problem or something and he went in the hospital to get treated for a stomach ailment and there were complications and he didn't make it."


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU or simply "Seongdae", Hangul: 성균관대학교; Hanja: 成均館大學校) is a private comprehensive research university in South Korea. The institution traces its origins to the historic Sungkyunkwan, founded in 1398 and located in central Seoul. As the foremost educational institution of the Joseon Dynasty, it was governed by the great code of the state administration with royal assent. It was restructured as a comprehensive university in the late 19th century, and has since greatly expanded its course offerings.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The university spends heavily on research and development, mostly sponsored by Samsung, Hyundai, and government agencies, producing high-end research scientists including chemical engineering professor Park Nam-Gyu, who was named a Clarivate Citation Laureate in 2017 by Clarivate Analytics, and physics professor Lee Young-hee, director of the Center for Integrated Nanostructure Physics in the Institute for Basic Science. Both scientists frequently appear in "Nature".


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The university's Humanities and Social Sciences Campus, also housing arts departments, is in central Seoul on the same hill as Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung (two of the royal palaces of Joseon). It is near Hyehwa-dong and Daehangno. The nearest subway station is Hyehwa Station on Seoul Subway Line 4.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The Natural Sciences Campus, housing natural science, engineering, medicine, and sports departments, is within walking distance of Sungkyunkwan University Station in the northwest of Suwon. The 101-hectare campus, 45 km south of Seoul, was established in 1978.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Sungkyunkwan was established in 1398 as the Joseon Dynasty's highest educational institution. Its name means, "Sung (成, to make), Kyun (均, harmonious society), Kwan (館, institute)." It focused on an in-depth study of the Chinese Classics, Confucian canon, and literature of the era, and how to apply the knowledge to governing the nation and understanding the nature of humanity. It also served as a shrine (see Munmyo) to the Confucian sages where rituals were held regularly to honor them and their teachings.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: It was located within the city walls of Hanseong (modern-day Seoul), the capital during the Joseon period. It followed the example of the Goryeo-period Gukjagam, which in its latter years was also known by the name "Sungkyunkwan".


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Numerous Korean historical figures, including Yi Hwang and Yi I, studied at and graduated from Sungkyunkwan. A considerable amount of Korean literature and works of hanja calligraphy were created and archived by Sungkyunkwan scholars over the centuries.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The history of Sungkyunkwan University can be divided into the ancient university period, the modern university period, and the contemporary university period. The ancient university period was from 1398 to 1894. During this period, traditional Korean Confucianism education was practiced, and institutional operation was also ancient.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The first period is the period of establishment, from 1398 to 1494, that is, from the establishment of Sungkyunkwan during the reign of King Taejo of Joseon to the time of King Seongjong of Joseon. During this period, buildings were constructed, systems were established, and operating policies were established, and the system of the top national university was completed.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The second period is the period of recession, from 1495 to 1724, that is, from Yeonsan-gun to Gyeongjong. During this period, due to the tyranny of Yeonsangun of Joseon, it was reduced to a place where Seongkyunkwan held a feast. It was only restored to its original state after King Jungjong of Joseon's accession. Also, during the reign of King Seonjo of Joseon, Seongkyunkwan was burnt down during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), and it was rebuilt.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The third period is the period of revival, from 1725 to 1894, that is, from the reign of Yeongjo of Joseon to the time of Gabo Reform. During this period, the education of Sungkyunkwan became lively amid the political and academic revival, and the theory of reformation of the education system was actively developed by Silhak scholars.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The first period was the Enlightenment period from 1895 to 1910, that is, from the time Sungkyunkwan was founded as a modern university to Japanese annexation of Korea. In 1895, a three-year department of Chinese Classics (Korean: 경학과; Hanja: 經學科; RR:gyeonghakkwa) was established in Sungkyunkwan by the Command paper, and various courses such as history, geography, and mathematics were opened. At the same time, the professor appointment system, admission examination system, and graduation examination system were implemented, a semester system was introduced, and modern institutional reforms were carried out, such as setting the number of teaching days per year and the number of lecture hours per week. As a result, Sungkyunkwan was transformed from an ancient university to a modern university.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The second period, the period of ordeal, is Korea under Japanese rule. Sungkyunkwan lost its educational function as the highest school in Joseon.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The period of development, the third period of the modern university period, means the contemporary university period.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: In 1945, the Japanese Empire was defeated. In November of the same year, led the Sungkyunkwan University preparatory association. Sungkyunkwan University was established by collecting some of the property of the Hyanggyo and collecting donations from Confucian scholars.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: After the Korean War, as the nation modernized and underwent social, political, and economic reforms, SKKU played an important role in academic freedom in higher education and also kept traditional ethics and morality alive in Korean society.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Samsung partnered with SKKU in the period of 1965–1977 and renewed the partnership in 1996. The partnership has helped SKKU realize its vision in pursuit of globalization and fostering talented graduates. Through the partnership, SKKU has developed high-quality research infrastructure and achieved excellent human resource management. The partnership also enabled SKKU to develop world-leading academic programs in software development, mobile communications engineering, energy engineering, nanotechnology, business, medicine, and law.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Through the Samsung Global Scholarship Program (GSP), each year 15–25 students are selected for Seoul National University's engineering program or SKKU's Graduate School of Business (SKK GSB). Selected GSP students currently study for three semesters. Previously, it was four semesters, including a possibility of spending a semester at one of SKK GSB's top partner universities in the United States (MIT Sloan School of Management, Columbia University, Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management, University of Michigan's Ross School of Business, Dartmouth College's Tuck School of Business or Indiana University's Kelley School of Business).


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: According to the ranking of South Korean universities annually published by national daily newspaper JoongAng Daily, Sungkyunkwan University is ranked nationally as the second best university in South Korea after Seoul National University. For several years, U.S. News & World Report ranked Sungkyunkwan University second university in South Korea after SNU.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Internationally, SKKU is ranked 88th in the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) world university rankings 2021. In the Times Higher Education 2019 world university rankings, SKKU is ranked 82nd.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: In the QS Asia rankings, SKKU is ranked 15th. The reputation of the university stems from SKKU's international engagement including short-term study abroad programs and dual-degree programs, as well as its industrial partnerships, and its graduate reputation as evidenced in the high employment rate of SKKU graduates.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: SKKU's School of Medicine is affiliated with Samsung Medical Center, the top research hospital in Korea.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: SKKU's motto, "Humanity, Righteousness, Propriety, and Wisdom" (仁, 義, 禮, 智), reflects the basic spirit of Confucianism. These four cardinal virtues express humankind's four inherent elements of spirit, action, conscience, and intellect. Humanity abides in the heart that loves, righteousness abides in the heart that knows right from wrong, propriety abides in the heart that knows forbearance, and wisdom abides in the heart that perceives. Confucian philosophy attests to man's innate goodness, and at the same time recognizes that this quality must nevertheless be awakened and nurtured. These four principles, which comprise SKKU's educational philosophy, are the basis for higher education's goals of the search for truth and the establishment of social justice, which are, in turn, based on humanity.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The university's symbol—the ginkgo leaf—is derived from the giant ginkgo trees (Natural Monument No. 59) at Myeongnyundang. Both trees are male, and thus do not bear fruit. They are believed to have been planted in 1519 by Yun Tak, a former chief scholar of Sungkyunkwan.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The Humanities and Social Sciences Campus is located behind Sungkyunkwan. The campus includes the 600th Anniversary Building, Student Center, Central Library, Faculty Hall, International Hall, Business School, Hoam Hall, Dasan Hall of Economics, Toegye Hall of Humanities, Suseon Hall, Law School and more.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The library is equipped with state-of-the art digital media room where students can have recreational activity like watching movies. The library also offers several CD player stations for amusements, open cafe and sleeping arena where students can take nap if tired.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: SKKU Learning Factory is a student facility at Natural Sciences campus in Suwon where creative ideas can be made into a prototype product using 3D printers, laser cutters, CNC router, and Arduino. It has been established by the Fusion Based Creative Informatics Human Resources Development Team, and it serves as a place where students can realize their ideas and build human connections.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Sungkyunkwan University offers on-campus dormitories to its students on the campuses which are known as SKKU dorms. Humanities and Social Sciences campus in Seoul offers ten dormitories and housing facilities namely, E-house, G-house, K-house, C-house, I-house, M-house, Crownville A, Crownville C, Victory House, and LWG House whereas, the Natural Sciences Campus in Suwon offers five dormitories namely, In-Gwan, Ui-Gwan, Ye-gwan, Shin-Gwan and Ji-Gwan. Dorm culture of the university is vibrant, owing to frequent recreational events such as free pizza parties, outdoor trips, painting competitions, Yoga classes, and so on, targeting its international students. The dorm entrances are secured with automatic RFID key-tag doors which ensure only the students can have legal entry inside. Routine fire-safety and earthquake-safety simulations in the dorms are performed every semester to ensure the safety of the students.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: The dormitories house both male and female students but floors are designated for a specific gender. SKKU dorms provide variety of room types depending on the need, fee and academic results. Students can be offered single/two/four person rooms. Apartment-type facilities are also offered where more than four students live in separate rooms in an apartment. All the rooms are equipped with furniture, air-conditioner and free wifi. Special single rooms are reserved for disabled students in Shin-gwan dorm.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Sungkyunkwan Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT) was founded on 1 March 2005 as one of the four core programs of Sungkyunkwan University's VISION2010+ plan to be ranked in the top 100 universities in the world. With financial support from Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, its goal is to become one of the world's top 5 nanotechnology-related institutes. The current director of SAINT is Michael Grätzel.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: N-Center is the home of the Center for Integrated Nanostructure Physics in the Institute for Basic Science and the Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research (CNIR). Professor Lee Young-hee, an internationally renowned physicist engaged in nanotechnology research, is the director.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Sungkyunkwan University has a high number of international students, making up over 10% of the total undergraduate student body. In 2011, the population of international students at SKKU surpassed 1,000. There were over 2,700 international students enrolled at SKKU in 2013, and each year more than 2,000 Korean students from SKKU go abroad. SKKU maintains partnerships with over 653 universities in over 73 countries around the world, and has agreements with 21 overseas institutions to offer dual-degree programs.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: When Sungkyunkwan University was established in 1946, Jongyeonggak, Bicheondang and Myeongnyundang were used as libraries. After that, a new library was built. A library was opened on the Natural Sciences Campus in 1979, and a Library of Medicine was established in 1998. In 1999, the Law Library was opened. In 2000, Jongyeonggak was newly established. Currently, the Central Library of the Humanities and Social Sciences Campus and the Samsung Library of the Natural Sciences Campus are the core libraries. It has more than 2.15 million books. It has the ninth largest collection of books among university libraries in South Korea.


title: Sungkyunkwan University

text: Under the College of Sports Science, several student sports clubs at Sungkyunkwan University are active including baseball club, floor ball club, tennis club, basketball club, soccer club, volleyball club, and cricket club. Full-size soccer field, basketball playground and baseball fields are located inside the campus.


title: Decima (game engine)

text: Decima is a proprietary game engine made by Guerrilla Games and released in November 2013, that includes tools and features like artificial intelligence and game physics. It is compatible with 4K resolution and high-dynamic-range imaging, used for games on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5 and Microsoft Windows.


title: Decima (game engine)

text: The first game the engine was used for was "". In June 2015, Guerrilla Games announced that "Horizon: Zero Dawn" was using the engine for development. In August 2015, "Until Dawn" was announced to be using the engine along with Havok physics. In December 2015, "" used the engine along with PlayStation VR. In June 2016, Hideo Kojima announced preparation for Kojima Productions' independent game "Death Stranding", inspecting two engine candidates, of which the latter had been used to create the first teaser that was unveiled at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016 conference. After receiving the Industry Icon award at The Game Awards 2016, Kojima premiered a trailer for the game with the engine's logo. At PlayStation Experience, Kojima had announced that he had partnered with Guerrilla Games, using the engine for development on "Death Stranding".


title: Decima (game engine)

text: According to executive producer Angie Smets, Decima was originally known simply as "the engine" by Guerrilla employees, as there were initially no plans to publicly offer this technology to game developers outside of the company. However, the newly forged partnership with Kojima Productions meant that Guerrilla suddenly had to give the engine a name for marketing purposes; they chose to name it after Dejima, the Japanese island where a Dutch Empire trading post appeared in the 17th century and once symbolized the strong trade relations between Japan and the Netherlands.


title: Decima (game engine)

text: Guerrilla's most recent title, "Horizon Forbidden West," used an updated version of the engine. The game was released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 on February 18, 2022.


title: Decima (game engine)

text: During PlayStation Experience in December 2016, it was revealed that the engine has artificial intelligence, game physics and logic tools, featuring resources for creating entire worlds. It is capable of 4K resolution and high-dynamic-range imaging.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Alcoholic beverages appear in the Hebrew Bible, after Noah planted a vineyard and became inebriated. In the New Testament, Jesus miraculously made copious amounts of wine at the marriage at Cana (John 2). Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a source of symbolism, and was an important part of daily life in biblical times. Additionally, the inhabitants of ancient Israel drank beer, and wines made from fruits other than grapes, and references to these appear in scripture.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Many Christians abstain from alcohol, Others think biblical literature displays an ambivalence toward drinks that can be intoxicating, considering them both a blessing from God that brings joy and merriment and potentially dangerous beverages that can be sinfully abused. The relationships between Judaism and alcohol and Christianity and alcohol have generally maintained this same tension, though some modern Christian sects, particularly American Protestant groups around the time of Prohibition, have rejected alcohol as evil. The original versions of the books of the Bible use several different words for alcoholic beverages: at least 10 in Hebrew, and five in Greek. Drunkenness is discouraged and not infrequently portrayed, and some biblical persons abstained from alcohol. Wine is used symbolically, in both positive and negative terms. Its consumption is prescribed for religious rites or medicinal uses in some places.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Biblical literature uses several words in its original languages to refer to different types of alcoholic beverages. Some of these words have overlapping meaning, particularly the words in the Hebrew language compared to the words in Koine Greek, the language of both the Septuagint and the New Testament. While some deuterocanonical books may have been originally written in Hebrew or the Aramaic language, some were written in Greek. Hence, the meanings of the words used for alcoholic beverages in each of these languages has bearing on alcohol in the Bible.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Hebrew Bible was largely written in Biblical Hebrew, with portions in Biblical Aramaic, and has an important Ancient Greek translation called the Septuagint. The modern Hebrew Bible, which generally follows the Masoretic Text, uses several words to represent alcoholic beverages:


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: "Yayin" and "oinos" (which in the Septuagint also often translates most of the Hebrew words for alcoholic beverages listed above) are commonly translated "wine", but the two are also rarely, and perhaps figuratively or anticipatorily, used to refer to freshly pressed non-alcoholic juice. For this reason, prohibitionist and some abstentionist Christians object to taking the default meaning to be fermented beverages, but others argue that the words can also refer to alcoholic beverages.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: While the wines drunk in the times depicted in the Hebrew Bible were not diluted with water, after the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great the Hellenistic custom of diluting wine had taken hold such that the author of 2 Maccabees speaks of diluted wine as "a more pleasant drink" and of both undiluted wine and unmixed water as "harmful" or "distasteful."


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The many biblical references to wine are both positive and negative, real and symbolic, descriptive and didactic. Both archaeological evidence and written records indicate the significant cultivation of grapes in ancient Israel and the popularity of wine-drinking. The production capacity apparent from archaeological remains and the frequent biblical references to wine suggest that it was the principal alcoholic beverage of the ancient Israelites.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: "Easton's Bible Dictionary" says, "The sin of drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible," though some suggest it was a "vice of the wealthy rather than of the poor." Biblical interpreters generally agree that the Hebrew and Christian scriptures condemn ordinary drunkenness as a serious spiritual and moral failing in passages such as these (all from the New International Version):


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The consequences of the drunkenness of Noah and Lot "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance." The title character in the Book of Judith uses the drunkenness of the Assyrian general Holofernes to behead him in a heroic victory for the Jewish people and an embarrassing defeat for the general, who had schemed to seduce Judith.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: One of the original sections of 1 Esdras describes a debate among three courtiers of Darius I of Persia over whether wine, the king, or women (but above all the truth) is the strongest. The argument for wine does not prevail in the contest, but it provides a vivid description of the ancients' view of the power wine can wield in excessive quantity.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: A disputed but important passage is Proverbs . Some Christians assert that alcohol was prohibited to kings at all times, while most interpreters contend that only its abuse is in view here. Some argue that the latter instructions regarding the perishing should be understood as sarcasm when compared with the preceding verses, while others contend the beer and wine are intended as a cordial to raise the spirits of the perishing, while some suggest that the Bible is here authorizing alcohol as an anesthetic. Moreover, some suggest that the wines that Jesus was offered at his crucifixion were also intended as an anesthetic.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Hebrew scriptures prescribed wine for use in festal celebrations and sacrificial rituals. In particular, fermented wine was presented daily as a drink offering, as part of the first Fruits offering, and as part of various supplementary offerings. Wine was kept in the Temple in Jerusalem, and the king had his own private stores. The banquet hall was called a "house of wine," and wine was used as the usual drink at most secular and religious feasts, including feasts of celebration and hospitality, tithe celebrations, Jewish holidays such as Passover, and at burials.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The first miracle of Jesus' public ministry was transforming water into fine wine at a wedding in Cana. Jesus instituted the Eucharist at the Last Supper, which took place at a Passover celebration, and set apart the bread and "fruit of the vine" that were present there as symbols of the New Covenant. Saint Paul later chides the Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting, e.g.:


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Certain persons were forbidden in the Hebrew Bible to partake of wine because of their vows and duties. Kings were forbidden to abuse alcohol lest their judgments be unjust. It was forbidden to priests on duty, though the priests were given "the finest new wine" from the first fruits offerings for drinking outside the tabernacle and temple.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Nazirites excluded as part of their ascetic regimen not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins, though when Nazirites completed the term of their vow they were required to present wine as part of their sacrificial offerings and could drink of it. While John the Baptist adopted such a regimen, Jesus did not during his three years of ministry.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Rechabites, a sub-tribe of the Kenites, vowed never to drink wine, live in houses, or plant fields or vineyards, not because of any "threat to wise living" from the latter [Prov. 20:1] practices, but because of their commitment to a nomadic lifestyle by not being bound to any particular piece of land. The Rechabites's strict obedience to the command of their father "not to drink wine" [Jer. 35:14] is commended and is contrasted with the failure of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Judah to listen to their God.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: During the Babylonian captivity, Daniel and his fellow Jews abstained from the meat and wine given to them by the king because they saw it as defiling in some way, though precisely how these would have defiled the Jews is not apparent in the text. A later passage implies that Daniel did drink wine at times, though it may not have been the king's. Similarly, Judith refused the Assyrian general's wine, though she drank wine from the stores she brought with her.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Christians are instructed regarding abstinence and their duty toward immature Christians: "All food is clean, but it is wrong for a man to eat anything that causes someone else to stumble. It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall."


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many positive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible. Positively, free wine is used as a symbol of divine grace, and wine is repeatedly compared to intimate love in the Song of Solomon. Negatively, wine is personified as a mocker ("[t]he most hardened apostate" in the Book of Proverbs whose chief sin is pride) and beer a brawler (one who is "mocking, noisy, and restless").


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Additionally, the chosen people and kingdom of God are compared to a divinely owned vine or vineyard in several places, and the image of new wine being kept in new wineskins, a process that would burst old wineskins, represents that the new faith Jesus was bringing "cannot be contained within the framework of the old." The complacent are compared with "wine left on its dregs" too long, such that it lacks a good taste and is of no value, and those who are corrupt are compared with excellent wine which has been diluted with water.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Wine was also used as a symbol of blessing and judgement throughout the Bible. Melchizedek blessed and refreshed Abraham's army with bread and wine; Isaac blessed Jacob by saying, "May God give you of heaven's dew and of earth's richness – an abundance of grain and new wine"; and when Jacob blessed his sons, he used a great abundance of wine as a symbol of Judah's prosperity. The nation of Israel was promised abundant wine and other central crops such as grain and oil if they kept God's covenant commandments, and their wine would be taken away as a curse if the Israelites failed to keep the covenant.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgement and wrath, and Jesus alludes this cup of wrath, which he several times says he himself will drink. Similarly, the winepress is pictured as a tool of judgement where the resulting wine symbolizes the blood of the wicked who were crushed. Connected also to the cup of judgement is the wine of immorality, which the evil drink and which both brings and is part of the wrath of God.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: The Day of the Lord, which is often understood by Christians to usher in the Messianic Age, is depicted as a time when "[n]ew wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills," when God's people will "plant vineyards and drink their wine," and when God himself "will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine – the best of meats and the finest of wines."


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: In the New Testament, Jesus uses wine at the Last Supper to signify the "New Covenant in [Jesus'] blood," but Christians differ over precisely how symbolic the wine is in the continuing ritual of the Eucharist.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Wine was used in ancient times for various medicinal ends, and the Bible refers to some of these practices. It was likely used as an anesthetic to dull pain, and many interpreters suggest that it was in this capacity that wines were offered to Jesus at his crucifixion.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: In the Parable of the Good Samaritan, Jesus tells a story about a man from Samaria who assists an injured man by, among other things, pouring oil and wine on his wounds. Oil mixed with wine was a common remedy in the ancient world to cleanse wounds and assuage their pain.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: Paul advises Timothy that he should not drink water only, but should use a little wine for the sake of his stomach and frequent infirmities. Some have suggested this advice is particularly in reference to purifying low quality drinking water, while others suggest it was simply intended to help his digestion and general sickliness. Abstentionists generally regard this passage as a positive example of abstention from wine and see Paul's instructions as exceptional and purely for the sake of health, while other interpreters suggest that Timothy was "upright in his aims" but here guilty of an "excess of severity" or that he felt inappropriately bound by a Hellenistic custom that younger men should not drink.


title: Alcohol in the Bible

text: There are some who interpret certain passages in the Bible as not referring to alcohol, arguing that all positive references to "wine" in Scripture refer to non-alcoholic beverages and all negative references speak of alcoholic beverages. Advocates of this view, called the "two-wine" position, argue that the Greek and Hebrew words rendered "wine" in most English versions are generic terms for fruit juices; context determines if the beverage in view is alcoholic or not. The fact is pointed out that even in earlier stages of the English language, such as in 1611 when the King James Version was translated, "wine" could refer to non-alcoholic beverages as well as alcoholic ones. The two-wine view is widespread in conservative Evangelicalism. Dr. Robert Teachout, a fundamental Baptist seminary professor, argued for this position in his doctoral dissertation "The Use of "Wine" in the Old Testament." Separatist Baptist support for a biblical total abstinence position is widespread. Other sources for this view include the Purified Translation of the Bible, where extensive footnotes are used to promote the idea, and the 19th century "Temperance Bible Commentary".


title: Poll tax

text: A poll tax, also known as head tax or capitation, is a tax levied as a fixed sum on every liable individual (typically every adult), without reference to income or resources.


title: Poll tax

text: Head taxes were important sources of revenue for many governments from ancient times until the 19th century. In the United Kingdom, poll taxes were levied by the governments of John of Gaunt in the 14th century, Charles II in the 17th and Margaret Thatcher in the 20th century. In the United States, voting poll taxes (whose payment was a precondition to voting in an election) have been used to disenfranchise impoverished and minority voters (especially under Reconstruction).


title: Poll tax

text: By their very nature, poll taxes are considered regressive. Many other economists brand them as highly harmful taxes for low incomes (100 monetary units of a fortune of 10,000 represent 1% of said wealth, while 100 monetary units of a fortune of 500 represents 20%). Its acceptance or "neutrality" (there is no truly neutral tax on the population) will depend on the amount of payment that is agreed upon and set by the government body. Therefore, low amounts generally go unnoticed just as high amounts generate many tax revolts.


title: Poll tax

text: Examples of such tax riots are the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England and the 1906 Bambatha Rebellion against colonial rule in South Africa.


title: Poll tax

text: The word "poll" is an archaic term for "head" or "top of the head". The sense of "counting heads" is found in phrases like polling place and opinion poll.


title: Poll tax

text: As prescribed in Exodus, Jewish law imposed a poll tax of a half-shekel, payable by every man above the age of twenty.


title: Poll tax

text: The money was designated for the Tabernacle in the Exodus narrative and later for the upkeep of the Temple of Jerusalem. Priests, women, slaves and minors were exempted, although they could offer it voluntarily. Payment by Samaritans or Gentiles was rejected. It was collected yearly during the month of Adar, both at the Temple and at special collection bureaux in the provinces.


title: Poll tax

text: Zakat al-Fitr is an obligatory charity that must be given by every Muslim (or their guardian) near the end of every Ramadan. Muslims in dire poverty are exempt from it. The amount is 2 kg of wheat or barley, or its cash equivalent. Zakat al-Fitr is to be given to the poor.


title: Poll tax

text: Jizya was either imposed as a land tax or a poll tax imposed under Islamic law on non-Muslims permanently residing in a Muslim state as part of their "dhimmi" status. As a poll tax, the tax usually only applied to free, abled-bodied adult men. The jizya could also be qualified by the income of the individual. Various rationales have been posited for the poll-tax. A common one is that it is a fee in exchange for being able to practice one's religion under an Islamic state, or being a fee in exchange for Muslim protection from outside aggregation. Some interpreters saw it as evidence of the humiliated status of religious minorities. For instance, Amr ibn al-As, after conquering Egypt, set up a census to measure the population for the jizya, and thus the total expected jizya revenue for the whole province, but organized the actual collection by partitioning the population into wealth classes, so that the rich paid more and the poor less jizya of that total sum. Elsewhere, it is reported customary to partition into three classes, e.g. 48 dirhams for the rich, 24 for middle class and 12 for the poor. In 1855, the Ottoman Empire abolished the jizya tax, as part of reforms to equalize the status of Muslims and non-Muslims. It was replaced by a military-exemption tax on non-Muslims, the Bedel-i Askeri.


title: Poll tax

text: It was once thought that the Islamic poll-tax was related to a Byzantine poll-tax in pre-Islamic times, but all such sources for the Byzantine poll-tax have now been redated to the Islamic period, leaving no Byzantine evidence for this practice in pre-Islamic times.


title: Poll tax

text: The Chinese head tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada. The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The tax was abolished by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which stopped all Chinese immigration except for business people, clergy, educators, students, and other categories. The 1923 act was revoked in 1947.


title: Poll tax

text: In Ceylon, a poll tax was levied by the British colonial government of Ceylon in 1920. The tax charged 2 rupees per year per male adult. Those who did not pay had to work on the roads for one day in lieu of the tax. The Young Lanka League protested the tax, led by A. Ekanayake Gunasinha, and it was repealed by the Legislative Council of Ceylon in 1925 following a motion submitted by C. H. Z. Fernando.


title: Poll tax

text: The poll tax was essentially a lay subsidy, a tax on the movable property of most of the population, to help fund war. It had first been levied in 1275 and continued under different names until the 17th century. People were taxed a percentage of the assessed value of their movable goods. That percentage varied from year to year and place to place, and which goods could be taxed differed between urban and rural locations. Churchmen were exempt, as were the poor, workers in the Royal Mint, inhabitants of the Cinque Ports, tin workers in Cornwall and Devon, and those who lived in the Palatinate counties of Cheshire and Durham.


title: Poll tax

text: The Hilary Parliament, held between January and March 1377, levied a poll tax in 1377 to finance the war against France at the request of John of Gaunt who, since King Edward III was mortally sick, was the de facto head of government at the time. This tax covered almost 60% of the population, far more than lay subsidies had earlier. It was levied two more times, in 1379 and 1381. Each time the taxation basis was slightly different. In 1377, every lay person over the age of 14 years who was not a beggar had to pay a groat (4d) to the Crown. By 1379 that had been graded by social class, with the lower age limit changed to 16, and to 15 two years later. The levy of 1381 operated under a combination of both flat rate and graduated assessments. The minimum amount payable was set at 4d, however tax collectors had to account for a 12d a head mean assessment. Payments were therefore variable; the poorest would theoretically pay the lowest rate, with the deficit being met by a higher payment from those able to afford it. The 1381 tax has been credited as one of the main reasons behind the Peasants' Revolt in that year, due in part to attempts to restore feudal conditions in rural areas.


title: Poll tax

text: The poll tax was resurrected during the 17th century, usually related to a military emergency. It was imposed by Charles I in 1641 to finance the raising of the army against the Scottish and Irish uprisings. With the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the Convention Parliament of 1660 instituted a poll tax to finance the disbanding of the New Model Army (pay arrears, etc.) (12 Charles II c.9). The poll tax was assessed according to "rank", e.g. dukes paid £100, earls £60, knights £20, esquires £10. Eldest sons paid 2/3rds of their father's rank, widows paid a third of their late husband's rank. The members of the livery companies paid according to company's rank (e.g. masters of first-tier guilds like the Mercers paid £10, whereas masters of fifth-tier guilds, like the Clerks, paid 5 shillings). Professionals also paid differing rates, e.g. physicians (£10), judges (£20), advocates (£5), attorneys (£3), and so on. Anyone with property (land, etc.) paid 40 shillings per £100 earned, anyone over the age of 16 and unmarried paid twelvepence and everyone else over 16 paid sixpence.


title: Poll tax

text: To finance the Nine Years' War, a poll tax was imposed again by William III and Mary II in 1689 (1 Will. & Mar. c.13), reassessed in 1690 adjusting rank for fortune, and then again in 1691 back to rank irrespective of fortune. The poll tax was imposed again in 1692, and one final time in 1698 (the last poll tax in England until the 20th century).


title: Poll tax

text: A poll tax ("polemoney") was simultaneously imposed in Scotland by the Edinburgh parliament in 1693, again in 1695, and two in 1698.


title: Poll tax

text: As the greater weight of the 17th century poll taxes fell primarily upon the wealthy and powerful, it was not too unpopular. There were grumblings within the taxed ranks about lack of differentiation by income within ranks. Ultimately, it was the inefficiency of their collection (what they brought in routinely fell far short of expected revenues) that prompted the government to abandon the poll tax after 1698.


title: Poll tax

text: Far more controversial was the hearth tax introduced in 1662 (13 & 14 Charles II c.10), which imposed a hefty two shillings on every hearth in a family dwelling, which was easier to count than persons. Heavier, more permanent and more regressive than the poll tax proper, the intrusive entry of tax inspectors into private homes to count hearths was a very sore point, and it was promptly repealed with the Glorious Revolution in 1689. It was replaced with a "window tax" in 1695 since inspectors could count windows from outside homes.


title: Poll tax

text: The Community Charge, popularly dubbed the "poll tax", was a tax to fund local government, instituted in 1989 by the government of Margaret Thatcher. It replaced the rates that were based on the notional rental value of a house. The abolition of rates was in the Conservative Party manifesto for the 1979 general election; the replacement was proposed in the Green Paper of 1986, "Paying for Local Government" based on ideas developed by Dr. Madsen Pirie and Douglas Mason of the Adam Smith Institute. It was a fixed tax per adult resident, but there was a reduction for those with lower household income. Each person was to pay for the services provided in their community. This proposal was contained in the Conservative Party manifesto for the 1987 general election. The new tax replaced the rates in Scotland from the start of the 1989/90 financial year and in England and Wales from the start of the 1990/91 financial year.


title: Poll tax

text: The system was very unpopular since many thought it shifted the tax burden from the rich to the poor, as it was based on the number of occupants living in a house, rather than on the estimated market value of the house. Many tax rates set by local councils proved to be much higher than earlier predictions since the councils realised that not they but the central government would be blamed for the tax, which led to resentment, even among some who had supported the introduction of it. The tax in different boroughs differed because local taxes paid by businesses varied and grants by central government to local authorities sometimes varied capriciously.


title: Poll tax

text: Mass protests were called by the All Britain Anti-Poll Tax Federation with which the vast majority of local Anti-Poll Tax Unions (APTUs) were affiliated. In Scotland, the APTUs called for mass nonpayment, which rapidly gathered widespread support and spread as far as England and Wales even though no-payment meant that people could be prosecuted. In some areas, 30% of former ratepayers defaulted. While owner-occupiers were easy to tax, nonpayers who regularly changed accommodation were almost impossible to trace. The cost of collecting the tax rose steeply, and its returns fell. Unrest grew and resulted in a number of poll tax riots. The most serious was in a protest at Trafalgar Square, London, on 31 March 1990, of more than 200,000 protesters. Terry Fields, Labour MP for Liverpool Broadgreen, was jailed for 60 days for his refusal to pay the poll tax.


title: Poll tax

text: This unrest was a factor in the fall of Thatcher. Her successor, John Major, replaced the Community Charge with the Council Tax, similar to the rating system that preceded the Community Charge. The main differences were that it was levied on capital value rather than notional rental value of a property, and that it had a 25% discount for single-occupancy dwellings.


title: Poll tax

text: In 2015, Lord Waldegrave reflected in his memoirs that the Community Charge was all his own work and that it was a serious mistake. Although he felt the policy looked like it would work, it was implemented differently from his predictions "They went gung-ho and introduced it overnight in one go, which was never my plan and I thought they must know what they were doing - but they didn't."


title: Poll tax

text: In France, a poll tax, the capitation of 1695, was first imposed by King Louis XIV in 1695 as a temporary measure to finance the War of the League of Augsburg, and thus repealed in 1699. It was resumed during the War of Spanish Succession and in 1704 set on a permanent basis, remaining until the end of the "Ancien regime".


title: Poll tax

text: Like the English poll tax, the French capitation tax was assessed on rank – for taxation persons, French society was divided in twenty-two "classes", with the Dauphin (a class by himself) paying 2,000 livres, princes of the blood paying 1500 livres, and so on down to the lowest class, composed of day laborers and servants, who paid 1 livre each. The bulk of the common population was covered by four classes, paying 40, 30, 10 and 3 livres respectively. Unlike most other direct French taxes, nobles and clergy were not exempted from capitation taxes. It did, however, exempt the mendicant orders and the poor who contributed less than 40 sous.


title: Poll tax

text: The French clergy managed to temporarily escape capitation assessment by promising to pay a total sum of 4 million livres per annum in 1695, and then obtained permanent exemption in 1709 with a lump sum payment of 24 million livres. The "Pays d'états" (Brittany, Burgundy, etc.) and many towns also escaped assessment by promising annual fixed payments. The nobles did not escape assessment, but they obtained the right to appoint their own capitation tax assessors, which allowed them to escape most of the burden (in one calculation, they escaped of it).


title: Poll tax

text: Compounding the burden, the assessment on the capitation did not remain stable. The "pays de taille personelle" (basically, "pays d'élection", the bulk of France and Aquitaine) secured the ability to assess the capitation tax proportionally to the taille – which effectively meant adjusting the burden heavily against the lower classes. According to the estimates of Jacques Necker in 1788, the capitation tax was so riddled in practice, that the privileged classes (nobles and clergy and towns) were largely exempt, while the lower classes were heavily crushed: the lowest peasant class, originally assessed to pay 3 livres, were now paying 24, the second lowest, assessed at 10 livres, were now paying 60 and the third-lowest assessed at 30 were paying 180. The total collection from the capitation, according to Necker in 1788, was 41 million livres, well short of the 54 million estimate, and it was projected that the revenues could have doubled if the exemptions were revoked and the original 1695 assessment properly restored.


title: Poll tax

text: The old capitation tax was repealed with the French Revolution and replaced, on 13 January 1791, with a new poll tax as part of the "contribution personnelle mobilière", which lasted well into the late 19th century. It was fixed for every individual at "three days's labor" (assessed locally, but by statute, no less than 1 franc 50 centimes and no more than 4 francs 50 centimes, depending on the area). A dwelling tax ("impôt sur les portes et fenêtres", similar to the English window-tax) was imposed in 1798.


title: Poll tax

text: New Zealand imposed a poll tax on Chinese immigrants during the 19th and early 20th centuries as part of their broader efforts to reduce the number of Chinese immigrants. The poll tax was effectively lifted in the 1930s following the invasion of China by Japan, and was finally repealed in 1944. Prime Minister Helen Clark offered New Zealand's Chinese community an official apology for the poll tax on 12 February 2002.


title: Poll tax

text: The Jewish poll tax was a poll tax imposed on the Jews in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was later absorbed into the "hiberna" tax.


title: Poll tax

text: The ancient Romans imposed a "tributum capitis" (poll tax) as one of the principal direct taxes on the peoples of the Roman provinces ("Digest" 50, tit.15). In the Republican period, poll taxes were principally collected by private tax farmers ("publicani"), but from the time of Emperor Augustus, the collections were gradually transferred to magistrates and the senates of provincial cities. The Roman census was conducted periodically in the provinces to draw up and update the poll tax register.


title: Poll tax

text: The Roman poll tax fell principally on Roman subjects in the provinces, but not on Roman citizens. Towns in the provinces who possessed the "Jus Italicum" (enjoying the "privileges of Italy") were exempted from the poll tax. The 212 edict of Emperor Caracalla (which formally conferred Roman citizenship on all residents of Roman provinces) did not, however, exempt them from the poll tax.


title: Poll tax

text: The Roman poll tax was deeply resented—Tertullian bewailed the poll tax as a "badge of slavery"—and it provoked numerous revolts in the provinces. Perhaps most famous is the Zealot revolt in Judaea of 66 AD. After the destruction of the temple in 70 AD, the Emperor Vespasian imposed an extra poll tax on Jews throughout the empire, the "fiscus judaicus", of two denarii each.


title: Poll tax

text: The Italian revolt of the 720s, organized and led by Pope Gregory II, was originally provoked by the attempt of the Constantinople Emperor Leo III the Isaurian to introduce a poll tax in the Italian provinces of the Byzantine Empire in 722, and set in motion the permanent separation of Italy from the Byzantine empire. When King Aistulf of the Lombards availed himself of the Italian dissent and invaded the Exarchate of Ravenna in 751, one of his first acts was to institute a crushing poll tax of one gold solidus per head on every Roman citizen. Seeking relief from this burden, Pope Stephen II appealed to Pepin the Short of the Franks for assistance; this action led to the establishment of the Papal States in 756.


title: Poll tax

text: The Russian Empire imposed a poll tax in 1718. Nikolay Bunge, Finance Minister from 1881 to 1886 under Emperor Alexander III, abolished it in 1886.


title: Poll tax

text: Prior to the mid 20th century, a poll tax was implemented in some U.S. state and local jurisdictions and paying it was a requirement before one could exercise one's right to vote. After this right was extended to all races by the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, many Southern states enacted poll taxes as a means of excluding African-American voters, most of whom were poor and unable to pay a tax. So as not to disenfranchise many whites, such laws sometimes included a clause exempting any people who had voted prior to enactment of the laws. The poll tax, along with literacy tests and extra-legal intimidation, achieved the desired effect of disenfranchising African Americans. Often in US discussions, the term "poll tax" is used to mean a tax that must be paid in order to vote, rather than a capitation tax simply. (For example, a bill that passed the Florida House of Representatives in April 2019 has been compared to a poll tax because it requires former felons to pay all "financial obligations" related to their sentence, including court fines, fees, and judgments, before their voting rights will be restored as required by a referendum that passed with 64% of the vote in 2018.) The Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote on payment of a poll tax or any other type of tax.


title: Poll tax

text: The ninth section of Article One of the Constitution places several limits on Congress's powers. Among them: "No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken". Capitation here means a tax of a uniform, fixed amount per taxpayer. Direct tax means a tax levied directly by the United States federal government on taxpayers, as opposed to a tax on events or transactions. The United States government levied direct taxes from time to time during the 18th and early 19th centuries. It levied direct taxes on the owners of houses, land, slaves and estates in the late 1790s but cancelled the taxes in 1802.


title: Poll tax

text: An income tax is neither a poll tax nor a capitation, as the amount of tax will vary from person to person, depending on each person's income. Until a United States Supreme Court decision in 1895, all income taxes were deemed to be excises (i.e., indirect taxes). The Revenue Act of 1861 established the first income tax in the United States, to pay for the cost of the American Civil War. This income tax was abolished after the war, in 1872. Another income tax statute in 1894 was overturned in "Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co." in 1895, where the Supreme Court held that income taxes on income from property, such as rent income, interest income, and dividend income (however excepting income taxes on income from "occupations and labor" if only for the reason of not having been challenged in the case, "We have considered the act only in respect of the tax on income derived from real estate, and from invested personal property") were to be treated as direct taxes. Because the statute in question had not apportioned income taxes on income from property by population, the statute was ruled unconstitutional. Finally, ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913 made possible modern income taxes, by limiting the Sixteenth Amendment income tax to the class of indirect excises (i.e. excises, duties, and imposts) – thus requiring no apportionment,


title: Poll tax

text: Various cities, including Chicago and Denver, have levied head taxes with a set rate per employee targeted at large employers. After Cupertino postponed head tax proposals to 2020, Mountain View became the only city in Silicon Valley to continue to pursue such type of taxes.


title: Poll tax

text: In 2018, the Seattle city council proposed a "head tax" of $500 per year per employee. The proposed tax was lowered to $275 per year per employee, was passed, and became "the biggest head tax in U.S. history," though it was repealed less than a month later.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than one pair of (homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes, where each set contains one or more chromosomes and comes from each of two parents, resulting in pairs of homologous chromosomes between sets. However, some organisms are polyploid. Polyploidy is especially common in plants. Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells, but produce haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) by meiosis. A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Males of bees and other Hymenoptera, for example, are monoploid. Unlike animals, plants and multicellular algae have life cycles with two alternating multicellular generations. The gametophyte generation is haploid, and produces gametes by mitosis, the sporophyte generation is diploid and produces spores by meiosis.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy may occur due to abnormal cell division, either during mitosis, or more commonly from the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or from the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. In addition, it can be induced in plants and cell cultures by some chemicals: the best known is colchicine, which can result in chromosome doubling, though its use may have other less obvious consequences as well. Oryzalin will also double the existing chromosome content.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy occurs in highly differentiated human tissues in the liver, heart muscle, bone marrow and the placenta.


title: Polyploidy

text: It occurs in the somatic cells of some animals, such as goldfish, salmon, and salamanders, but is especially common among ferns and flowering plants (see "Hibiscus rosa-sinensis"), including both wild and cultivated species. Wheat, for example, after millennia of hybridization and modification by humans, has strains that are diploid (two sets of chromosomes), tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes) with the common name of durum or macaroni wheat, and hexaploid (six sets of chromosomes) with the common name of bread wheat. Many agriculturally important plants of the genus "Brassica" are also tetraploids. Sugarcane can have ploidy levels higher than octaploid.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidization can be a mechanism of sympatric speciation because polyploids are usually unable to interbreed with their diploid ancestors. An example is the plant "Erythranthe peregrina". Sequencing confirmed that this species originated from "E. × robertsii", a sterile triploid hybrid between "E. guttata" and "E. lutea," both of which have been introduced and naturalised in the United Kingdom. New populations of "E. peregrina" arose on the Scottish mainland and the Orkney Islands via genome duplication from local populations of "E. × robertsii". Because of a rare genetic mutation, "E. peregrina" is not sterile.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploid types are labeled according to the number of chromosome sets in the nucleus. The letter "x" is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set:


title: Polyploidy

text: Two examples of natural autopolyploids are the piggyback plant, "Tolmiea menzisii" and the white sturgeon, "Acipenser transmontanum". Most instances of autopolyploidy result from the fusion of unreduced (2"n") gametes, which results in either triploid ("n" + 2"n" = 3"n") or tetraploid (2"n" + 2"n" = 4"n") offspring. Triploid offspring are typically sterile (as in the phenomenon of triploid block), but in some cases they may produce high proportions of unreduced gametes and thus aid the formation of tetraploids. This pathway to tetraploidy is referred to as the "triploid bridge". Triploids may also persist through asexual reproduction. In fact, stable autotriploidy in plants is often associated with apomictic mating systems. In agricultural systems, autotriploidy can result in seedlessness, as in watermelons and bananas. Triploidy is also utilized in salmon and trout farming to induce sterility.


title: Polyploidy

text: Rarely, autopolyploids arise from spontaneous, somatic genome doubling, which has been observed in apple ("Malus domesticus") bud sports. This is also the most common pathway of artificially induced polyploidy, where methods such as protoplast fusion or treatment with colchicine, oryzalin or mitotic inhibitors are used to disrupt normal mitotic division, which results in the production of polyploid cells. This process can be useful in plant breeding, especially when attempting to introgress germplasm across ploidal levels.


title: Polyploidy

text: Autopolyploids possess at least three homologous chromosome sets, which can lead to high rates of multivalent pairing during meiosis (particularly in recently formed autopolyploids, also known as neopolyploids) and an associated decrease in fertility due to the production of aneuploid gametes. Natural or artificial selection for fertility can quickly stabilize meiosis in autopolyploids by restoring bivalent pairing during meiosis, but the high degree of homology among duplicated chromosomes causes autopolyploids to display polysomic inheritance. This trait is often used as a diagnostic criterion to distinguish autopolyploids from allopolyploids, which commonly display disomic inheritance after they progress past the neopolyploid stage. While most polyploid species are unambiguously characterized as either autopolyploid or allopolyploid, these categories represent the ends of a spectrum of divergence between parental subgenomes. Polyploids that fall between these two extremes, which are often referred to as segmental allopolyploids, may display intermediate levels of polysomic inheritance that vary by locus.


title: Polyploidy

text: About half of all polyploids are thought to be the result of autopolyploidy, although many factors make this proportion hard to estimate.


title: Polyploidy

text: Allopolyploids or amphipolyploids or heteropolyploids are polyploids with chromosomes derived from two or more diverged taxa.


title: Polyploidy

text: As in autopolyploidy, this primarily occurs through the fusion of unreduced (2"n") gametes, which can take place before or after hybridization. In the former case, unreduced gametes from each diploid taxon – or reduced gametes from two autotetraploid taxa – combine to form allopolyploid offspring. In the latter case, one or more diploid F hybrids produce unreduced gametes that fuse to form allopolyploid progeny. Hybridization followed by genome duplication may be a more common path to allopolyploidy because F hybrids between taxa often have relatively high rates of unreduced gamete formation – divergence between the genomes of the two taxa result in abnormal pairing between homoeologous chromosomes or nondisjunction during meiosis. In this case, allopolyploidy can actually restore normal, bivalent meiotic pairing by providing each homoeologous chromosome with its own homologue. If divergence between homoeologous chromosomes is even across the two subgenomes, this can theoretically result in rapid restoration of bivalent pairing and disomic inheritance following allopolyploidization. However multivalent pairing is common in many recently formed allopolyploids, so it is likely that the majority of meiotic stabilization occurs gradually through selection.


title: Polyploidy

text: Because pairing between homoeologous chromosomes is rare in established allopolyploids, they may benefit from fixed heterozygosity of homoeologous alleles. In certain cases, such heterozygosity can have beneficial heterotic effects, either in terms of fitness in natural contexts or desirable traits in agricultural contexts. This could partially explain the prevalence of allopolyploidy among crop species. Both bread wheat and "Triticale" are examples of an allopolyploids with six chromosome sets. Cotton, peanut, or quinoa are allotetraploids with multiple origins. In Brassicaceous crops, the Triangle of U describes the relationships between the three common diploid Brassicas ("B. oleracea, B. rapa," and "B. nigra") and three allotetraploids ("B. napus, B. juncea," and "B. carinata") derived from hybridization among the diploid species. A similar relationship exists between three diploid species of "Tragopogon" ("T. dubius, T. pratensis," and "T. porrifolius") and two allotetraploid species ("T. mirus" and "T. miscellus"). Complex patterns of allopolyploid evolution have also been observed in animals, as in the frog genus "Xenopus."


title: Polyploidy

text: Organisms in which a particular chromosome, or chromosome segment, is under- or over-represented are said to be aneuploid (from the Greek words meaning "not", "good", and "fold"). Aneuploidy refers to a numerical change in part of the chromosome set, whereas polyploidy refers to a numerical change in the whole set of chromosomes.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human muscle tissues. This is known as endopolyploidy. Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is, prokaryotes, may be polyploid, as seen in the large bacterium "Epulopiscium fishelsoni". Hence ploidy is defined with respect to a cell.


title: Polyploidy

text: A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. The more general term for such organisms is haploid.


title: Polyploidy

text: That has become polyploid in more recent history; it is not as new as a neopolyploid and not as old as a paleopolyploid. It is a middle aged polyploid. Often this refers to whole genome duplication followed by intermediate levels of diploidization.


title: Polyploidy

text: Ancient genome duplications probably occurred in the evolutionary history of all life. Duplication events that occurred long ago in the history of various evolutionary lineages can be difficult to detect because of subsequent diploidization (such that a polyploid starts to behave cytogenetically as a diploid over time) as mutations and gene translations gradually make one copy of each chromosome unlike the other copy. Over time, it is also common for duplicated copies of genes to accumulate mutations and become inactive pseudogenes.


title: Polyploidy

text: In many cases, these events can be inferred only through comparing sequenced genomes. Examples of unexpected but recently confirmed ancient genome duplications include baker's yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"), mustard weed/thale cress ("Arabidopsis thaliana"), rice ("Oryza sativa"), and an early evolutionary ancestor of the vertebrates (which includes the human lineage) and another near the origin of the teleost fishes. Angiosperms (flowering plants) have paleopolyploidy in their ancestry. All eukaryotes probably have experienced a polyploidy event at some point in their evolutionary history.


title: Polyploidy

text: A karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytology and, more specifically, cytogenetics.


title: Polyploidy

text: Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are highly variable between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization despite being constructed out of the same macromolecules. In some cases, there is even significant variation within species. This variation provides the basis for a range of studies in what might be called evolutionary cytology.


title: Polyploidy

text: Homoeologous chromosomes are those brought together following inter-species hybridization and allopolyploidization, and whose relationship was completely homologous in an ancestral species. For example, durum wheat is the result of the inter-species hybridization of two diploid grass species "Triticum urartu" and "Aegilops speltoides". Both diploid ancestors had two sets of 7 chromosomes, which were similar in terms of size and genes contained on them. Durum wheat contains a hybrid genome with two sets of chromosomes derived from "Triticum urartu" and two sets of chromosomes derived from "Aegilops speltoides". Each chromosome pair derived from the "Triticum urartu" parent is homoeologous to the opposite chromosome pair derived from the "Aegilops speltoides" parent, though each chromosome pair unto itself is homologous.


title: Polyploidy

text: Examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as flatworms, leeches, and brine shrimp. Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include the salmonids and many cyprinids (i.e. carp). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically important genus "Xenopus" contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common. Most are sterile and reproduce by parthenogenesis; others, like "Liolaemus chiliensis", maintain sexual reproduction. Polyploid mole salamanders (mostly triploids) are all female and reproduce by kleptogenesis, "stealing" spermatophores from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating the males' DNA into the offspring.


title: Polyploidy

text: While mammalian liver cells are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death. An octodontid rodent of Argentina's harsh desert regions, known as the plains viscacha rat ("Tympanoctomys barrerae") has been reported as an exception to this 'rule'. However, careful analysis using chromosome paints shows that there are only two copies of each chromosome in "T. barrerae", not the four expected if it were truly a tetraploid. This rodent is not a rat, but kin to guinea pigs and chinchillas. Its "new" diploid (2"n") number is 102 and so its cells are roughly twice normal size. Its closest living relation is "Octomys mimax", the Andean Viscacha-Rat of the same family, whose 2"n" = 56. It was therefore surmised that an "Octomys"-like ancestor produced tetraploid (i.e., 2"n" = 4"x" = 112) offspring that were, by virtue of their doubled chromosomes, reproductively isolated from their parents.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy was induced in fish by Har Swarup (1956) using a cold-shock treatment of the eggs close to the time of fertilization, which produced triploid embryos that successfully matured. Cold or heat shock has also been shown to result in unreduced amphibian gametes, though this occurs more commonly in eggs than in sperm. John Gurdon (1958) transplanted intact nuclei from somatic cells to produce diploid eggs in the frog, "Xenopus" (an extension of the work of Briggs and King in 1952) that were able to develop to the tadpole stage. The British scientist J. B. S. Haldane hailed the work for its potential medical applications and, in describing the results, became one of the first to use the word "clone" in reference to animals. Later work by Shinya Yamanaka showed how mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent, extending the possibilities to non-stem cells. Gurdon and Yamanaka were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 for this work.


title: Polyploidy

text: True polyploidy rarely occurs in humans, although polyploid cells occur in highly differentiated tissue, such as liver parenchyma, heart muscle, placenta and in bone marrow. Aneuploidy is more common.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy occurs in humans in the form of triploidy, with 69 chromosomes (sometimes called 69, XXX), and tetraploidy with 92 chromosomes (sometimes called 92, XXXX). Triploidy, usually due to polyspermy, occurs in about 2–3% of all human pregnancies and ~15% of miscarriages. The vast majority of triploid conceptions end as a miscarriage; those that do survive to term typically die shortly after birth. In some cases, survival past birth may be extended if there is mixoploidy with both a diploid and a triploid cell population present. There has been one report of a child surviving to the age of seven months with complete triploidy syndrome. He failed to exhibit normal mental or physical neonatal development, and died from a "Pneumocystis carinii" infection, which indicates a weak immune system.


title: Polyploidy

text: Triploidy may be the result of either digyny (the extra haploid set is from the mother) or diandry (the extra haploid set is from the father). Diandry is mostly caused by reduplication of the paternal haploid set from a single sperm, but may also be the consequence of dispermic (two sperm) fertilization of the egg. Digyny is most commonly caused by either failure of one meiotic division during oogenesis leading to a diploid oocyte or failure to extrude one polar body from the oocyte. Diandry appears to predominate among early miscarriages, while digyny predominates among triploid zygotes that survive into the fetal period. However, among early miscarriages, digyny is also more common in those cases less than weeks gestational age or those in which an embryo is present. There are also two distinct phenotypes in triploid placentas and fetuses that are dependent on the origin of the extra haploid set. In digyny, there is typically an asymmetric poorly grown fetus, with marked adrenal hypoplasia and a very small placenta. In diandry, a partial hydatidiform mole develops. These parent-of-origin effects reflect the effects of genomic imprinting.


title: Polyploidy

text: Complete tetraploidy is more rarely diagnosed than triploidy, but is observed in 1–2% of early miscarriages. However, some tetraploid cells are commonly found in chromosome analysis at prenatal diagnosis and these are generally considered 'harmless'. It is not clear whether these tetraploid cells simply tend to arise during "in vitro" cell culture or whether they are also present in placental cells "in vivo". There are, at any rate, very few clinical reports of fetuses/infants diagnosed with tetraploidy mosaicism.


title: Polyploidy

text: Mixoploidy is quite commonly observed in human preimplantation embryos and includes haploid/diploid as well as diploid/tetraploid mixed cell populations. It is unknown whether these embryos fail to implant and are therefore rarely detected in ongoing pregnancies or if there is simply a selective process favoring the diploid cells.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploidy is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern speciation events are accompanied by ploidy increase.


title: Polyploidy

text: Polyploid plants can arise spontaneously in nature by several mechanisms, including meiotic or mitotic failures, and fusion of unreduced (2"n") gametes. Both autopolyploids (e.g. potato) and allopolyploids (such as canola, wheat and cotton) can be found among both wild and domesticated plant species.


title: Polyploidy

text: Most polyploids display novel variation or morphologies relative to their parental species, that may contribute to the processes of speciation and eco-niche exploitation. The mechanisms leading to novel variation in newly formed allopolyploids may include gene dosage effects (resulting from more numerous copies of genome content), the reunion of divergent gene regulatory hierarchies, chromosomal rearrangements, and epigenetic remodeling, all of which affect gene content and/or expression levels. Many of these rapid changes may contribute to reproductive isolation and speciation. However seed generated from interploidy crosses, such as between polyploids and their parent species, usually have aberrant endosperm development which impairs their viability, thus contributing to polyploid speciation.


title: Polyploidy

text: Some plants are triploid. As meiosis is disturbed, these plants are sterile, with all plants having the same genetic constitution: Among them, the exclusively vegetatively propagated saffron crocus ("Crocus sativus"). Also, the extremely rare Tasmanian shrub "Lomatia tasmanica" is a triploid sterile species.


title: Polyploidy

text: There are few naturally occurring polyploid conifers. One example is the Coast Redwood "Sequoia sempervirens", which is a hexaploid (6"x") with 66 chromosomes (2"n" = 6"x" = 66), although the origin is unclear.


title: Polyploidy

text: The induction of polyploidy is a common technique to overcome the sterility of a hybrid species during plant breeding. For example, triticale is the hybrid of wheat ("Triticum turgidum") and rye ("Secale cereale"). It combines sought-after characteristics of the parents, but the initial hybrids are sterile. After polyploidization, the hybrid becomes fertile and can thus be further propagated to become triticale.


title: Polyploidy

text: In some situations, polyploid crops are preferred because they are sterile. For example, many seedless fruit varieties are seedless as a result of polyploidy. Such crops are propagated using asexual techniques, such as grafting.


title: Polyploidy

text: Some crops are found in a variety of ploidies: tulips and lilies are commonly found as both diploid and triploid; daylilies ("Hemerocallis" cultivars) are available as either diploid or tetraploid; apples and kinnow mandarins can be diploid, triploid, or tetraploid.


title: Polyploidy

text: Besides plants and animals, the evolutionary history of various fungal species is dotted by past and recent whole-genome duplication events (see Albertin and Marullo 2012 for review). Several examples of polyploids are known:


title: Polyploidy

text: In addition, polyploidy is frequently associated with hybridization and reticulate evolution that appear to be highly prevalent in several fungal taxa. Indeed, homoploid speciation (hybrid speciation without a change in chromosome number) has been evidenced for some fungal species (such as the basidiomycota "Microbotryum violaceum").


title: Polyploidy

text: As for plants and animals, fungal hybrids and polyploids display structural and functional modifications compared to their progenitors and diploid counterparts. In particular, the structural and functional outcomes of polyploid "Saccharomyces" genomes strikingly reflect the evolutionary fate of plant polyploid ones. Large chromosomal rearrangements leading to chimeric chromosomes have been described, as well as more punctual genetic modifications such as gene loss. The homoealleles of the allotetraploid yeast "S. pastorianus" show unequal contribution to the transcriptome. Phenotypic diversification is also observed following polyploidization and/or hybridization in fungi, producing the fuel for natural selection and subsequent adaptation and speciation.


title: Polyploidy

text: Other eukaryotic taxa have experienced one or more polyploidization events during their evolutionary history (see Albertin and Marullo, 2012 for review). The oomycetes, which are non-true fungi members, contain several examples of paleopolyploid and polyploid species, such as within the genus "Phytophthora". Some species of brown algae (Fucales, Laminariales and diatoms) contain apparent polyploid genomes. In the Alveolata group, the remarkable species "Paramecium tetraurelia" underwent three successive rounds of whole-genome duplication and established itself as a major model for paleopolyploid studies.


title: Polyploidy

text: Each "Deinococcus radiodurans" bacterium contains 4-8 copies of its chromosome. Exposure of "D. radiodurans" to X-ray irradiation or desiccation can shatter its genomes into hundred of short random fragments. Nevertheless, "D. radiodurans" is highly resistant to such exposures. The mechanism by which the genome is accurately restored involves RecA-mediated homologous recombination and a process referred to as extended synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA).


title: Polyploidy

text: "Azotobacter vinelandii" can contain up to 80 chromosome copies per cell. However this is only observed in fast growing cultures, whereas cultures grown in synthetic minimal media are not polyploid.


title: Polyploidy

text: The archaeon "Halobacterium salinarium" is polyploid and, like "Deinococcus radiodurans", is highly resistant to X-ray irradiation and desiccation, conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks. Although chromosomes are shattered into many fragments, complete chromosomes can be regenerated by making use of overlapping fragments. The mechanism employs single-stranded DNA binding protein and is likely homologous recombinational repair.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Philipp Plein (born 16 February 1978) is a German fashion designer, and the founder of the Philipp Plein International Group, which includes the Philipp Plein, Plein Sport, and Billionaire brands.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Plein studied law before designing luxury dog beds. In 1998, he founded Philipp Plein International Group in Munich, Germany.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Plein is listed as one of the richest individuals in Switzerland for 2019 by Bilanz in their annual Die 300 Reichsten (Top 300 Richest) with a net worth of 300 million CHF.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Plein's first collections were vintage military jackets which he embroidered with Swarovski skulls and sold at the Maison et Objet in Paris.


title: Philipp Plein

text: 2010, Plein boutiques opened in Vienna, Moscow, St. Tropez, Cannes, and Kitzbuhel in addition to the opening of a showroom in Düsseldorf.


title: Philipp Plein

text: 2012, ten boutiques were opened, in Marbella, Moscow Crocus, Baku, Milan, Dubai, St. Petersburg, Seoul, Macau, Amsterdam, and Berlin.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Also in 2012, Plein signed an agreement with the soccer team AS Roma to dress the team players starting with the 2012/13 season and continued to do so 4 consecutive seasons.


title: Philipp Plein

text: 2013, the grand opening of stores in Porto Cervo, Moscow, Paris, Miami, Casablanca, Courchevel, Kyiv, Hangzhou, Seoul, and New York.


title: Philipp Plein

text: 2014, store openings include Hong Kong, Los Angeles, New York, Ibiza, Bodrum, Doha, London, and the first Plein duty free at the Vienna airport.


title: Philipp Plein

text: 2019 marked the 20th anniversary of the Philipp Plein brand. The anniversary was celebrated with multiple special fashion shows.


title: Philipp Plein

text: Spring/Summer 2020 was presented at Social Music City in Milan in June 2019. A post-modern fashion show inspired by .


title: Philipp Plein

text: Notable celebrities that have worked with Plein include Mischa Barton, Lindsay Lohan, Snoop Dogg, Rita Ora, Naomi Campbell, Iggy Azalea, Grace Jones, Theophilus London, Fergie, Chris Brown, Jeremy Meeks, Paris Hilton, Mauro Icardi, Alec Monopoly, and Floyd Mayweather.,


title: Philipp Plein

text: Plein told Women's Wear Daily about the sneaker collaboration with Snoop Dogg: “There are a lot of brands who collaborate with people just for money. It's nice to have a relationship with people who really like what you’re doing. And the other way around.…That is what it’s all about."


title: Philipp Plein

text: Plein made his entrance into the Web3 space in collaboration with Portion, a blockchain auction house, as well as 3D visual artist, Antoni Tudisco.


title: Violante Placido

text: Placido was born in Rome, Italy. She is the daughter of actor-director Michele Placido and actress Simonetta Stefanelli.


title: Violante Placido

text: Her film debut was alongside her father in "Quattro bravi ragazzi" (1993), and later took part in "Jack Frusciante Left the Band". Her first important role was in "L'anima gemella", directed by Sergio Rubini.


title: Violante Placido

text: Placido's other movies include "Ora o mai più", by Lucio Pellegrini, "Che ne sarà di noi", by Giovanni Veronesi, and "Ovunque sei", directed by her father. In 2006, she starred in Pupi Avati's comedy "La cena per farli conoscere", released in 2007. In March 2009, she played a role in the Hindi movie "Barah Aana". She also played the title role as Moana Pozzi in the 2009 miniseries "Moana". In 2010, she appeared alongside George Clooney in the drama-thriller "The American".


title: Violante Placido

text: Placido played Nadya in the 2011 film "", a sequel to the 2007 film "Ghost Rider", both based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name.


title: Violante Placido

text: She co-stars in "", a spin-off from the film franchise of the same name. The TV series stars Chris Vance taking over the role of Frank Martin from Jason Statham. In , she plays Caterina Boldieu, a former French intelligence officer, who is assisting Frank Martin, the Transporter.


title: Violante Placido

text: In 2006, Placido released, under the name Viola, her first album as a singer, ""Don't Be Shy..."", including 10 tracks she wrote (most of which are in English), inspired by Stuart Benson. Viola sings in the style of singer-songwriter Suzanne Vega. The second single is ""How to Save Your Life"". Subsequently, she collaborated with the Italian singer-songwriter Bugo in the remake duet version of his song ""Amore mio infinito"".


title: Violante Placido

text: Violante Placido has one child. The father is her partner, Massimiliano D'Epiro, who is an Italian film director.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: John Ross "J.R." Ewing Jr. is a fictional character in the American television series "Dallas" (1978–1991) and its spin-offs, including the revived "Dallas" series (2012–2014). The character was portrayed by Larry Hagman from the series premiere in 1978 until his death in late 2012, and Hagman was the only actor who appeared in all 357 episodes of the original series. As the show's most famous character, J.R. has been central to many of the series' biggest storylines. He is depicted as a covetous, egocentric, manipulative and amoral oil baron with psychopathic tendencies, who is constantly plotting subterfuges to plunder the wealth of his foes. In the PBS series "Pioneers of Television", Hagman claimed the character of J.R. began its development when he played a similar character in the film "Stardust", and that he was also inspired by a mean boss he once had.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: The focus of the series was initially the feuding families, with J.R. just a supporting character, but his popularity grew and the producers acknowledged he became the breakout character. Two highly rated 1980 episodes became part of a cultural phenomenon that year known as "Who shot J.R.?". In "A House Divided", the audience witnessed J.R. being shot by an unknown assailant.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: After the cliffhanger was broadcast in March, the audience had to wait until the November conclusion, "Who Done It". With his new-found popularity, Hagman threatened to leave the series unless his contractual demands were met. CBS leaked rumors of recasting, but the actor eventually prevailed. He also appeared in five episodes of spin-off series "Knots Landing" between 1980 and 1982. The character is featured in the first two seasons of the 2012 reincarnation series as well. Hagman died on November 23, 2012, and "Dallas" producers subsequently announced that J.R. would be killed off in the second season. The episode "The Furious and Fast" dealt with J.R.'s death.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: J.R. Ewing is considered one of television's most popular characters, with "TV Guide" naming him #1 in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time. In 2016, "Rolling Stone" ranked him #11 of their "40 Greatest TV Villains of All Time". In a 2001 Channel 4 poll in the U.K. he was ranked 38th on their list of the 100 Greatest TV Characters.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: J.R. has a reputation with his fellow characters, and viewers of the show, as a 'bad man'. He thinks nothing of resorting to bribery and blackmail to get his way and appears heartless much of the time—indeed taking pride in his nefarious nature. However, there are several instances throughout the original series' run where a more sympathetic and complex side to his character is portrayed, such as evidence of his love for his family. Also in the final season, there are glimpses of a depressive and contemplative nature when musing to Bobby during their cattle drive about how times were changing.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: The name “JR” is an homage to the “JR” for Jett Rink in the movie “Giant”. Jett Rink was the last character played by James Dean before his death.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: J.R. Ewing was the eldest son of John Ross "Jock" Ewing Sr. (Jim Davis) and Eleanor "Miss Ellie" Ewing (Barbara Bel Geddes, briefly Donna Reed). J.R. was born on the family's Southfork Ranch. The year of his birth is inconsistent: in "", Miss Ellie announces her pregnancy with J.R. in 1936, making the year of his birth 1936 or at the latest 1937, while in the 2012 continuation of "Dallas", J.R.'s gravestone gives his birth year as 1939.


title: J. R. Ewing

text: J.R. has two younger brothers, Gary (Ted Shackelford, briefly David Ackroyd) and Bobby (Patrick Duffy); a half-brother, Ray Krebbs (Steve Kanaly), from his father's affair with an Army nurse named Margaret Hunter during World War II.