title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Since the RAM and the hard drive on some generations of MacBook Pro are user-serviceable parts, there are aftermarket modifications to enhance the system with up to 16 GB of DDR3-1600 RAM (although maximum capacity and frequency depend on the hardware in question), 7200 RPM hard drives or third-party SSDs. A third-party caddy was also made, allowing the internal optical drive to be replaced with a second internal SATA 2.5-inch hard drive.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Early and late 2011 models with a GPU; 15" & 17"; reportedly suffer from manufacturing problems leading to overheating, graphical problems, and eventually complete GPU and logic board failure. A similar but nonidentical problem affected iMac GPUs which were later recalled by Apple. The problem was covered by many articles in Mac-focused magazines, starting late 2013 throughout 2014. In August 2014 the law firm Whitfield Bryson & Mason LLP had begun investigating the problem to determine if any legal claim exists. On October 28, 2014, the firm announced that it has filed a class-action lawsuit in a California federal court against Apple. The lawsuit will cover residents residing in both California and Florida who have purchased a 2011 MacBook Pro notebook with an AMD graphics card. The firm is also investigating similar cases across the United States. On February 20, 2015, Apple instituted the This "will repair affected MacBook Pro systems, free of charge". The program covered affected MacBook Pro models until December 31, 2016, four years from original date of sale.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On June 11, 2012, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in San Francisco, Apple introduced the third generation MacBook Pro, the 15-inch in June 2012, a 13-inch model in October, marketed as the "MacBook Pro with Retina display" to differentiate it from the previous model. The new model includes Intel's third-generation Core i7 processors (Ivy Bridge microarchitecture). It made solid-state storage (SSD) standard, upgraded to USB 3.0, added an additional Thunderbolt port, added HDMI, and included a high-resolution Retina display. The 15-inch model is 25% thinner than its predecessor. The model name is no longer placed at the bottom of the screen bezel; instead, it is found on the underside of the chassis, similar to an iOS device and is the first Macintosh notebook to not have its model name visible during normal use. It eliminated Ethernet, FireWire 800 ports, but Thunderbolt adapters were available for purchase, Kensington lock slot, the battery indicator button and light on the side of the chassis, and the optical drive, being the first professional notebook since the PowerBook 2400c, but brought a new MagSafe port, dubbed the "MagSafe 2". Apple also claims improved speakers and microphones and a new system for cooling the notebook with improved fans.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The MacBook Pro with Retina display was one of only two Macs that feature a built-in HDMI port (the other being the Mac Mini). Apple introduced a 13-inch version on October 23, 2012, with specifications similar but slightly inferior to the 15-inch version's, such as less powerful processors.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The Retina models also have fewer user-accessible upgrade or replacement options than previous MacBooks. Unlike in previous generations, the memory is soldered onto the logic board and is therefore not upgradable. The solid state drive is not soldered and can be replaced by users, although it has a proprietary connector and form factor. The battery is glued into place; attempts to remove it may destroy the battery and/or trackpad. The entire case uses proprietary pentalobe screws and cannot be disassembled with standard tools. While the battery is glued in, recycling companies have stated that the design is only "mildly inconvenient" and does not hamper the recycling process. In any case, Apple offers a free recycling service via any of their stores and has no problem with separating the materials.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On February 13, 2013, Apple announced updated prices and processors and increased the memory of the high-end 15-inch model to 16 GB.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On October 22, 2013, Apple updated the line with Intel's Haswell processors and Iris Graphics, 802.11ac Wi-Fi, Thunderbolt 2, and PCIe-based flash storage. The chassis of the 13-inch version was slightly slimmed to to match the 15-inch model. The lower-end 15-inch model only included integrated graphics while the higher-end model continued to include a discrete Nvidia graphics card in addition to integrated graphics. Support for 4K video output via HDMI was added but limited the maximum number of external displays from three to two. On July 29, 2014, Apple announced new models with updated prices and processors.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On March 9, 2015, the 13-inch model was updated with Intel Broadwell processors, Iris 6100 graphics, faster flash storage (based on PCIe 2.0 × 4 technology), faster RAM (upgraded from 1600MHZ to 1866MHZ), increased battery life (extended to 10 hours), and a Force Touch trackpad. On May 19, 2015, 15-inch model added Force Touch and changed the GPU to AMD Radeon R9 M370X, SSD based on PCIe 3.0 × 4 technology, the battery life was extended to 9 hours, and the rest of the configuration remained unchanged. The higher-end 15-inch model also added support for dual-cable output to displays. The 15-inch models were released with the same Intel Haswell processors and Iris Pro graphics as the 2014 models due to a delay in shipment of newer Broadwell quad-core processors. Apple continued to sell the 2015 15-inch model until July 2018.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The Retina MacBook Pro received positive reviews of the Retina Display, flash storage and power. It was criticized, however, for its high price and lack of an Ethernet port and optical drive. Roman Loyola of "Macworld" said that the Retina MacBook Pro was "groundbreaking" and made people "rethink how they use technology". He praised the inclusion of USB 3.0 and the slimmer body. Dan Ackerman of CNET commented "I've previously called the 15-inch MacBook Pro one of the most universally useful all-around laptops you can buy. This new version adds to that with HDMI, faster ports, and more portability. But it also subtracts from that with its exclusion of an optical drive and Ethernet port, plus its very high starting price. The Pro and Retina Pro are clearly two laptops designed for two different users, and with the exception of all-day commuters who need something closer to a MacBook Air or ultrabook, one of the two branches of the MacBook Pro family tree is still probably the most universally useful laptop you can buy."


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Joel Santo Domingo of "PC Magazine" gave the MacBook Pro an "Editor's Choice" rating. He praised its "brilliant Retina display", the thin design, port selection and speedy storage, and highlighted the expandability via Thunderbolt ports which support up to seven devices each. David Pogue of "The New York Times" praised the 15-inch model's screen, keyboard, sound, start-up time, cosmetics, battery life, storage, and RAM capacity. They criticized the lack of a SuperDrive, pricing, and the MagSafe 2 power connector's lack of backwards compatibility with the older MagSafe design.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The Retina Display on the MacBook Pro have been criticized for "image retention", specifically for displays manufactured by LG. Many users also complained the anti-reflective coating on their screens could wear off easily, which is an issue known as "staingate".


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: In 2017, one year after the introduction of the fourth generation of the MacBook Pro, the original lead developer of Tumblr Marco Arment wrote an evocative article in which he declared the Retina MacBook Pro the best laptop ever made. The sentiment was shared by many users of various social platforms.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Apple was criticized for gluing the battery into the case, making it harder to be recycled (ease of disassembly is an EPEAT criterion), but some recycling companies have stated that the design is only "mildly inconvenient" and does not hamper the recycling process. Greenpeace spokesman Casey Harrell said Apple "has pitted design against the environment—and chosen design. They're making a big bet that people don't care, but recycling is a big issue." "Wired" also criticized Apple's recyclability claims in 2012: "<nowiki>[t]</nowiki>he design may well be 'highly recyclable aluminum and glass'—but my friends in the electronics recycling industry tell me they have no way of recycling aluminum that has glass glued to it like Apple did with both this machine and the recent iPad."


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: In June 2019, Apple announced a worldwide recall for certain 2015 15" MacBook Pro computers after receiving at least 26 reports of batteries becoming hot enough to produce smoke and inflict minor burns or property damage. The problem affected some 432,000 computers, mostly sold between September 2015 and February 2017. The company asked customers to stop using their computers until Apple could replace the batteries.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: In September 2019, India's Directorate General of Civil Aviation said MacBook Pro computers could dangerously overheat, leading the national carrier Air India to ban the model on its flights.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Apple unveiled fourth-generation 13- and 15-inch MacBook Pro models during a press event at their headquarters on October 26, 2016. All models, except for the baseline 13-inch model, featured the Touch Bar, a new multi-touch-enabled OLED strip built into the top of the keyboard in place of the function keys. The Touch Bar is abutted on its right by a sapphire-glass button that doubles as a Touch ID sensor and a power button. The models also introduced a "second-generation" butterfly-mechanism keyboard whose keys have more travel than the first iteration in the Retina MacBook. The 13-inch model has a trackpad that is 46% larger than its predecessor while the 15-inch model has a trackpad twice as large as the previous generation.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: All ports have been replaced with either two or four combination Thunderbolt 3 ports that support USB-C 3.1 Gen 2 and dual DisplayPort 1.2 signals, any of which can be used for charging. The MacBook Pro is incompatible with some older Thunderbolt 3-certified peripherals, including Intel's own reference design for Thunderbolt 3 devices. Furthermore, macOS on MacBook Pro blacklists (prevents from working) certain classes of Thunderbolt 3-compatible devices. Support for Thunderbolt 3 external graphics processing units (eGPU) was added in macOS High Sierra 10.13.4. Devices using HDMI, previous-generation Thunderbolt, and USB need an adapter to connect to the MacBook Pro. The models come with a 3.5 mm headphone jack; the TOSLINK functionality of older-generation MacBook Pro computers has been removed.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Other updates to the MacBook Pro include dual- and quad-core Intel "Skylake" Core i5 and i7 processors, improved graphics, and displays that offer a 25% wider color gamut, 67% more brightness, and 67% more contrast. All versions can output to a 5K display; the 15-inch models can drive two such displays. The 15-inch models include a discrete Radeon Pro 450, 455 or 460 graphics card in addition to the integrated Intel graphics. The base 13-inch model has function keys instead of the Touch Bar, and just two USB-C ports. The flash storage in the Touch Bar models is soldered to the logic board and is not upgradeable, while in the 13-inch model without Touch Bar, it is removable, but difficult to replace, as it is a proprietary format of SSD storage.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On June 5, 2017, Apple updated the line with Intel Kaby Lake processors and newer graphics cards. A 128 GB storage option was added for the base 13-inch model, down from the base 256 GB storage. New symbols were introduced to the control and option keys. On July 12, 2018, Apple updated the Touch Bar models with Intel Coffee Lake quad-core processors in 13-inch models and six-core processors in 15-inch models, updated graphics cards, third-generation butterfly keyboards that introduced new symbols for the control and option keys, Bluetooth 5, T2 SoC Chip, True Tone display technology, and larger-capacity batteries. The 15-inch model can also be configured with up to 4 TB of storage, 32 GB of DDR4 memory and a Core i9 processor. In late November the higher-end 15-inch model could be configured with Radeon Pro Vega graphics. On May 21, 2019, Apple announced updated Touch Bar models with newer processors, with an eight-core Core i9 standard for the higher-end 15-inch model, and an updated keyboard manufactured with "new materials" across the line. On July 9, 2019, Apple updated the 13-inch model with two Thunderbolt ports with newer quad-core eighth-generation processors and Intel Iris Plus graphics, True Tone display technology, and replaced the function keys with the Touch Bar. macOS Catalina added support for Dolby Atmos, Dolby Vision, and HDR10 on 2018 and newer models. macOS Catalina 10.15.2 added support for 6016x3384 output on 15-inch 2018 and newer models to run the Pro Display XDR at full resolution.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The 2019 MacBook Pro was the final model that could run macOS Mojave 10.14, the final MacOS version that can run 32-bit applications such as Adobe Creative Suite 6 or Microsoft Office for Mac 2011.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The fourth-generation MacBook Pro follows the design of the previous two generations, with an all-metal unibody enclosure and separated black keys. A few of the apparent design changes include a thinner chassis and screen bezel, a larger trackpad, the OLED Touch Bar, and the shallower butterfly-mechanism keyboard with less key separation than the previous models. The speaker grilles have been relocated to the sides of the keyboard on the 13-inch variant. Tear downs show that the speaker grilles on the 13-inch model with Touch Bar are "largely cosmetic", and that sound output mostly comes through the side vents. The fourth generation MacBook Pro comes in two finishes, the traditional silver color and a darker "space gray" color. The MacBook Pro model name returns to the bottom of the screen bezel in Apple's San Francisco font after being absent from the second generation with Retina display. As with the Retina MacBook, the new models replace the backlit white Apple logo on the rear of the screen, a feature dating back to the 1999 PowerBook G3, with a glossy metal version.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: MagSafe, a magnetic charging connector, has been replaced with USB-C charging. Unlike MagSafe, which provided an indicator light within the user's field of view to indicate the device's charging status, the USB-C charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The notebook now boots automatically when the lid is opened.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The battery life of the new models also got a mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. After the latter reports, Apple used a macOS update to hide the display of estimated battery time. "Consumer Reports" did not initially recommend the 2016 MacBook Pro models, citing inconsistent and unpredictable battery life in its lab testing (which involves the consecutive loading of multiple websites). However, Apple and "Consumer Reports" found that the results had been affected by a bug caused by disabling caching in Safari's developer tools. "Consumer Reports" performed the tests again with a patched macOS, and retracted its original assessment.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: iFixit scored the models 1 out of 10 for repairability, noting that memory, the processor, and flash storage are soldered to the logic board, while the battery is glued to the case. The entire assembly uses proprietary pentalobe screws and cannot be disassembled with standard tools.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: A report by AppleInsider has claimed that the updated "Butterfly" keyboard fails twice as often as previous models, often due to particles stuck beneath the keys. Repairs for stuck keys have been estimated to cost more than $700. In May 2018,


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: two class action lawsuits were filed against Apple regarding the keyboard problem; one alleged a "constant threat of nonresponsive keys and accompanying keyboard failure" and accusing Apple of not alerting consumers to the problem. In June 2018, Apple announced a Service Program to "service eligible MacBook and MacBook Pro keyboards, free of charge". The 2018 models added a membrane underneath keys to prevent malfunction from dust. As of early 2019, there were reports of problems with the same type of keyboards in the 2018 MacBook Air. In May 2019, Apple modified the keyboard for the fourth time and promised that any MacBook keyboard with butterfly switches would be repaired or replaced free of charge for a period of four years after the date of sale.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: "PC Magazine" said "the Core i9 processor Apple chose to use inside the MacBook Pro (i9-8950K) has a base clock frequency of 2.9GHz, which is capable of bursting up to 4.8GHz when necessary. However, testing carried out by YouTuber Dave Lee showed that the Core i9 couldn't even maintain 2.9GHz, let alone 4.8GHz. And it ended up running at 2.2GHz due to the heat generated inside the chassis forcing it to throttle. Lee found the 2018 i9 MacBook Pro was slower than the 2017 MacBook Pro and stated, "This isn't a problem with Intel's Core i9, it's Apple's thermal solution." When Lee put the i9 MacBook Pro inside a freezer, the render times were over 30% faster.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On July 24, 2018, Apple released a software fix for the new 2018 MacBook Pro computers which addressed the thermal throttling problem. Apple said "there is a missing digital key in the firmware that impacts the thermal management system and could drive clock speeds down under heavy thermal loads on the new MacBook Pro".


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: A "limited number" of 13-inch MacBook Pro units without Touch Bar, manufactured between October 2016 and October 2017, saw the built-in battery swell. Apple created a free replacement program for eligible units.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: A "limited number" of 128 and 256 GB solid-state drives used in 13-inch MacBook Pro (non-Touch Bar) units can lose data and fail. 13-inch MacBook Pro units with affected drives were sold between June 2017 and June 2018. This resulted in Apple launching a repair program for those affected – the repair involves the update of firmware.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Some users are reporting kernel panics on 2018 models, because of the T2 chip. Apple is already aware of the problem and performing an investigation. There are also user reports about the speaker crackling problems on the 2018 models.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Users have reported malfunctioning display cables, causing uneven lighting at the bottom of the screen and ultimately display failure. Customers of Apple have named this issue "Flexgate". The problem has been tracked to a cable, stressed from opening and closing the notebook. The entire display needs to be replaced in affected units. In May 2019 Apple initiated a program to replace the display on affected 13-inch models made in 2016 for free, and the cable on the 2018 models and onwards was made 2 mm longer than on prior models, thus reducing the likelihood of display failure. Apple has been criticized for not extending the replacement program to the 15-inch models which are also affected by this issue.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The fourth-generation MacBook Pro received mixed reviews. The display, build quality, and audio quality were praised but many complained about the butterfly keyboard; the little-used Touch Bar; and the absence of USB-A ports, HDMI port, and SD card slot.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: "Ars Technica" noted that the second-generation keyboard with firm keys was a "drastic departure" from previous Retina MacBook keyboards. It further noted that resting palms may brush the trackpad occasionally, causing inadvertent cursor jumps onscreen as the notebook interprets this as input, without one's hands or wrists actually resting on it. Bandwidth increased; the flash storage was about 40 percent faster. "Engadget" praised the thinner, lighter design; improved display and audio; and increased speed of the graphics and flash storage, but criticized the lack of ports and the price. "Wired" praised the display, calling it "the best laptop display I've ever seen", as well as praising the Touch Bar, though it criticized the need of adapters for many common connectors. Likewise, "The Verge" concluded that "using [the new MacBook] is alienating to anyone living in the present. I agree with Apple's vision of the future. I'm just not buying it today."


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Engadget voiced their concerns that "by doing things like removing full-sized USB ports, the memory card reader and even the Function row, Apple seems to have forgotten how many of us actually work". Heavy keyboard users criticized the Touch Bar, noting that command-line tools like Vim rely on keyboard usage, and the Touch Bar does not provide the tactile feedback necessary for "blind" usage of Function keys. Miriam Nielsen from "The Verge" said: "When I tried to intentionally use the Touch Bar, I felt like a kid learning how to type again. I had to keep looking down at the bar instead of looking at the images I was actually trying to edit." She also said that after learning the Touch Bar one cannot work as efficiently on any other computer. Developers have their share of headaches because they cannot rely on the Touch Bar being present on every machine that runs their software. Even if Apple makes the Touch Bar an integral part of macOS, it will take "many years" for it to become ubiquitous, in the meantime, anything in the Bar needs to be available through another part of the interface.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Also criticized were non-compatibility between Thunderbolt 2 and 3 devices. Some found unpleasant the fan whine on the 15" model, where the two integrated fans run all the time by default, thanks to the coprocessor powering the Touch Bar and higher TDP of the stronger CPU models.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: In 2016 and 2017, the Touch Bar caused concern among American state bars that the predictive text could be used to cheat on bar exams. The responses varied state by state: New York State Bar Association banned the use of the MacBook Pro on bar exams; while North Carolina Bar Association allowed students to take the state bar exam with the computer once a proctor verified that the predictive text feature had been disabled.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Apple unveiled the fifth revision of the fourth generation 13-inch MacBook Pro in 2020 and the 16-inch MacBook Pro on November 13, 2019, replacing the 15-inch model. Similar in size to the 15-inch model, it has a larger 16-inch 3072x1920 Retina display set in a narrower bezel, the largest MacBook screen since the 17-inch unibody MacBook Pro that was discontinued in 2012. It has a physical Escape key, a Touch Bar, and a now-separate sapphire-glass-covered Touch ID sensor at the right end of the Touch Bar that doubles as a power button. It uses a scissor mechanism keyboard almost identical to Apple's wireless Magic Keyboard, providing more travel than the previous revision's "Butterfly" keyboard.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Like its predecessor, the 16-inch MacBook Pro has four combined Thunderbolt 3 ports that support USB-C 3.1 Gen 2 and dual DisplayPort 1.4 signals, providing 6016×3384 output to run the Pro Display XDR at full resolution. Any port can be used for charging, it includes a 96 W USB-C power adapter. At launch only the included adapter and the Pro Display XDR provide full host power. Peripherals that delivered 87 W for the 15-inch model, such as LG Ultrafine displays, are recommended to be used with a separate power supply. It also has a 3.5 mm headphone jack.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: It uses the same Coffee Lake CPUs as the 2019 15-inch model. Purchasers can choose between AMD Radeon Pro 5300M or 5500M GPUs with up to 8 GB of GDDR6 memory (or from June 2020 onwards, a 5600M GPU with 8 GB of HBM2 memory), up to 64 GB of 2667 MHz DDR4 memory, and up to 8 TB of SSD storage. It includes better speakers, a better three-microphone array, and a 100 Wh battery, the largest that can be easily carried onto a commercial airliner under U.S. Transportation Security Administration rules.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: On May 4, 2020, Apple announced an updated 13-inch model with the Magic Keyboard. The four Thunderbolt port version comes with Ice Lake processors, updated graphics, up to 32 GB of memory and 4 TB of storage, and supports 6K output to run the Pro Display XDR. The two Thunderbolt port version has the same Coffee Lake processors, graphics, and maximum storage and memory as the 2019 two Thunderbolt port models. The 2020 13-inch models also gain 0.02 inches (0.6 mm) in thickness over the 2019 models.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: Reception to the 16-inch MacBook Pro was generally positive. "LaptopMag" called the keyboard "much-improved". "The Verge" praised the new keyboard, microphones, and speakers, but criticized the lack of peripherals such as an SD card slot. "9to5Mac" criticized the use of a 720p webcam and older 802.11ac Wi-Fi standard, noting that Apple's iPhone 11 family included a 4K front-facing camera and faster Wi-Fi 6. "MacWorld" also noted the lack of Face ID. Another review noted that the 2020 two Thunderbolt port 13-inch model is unable to run Apple's Pro Display XDR at full resolution, while the lower-priced 2020 MacBook Air can.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: There are numerous reports of cracked screens caused by closing the unit with a third-party physical webcam cover due to reduced clearance compared to previous models.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The macOS operating system has been pre-installed on all MacBook Pro computers since release, starting with version 10.4.4 (Tiger). Along with OS X, iLife has also shipped with all systems, beginning with iLife '06.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: The Intel-based MacBook Pro comes with the successor to BIOS, Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) 1.1. EFI handles booting differently from BIOS-based computers, but provides backwards compatibility, allowing dual- and triple-boot configurations. In addition to OS X, the Microsoft Windows operating system is installable on Intel x86-based Apple computers. Officially, this is limited to 32-bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, and 7, and 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, 7, 8, 8.1, and 10 with the necessary hardware drivers included with the Boot Camp software. Other x86 operating systems such as Linux are also unofficially supported. This is made possible by the presence of the Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation Apple has provided on top of EFI.


title: MacBook Pro (Intel-based)

text: macOS Big Sur, the seventeenth major release of macOS, will work with Wi-Fi and graphics acceleration on unsupported MacBook Pro computers with a compatible patch utility.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Pee-wee's Playhouse is an American television series starring Paul Reubens as the childlike Pee-wee Herman that ran from 1986 to 1990 on Saturday mornings on CBS, and airing in reruns until July 1991. The show was developed from Reubens's popular stage show and the TV special "The Pee-wee Herman Show", produced for HBO, which was similar in style but featured much more adult humor.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: In 2004 and 2007, "Pee-wee's Playhouse" was ranked No. 10 and No. 12 on "TV Guide"s Top Cult Shows Ever, respectively.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The Pee-wee Herman character was developed by Reubens into a live stage show titled "The Pee-wee Herman Show" in 1980. It features many characters that would go on to appear in "Playhouse", including Captain Carl, Jambi the Genie, Miss Yvonne, Pterri the Pterodactyl, and Clocky. While enjoying continuous popularity with the show, Reubens teamed with young director Tim Burton in 1985 to make the comedy film "Pee-wee's Big Adventure". It became one of the year's surprise hits, costing a relatively modest $6 million to make but taking in $45 million at the box office.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: After seeing the success of "Pee-wee's Big Adventure", the CBS network approached Reubens with an ill-received cartoon series proposal. In 1986, CBS agreed to sign Reubens to act, produce, and direct his own live-action Saturday morning children's program, "Pee-wee's Playhouse", with a budget of per episode (comparable to that of a half-hour prime-time sitcom), and full creative control although CBS did request a few minor changes over the years.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Reubens assembled a supporting troupe that included ex-Groundlings and cast members from "The Pee-wee Herman Show", including Phil Hartman, John Paragon, Lynne Marie Stewart, Laurence Fishburne, and S. Epatha Merkerson. Production began in New York City in the summer of 1986 in a converted loft on Broadway, which one of the show's writers, George McGrath, described as a "sweatshop". Reubens moved the production to Los Angeles for season two in 1987, resulting in a new set and a more relaxed work atmosphere.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The creative design of the show was concocted by a troupe of artists including Wayne White, Gary Panter, Craig Bartlett, Nick Park, Richard Goleszowski, Gregory Harrison, Ric Heitzman, and Phil Trumbo. The first day of production, right as Panter began reading the scripts to find out where everything would be situated, set workers hurriedly asked him, "Where's the plans? All the carpenters are standing here ready to build everything." Panter responded, "You just have to give us 15 minutes to design this thing!" When asked about the styles that went into the set design, Panter said, "This was like the hippie dream ... It was a show made by artists ... We put art history all over the show. It's really like ... I think Mike Kelley said, and it's right, that it's kind of like the Googie style – it's like those LA types of coffee shops and stuff but kind of psychedelic, over-the-top." Several artistic filmmaking techniques are featured on the program including chroma key, stop-motion animation, and clay animation.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: "Pee-Wee's Playhouse" was designed as an educational yet entertaining and artistic show for children. Its conception was greatly influenced by 1950s shows Reubens had watched as a child, like "The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show", "The Mickey Mouse Club", "Captain Kangaroo", and "Howdy Doody". The show quickly acquired a dual audience of kids and adults. Reubens, always trying to make Pee-wee a positive role model, sought to make a significantly moral show that would teach children the ethics of reciprocity. Reubens believed that children liked the Playhouse because it was fast-paced, colorful, and "never talked down to them", while parents liked the Playhouse because it reminded them of the past.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: At the start of season two, the show moved from its New York City warehouse studio to facilities at the Hollywood Center Studios, creating changes in personnel and a change to the set that allowed the show to take advantage of the additional space. The show changed production facilities again in 1989 during its fourth season, this time at the Culver Studios, also in Los Angeles.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The premise of the show is that host Pee-wee Herman plays in the fantastic Playhouse in Puppetland. The house is filled with toys, gadgets, talking furniture and appliances (such as Magic Screen and Chairry), puppet characters (such as Conky the Robot, Pterri the baby Pteranodon), and Jambi (John Paragon), a disembodied genie's head who lives in a jeweled box. The Playhouse is visited by a regular cast of human characters, including Miss Yvonne (Lynne Marie Stewart), Reba The Mail Lady (S. Epatha Merkerson), Captain Carl (Phil Hartman), Cowboy Curtis (Laurence Fishburne), and a small group of children, The Playhouse Gang.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Although primarily a live-action comedy, each episode includes segments featuring puppetry, video animation, and prepared sequences using Chroma-key and stock footage (for example when Pee-wee jumps into the Magic Screen), as well as inserted clay animation sequences (some made by Aardman Animations, who would later make "Wallace & Gromit") and excerpts from cartoons from the Golden Age of American animation and in the public domain, usually presented by the character "The King of Cartoons". Each episode features specially written soundtrack music by rock and pop musicians such as Mark Mothersbaugh (Devo), Todd Rundgren, Mitchell Froom, and The Residents. The show's theme song performance is credited to "Ellen Shaw", though in her autobiography, Cyndi Lauper admits to being the actual singer.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The show has many recurring gags, themes, and devices. Each episode usually contained a running gag particular to that episode, or a specific event or dilemma that sends Pee-wee into an emotional frenzy. At the beginning of each episode, viewers are told the day's "secret word" (often issued by Conky the Robot) and are instructed to "scream real loud" every time a character says the word.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: CBS and Reubens mutually agreed to end the show at the end of the 1990–91 season after 5 seasons and 45 episodes. The last original episode aired on November 17, 1990. In July 1991, Reubens was arrested for exposing himself in a Sarasota, Florida, adult movie theater, prompting CBS to immediately stop airing its "Playhouse" re-runs, which were originally intended to air until late 1991. The show was replaced by reruns of "The Adventures of Raggedy Ann and Andy".


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The music for the show was provided by a diverse set of musicians, including Mark Mothersbaugh, The Residents, Todd Rundgren, Danny Elfman (who provided the score for both of the "Pee-wee" movies), Mitchell Froom, Van Dyke Parks, George S. Clinton, and Dweezil Zappa with Scott Thunes (spelled 'Tunis' in the credits).


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Mothersbaugh, who later went on to become a fixture in composing music for children's shows like "Rugrats", joined the show on hiatus from recording with Devo.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: The opening prelude theme is an interpretation of Les Baxter's "Quiet Village". The theme song, which originally followed the prelude, was performed by Cyndi Lauper (credited as "Ellen Shaw"), imitating Betty Boop. For the final season in 1990, a new version of the prelude theme was recorded, and the opening theme was slightly edited.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Many now-well-known TV and film actors appeared on the show, including Sandra Bernhard, Laurence Fishburne, Phil Hartman, Natasha Lyonne, S. Epatha Merkerson, Jimmy Smits, and Lynne Stewart. Future heavy metal musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie was a production assistant, and future filmmaker John Singleton was a security guard.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Season 3 (which consisted of only three episodes) included an all-star Christmas special featuring the regular cast, with appearances by Annette Funicello, Frankie Avalon, Magic Johnson, Dinah Shore, Joan Rivers, Zsa Zsa Gabor, Oprah Winfrey, Whoopi Goldberg, Little Richard, Cher, Charo, k.d. lang, the Del Rubio triplets, and Grace Jones.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: As soon as it first aired, "Pee-wee's Playhouse" fascinated media theorists and commentators, many of whom championed the show as a postmodernist hodgepodge of characters and situations that appeared to thumb its nose at the racist and sexist presumptions of dominant culture. For example, Pee-wee's friends, both human and not, were of diverse cultural and racial origins. In its entire run, "Pee-wee's Playhouse" won 15 Emmys, as well as other awards. "Captain Kangaroo"'s Bob Keeshan hailed the show's "awesome production values," adding, "with the possible exception of the Muppets, you can't find such creativity anywhere on TV."


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: "I'm just trying to illustrate that it's okay to be different — not that it's good, not that it's bad, but that it's all right. I'm trying to tell kids to have a good time and to encourage them to be creative and to question things," Reubens told an interviewer in "Rolling Stone".


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: On November 1, 2011, in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the show, a book by Caseen Gaines called "Inside Pee-wee's Playhouse: The Untold, Unauthorized, and Unpredictable Story of a Pop Phenomenon", was released by ECW Press.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: Image Entertainment has released all 45 episodes of "Pee-wee's Playhouse" on DVD as NTSC Region 0 discs.


title: Pee-wee's Playhouse

text: On July 3, 2013, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the rights to the entire series from Paul Reubens, which was released on Blu-ray on October 21, 2014. In addition, the entire series was digitally remastered from the original 16 mm film elements and original audio tracks. As of March 24, 2022, this title is out-of-print.


title: Menhir

text: A menhir (from Brittonic languages: "maen" or "men", "stone" and "hir" or "hîr", "long"), standing stone, orthostat, or lith is a large human-made upright stone, typically dating from the European middle Bronze Age. They can be found individually as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Menhirs' size can vary considerably, but they often taper toward the top.


title: Menhir

text: They are widely distributed across Europe, Africa and Asia, but are most numerous in Western Europe; particularly in Ireland, Great Britain, and Brittany, where there are about 50,000 examples, and northwestern France, where there are some 1,200 further examples. Standing stones are usually difficult to date. They were constructed during many different periods across pre-history as part of the larger megalithic cultures in Europe and near areas.


title: Menhir

text: Some menhirs stand next to buildings that have an early or current religious significance. One example is the South Zeal Menhir in Devon, which formed the basis for a 12th-century monastery built by lay monks. The monastery later became the Oxenham Arms hotel, at South Zeal, and the standing stone remains in place in the snug bar at the hotel.


title: Menhir

text: Where menhirs appear in groups, often in a circular, oval, henge or horseshoe formation, they are sometimes called megalithic monuments. These are sites of ancient religious ceremonies, sometimes containing burial chambers. The exact function of menhirs has provoked more debate than practically any other issue in European pre-history. Over the centuries, they have variously been thought to have been used by Druids for human sacrifice, used as territorial markers, or elements of a complex ideological system, used as mnemonic systems for oral cultures, or functioned as early calendars. Until the nineteenth century, antiquarians did not have substantial knowledge of prehistory, and their only reference points were provided by classical literature. The developments of radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology have significantly advanced scientific knowledge in this area.


title: Menhir

text: The word "menhir" was adopted from French by 19th-century archaeologists. The introduction of the word into general archaeological usage has been attributed to the 18th-century French military officer Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne. It is a combination of two words of the Breton language: "maen" and "hir". In modern Welsh, they are described as "maen hir", or "long stone". In modern Breton, the word "peulvan" is used, with "peul" meaning "stake" or "post" and "van" which is a soft mutation of the word "maen" which means "stone". In Germany and Scandinavia the word "Bauta" is used (e.g. and ) and this occasionally makes its way into English with the term "bauta stone".


title: Menhir

text: Almost nothing is known of the social organization or religious beliefs of the people who erected the menhirs. Their language is also unknown. It is known, however, that they buried their dead and had the skills to grow crops, farm and make pottery, stone tools and jewelry. Identifying the purpose or use of menhirs remains speculative. Until recently, standing stones were associated with the Beaker people, who inhabited Europe during the European late Neolithic and early Bronze Age—later third millennium BC, c. 2800–1800 BC. However, recent research into the age of megaliths in Brittany strongly suggests a far older origin, perhaps back to six to seven thousand years ago.


title: Menhir

text: Many menhirs are engraved with megalithic art. This often turned them into anthropomorphic stelae, although images of objects such as stone axes, ploughs, shepherds' crooks, and yokes were common. With the exception of the stone axe, none of these motifs are definitely portraying what they are named after, and the name used to describe them is largely for convenience. Some menhirs were broken up and incorporated into later passage graves, where they had new megalithic art carved with little regard for the previous pictures. It is not known if this re-use was deliberate or if the passage grave builders just saw menhirs as a convenient source of stone (Le Roux 1992).


title: Menhir

text: During the Middle Ages, standing stones were believed to have been built by the giants who lived before the biblical flood. Many of the megaliths were destroyed or defaced by early Christians; it is estimated that some 50,000 megaliths once stood in Northern Europe, where almost 10,000 now remain.


title: Menhir

text: In 2019, four menhirs and nearly 1,000 small and big dolmens were found in India at the Pothamala hills at the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border.


title: Menhir

text: It is believed that the practitioners of the megalithic faith travelled via the sea, as the mass majority of menhirs are located on coasts, islands, and peninsulas.


title: Farm cat

text: The farm cat, also known as a barn cat, is a domestic cat, usually of mixed breed, that lives primarily outdoors, in a feral or semi-feral condition on agricultural properties, usually sheltering in outbuildings. They eat assorted vermin such as rodents and other small animals that live in or around outbuildings and farm fields. The need for the farm cat may have been the original reason cats were domesticated, to keep rodents from consuming or contaminating grain crops stored for later human consumption. They are still commonly kept for their effectiveness at controlling undesired vermin found on farms, ranches, greenhouses, and even drug farms, which would otherwise eat or contaminate crops, especially grain or feed stocks. Farm cats hunt the initial rodent population, and their pheromones keep further rodents from filling the void.


title: Farm cat

text: Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest domestication of cats occurred about 7500 BC and was motivated by the human need to safeguard grain stores from rodents.


title: Farm cat

text: Farm cats live in a variety of conditions. Some are feral with minimal human contact, and no veterinary care, and derive sustenance solely from their job of lowering the mouse and rat populations. Lack of a guaranteed food supply, internal parasites, and greater physical exertion tends to make these cats thinner than their house cat counterparts, with a shorter lifespan. Others are kept as part-time pets, living both indoors and out, roaming freely, yet allowed inside to be fed supplemental cat food on a regular basis, and given routine veterinary care. Yet others live outdoors or in outbuildings full-time in semi-feral conditions, but are still tamed to be friendly toward humans and may be given basic veterinary care. All are subject to some risks inherent to outdoor life. Their prey may transmit parasites and disease, they may be injured by various means, and they can be struck by vehicles. Also, farm cats often die from poisoning by eating the corpses of poisoned rodents. Predation is also possible: cats are eaten by raccoons, owls, coyotes, and other animals that prey on creatures of their size.


title: Farm cat

text: Some full-time outdoor cats are given cat food by property owners, either to encourage them to stay or due to humane motivations of not wanting thin, hungry, or sick animals on the property. Other property owners deliberately do not feed outside farm cats, in the incorrect belief that they will not hunt rodents if they have supplemental food. Without supplementary food, cats will exterminate much of the local rodent population and move on, leaving only a temporary void. However, one concern with providing supplemental outdoor feed is that it can attract skunks, raccoons and other vermin.


title: Farm cat

text: Farm cats originate from a variety of sources. Sometimes, farm cat populations are spontaneously established when abandoned or stray animals, uninvited by humans, move into areas where prey is available, such as haystacks or farm outbuildings that contain stored crops or livestock fodder. In other cases, property owners obtain and release a few cats specifically for rodent control. Some animal shelters have Working Cat or "Barn Buddy" programs that re-home sterilized feral and semi-feral cats at barns, warehouses, stores, and more. These programs have been growing in popularity in cities like Chicago, where rat problems are common.


title: Farm cat

text: If a population of feral adult female farm cats is high enough, a farm cat population can be self-sustaining. The females establish permanent homes in barns or other structures and raise repeated litters. Males may stay around if food is plentiful, though they tend to roam over a wider territory. Farm cat colonies can be subject to inbreeding, as a closed population may mate with one another's siblings, parents, or offspring. Spaying and neutering prevent unwanted litters, overpopulation, and inbreeding. In some cases, feral animals are trapped, spayed or neutered, then re-released to keep their territory claimed and to prevent new, fertile strays from taking up residence.


title: Farm cat

text: If given supplemental food or where rodents are plentiful, losses from predation or disease may be made up by new stray animals moving into the territory. If given no supplemental food, particularly in areas with many predators, farm cat populations may occasionally become extirpated if there are few nearby strays and a low breeding population. Predators, accidents, disease, parasites and hunger will all take a toll. More often, especially when supplemental food is provided, overpopulation is common, and losses then occur primarily due to disease or accidents, with predation playing a minor role—all insufficient to make a substantial dent in the population. Where numbers become an issue, some farm cat populations are controlled by shooting, poisoning, or trapping excess numbers.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: Angela Featherstone is an actress, writer, director, and advocate for children in foster care. She grew up in the Nova Scotia and Manitoba provinces of Canada.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: Within a year of emancipating herself from foster care at age 17, Featherstone became Canada's top model when her September Flare Magazine cover broke all previous records for sales. She quickly expanded upon her success and left for New York, where she signed with the illustrious Click models and later would be one of the first models signed to Next. She would travel the world in the 80s as a top fashion model.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: For acting, she downplayed her striking features to play unlikely roles, emerging as a versatile actress. She is best known for playing the Maid on Seinfeld, Chloe in Friends, and the fiancé (Linda), who left Adam Sandler's character (Robbie) at the altar in The Wedding Singer. Most recently, she played the role of Maggie on Showtime's Ray Donovan and Jame on Girls for HBO.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: Featherstone has created sitcoms for Sony, DreamWorks, and NBC television and has written nonfiction for "Time", "Jane", "Flare", "Huffington Post", "Dame", and "Zoomer". Her essay about childhood trauma,"God Said No", was published in the 2014 edition of "Gargoyle" Magazine and nominated for the Pushcart Prize. "In 2021 she published the essay 'Forgiveness' in Dame magazine."


title: Angela Featherstone

text: An alumnus of UCLA Extension Writer's Program "Personal Essay & Memoir," she is completing her memoir.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: In 2022, Featherstone began directing with her debut seven-minute film,'L'Étranger.' As a director, she combines her years of experience in fashion as a model; working with important photographers and magazines such as; Italian, French, and American Vogue, Mademoiselle, Seventeen, Sassy, Harpers Bazaar Italia, Grazia, Harpers & Queens, Albert Watson, Bruce Weber, Irving Penn, her love of cinema and decades in the film industry; a refined sense of story as an oft published essayist; her passion for philosophy; and a love of creating safe spaces for collaboration, into a movement of aesthetic bliss.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: In 2011, she curated Fuck Pretty, a critically acclaimed photography exhibit at the Robert Berman Gallery - featuring emerging female photographers.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: In 2014, she was an adjunct lecturer at the UCLA Professional Producing Program. In 2022, she produced, 'L'Étranger'.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: Featherstone, a committed advocate for children in foster care, volunteered with the Children's Action Network curating their Heart Gallery from 2011 to 2019 and served on their Winter Wonderland committee in 2014 and 2015. She also mentored a child in foster care through Kidsave from 2011 to 2020.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: In 2021, she founded the nonprofit healing school for youth aging out of foster care, Fosteringcare.org. Through this trauma-healing intensive and healing-trade program, she and the founding board members hope to impact the brutal statistics for this extraordinarily vulnerable demographic.


title: Angela Featherstone

text: In 2014, she lectured at the ICAN Nexus Conference on Violence Within the Home and its Effects on Children. She continues to lecture and write about healing PTSD, child abuse, human trafficking, and intimacy. Her 2015 essay on child sex trafficking for DAME was picked up by Salon.org and MSN and exposed to over seven million viewers. 2022 marks her 13th year studying moral and spiritual psychology with Rabbi Mordecai Finley, Ph.D. Recently, Featherstone served as a consultant on Cracked Up, a Netflix documentary about the effects and healing of trauma.


title: Green algae

text: The green algae (singular: green alga) are a group consisting of the Prasinodermophyta and its unnamed sister which contains the Chlorophyta and Charophyta/Streptophyta. The land plants (Embryophytes) have emerged deep in the Charophyte alga as sister of the Zygnematophyceae. Since the realization that the Embryophytes emerged within the green algae, some authors are starting to properly include them. The completed clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 22,000 species of green algae. Many species live most of their lives as single cells, while other species form coenobia (colonies), long filaments, or highly differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.


title: Green algae

text: A few other organisms rely on green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them. The chloroplasts in dinoflagellates of the genus "Lepidodinium", euglenids and chlorarachniophytes were acquired from ingested green algae, and in the latter retain a nucleomorph (vestigial nucleus). Green algae are also found symbiotically in the ciliate "Paramecium", and in "Hydra viridissima" and in flatworms. Some species of green algae, particularly of genera "Trebouxia" of the class "Trebouxiophyceae" and "Trentepohlia" (class Ulvophyceae), can be found in symbiotic associations with fungi to form lichens. In general the fungal species that partner in lichens cannot live on their own, while the algal species is often found living in nature without the fungus. "Trentepohlia" is a filamentous green alga that can live independently on humid soil, rocks or tree bark or form the photosymbiont in lichens of the family Graphidaceae. Also the macroalga "Prasiola calophylla" (Trebouxiophyceae) is terrestrial, and


title: Green algae

text: "Prasiola crispa", which live in the supralittoral zone, is terrestrial and can in the Antarctic form large carpets on humid soil, especially near bird colonies.


title: Green algae

text: Green algae have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll "a" and "b", giving them a bright green color, as well as the accessory pigments beta carotene (red-orange) and xanthophylls (yellow) in stacked thylakoids. The cell walls of green algae usually contain cellulose, and they store carbohydrate in the form of starch.


title: Green algae

text: All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present, paired flagella are used to move the cell. They are anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules and fibrous strands. Flagella are only present in the motile male gametes of charophytes bryophytes, pteridophytes, cycads and "Ginkgo", but are absent from the gametes of Pinophyta and flowering plants.


title: Green algae

text: Members of the class Chlorophyceae undergo closed mitosis in the most common form of cell division among the green algae, which occurs via a phycoplast. By contrast, charophyte green algae and land plants (embryophytes) undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Instead, a 'raft' of microtubules, the phragmoplast, is formed from the mitotic spindle and cell division involves the use of this phragmoplast in the production of a cell plate.


title: Green algae

text: Photosynthetic eukaryotes originated following a primary endosymbiotic event, where a heterotrophic eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthetic cyanobacterium-like prokaryote that became stably integrated and eventually evolved into a membrane-bound organelle: the plastid. This primary endosymbiosis event gave rise to three autotrophic clades with primary plastids: the (green) plants (with chloroplasts) the red algae (with rhodoplasts) and the glaucophytes (with muroplasts).


title: Green algae

text: Green algae are often classified with their embryophyte descendants in the green plant clade Viridiplantae (or Chlorobionta). Viridiplantae, together with red algae and glaucophyte algae, form the supergroup Primoplantae, also known as Archaeplastida or Plantae "sensu lato". The ancestral green alga was a unicellular flagellate.


title: Green algae

text: The Viridiplantae diverged into two clades. The Chlorophyta include the early diverging prasinophyte lineages and the core Chlorophyta, which contain the majority of described species of green algae. The Streptophyta include charophytes and land plants. Below is a consensus reconstruction of green algal relationships, mainly based on molecular data.


title: Green algae

text: The basal character of the Mesostigmatophyceae, Chlorokybophyceae and "spirotaenia" are only more conventionally basal Streptophytes.


title: Green algae

text: The algae of this paraphyletic group "Charophyta" were previously included in Chlorophyta, so green algae and Chlorophyta in this definition were synonyms. As the green algae clades get further resolved, the embryophytes, which are a deep charophyte branch, are included in "algae", "green algae" and "Charophytes", or these terms are replaced by cladistic terminology such as Archaeplastida, Plantae/Viridiplantae, and streptophytes, respectively.


title: Green algae

text: Green algae are a group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that include species with haplobiontic and diplobiontic life cycles. The diplobiontic species, such as "Ulva", follow a reproductive cycle called alternation of generations in which two multicellular forms, haploid and diploid, alternate, and these may or may not be isomorphic (having the same morphology). In haplobiontic species only the haploid generation, the gametophyte is multicellular. The fertilized egg cell, the diploid zygote, undergoes meiosis, giving rise to haploid cells which will become new gametophytes. The diplobiontic forms, which evolved from haplobiontic ancestors, have both a multicellular haploid generation and a multicellular diploid generation. Here the zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis and grows into a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate to produce a multicellular gametophyte. All land plants have a diplobiontic common ancestor, and diplobiontic forms have also evolved independently within Ulvophyceae more than once (as has also occurred in the red and brown algae).


title: Green algae

text: Diplobiontic green algae include isomorphic and heteromorphic forms. In isomorphic algae, the morphology is identical in the haploid and diploid generations. In heteromorphic algae, the morphology and size are different in the gametophyte and sporophyte.


title: Green algae

text: Reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae called prasinophytes.


title: Green algae

text: Haploid algal cells (containing only one copy of their DNA) can fuse with other haploid cells to form diploid zygotes. When filamentous algae do this, they form bridges between cells, and leave empty cell walls behind that can be easily distinguished under the light microscope. This process is called "conjugation" and occurs for example in "Spirogyra".


title: Green algae

text: Sex pheromone production is likely a common feature of green algae, although only studied in detail in a few model organisms. "Volvox" is a genus of chlorophytes. Different species form spherical colonies of up to 50,000 cells. One well-studied species, "Volvox carteri" (2,000 – 6,000 cells) occupies temporary pools of water that tend to dry out in the heat of late summer. As their environment dries out, asexual "V. carteri" quickly die. However, they are able to escape death by switching, shortly before drying is complete, to the sexual phase of their life cycle that leads to production of dormant desiccation-resistant zygotes. Sexual development is initiated by a glycoprotein pheromone (Hallmann et al., 1998). This pheromone is one of the most potent known biological effector molecules. It can trigger sexual development at concentrations as low as 10M. Kirk and Kirk showed that sex-inducing pheromone production can be triggered experimentally in somatic cells by heat shock. Thus heat shock may be a condition that ordinarily triggers sex-inducing pheromone in nature.


title: Green algae

text: The "Closterium peracerosum-strigosum-littorale (C. psl)" complex is a unicellular, isogamous charophycean alga group that is the closest unicellular relative to land plants. Heterothallic strains of different mating type can conjugate to form zygospores. Sex pheromones termed protoplast-release inducing proteins (glycopolypeptides) produced by mating-type (-) and mating-type (+) cells facilitate this process.


title: Green algae

text: The green algae, including the characean algae, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the ionic and water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Deborah Esther Lipstadt (born March 18, 1947) is an American historian, best known as author of the books "Denying the Holocaust" (1993), "History on Trial: My Day in Court with a Holocaust Denier" (2005), "The Eichmann Trial" (2011), and "" (2019). She has served as the United States Special Envoy for Monitoring and Combating Anti-Semitism since May 3, 2022. Since 1993 she has been the Dorot Professor of Modern Jewish History and Holocaust Studies at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt was a consultant to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. In 1994, President of the United States Bill Clinton appointed her to the United States Holocaust Memorial Council, and she served two terms. On July 30, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated her to be the United States Special Envoy for Monitoring and Combating Anti-Semitism. She was confirmed by voice-vote on March 30, 2022 and sworn in on May 3, 2022.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt was born in New York City to a Jewish family, the daughter of Miriam (née Peiman; 1915–2013) and Erwin Lipstadt (1903–1972). Her mother was born in Canada, and her father, a salesman, was born in Germany. Her parents met at their neighborhood synagogue. She has an older sister, Helene, a historian, and a younger brother, Nathaniel, an investor on Wall Street.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In her youth, she studied at the Hebrew Institute of Long Island, and grew up in Far Rockaway, Queens. She studied with Rabbi Emanuel Rackman at Temple Shaarei Tefillah. Lipstadt spent summers at Camp Massad.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: She spent her junior year of college in Israel during the Six-Day War, where she stayed as an exchange student at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She completed her undergraduate work in American history at the City College of New York in 1969, receiving a BA. She then enrolled at Brandeis University where she completed her Masters in 1972 and then her Ph.D. in Near Eastern and Judaic Studies in 1976. Her doctoral dissertation was entitled "The Zionist Career of Louis Lipsky, 1900–1921".


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: After receiving her Ph.D., Lipstadt began teaching, first at the University of Washington in Seattle from 1974 to 1979, then as an assistant professor at UCLA. When she was denied tenure there, she left in 1985 to be the director of the independent Brandeis-Bardin Institute for two years, during which time she also wrote a monthly column for "The Jewish Spectator". Lipstadt then received a research fellowship from the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, during which she studied Holocaust denial, and taught at Occidental College part time.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt then became an Assistant Professor of Religion at Emory University in Atlanta in January 1993, becoming the Dorot Professor of Modern Jewish and Holocaust Studies that fall. She helped to create the Institute for Jewish Studies there.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In May 2021, Lipstadt was considered for an ambassadorship position at the Office to Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism in the Biden administration.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: On July 30, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Lipstadt for this role. Opposition from Senator Ron Johnson, whom she had tweeted was advocating "white supremacy/nationalism", delayed her nomination for many months. Her initial nomination expired at the end of the year and was returned to President Biden on January 3, 2022.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held hearings on her nomination on February 8, 2022. On March 29, 2022, the committee favorably reported her nomination out of committee. Her nomination was supported by all committee Democrats, as well as senators Mitt Romney and Marco Rubio. Her nomination was confirmed by voice vote on March 30, 2022, and she was sworn in on May 3, 2022.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: On September 5, 1996, author David Irving sued Lipstadt and her publisher Penguin Books for libel in an English court for characterizing some of his writings and public statements as Holocaust denial in her book "Denying the Holocaust".


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt's legal defense team was led by Anthony Julius of Mishcon de Reya while Penguin's was led by Kevin Bays and Mark Bateman of Davenport Lyons. Both defendants instructed Richard Rampton QC, while Penguin also instructed Heather Rogers as junior counsel. The expert witnesses for the defence included Cambridge historian Richard J. Evans, Christopher Browning, Robert Jan van Pelt, and Peter Longerich.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: English libel law places the burden of proof on the defendant rather than the plaintiff. using the justification defense, namely by demonstrating in court that Lipstadt's accusations against Irving were substantially true and therefore not libelous. The case was argued as a bench trial before Mr Justice Gray, who produced a written judgment 349 pages long detailing Irving's systematic distortion of the historical record of World War II. "The Times" (April 14, 2000, p. 23) said of Lipstadt's victory, "History has had its day in court and scored a crushing victory."


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Despite her acrimonious history with Irving, Lipstadt has stated that she is personally opposed to the three-year prison sentence Austria imposed on Irving for two speeches he made in 1989, where he claimed there had been no gas chambers at Auschwitz. In Austria, minimizing the atrocities of the Third Reich is a crime punishable with up to 10 years' imprisonment. Speaking of Irving, Lipstadt said, "I am uncomfortable with imprisoning people for speech. Let him go and let him fade from everyone's radar screens ... Generally, I don't think Holocaust denial should be a crime. I am a free speech person, I am against censorship."


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In February 2007, Lipstadt warned of "soft-core denial" at the Zionist Federation's annual fundraising dinner in London. Referring to groups such as the Muslim Council of Britain, reportedly she stated: "When groups of people refuse to commemorate Holocaust Memorial Day unless equal time is given to anti-Muslim prejudice, this is soft-core denial." According to Jonny Paul, "She received huge applause when she asked how former United States President Jimmy Carter could omit the years 1939–1947 from a chronology in his book"; referring to his recently published and controversial book "", she said: "When a former president of the United States writes a book on the Israeli–Palestinian crisis and writes a chronology at the beginning of the book in order to help them understand the emergence of the situation and in that chronology lists nothing of importance between 1939 and 1947, that is soft-core denial."


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Along the same lines, Lipstadt has criticized the German philosopher and historian Ernst Nolte for engaging in what she calls "soft-core denial" of the Holocaust, arguing that Nolte practices an even more dangerous form of negationism than the Holocaust deniers. Speaking of Nolte in a 2003 interview, Lipstadt stated:


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In late 2011, Lipstadt attacked American and Israeli politicians for what she called their invocation of the Holocaust for contemporary political purposes, something she thought mangled history. She rebuked Republican Party presidential candidates for speeches that 'pandered' to the Evangelical constituency, as much as it did to the Republican Jewish Coalition. She also judged Howard Gutman's remarks on causal links between Muslim antisemitism and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as "stupid". According to "Haaretz", "She decried the 'hysteria' and 'neuroses' of many Jews and Israelis who compare the current situation in Europe and in the Middle East to the Holocaust-era":


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In the same interview, she argued that "If anti-Semitism becomes the reason through which your Jewish view of the world is refracted, if it becomes your prism, then it is very unhealthy. Jewish tradition never wanted that." She said "You listen to Newt Gingrich talking about the Palestinians as an 'invented people'—it's out-Aipacking AIPAC, it's out-Israeling Israel". On a visit to London in September 2014, Lipstadt criticized the Israeli government and said that the government had "cheapened" the memory of the Holocaust by using it to justify war. She has also rejected the view that Israeli military actions during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict constituted a genocide.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt returned to the theme of soft-core Holocaust denial in "The Atlantic" when responding to the Trump administration's statement on International Holocaust Remembrance Day, January 27, 2017 which was condemned for the absence of a specific mention of Jews, as the principal victims of the Holocaust or of antisemitism itself. "The Holocaust was de-Judaized. It is possible that it all began with a mistake. Someone simply did not realize what they were doing. It is also possible that someone did this deliberately."


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In February 2019, Lipstadt resigned her membership in the Young Israel synagogue movement because its national council president defended Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's facilitation of a merger between the Bayit Yehudi party and the extremist Otzma Yehudit party.


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: In October 2019, Lipstadt had a letter to the editor published in "The New York Times", prompted by the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Peter Handke, in which she wrote that the Nobel Committee awarded Handke a platform "he does not deserve" and that "the public does not need him to have", adding that such a platform could convince some that his "false claims must have some legitimacy".


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: After the publication of "Denying the Holocaust" in June 1993, Lipstadt received the 1994 National Jewish Book Award. Already a consultant to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, President Bill Clinton appointed her in 1994 to the United States Holocaust Memorial Council. In 1997, Lipstadt received the Emory Williams teaching award for excellence in teaching. She is also a recipient of the Albert D. Chernin Award from the Jewish Council for Public Affairs, which is given to "an American Jew whose work best exemplifies the social justice imperatives of Judaism, Jewish history and the protection of the Bill of Rights, particularly the First Amendment." Previous recipients of the Award include Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Alan Dershowitz. Lipstadt was awarded the 2005 National Jewish Book Award in the Holocaust category for "History on Trial: My Day in Court with a Holocaust Denier" "and the" 2019 National Jewish Book Award in Education and Jewish Identity for "Antisemitism: Here and Now."


title: Deborah Lipstadt

text: Lipstadt has received honorary doctorates from a number of institutions, including Ohio Wesleyan University, John Jay College of Criminal Justice of the City University of New York, Yeshiva University, and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, among others.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: José Huertas González (born March 18, 1946) better known as Invader 1, is a Puerto Rican retired professional wrestler, who wrestled in the United States and around the world, especially in Puerto Rico. He was charged with the murder of wrestler Frank Goodish (Bruiser Brody), but was acquitted due to self defense in contentious circumstances, particularly as key witnesses to the incident were unable to testify due to receiving their summons after the trial had concluded, domestic witnesses and event investors corroborated a different account than foreign witnesses, and that the murder weapon mysteriously vanished. It is believed by nearly all involved that González killed Brody.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: Since 1973, he was a wrestler and booker for the World Wrestling Council and wrestled for the International Wrestling Association. He held the Puerto Rico heavyweight title twelve times between 1977 and 2001, and the WWC Television Title five times between 1986 and 1991. He retired in 2006 to enter politics.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: González began wrestling as The Prophet in Chicago. In 1972 he joined the WWF. When he returned to Puerto Rico to fight with Capitol Sport Promotion, he took on the masked persona of The Invader so his mother would not know he was a wrestler. He fought on The Invaders tag team with Roberto Soto as Invader 2 and then Johnny Rivera as Invader 3. The Invaders worked as a mid-card tag team in the WWF in the early 1980s.They left WWF in 1984. He would return to Puerto Rico working for International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico) and World Wrestling Council.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: In 2012, González became the corporative director of the World Wrestling League. In 2015, he was inducted into the "Salón de los Inmortales".


title: José González (wrestler)

text: González made an appearance at IWA on March 12, 2022, in Humacao, Puerto Rico with arch enemy Chicky Starr as a guest referees for a tag team match between Savio Vega & Electro against Manny Ferno & Khris Diaz.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: April 30, 2022 in Humacao, Puerto Rico on Juicio Final, with Savio Vega & Chicky Starr as guest referees he defeated Manny Ferno to win the World Championship and has been recognized as the eldest wrestler (76 years) to win a championship.


title: José González (wrestler)

text: In July 1988, González fatally stabbed professional wrestler Frank Donald Goodish, known as Bruiser Brody, backstage during a wrestling event in Puerto Rico. González was acquitted of murder in 1989 after a jury accepted that he was acting in self-defense. Another wrestler, Tony Atlas, says he witnessed the stabbing in the locker room showers, but the knife used in the stabbing was not recovered. Tony Atlas and Dutch Mantel were called to testify, however the subpoenas were mailed late, arriving ten days after the trial ended. The investigation was criticised in "Dark Side of the Ring" and two books about Brody: "Bruiser Brody" (Crowbar Press) and "Brody" (ECW Press).


title: Bara (genre)

text: The use of "bara" as an umbrella term to describe gay Japanese comic art is largely a non-Japanese phenomenon, and its use is not universally accepted by creators of gay manga. In non-Japanese contexts, "bara" is used to describe a wide breadth of Japanese and Japanese-inspired gay erotic media, including illustrations published in early Japanese gay men's magazines, western fan art, and gay pornography featuring human actors. "Bara" is distinct from "yaoi", a genre of Japanese media focusing on homoerotic relationships between male characters that historically has been created by and for women.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The term , which translates literally to "rose" in Japanese, has historically been used in Japan as a pejorative for gay men, roughly equivalent to the English language term "pansy". Beginning in the 1960s, the term was reappropriated by Japanese gay media: notably with the 1961 anthology , a collection of semi-nude photographs of gay writer Yukio Mishima by photographer Eikoh Hosoe, and later with in 1971, the first commercially produced gay magazine in Asia. "Bara-eiga" ("rose film") was additionally used in the 1980s to describe gay cinema.


title: Bara (genre)

text: By the late 1980s, as LGBT political movements in Japan began to form, the term fell out of use, with becoming the preferred nomenclature for people who experience same-sex attraction. The term was revived as a pejorative in the late 1990s concurrent with the rise of internet message boards and chat rooms, where heterosexual administrators designated the gay sections of their websites as "bara boards" or "bara chat". The term was subsequently adopted by non-Japanese users of these websites, who believed that "bara" was the proper designation for the images and artwork being posted on these forums. Since the 2000s, "bara" has been used by this non-Japanese audience as an umbrella term to describe a wide variety of Japanese and non-Japanese gay media featuring masculine men, including western fan art, gay pornography, furry artwork, and numerous other categories.


title: Bara (genre)

text: This misappropriation of "bara" by a non-Japanese audience has been controversial among creators of gay manga, many of whom have expressed discomfort or confusion over the term being used to describe their work. Artist and historian Gengoroh Tagame has described "bara" as "a very negative word that comes with bad connotations", though he later clarified that the term is "convenient for talking about art that is linked by characters that are muscle-y, huge, and hairy", and that his objection was the term's use to describe gay manga creators. Artist Kumada Poohsuke has stated that while he does not find the term offensive, he does not describe his work as "bara" because he associates the term with "Barazoku", which featured "bishōnen"-style artwork rather than artwork of masculine men.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Representations of homosexuality in Japanese visual art have a history and context dating to the Muromachi period, as seen in and "shunga" (erotic woodblock prints originating in the Edo period). While these works ostensibly depict male-male sexual relations, artist and historian Gengoroh Tagame questions whether the historic practices of sodomy and pederasty represented in these works can be considered analogous to modern conceptions of gay identity, and thus part of the artistic tradition to which contemporary gay erotic Japanese art belongs. Tagame instead considers "musha-e" (warrior's pictures) to be a more direct forerunner to art styles common in gay manga: in contrast to pederastic "shunga", both gay manga and "musha-e" portray masculine men with developed muscles and thick body hair, often in cruel or violent scenarios.


title: Bara (genre)

text: While erotic artwork was a major component of the earliest gay Japanese periodicals, notably the 1952 private circulation magazine , contemporary gay erotic art as medium in Japan traces its origins to the fetish magazine . Published from 1960 to 1974, "Fuzokukitan" included gay content alongside straight and lesbian content, as well as articles on homosexuality. Early gay erotic artists Tatsuji Okawa, Sanshi Funayama, Go Mishima and Go Hirano made their debuts in the magazine, alongside unauthorized reproductions of illustrations by gay Western artists such as George Quaintance and Tom of Finland. "Bara", the first Japanese magazine aimed specifically at a gay male audience, was published in 1964 as a members only, small circulation magazine.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Gay erotic art of this period typically depicts what Tagame describes as "darkly spiritual male beauty", emphasizing a sense of sorrow and sentimentalism. Men from "the traditional homosocial world of Japan", such as samurai and "yakuza", appear frequently as subjects. The homoerotic photography of Tamotsu Yatō and Kuro Haga served as a significant influence on the initial wave of gay artists that emerged in the 1960s, with very little Western influence seen in these early works.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Erotic magazines aimed specifically at a gay male audience proliferated in the 1970s – first "Barazoku" in 1971, followed by and in 1974 – leading to the decline of general fetish magazines like "Fuzokukitan". These new magazines featured gay manga as part of their editorial material; notable early serializations include by Yamaguchi Masaji () in "Barazoku", and "Tough Guy" () and "Make Up" (メイクアップ) by Kaidō Jin () in "Adon". The commercial success of these magazines resulted in the creation of spin off publications that focused on photography and illustrations: "Barazoku" launched , while "Sabu" launched and "Sabu Special". Most notable was among these spin-offs was "Barakomi" (), a 1986 supplemental issue of "Barazoku" that was the first magazine to publish gay manga exclusively.


title: Bara (genre)

text: By the 1980s, gay lifestyle magazines that published articles on gay culture alongside erotic material had grown in popularity: was launched by photographer Ken Tōgō, "MLMW" launched as a lifestyle spinoff of "Adon", and "Samson" launched as a lifestyle magazine in 1982 before later shifting to content focused on fat fetishism. Most publishers folded their spin-off and supplemental publications by the end of the decade, though gay magazines continued to publish gay artwork and manga.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The artists that emerged during this period, notably Sadao Hasegawa, Ben Kimura, Rune Naito, and George Takeuchi, varied widely in style and subject material. Nonetheless, their artwork was united by a tone that was generally less sorrowful than that of the artists that emerged in the 1960s, a trend Tagame attributes to the gradual decline in the belief that homosexuality was shameful or abnormal. Their work was also more overtly influenced by American and European gay culture in its subject material, with sportsmen, jock straps, and leather garments appearing more frequently than "yakuza" and samurai. Tagame attributes this shift to the increased access of American gay pornography for use as reference material and inspiration, and the growth in popularity of sports manga, which emphasized themes of athleticism and manliness.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The trend towards lifestyle-focused publishing continued into the 1990s, with the founding of the magazines "Badi" ("Buddy") in 1994 and "G-men" in 1995. Both of these magazines included editorial coverage of gay pride, club culture, and HIV/AIDS-related topics alongside gay manga and other erotic content. "G-men" was co-founded by Gengoroh Tagame, who made his debut as a gay manga artist in 1987 writing manga for "Sabu", and who would emerge as the most influential creator in the medium.


title: Bara (genre)

text: "G-men" was part of a concerted effort by Tagame to "change the status quo of gay magazines" away from the aesthetic of "bishōnen" – delicate and androgynous boys and young men that were popular in gay media at the time – and towards the depictions of masculine men that gay manga is now associated with. The "bear-type" aesthetic pioneered by Tagame's manga in "G-men" is credited with provoking a major stylistic shift in Shinjuku Ni-chōme, the gay neighborhood of Tokyo. Following the publication of "G-men", the "slender and slick" clean-shaven style popular among gay men was replaced with "stubble, beards and moustaches [...] extremely short became the most common hair style and the broad muscular body, soon to evolve to chubby and outright fat, became highly fashionable."


title: Bara (genre)

text: Manga culture significantly influenced gay erotic artwork during this period, and gay manga occupied a central place in the editorial material of both "Badi" and "G-men". "G-men" in particular served an as incubator for up-and-coming gay manga talent, launching the careers of artists such as Jiraiya. The magazine also encouraged steady readership by publishing serialized stories, which encouraged purchase of every issue. Conversely, "Adon" removed pornographic material from the magazine entirely; the move was unsuccessful and the magazine folded in 1996.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Gay magazines declined significantly in popularity by the early 2000s, as the personal advertisement sections that drove sales for many of these magazines were supplanted by telephone personals and later online dating. Nearly all of the major gay magazines folded in the subsequent two decades: "Sabu" in 2001, "Barazoku" in 2004, "G-men" in 2016, and "Badi" in 2019. , only "Samson" remains active. As magazines declined, new types of gay art emerged from contexts entirely separate from gay magazines. Pamphlets and flyers for gay events and education campaigns in Japan began to feature vector artwork that, while not overtly pornographic, drew on gay manga in style and form. Art exhibitions also became as an area of expression, as new venues and spaces emerged that welcomed the display of gay erotic artwork. With a lack of viable major print alternatives, many gay manga artists began to self-publish their works as "dōjinshi" (self-published comics). Gay manga artists like Gai Mizuki emerged as prolific creators of "dōjinshi", creating slash-inspired derivative works based on media properties such as "Attack on Titan" and "Fate Zero".


title: Bara (genre)

text: Beginning in the 2000s, gay manga began to attract an international audience through the circulation of pirated and scanlated artwork on the internet. A scanlation of "Kuso Miso Technique", a 1987 one-shot by originally published in "Bara-Komi", became infamous during this period as an internet meme. "Bara" emerged among this international audience as a term to distinguish gay erotic art created by gay men for a gay male audience from "yaoi", or gay erotic art created by and for women (see Comparison to yaoi below). The circulation of these works online led to the formation of an international "bara" fandom, and the emergence of non-Japanese gay erotic artists who began to draw in a ""bara" style" that was influenced by Japanese erotic art. This period also saw the rise in popularity of "kemono" (, "beastmen", or anthropomorphic characters analogous to the Western furry subculture) as subjects in gay manga, a trend Tagame attributes to appearances by this type of character in video games and anime.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Gay manga is typically categorized based on the body shape of the characters depicted; common designations include , , , and . While the rise of comic anthologies has promoted longer, serialized stories, most gay manga stories are one-shots. BDSM and non-consensual sex are common themes in gay manga, as well as stories based on relationships structured around age, status, or power dynamics. Often, the older or more senior character uses the younger or subordinate character for sexual purposes, though some gay manga stories subvert this dynamic and show a younger, physically smaller, often white-collar man as the dominant sexual partner to an older, larger, often blue-collar man. As with "yaoi", the bottom in gay manga is often depicted as shy, reluctant, or unsure of his sexuality. Consequently, much of the criticism of "yaoi" – misogyny, a focus on rape, the absence of a Western-style gay identity – is similarly levied against gay manga.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The majority of gay manga stories are pornographic, often focusing on sex to the exclusion of plot and character development. Though some gay manga stories include realistic depictions of gay male lives – addressing subject material such as coming out, gay pride, and same-sex marriage – sex and sexuality is frequently the primary focus. Nonetheless, some gay manga stories explore romantic, autobiographical, and dramatic subject material, and eschew depictions of sex entirely. A notable example of non-erotic gay manga is "My Brother's Husband", the first all-ages manga by Gengoroh Tagame, which focuses on themes of homophobia, cultural difference, and family.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Until the early 2000s, gay manga was published exclusively in gay general interest magazines. These magazines typically published 8 to 24 page one-shots (standalone single chapter stories), although some magazines, notably "G-men", published serialized stories. Several attempts were made at creating publications dedicated exclusively to gay manga prior to the 2000s, notably "Bara-Komi" in 1986 and "P-Nuts" in 1996, though none were commercially successful.


title: Bara (genre)

text: In 2002, boys' love (BL) publisher Kosai Comics () released the manga anthology , a quarterly anthology featuring what the publisher termed "muscle BL" aimed at a crossover audience of "yaoi" and gay manga readers (see Crossover with "yaoi" below). Many of the contributors to "Kinniku-Otoko" began their manga careers as "dōjinshi" creators, and most were women; over time "Kinniku-Otoko" came to include gay male artists, notably gay manga artist Takeshi Matsu, who made his debut as an erotic artist in the anthology.


title: Bara (genre)

text: In 2004, "G-men" parent company Furukawa Shobu published a pair of manga anthologies aimed at gay men, "Bakudan" (published quarterly) and "Gekidan" (published bimonthly). Individual titles from these anthologies were collected into "tankōbon" under the Bakudan Comics imprint. In 2006, boys' love publisher Aqua Comics (an imprint of ) began publishing the manga anthologies "Nikutai Ha" ("Muscle Aqua"), "Oaks", and "G's Comics". When collected into "tankōbon", these manga are issued under the same imprint as Aqua's mainstream "yaoi" books, and bear the same trade dress. Since the release of "The Dangerous Games of Dr. Makumakuran" by Takeshi Matsu in 2015, no additional gay manga titles have been published by Aqua.


title: Bara (genre)

text: Many Japanese publishers and creators of gay manga actively seek foreign readers, though in lieu of official licensed translations, gay manga is often pirated and scanlated into English. In 2008, Spanish publisher La Cúpula published an anthology of works by Jiraiya, and manga by Gengoroh Tagame in 2010. In 2011, the Mexican gay magazine "Anal Magazine" published drawings by Gengoroh Tagame in its second issue. Works by Gengoroh Tagame have additionally been translated into French by H&O éditions. The first gay manga to receive an officially-licensed English-language translation was "Standing Ovations", a one-shot by Gengoroh Tagame published in the American erotic comics anthology "Thickness" (2011–2012). In 2012, Digital Manga published an English-language translation of Reibun Ike's "Hide and Seek", a men's love series originally published by Aqua Comics.


title: Bara (genre)

text: In 2013, PictureBox published "The Passion of Gengoroh Tagame: Master of Gay Erotic Manga", the first book-length work of gay manga to be published in English. That same year, Massive Goods was founded by Anne Ishii and Graham Kolbeins, two of the editors of "The Passion of Gengoroh Tagame", which creates English-language translations of gay manga and products featuring the works of gay manga artists. In December 2014, Fantagraphics and Massive published "", the first English-language anthology of gay manga. Co-edited by Ishii, Kolbeins, and Chip Kidd, "Massive" was nominated for an Eisner Award for Best Anthology. From 2014 to 2016, German book publishing house Bruno Gmünder Verlag published works by Tagame, Takeshi Matsu, and Mentaiko Itto in English under their "Bruno Gmünder Gay Manga" imprint.


title: Bara (genre)

text: In contrast to hentai and "yaoi", which are regularly adapted from manga to original video animations (OVAs) and ongoing animated series, there have been no anime adaptations of gay manga. This can be owed to the significant financial costs associated with producing animation relative to the niche audience of gay manga, as well as the absence of gay manga magazines producing serialized content that would lend itself to episodic adaptation. Despite this, the increased presence of objectified masculine bodies as fan service in anime beginning in the 2010s has been cited as an example of gay manga's influence on mainstream anime, as in series such as "All Out!!", "Free!", and "Golden Kamuy".


title: Bara (genre)

text: is an additional manga genre that focuses on gay male romance and sex. The genre is a distinct category from gay manga, having originated in the 1970s as an offshoot of "shōjo" manga that was inspired by "Barazoku" and European cinema. "Yaoi" has historically been created primarily by women for a primarily female audience, and typically features "bishōnen" who often do not self-identify as gay or bisexual. The genre is often framed as a form of escapist fiction, depicting sex that is free of the patriarchal trappings of heterosexual pornography; "yaoi" can therefore be understood as a primarily feminist phenomenon, whereas gay manga is an expression of gay male identity. Gay manga does not aim to recreate heteronormative gender roles, as "yaoi" does with "seme" and "uke" dynamics.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The early 2000s saw a degree of overlap between "yaoi" and gay manga in BDSM-themed publications. The "yaoi" BDSM anthology magazine had several male contributors, while several female "yaoi" authors have contributed stories to BDSM-themed gay manga anthologies or special issues, occasionally under male pen names. Concurrently, several "yaoi" publishers commissioned works featuring masculine men, aimed at appealing to an audience of both gay manga and "yaoi" readers (see Japanese publishing above). Gengoroh Tagame argues that these crossover publications represent the movement of "yaoi" away from aestheticism and towards the commercialization of male-male sexuality for a female market.


title: Bara (genre)

text: The late 2010s and onwards have seen the increasing popularity of masculine men in "yaoi", with growing emphasis on stories featuring larger and more muscular bodies, older characters, and "seme" and "uke" characters of physically comparable sizes. A 2017 survey by "yaoi" publisher Juné Manga found that while over 80% of their readership previously preferred "bishōnen" body types exclusively, 65% now enjoy both "bishōnen" and muscular body types. Critics and commentators have noted that this shift in preferences among "yaoi" readers, and subsequent creation of works that feature characteristics of both "yaoi" and gay manga, represents a blurring of the distinctions between the genres; anthropologist Thomas Baudinette notes in his fieldwork that gay men in Japan "saw no need to sharply disassociate BL from "gei komi" when discussing their consumption of 'gay media'."


title: Harewood House

text: Harewood House ( , ) is a country house in Harewood, West Yorkshire, England. Designed by architects John Carr and Robert Adam, it was built, between 1759 and 1771, for Edwin Lascelles, 1st Baron Harewood, a wealthy West Indian plantation and slave-owner. The landscape was designed by Lancelot "Capability" Brown and spans at Harewood.


title: Harewood House

text: Still home to the Lascelles family, Harewood House is a member of the Treasure Houses of England, a marketing consortium for ten of the foremost historic homes in the country. The house is a Grade I listed building and a number of features in the grounds and courtyard have been listed as Grade I, II* and II.


title: Harewood House

text: The Harewood estate was created in its present size by the merging of two adjacent estates, the Harewood Castle estate based on Harewood Castle and the Gawthorpe estate based on the Gawthorpe Hall manor house (not to be confused with the Gawthorpe Hall near Burnley in Lancashire). The properties were combined when the Wentworths of Gawthorpe, who had inherited that estate from the Gascoignes, bought the neighbouring Harewood estate from the Ryther family. The combined estate was subsequently sold to the London merchant Sir John Cutler in 1696, after whose death it passed to the Boulter family. They in turn sold it to the Lascelles in 1721.


title: Harewood House

text: In the late seventeenth century members of the Lascelles family purchased plantations in the West Indies, and the income generated allowed Henry Lascelles to purchase the estate in 1738; his son, Edwin Lascelles, 1st Baron Harewood, who was a wealthy plantation and slave owner, built the house between 1759 and 1771 to replace Gawthorpe Hall, the original manor house on the estate.


title: Harewood House

text: Edwin initially employed the services of John Carr, an architect practising in the north of England and previously employed by a number of prominent Yorkshire families to design their new country houses. The foundations were laid in 1759, with the house being largely complete by 1765. The fashionable Robert Adam submitted designs for the interiors, which were approved in 1765. Adam made a number of minor alterations to Carr's designs for the exterior of the building, including internal courtyards. The house remained largely untouched until the 1840s when Sir Charles Barry was employed by Henry Lascelles, 3rd Earl of Harewood, the father of thirteen children, to increase the accommodation. Barry added second storeys to each of the flanking wings to provide extra bedrooms, removed the south portico and created formal parterres and terraces.


title: Harewood House

text: In 1922, Henry Lascelles, Viscount Lascelles married Princess Mary, the only daughter of George V. Initially living in the nearby Goldsborough Hall, the couple moved permanently into Harewood House on the death of Henry's father in 1929.


title: Harewood House

text: During the Second World War, the house acted as a resident convalescent hospital but by the late 1940s, the Princess Royal and her family had moved permanently back to Harewood, where the house and gardens were regularly opened to the public and regularly holding concerts connected with musical establishments including the Yorkshire Symphony Orchestra and the Leeds Musical Festival, of which the Princess was patron. On 28 March 1965, she was walking the grounds of Harewood when she suffered a fatal heart attack. Her elder son, Lord Harewood, the 7th earl, succeeded his father in 1947, and resided at Harewood. He was director of the Royal Opera House and later of the English National Opera; nearer to Harewood, he was a member of the Leeds Music Festival's executive committee and a patron of the Yorkshire Symphony Orchestra's concerts.