title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo broke two bones in his hand in a pocket bike crash pre-season, therefore missing most of the pre-season testing. He fought through the field to finish second to Rossi in the season opener in Qatar, whilst still not fully fit. After Rossi broke his leg in a crash at Mugello, Lorenzo became the title favourite, with a 47-point lead after four wins in the first six rounds. Victory at Assen made him only the seventh rider ever to win in 3 classes at this prestigious circuit.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Despite nearest rival Dani Pedrosa making up ground in the latter stages of the season, Lorenzo was still in control with five races remaining. Pedrosa, the only man who could still overtake Lorenzo in the standings, then suffered a broken collarbone during practice, causing him to miss the next two races and virtually guaranteeing Lorenzo would become champion. On 10 October, Lorenzo clinched the title with a third-place finish at Sepang behind Rossi and Andrea Dovizioso.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started the season with four podium finishes in the first five races, including a victory at the Spanish Grand Prix; he was benefitted from a collision between Casey Stoner and Valentino Rossi, with both riders coming off their bikes, and Lorenzo eventually won the race by almost twenty seconds. He held the championship lead into the British Grand Prix, where he crashed out of the race, held in wet conditions, while running third. After a sixth-place finish at Assen, Lorenzo then finished each of the next eight races in the top four placings, winning two of them, at Mugello, and Misano.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo's season was ended by a crash during warm-up for the Australian Grand Prix at Phillip Island. Lorenzo lost the end of a finger, and underwent successful surgery in Melbourne to repair damage to it, with surgeons able to save the nerves and tendons of the injured fourth finger of his left hand. Surgery was deemed a success and as a result no functionality was lost in either the finger or the hand. Stoner won the championship at the event after winning the race, while Lorenzo maintained second place to the end of the championship, helped in part by the cancellation of the Malaysian Grand Prix after the death of Marco Simoncelli.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo made his race return in Qatar, qualifying on pole position before taking the race victory the following evening. After successive second places at Jerez and Estoril, Lorenzo then won the next two races at Le Mans, and Cataluña; in the process, opening up a 20-point lead over Casey Stoner in the riders' championship.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Ahead of the British Grand Prix, Lorenzo signed a new two-year contract with Yamaha, keeping him with the team until the end of the 2014 season. Lorenzo extended his championship lead to 25 points, by winning the race ahead of Stoner. After being taken out of the Dutch TT by Álvaro Bautista and a second place at the Sachsenring, Lorenzo recorded his fifth win of the season at Mugello to extend his championship lead to 19 over Dani Pedrosa. Lorenzo ultimately clinched his 2nd title at Phillip Island by finishing 2nd behind race winner Casey Stoner (which was also helped by Stoner's crash and ankle injury in Indianapolis which forced him out for 3 races).


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started the season as the defending World Champion, re-joining Valentino Rossi as teammate, and battled it out with Repsol Honda teammates Marc Márquez and Dani Pedrosa for the championship. He won races at Losail, Mugello, Misano, Catalunya, Silverstone, Phillip Island, Motegi and Valencia, but missed the race at the Sachsenring due to injury, and finished second in the final championship standings, with 330 points, 4 points behind Márquez.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In this season Marc's teammate put his wheels ahead of Jorge for 8 times at Austin, Jerez, Le Mans, Assen, Laguna Seca, Indianapolis, Brno and Sepang, while Jorge's teammate for 3 times ahead of Marc at Losail, Assen and Phillip Island.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started the 2014 season slowly, crashing out in Qatar and a tenth-place finish in Austin, having jumped the start. He achieved his first podium of the season in Argentina, but only achieved one further podium – at Mugello, – in the next five races. At the midway point of the season, at the Sanchsenring, Lorenzo had only collected 97 points; this tally was 128 behind championship leader Marc Márquez. Starting the second half of the season, Lorenzo achieved four consecutive second-place finishes at Indianapolis, Brno, Silverstone and Misano.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: His first victory of the season came during a wet race at Aragon, his first win at the circuit. Lorenzo followed that victory up with a victory in the next race at Motegi, having also won at the circuit in 2009 and 2013. For the majority of the season, Lorenzo was involved in a three-way rivalry with teammate Rossi and Dani Pedrosa to claim the runner-up position overall. At Valencia, Lorenzo took the decision to swap bikes – on lap 20 – as light rain fell. He struggled to get the bike stopped in the uncertain conditions and dropped down the order; he ultimately retired from the race. He finished third in the final championship standings behind Márquez and Rossi, with 263 points.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started the 2015 season by taking fourth-place finishes at Losail and Austin, before adding a fifth-place finish in Argentina. Lorenzo then took four successive victories – for the first time in his career – at Jerez, Le Mans, Mugello, and Barcelona. These results moved him into second in the riders' championship standings, a point behind teammate Rossi. Lorenzo then finished third at Assen, losing ground to Rossi in the standings, after he won the race. He finished in second place at Indianapolis, before adding his fifth victory of the season at Brno. He finished fourth place at Silverstone in wet conditions, before crashing out at Misano.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo achieved his sixth win of the season – and the sixtieth of his career – at the Aragon Grand Prix; coupled with Rossi's third place, he cut the deficit in the championship to Rossi, to 14 points. The pair's results were enough for the team to clinch their respective title, their first since . In Japan, Rossi extended the championship lead to eighteen with a second-place finish to Dani Pedrosa in drying conditions. Lorenzo had started on pole but faded to third with tyre issues. In Australia, Lorenzo was passed for the lead on the final lap by Márquez; however, with Rossi down in fourth, Lorenzo cut the championship lead to eleven. Lorenzo further cut the lead to seven, after a second-place finish in Malaysia; Rossi finished third after a collision with Márquez, whom he accused of working for Lorenzo, in which he accrued three penalty points – enough to enforce a start from the back of the grid for the final race in Valencia. Rossi made it up to fourth in the race, but Lorenzo won the race and took the championship – his fifth world title overall – by five points.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo started the 2016 season by winning from pole position in Qatar. In the coming three races, Lorenzo failed to grab a win and fell behind Marc Márquez in the title race following a crash and two runners-up finishes. Before his first runner-up finish at the Spanish Grand Prix in Jerez, Lorenzo announced that he would leave the Yamaha team to join Ducati next season. Two consecutive wins in France and Italy put him back in front of the championship only to fall back to third due to a performance dip over the following 5 races. At Misano, Lorenzo put in a qualifying lap record to claim his 64th career pole an all-time record. Eventually, Lorenzo would finish 3rd at Misano and the following weekend at the Aragon Grand Prix, he would finish 2nd. But with five laps to go at the Japanese Grand Prix, he crashed while running in 2nd place allowing Marquez to clinch the championship. However, he wrapped up the season at Valencia not only with a qualifying lap record and his 65th career pole but with a win in his final race with Yamaha.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In 2017 season, Lorenzo switched team from Yamaha to Ducati. With initial trouble adjusting to the new bike, Lorenzo suffered a winless season for the first time in the premier class and his first since the 2005 250cc season, although he scored three podiums and finished seventh in the overall standings.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: After yet another difficult season opening blighted by a brake failure in Qatar and a collision while fighting for a podium at Jerez, it was announced Lorenzo's contract would not be renewed for 2019. He then proceeded to win three races in quick succession, as well as scoring multiple pole positions. Lorenzo took his first Ducati victory in the Italian round at Mugello with a dominant lights-to-flag performance. This was Lorenzo's sixth win at the particular circuit and broke his longest MotoGP winless streak up until that date. Remarkably, Lorenzo followed this up with a dominant win at the Circuit de Catalunya, his first back to back wins in MotoGP since 2016.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo's third win for the 2018 season came in Austria, taking out the Austrian Grand Prix at the Red Bull Ring in Spielberg. Lorenzo defeated Honda's Marc Marquez by 0.130 seconds.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Following a crash which broke a bone in his foot on the first corner of the Aragon Grand Prix, Lorenzo withdrew from the Japanese MotoGP and Australian Motorcycle Grand Prix at Phillip Island. This was a start of a spell of several serious injuries, which carried on into his time at Honda.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: On 6 June 2018, it was announced that Lorenzo would join Repsol Honda Team on a two-year deal, replacing retiring compatriot Dani Pedrosa.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Despite tough early going in the season, finishing no higher than 11th, Lorenzo presented positive development of the Honda for his riding style coming into the mid-season. Although making rapid gains, in the Catalan GP, he took out Valentino Rossi, Maverick Viñales and Andrea Dovizioso while making a hairpin corner pass in early race traffic.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: At the Assen GP, Lorenzo suffered a tumble in the gravel during the first practice session and fractured a vertebra which eliminated him from race contention. He subsequently missed the next three rounds in recovery, and upon return claimed to be riding under duress of intense pain.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: On 14 November 2019 at a special press conference at Circuit Ricardo Tormo near Valencia, Spain during the last race of the season, Lorenzo announced his retirement from racing at the age of 32. He finished the season in 19th place the riders' championship with just 28 points, his career worst season by far. It was also his first ever season in the premier class without a single podium finish, having failed to achieve even a single top-10 finish.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In January 2020, he was confirmed to be contracted as lead test rider for the Yamaha Factory Racing European test team. Yamaha has a Japanese test team of Kohta Nozane and Katsuyuki Nakasuga.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In March 2020, it was announced that Lorenzo would make at least one wildcard appearance in a season disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to wildcards being cancelled, this did not happen. Later in the year, Lorenzo revealed that he opted against making a permanent comeback within the Ducati stable for the 2021 season after serious considerations, also endorsing Francesco Bagnaia as the 'logical choice' to fill the factory seat in his place.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo has become known for his celebration antics, which became more frequent over the 2010 season. Those included Lorenzo imitating a Spaceman, jumping into the lake in the infield of the Jerez circuit, and Nintendo's Mario brothers making an appearance at the trackside.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: During his reign as 250cc champion, Lorenzo was known to be very aggressive in his riding, particularly when overtaking others. He was penalised by a suspension which stopped him from taking part in Malaysia in 2005. Lorenzo's tenure in the Fiat Yamaha team has been underscored by an intense rivalry between himself and his teammate Valentino Rossi.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In 2011, Lorenzo was seen arguing with fellow rider Marco Simoncelli, who was under fire from Lorenzo for his dangerous riding. Simoncelli retorted by reminding Lorenzo of his race suspension after he was overly aggressive while overtaking a rider in 2005, which included last lap clashing of fairings with Pedrosa and moments later taking Alex de Angelis down. Lorenzo said, "If it doesn't come from you again there will be no problem". Simoncelli put even more fuel to the fire by saying, "I will be arrested", to which a visibly angry Lorenzo reacted by saying, "This is no joke, we are playing with our lives here". Simoncelli claimed that he still had his leathers which were left blackened at the knee slider after a previous incident with Lorenzo at the final round of the season. Simoncelli died later that year after being run over after falling onto the race track in Malaysia.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo was confirmed to participate in 2022 in the Porsche Supercup as a guest driver, in addition to regularly participating in the Porsche Carrera Cup Italia, driving the #8 Porsche 911 for Q8 Hi Perform. Lorenzo stated he decided to participate in what was his first foray into competitive automotive racing as he "loves challenges, and this is a huge one".


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: During a break between the Italian and British rounds of the 2010 Championship, Lorenzo rode a Yamaha in a parade lap around the world-famous Snaefell Mountain Course at the Isle of Man TT. He rode alongside former World Champion Ángel Nieto, later describing the experience as 'amazing'.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: At the conclusion of the Senior TT, Lorenzo then took part of the garlanding ceremony, in which he bestowed garlands on third placed Bruce Anstey, second placed Ryan Farquhar and winner Ian Hutchinson, rounding off Hutchinson's historical five race wins at the 2010 TT meeting.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo was born in Palma, Balearic Islands, Spain. In January 2010, Lorenzo got involved with the Oxfam international confederation's efforts in assisting support for the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: The character Jorge in the video game "" is named for him, after Lorenzo wore a helmet at the 2009 Valencian Grand Prix that replicated a style of helmet from "". Lorenzo wore sponsored helmets from the "Call of Duty" franchise, at the Valencian Grand Prix in 2013 for "" and "" in 2014.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo wore sponsored protective gear from Dainese between 2005 and 2010, and Alpinestars from 2011 onwards. On 17 October 2013, Lorenzo visited the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles, to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of Alpinestars.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: On 2 May 2013, three days before the Spanish Grand Prix, the Circuito de Jerez renamed the thirteenth corner "Curva Lorenzo". It had previously been known as "Curva Ducados".


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: In September 2015, China-based Zopo Mobile released the Zopo Speed 7 GP smartphone, endorsed by Lorenzo.


title: Jorge Lorenzo

text: Lorenzo was appointed as the brand ambassador for Super Soco in 2021. A special edition Lorenzo-inspired 'JL99' scooter was unveiled by Lorenzo at the Milan Motorcycle Show in November 2021.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Jerry Springer is an American syndicated tabloid talk show that aired from September 30, 1991 to July 26, 2018. Produced and hosted by its namesake, Jerry Springer, it aired for 27 seasons and nearly 5,000 episodes. The television series was produced and aired by NBCUniversal and CW for over 26 years, peaking in popularity around 1997 and 1998 amongst a predominantly American audience.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The program was unsuccessful in ratings in its first seasons due to its focus on more political issues. This led to an overhaul of the structure which by the mid-1990s led to the show as it is known now, filled with controversial topics (such as incest and adultery), profanity, physical fights (involving a mixture of boxing and wrestling), nudity, and scantily clad guests.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The show premiered on September 30, 1991. It was taped in Chicago, Illinois from 1991 to 2009 and in Stamford, Connecticut from 2009 to 2018. On June 13, 2018, NBCUniversal ended production of new episodes of the show after 27 seasons. The show taped its final scenes on July 6, 2018, and its final episode aired on July 26, 2018, with reruns continuing on The CW immediately thereafter. The CW retains rights to produce new episodes. After the cancellation, it was announced that Springer would host a new courtroom show titled "Judge Jerry", which premiered on September 9, 2019, and is also distributed by NBCUniversal.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Critical response to the show was mostly negative, and in 2002, "TV Guide" proclaimed it to be the worst TV show of all time. This critique of the show as "trash TV", however, was satirically embraced by the show with the host, Springer, proudly introducing the program as the "worst TV show of all time" at the start of each episode. Thus the program was recognised as "the most infamous guilty pleasure" in American television throughout the late '90s to early 2000s.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Each episode of "Jerry Springer" began with Springer entering the stage and being greeted by a standing audience (made up of mostly college students) pumping the air with their right hand, chanting "Jerry!, Jerry!". Beginning in the 2000s, Springer would arrive on stage by sliding down a stripper pole. He then shook hands with some of the audience members before introducing the episode's topic and guests. The topics were usually of an unsophisticated nature, such as infidelity and other relationship squabbles. Often times the guests would become emotional and get involved in heated arguments with one another, resulting in outbursts and physical fighting. On-screen security guards were present and tasked with managing the potential violence.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Once all the guests had told their stories, there was usually a "question and answer" segment where audience members asked guests questions. In earlier seasons, the questions tended to be serious. However, these questions gave way to insults as the show progressed. Throughout the show, some women in the audience would sometimes flash their breasts in exchange for "Jerry Beads" (Mardi Gras-style beads with the show logo). In later seasons, serious questions were typically mocked by the crowd with chants of "Go to "Oprah"!". Springer then ended the show by giving a formal lecture, sitting by himself on the stage, on the principles of refined values in regards to the featured guests. Springer's "final thought" segment ended with the concluding statement, "Till next time, take care of yourselves and each other," which was his sign-off line during his days as a newscaster in Cincinnati.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Generally, Springer tended to present his program standing up, pacing the aisle steps between the seating areas, rather than having a podium or mark on the main stage. This was thought to be to protect himself from the potential violence occurring on the stage. He deliberately chose a role as straight man; he never directly involved himself in the arguments. "I'm always wearing a suit, I don't curse and I wasn't in fights involving Jell-O," Springer stated in retrospective.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Sometimes the show would have a look back at previous episodes. They had rebranded as Classic Springer, some with a false "Masterpiece Theatre"-like theme and patina. These shows were interspersed with commentary from Springer himself, usually before and after commercial breaks.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: According to NBC, the set for the show has had three major changes over the years. When the show first started in 1991, it was very basic with white walls, in an effort to capture the feel of fellow talk show "Donahue", Jerry's haircut and glasses even seeming to make him look like Phil Donahue. The general look of this set was carried over when the series first moved to Chicago in September 1992, with an unpolished, open air look and bright colored shapes.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In the fall of 1994, a few months after the series underwent its format overhaul, the studio received a makeover to make it look a bit warmer and more inviting, complete with brick walls, artwork, and bookcases. The stage walls were designed so that they could be projected outward into the audience, making room for a catwalk that was used in shows such as the 1997 episode "Stripper Wars!". In late 2000, the whole set was changed to its "industrial" look, changes initially welcomed due to the reduced ratings of the 1999–2000 season. In 2007 the set was slightly changed, with a larger studio audience, bigger stage, and a balcony, which was above the stage and ended at the pole. Springer used this as his main entrance by sliding down the pole. The logo and stage design were carried across to the new studio in Stamford, Connecticut with only a few changes and stayed as such until the end of the run.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: "Jerry Springer" debuted on September 30, 1991, with a family reunion as the topic of its first show. Initially, "Jerry Springer" was distributed by Multimedia Entertainment, later going to the former Universal and then to Studios USA.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Originally seen in only the four markets where Multimedia owned TV stations, it was dramatically different from the later version of the show. It started as an issues-oriented and political talk show, a longer version of the commentary for which Springer had gained local fame as a reporter and anchor (not unlike "Donahue" during this time), and for its first season, was even taped at Springer's former station, WLWT in Cincinnati. Guests early on included Oliver North and Jesse Jackson, and the topics included homelessness and gun politics, as well as the social effects of rock music, featuring shock rock star GG Allin, El Duce from The Mentors and GWAR as guests.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: For its second season in the fall of 1992, the series was purchased by the NBC owned-and-operated stations, thus allowing it to finally achieve full national distribution, and production was moved to its longtime home at Chicago's NBC Tower (with Springer leaving his longtime position at WLWT in order to do so). Series creator and original executive producer Burt Dubrow became Senior Vice-President at Multimedia Entertainment and continued to oversee the show, while bringing in Terry Weible Murphy to become the EP. In April 1994, Multimedia threatened cancellation if ratings didn't improve by that November, which led to a major overhaul that saw Murphy's departure and replacement by fellow "Jerry Springer" producer Richard Dominick, under Dubrow's purview.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The search for higher ratings led the program gradually towards provocative topics, becoming more successful as it became geared towards youthful viewers (modeled after Ricki Lake's popular talk show) by introducing more controversial topics. However, there were still some traditional and serious topics featured on the show at this time, even with the format change.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: By December 1994, the show started featuring such topics as "My boyfriend turned out to be a girl" and "I want my man to stop watching porn!", as well as investigating which are sexier: bigger or smaller breasts on women.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 1995, there were two performances by Comedy Central transgender star Jade Esteban Estrada. It became a "freak show" where guests seek their 15 minutes of fame through discussion and demonstrations of deviant behavior. In 1996, Springer wanted people to send him videotapes explaining why they wanted Springer to tape a show in their home. Its extraordinary success has led it to be broadcast in dozens of countries. The show gained so much popularity that for a while it was the top-rated daytime talk show in the United States.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 1998, several stations that carried "Jerry Springer", including WLWT in Cincinnati where Springer was a news anchor, refused to carry the episode "I Married A Horse", which led to it being pulled before airing. The same year, Barry Diller, the head of "Jerry Springer" parent company Studios USA, would order the producers of "Jerry Springer" to end the show's trademark scripted brawls among guests amid growing controversy. However, this decision didn't appear to damage the show's ratings too much, with the show finishing only one-tenth behind longtime daytime talk show leader "Oprah" by July 1999.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 1999, the show was parodied in the film "", with Dr. Evil and his son Scott discussing being evil. Along with Jerry, Steve Wilkos and Todd Schultz played themselves in the movie.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2000, Springer was given a five-year, $30 million contract extension paying him $6 million per year. The same year, a married couple, Ralf and Eleanor Panitz, were guests on an episode of the show entitled "Secret Mistresses Confronted" with Mr. Panitz's ex-wife, Nancy Campbell-Panitz, in which they complained about Ms. Campbell-Panitz's behavior and accused her of stalking them. Hours after it was broadcast on July 24, 2000, Ms. Campbell-Panitz was found dead in a home that the three were fighting over, and Florida police soon confirmed that they were treating the death as a homicide. It was then reported that Mr. Panitz, having been issued a first-degree murder warrant for the death, was trying to flee to Canada to avoid prosecution. Upon news of the 52-year-old woman's murder, a spokeswoman for the program issued a statement saying that it was "a terrible tragedy."


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In August 2000, Springer appeared on CNN's "Larry King Live" to discuss the incident, claiming that it "had nothing to do with the show" and that his talk show does not glamorize deviant behavior. On March 27, 2002, after a 10-day trial and 18 hours of deliberating from jurors, Mr. Panitz was convicted of the murder and sentenced to life in prison.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2001, efforts by groups like the Parents Television Council and the American Family Association forced some advertisers to decrease or to stop their sponsorship of "Jerry Springer". In the United Kingdom, the Independent Television Commission banned "Jerry Springer" and other tabloid talk programs from being shown on television during daytime hours on school holidays in response to numerous parental complaints and concerns about children's potential exposure to the salacious content (there was a short-running British version of the show made for ITV called "The Springer Show" that was lighter and more tongue-in-cheek). The show also topped "TV Guide" magazine's 2002 list of "The Worst TV Shows Ever"; for a time, the show itself would even frequently boast about this ranking in its opening credits as a form of self-deprecation.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2003, a British opera inspired by the series, "", began playing in the United Kingdom. The same year, it was revealed that a group of guests from Hayward, California faked a "love triangle" for an appearance on two episodes of the show; one guest in the group was murdered, but Hayward police determined that his appearance was not connected to his murder.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: By 2005, security director Steve Wilkos became a cult figure on his own, and would close each show walking down a hallway engaging in casual talk with one of the more colorful guests of the preceding episode. He also would occasionally host the show. Episodes that he hosted were intended to be more serious in tone than the typical episode of "Jerry Springer". Wilkos left "Jerry Springer" at the end of the 2006–2007 season to pursue his own talk show, "The Steve Wilkos Show".


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2005, the program became a subject of criticism in Bernard Goldberg's book "100 People Who Are Screwing Up America", being called "TV's lowest life-form" and Springer himself being ranked at 32 and labeled an "American Pioneer". Goldberg also claimed that Springer was knowingly capitalizing on the disadvantages of his guests and the stupidity of his audience, also citing the controversial episode revolving around the man who married his horse.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In January 2006, the show was renewed for its sixteenth season, ending speculation that Springer would leave his talk show to run for elected office in Ohio, where he is the former mayor of Cincinnati. By this time, the show began to poke fun at itself by using the taglines "An Hour of Your Life You'll Never Get Back" and "Wasting Technology Since 1991." On May 12, 2006, Springer celebrated his show's 3,000th episode by throwing a party on the show (which no one but Jerry showed up to humorously), and showed many clips, including rare excerpts from the show. 2006 also saw the addition of fan favorite Reverend Shnorr, a drunken womanizing character who would often get into heated confrontations with guests while bringing a fresh comedic edge to the show. The character was created by then-promotions director Brian Schnoor while studying Improv at Chicago's famed Second City Theater in the 1990s. By December 2007, Rev. Shnorr merchandise was out-selling the show's popular security T-shirts on NBC's website.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In the United Kingdom, meanwhile, a Commercial High Court trial was scheduled for summer 2006 to resolve a dispute between Flextech Television and NBCUniversal over Flextech in 2002 cancelling its 1998 contract to broadcast "Jerry Springer" in the UK as long as new episodes continued to be produced in the U.S.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2007, security director Wilkos left "Jerry Springer" to host his own syndicated talk show. "The Steve Wilkos Show" was also shot at the NBC Tower in Chicago and produced by Richard Dominick, who continued to produce "Jerry Springer" as well. On July 15, 2007, it was announced that Springer was picked up by NBC-Universal through the 2009–2010 season. Also, VH1 ran a documentary series "The Springer Hustle", going "behind the scenes" of the show, having already run another Springer-related documentary in 2005 titled "When Jerry Springer Ruled the World". Springer's appearance on the NBC television network show "America's Got Talent" led to an increase in viewership for the first quarter of 2007. Steve Wilkos filled in for Springer during the beginning of "America's Got Talent".


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The security staff for the program also was given new additions, as starting in the seventeenth season, three female security guards were added. Certain professional athletes have come on the show as one-off security guards for some episodes. They include hockey players Joe Corvo and Adam Burish, and mixed martial arts fighters Andrei Arlovski, Shonie Carter, and Bas Rutten.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: While certain advertisers continued to avoid buying ad time for "Jerry Springer", the series continued to keep steady ratings in the February 2008 "Sweeps" period.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Executive producer Richard Dominick resigned shortly after the start of the 18th season; Rachelle Consiglio, wife of Steve Wilkos and longtime Senior Producer, replaced Dominick. The set decorations added during the 17th season were removed.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: On May 19, 2009, the show recorded its last episode at WMAQ-TV's NBC Tower in Chicago, Illinois, where it had been videotaped since 1992, midway through the second season. Beginning with the 2009–10 season, production was moved to the Rich Forum in Stamford, Connecticut after NBCUniversal received tax credits from the state of Connecticut to move Springer, along with "Maury" and "Steve Wilkos" to the Nutmeg State, along with NBC Sports. Jerry was quoted as saying he was not happy with the move, but understood the financial reasons for which it was being done, and was working to secure jobs for those on his staff who wished to move with the show. Since moving to Stamford, the show has gone through a number of changes; the set has become more highly colored with new lighting, new chairs for guests, two new security guards, and a change to its iconic theme music.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The show aired its 20th anniversary episode, which was taped in Times Square, on October 27, 2010. "Jerry Springer"'s twenty-first season premiered on September 19, 2011, debuting new graphics. On September 17, 2012, "Jerry Springer" began airing in widescreen and 1080i, in conjunction with its 22nd-season premiere.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In October 2014, it was announced that the show had been renewed by NBC Universal through September 2018. The 25th season of "Jerry Springer" began on September 21, 2015. With the 25th season anniversary of the show, Rachelle Wilkos, wife of Steve Wilkos departed as the executive producer of the show. Wilkos would transition full-time as the executive producer of her husband's show, as Kerry Shannon, another longtime producer, was promoted as the show's new executive producer. Despite her departure from the show, Wilkos briefly remained with the show as a consultant.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: On June 13, 2018, the industry publication "Broadcasting & Cable" reported that the series had ceased production and that the 2018–19 season forward would solely consist of reruns. The last first-run episode aired on July 26, 2018. Springer had originally intended to retire after the show ended production.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: The CW acquired rerun rights to the show to fill an hour in their daytime timeslot that previously aired "The Robert Irvine Show". The CW, which began airing the show on September 10, 2018, has first right to the episodes that have been produced but remain unaired, which number in the "dozens." The CW also had the right to ask that production of the series be revived in the future. The CW announced its intent to end its reruns of Springer in September 2021 as a reorganizing of its programming lineup (replacing its daytime block with a Saturday night lineup, which neither the CW nor its predecessors have programmed since they launched in 1995).


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: An additional block of reruns was offered to Springer's existing affiliate base for the 2018–19 season; those still carrying that rerun block transitioned to Springer's new show "Judge Jerry" on September 9, 2019.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In the late 1990s, the show was quite popular and controversial, so much so that it caused contemporaries like Jenny Jones, Maury Povich, Montel Williams, and Ricki Lake to "revamp" their own shows in order to improve ratings. However, major figures in television, along with many religious leaders, had called for the show's removal and considered it to be of bad taste. The phrase "Jerry Springer Nation" began to be used by some who see the program as being a bad influence on the morality of the United States.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 1997 and 1998, the show reached its ratings peak, at one point becoming the first talk show in years to beat "The Oprah Winfrey Show". It featured almost non-stop fighting between guests—5 to 12 per day during one April 1998 week—and religious figures and even other TV personalities complained. Chicago City Council suggested that if the fistfights and chair-throwing were real, then the guests should be arrested for committing acts of violence in the city, as alderman Ed Burke was concerned over the fact that the off-duty Chicago police officers serving as security guards for the program failed to take legal action against fighting guests. Springer explained that the violence on the program "look[ed] real" to him, also arguing that the fighting on the show "never, ever, ever glamorizes violence". Ultimately, the City Council chose not to pursue the matter. Because of this probe and other external and internal pressures, the fighting was taken off the show temporarily before being allowed again in a less violent nature. In the years of the show having toned down the fights, viewership declined but remained respectable by the newer standards of daytime television ratings.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: There had been continuous debate over the authenticity of the fighting. In an interview, a production assistant stated that "we try our hardest to screen people," and inauthentic-seeming guests had been kicked off stage. Marvin Kitman, television critic for the "Newsday" newspaper, felt that the fighting had been choreographed beforehand. Christopher Sterling of the George Washington University media department compared the program to professional wrestling; some producers later claimed the fights on the show were inspired by the fights and angles in the WWE. Sixteen former guests of "Jerry Springer", who were interviewed on various U.S. media outlets such as the entertainment news program "Extra", "Rolling Stone", and the "New York Post" newspaper, claimed there was a "fight quota" for each episode, and that they and other guests were encouraged to fight one another. In the past, producers booked professional wrestlers such as The Iron Sheik, Razor Ramon (albeit in a non-fighting role), Jamie Dundee, 2 Tuff Tony, Madman Pondo, and One Man Kru (also a hip hop artist), as well as lady wrestlers and midget wrestlers; one guest would be a then-unknown Justin Roberts, then-primary ring announcer for WWE. Springer would later make guest appearances during "WWE Raw" on two occasions.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In screening potential cases for his next show "Judge Jerry", Springer deliberately chose a process that picks cases from those that have already been filed, to prevent would-be litigants from seeking out the show as had been suspected with "Jerry Springer".


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: "Jerry Springer" aired on various stations in the United States at various times of the day, whether in the morning, the afternoon, or the late night hours. All syndicated episodes of "Jerry Springer" were censored, regardless of time, to comply with Federal Communications Commission (FCC) broadcast decency standards.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Initially, most profanity was bleeped, but later episodes were bleeped for explicit language, sometimes to such an extent that speech became incomprehensible; along with the mouth being spot-blurred so that viewers could not read lips. In addition, nudity, flashing of breasts, buttocks, and genital areas; as well as the middle finger was pixelated. After longtime producer Richard Dominick left, the show reverted to the traditional style of bleeping, which remains in place today. A "The New York Times" report from April 1998 found that each episode had about 85 to 130 bleeps.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: Springer himself had stated that, while his show was a bit wild, there were certain things that were not permitted. The audience was not allowed to shout anything that encouraged or sustained violence among the guests. Furniture could be pushed aside, but the chairs were purposely large to preclude their use as a weapon. Men being violent against women was never acceptable, on- or off-camera; in "Ringmaster", Springer mentioned that he always asked if the woman wanted to press charges.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: During the show's most popular era in the late 1990s, "Jerry Springer" released videotapes and later DVDs marketed as "Too Hot for TV". They contained uncensored nudity, profanity, and violence that was edited out of broadcasts in order to conform to FCC standards for broadcast decency. The releases sold and rented remarkably well and inspired similar sets from other series. Eventually, the show started producing similar "uncensored" monthly pay-per-view/video on demand specials as well as part of In Demand's "Too Much for TV" brand of PPV/on-demand content.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2015, Springer brought the Too Hot for TV format to the WWE Network for a series of episodes featuring WWE's most controversial segments.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 1999, ITV made 12 UK-based version episodes of the series "Jerry Springer UK", filmed at the same studios as his US show.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: In 2005, another UK version was shown made for ITV titled "The Springer Show" as a replacement for "Trisha Goddard", which defected to Channel 5. Initially Springer only signed a one-month deal. It beat its talk-show rival "Trisha Goddard" five to one in the ratings, despite it being a subdued and more tongue-in-cheek version of the U.S. show. The series was broadcast from June 4, 2005 until July 6, with the remaining 10 episodes broadcast from September 5 until September 16, 2005, when "The Jeremy Kyle Show" fully replaced the show.


title: Jerry Springer (talk show)

text: From 2002 to 2008, a French-Belgian version of the show was produced, hosted by Simon Monceau. For most of its run, it was produced and recorded in Belgium. Contrary to the original version, "Ça va se savoir !" clearly made public that the show's guests were in fact actors, which was also indicated during the end titles.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Kurtis Walker (born August 9, 1959), professionally known by his stage name Kurtis Blow, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter, record/film producer, b-boy, DJ, public speaker and minister. He is the first commercially successful rapper and the first to sign with a major record label. "The Breaks", a single from his 1980 self-titled debut album, is the first certified gold record rap song. Throughout his career he has released 17 albums and is currently an ordained minister.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Walker was raised in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City. He attended CCNY and Nyack College, studying communications/film and ministry.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: In 1979, at the age of twenty, Kurtis Blow became the first rapper to be signed by a major label, Mercury, which released "Christmas Rappin'". It sold over 400,000 copies, becoming one of the first commercially successful hip hop singles. Its follow-up, "The Breaks", sold over half a million copies. He released ten albums over the next eleven years. His first album was "Kurtis Blow", while his second was the top 40 pop album "Deuce". "Party Time" featured a fusion of rap and go-go. "Ego Trip" included the hits: "8 Million Stories", "AJ Scratch", and "Basketball". His 1985 album, "America", garnered praise for its title track's music video. From this album, the song "If I Ruled the World" became a top 5 hit on "Billboard<nowiki>'</nowiki>"s R&B chart. By 1983, he moved into production.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Besides his own work, Kurtis has been responsible for hits by The Fat Boys and Run DMC. Run began his career billed as 'The Son of Kurtis Blow'. Lovebug Starski, Full Force, Russell Simmons and Wyclef Jean all have been produced by, or collaborated with, Walker. Former label mates René & Angela had their R&B chart topping debut "Save Your Love (For #1)" was gift rapped by Kurtis. Walker produced, with Phillip Jones as co-producer and Dexter Scott King as executive producer, the song "King Holiday", celebrating the first Martin Luther King Jr. Day, a U.S. federal holiday inaugurated in January 1986.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: He performed as an actor and in music coordination in several feature films including Leon Kennedy’s "Knights of the City" and the hip hop film "Krush Groove." He was host and co-producer for "Das Leben Amerikanischer Gangs" (1995), an international film production focusing on the West Coast gang scene. As host and associate producer for Miramax's "Rhyme and Reason", he gave an informative account of the status of hip hop, while he participated in the three volume record release "The History of Rap" for Rhino Records in 1998. Kurtis also co produced "Slippin, Ten Years with the Bloods" and won praises from Showtime for being the most viewed documentary in 2003. Kurtis was recently a producer for the Netflix show, "The Get Down".


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Kurtis has spoken out emphatically against racism. He was an active participant in the Artists United Against Apartheid record "Sun City". He worked with Rev. Jesse Jackson's Operation Push and National Rainbow Coalition in Chicago and with Rev. Al Sharpton's Action Network in New York City. In 1995, he started working on-air in radio, Power 106, the #1 CHR radio station in Southern California. He hosted "The Old School Show" on Sunday nights, featuring hits from the past. He also worked for Sirius Satellite Radio on the Classic Old School Hip Hop station Backspin (Channel 46) from 2000-2004.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Beginning in 1996, Kurtis Blow was featured in a hip hop display at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In the same year, rapper Nas debuted at #53 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with his version of Blow's "If I Ruled the World". The song went on to double platinum. In 1998, the group Next released "Too Close", in which the music of "Christmas Rappin'" was sampled. ASCAP honored Kurt and Next at a gala affair on May 26, 1999 for having the number one song for 8 months. In 2002, he traveled to the Middle East to tour the Armed Forces bases performing seventeen shows for the troops.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: In December 2014, Kurt was the Guest MC for the world premiere of "The Hip Hop Nutcracker" at New Jersey Performing Arts Center, a well received update of Tchaikovsky's holiday classic. A national tour of the show was scheduled to launch in November 2015 with Kurtis Blow reprising his role as Guest MC opening the show. The show has presently been up and running with 50-60 sold-out performances during the holidays.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: In 2016 Kurtis was unanimously elected as Chairman of the Universal Hip Hop Museum. The museum is slated to open in 2023 in the Bronx point section of NYC. In 2017, Kurtis formed "The Bboy Committee", a group of 1st generation Bboys/Girls, who created the style of dance called Bboying, Rocking, and Break Dancing. The members of the Bboy Committee are as follows: Trixie (Lauree Myers),RIP Wallace D, Dancing Doug (Douglas Colon), A1 Bboy Sasa, DJ Clark Kent (Tyrone Smith), the Legendary Smith Twins, the Zulu Kings and Cholly Rock (Anthony G. Horne), OG BGirl - Darlene Rivers, "Puppet" (William "Billy Bill" Waring), Darryl Solomon (The Mad Hatter), Kurtis Blow, Lil Cesar Rivas, and Shabba-Doo. The committee is dedicated to the facilitation of the Bboy section of the Universal Hip Hop Museum.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: Kurtis became an ordained minister on August 16, 2009. As the founder of the Hip Hop Church in Harlem, Kurtis serves as rapper, DJ, worship leader and licensed minister.


title: Kurtis Blow

text: In 2016, Kurtis Blow appeared in a documentary on the evolution of hip hop, "Hip-Hop Evolution". Hosted by Canadian rapper and broadcaster Shad, the series profiled the history of hip-hop music through interviews with many of the genre's leading cultural figures. The series was produced by Russell Peters, Scot McFadyen, Sam Dunn and Nelson George. It won the 2016 Peabody Award, and the 2017 International Emmy Award for Best Arts Programming. The series has been broadcast on Netflix.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck ( ) is a city in Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2020 census, the city population was 28,433. Hamtramck is surrounded by the city of Detroit except for a small portion that borders the fellow enclave city of Highland Park. Hamtramck is by far the most densely populated municipality in the state of Michigan, and the only Muslim-majority town in the United States.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Known in the 20th century as a vibrant center of Polish-American life and culture, Hamtramck has attracted new immigrants in the 21st century, especially from Yemen, Bangladesh and Pakistan. In 2013, it reportedly became the first Muslim-majority city in the U.S. In 2015, Hamtramck became the first city to have a Muslim-majority city council in the history of the United States, with four of the six council members being Muslim. In November 2021, Hamtramck elected a completely Muslim-American city council and a Muslim mayor, becoming the first municipality in the United States to be governed entirely by Muslim-Americans.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck is named for the French-Canadian soldier Jean François Hamtramck, who was the first American commander of Fort Shelby, the fortification at Detroit. It was originally known as Hamtramck Township.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck was originally settled by German farmers, but Polish immigrants moved into the area when the Dodge Brothers plant opened in 1914. Poles used to make up a large proportion of the population. It is sometimes confused with Poletown, a traditional Polish neighborhood, which used to lie mostly in the city of Detroit and includes a small part of Hamtramck. As of the 2010 American Community Survey, 14.5% of Hamtramck's population is of Polish origin whereas in 1970 it was 90% Polish.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Over the past thirty years, a large number of immigrants from the Middle East (especially Yemen), India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal, and Southeastern Europe (especially Bosnia and Herzegovina) have moved to the city. As of the 2010 American Community Survey, the city's foreign born population stood at 41.1%, making it Michigan's most internationally diverse city ("see more at Demographics below"). The population was 43,355 in the 1950 Census and 18,372 in 1990.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck was primarily farmland, although the Detroit Stove Works employed 1,300 workers to manufacture stoves. In 1901, part of the township incorporated as a village to gain more control over the settlement's affairs, and by 1922 the village was reincorporated as a city to fend off annexation attempts by the neighboring city of Detroit. By the mid-1920s, 78% of the residents of Hamtramck owned their own houses or were buying their houses. Around that time, the factory workers made up 85% of Hamtramck's heads of households. Of those factory workers, about 50% were categorized as not skilled workers. In 1910, the newly founded Dodge Main assembly plant created jobs for thousands of workers and led to additional millions of dollars in the city. Dodge Main quickly expanded and became important to Hamtramck. Before the construction of Dodge Main, Hamtramck was a largely rural town. The establishment of the Dodge Main assembly plant led to a large influx of Polish immigrants who pushed out the incumbent German politicians. It was after this that Hamtramck was considered a Polish-American town.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: By the end of the 20th century and the closing of Dodge Main, followed closely by General Motors razing of key parts of the Polish neighborhoods, the ethnicity of the region quickly shifted from traditionally Polish descendants to new Middle Eastern and Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Nepali immigrants. By the elections of 2015, the city is said to have been the first to elect a Muslim-majority council in the country.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck is mostly surrounded by Detroit except for its small common border with the city of Highland Park, which is in turn mostly surrounded by Detroit. Hamtramck lies about from the center of Detroit. The I-75 freeway roughly runs along this city's western border and I-94 runs near its southern border.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck flourished from 1910 to 1920 as thousands of European immigrants, particularly Poles, were attracted by the growing automobile industry. The city has grown increasingly ethnically diverse but still bears many reminders of its Polish ancestry in family names, street names and businesses. A recent survey found 26 native languages spoken by Hamtramck schoolchildren. The city's motto was "A League of Nations". Neal Rubin of "The Detroit News" wrote in 2010 that despite the demographic changes, "In a lot of ways, Hamtramck still feels like a Polish enclave."


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 1987, Detroit television station WDIV ran one episode of a local sit-com called "Hamtramck" which featured former Detroit Tigers pitcher Dave Rozema and a cameo by manager Sparky Anderson. It was met with poor reviews and protests by many Polish Americans, and was canceled before airing a second episode.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: At the time of the 2000 census, Hamtramck was again experiencing considerable growth, with over 8,000 households and a population of almost 23,000.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 1997, the "Utne Reader" named Hamtramck one of "the 15 hippest neighborhoods in the U.S. and Canada" in part for its punk and alternative music scene, its Buddhist temple, its cultural diversity, and its laid-back blue-collar neighborhoods. In May 2003, Maxim Blender selected Hamtramck as the second "Most Rock N' Roll City" in the U.S., behind Williamsburg in Brooklyn, New York City. Hamtramck is home of several of Michigan's most distinguished music venues.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In January 2004, members of the Al-Islah Islamic Center requested permission to use loudspeakers for the purpose of broadcasting the Islamic call to prayer. This request set off a contentious debate in the city, about the noise that would be caused by the call to prayer, eventually garnering national attention. Ultimately Hamtramck amended its noise ordinance in July 2004, allowing for the prayer calls to be made.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Polish immigrants and residents of Hamtramck and southeastern Michigan celebrate Tłusty Wtorek (Fat Tuesday), known locally as Pączki Day, by lining up at the city's numerous Polish bakeries to purchase pączki. On Pączki Day, several local bars host parties with live entertainment and free pączki.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The "Hamtramck Music Festival" is an annual Independent music festival held in March in Hamtramck. It is currently sponsored by Bens Encore and the local Artist Community. In 2011, almost 200 bands played the Blowout at 14 venues over four days.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The Hamtramck Labor Day Festival is held on Labor Day weekend, ending with the Polish Day Parade on Labor Day. The festival includes live music on two stages, a carnival area, beer, and food tents extending the half-mile (1 km) stretch of Joseph Campau Street, from Caniff to Carpenter.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Held at the Planet Ant Theater, the festival celebrates independent movies and the people who make them, featuring comedies, dramas, documentaries, animation and music videos.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: General Motors' Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant, one of the automaker's premiere facilities, produced the Chevrolet Volt, the Cadillac CT6, the Chevrolet Impala and the Buick Lacrosse; it was closed in March 2019, and retooled as Factory ZERO for 2021 Hummer EV by GMC.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In April 2009, American Axle announced that it planned to close its plant at the Hamtramck/Detroit border, thus eliminating several hundred jobs in the area. As of February 2014, most of the 1.9 million-square-foot former facility has been demolished.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The Polish Art Center, at 9539 Joseph Campau Street, is a local institution in Hamtramck. The center promotes the preservation of Polish heritage through its display of cultural artifacts, often exhibited at festivals, schools and libraries. The center also hosts lectures, book signings, workshops, folk-art demonstrations, and pisanki-making classes.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The Ukrainian American Archives & Museum of Detroit is located at 9630 Joseph Campau Ave. It was formerly at 11756 Charest Street. The Museum's purpose is "to educate and inform the general public about the culture, art, and history of Ukrainians, their immigration to the United States and the contributions of Americans of Ukrainian descent to America; to engage in research in these areas; to maintain archives for the deposit of documents and other records relating to these topics; to acquire, preserve, exhibit artifacts of artistic, historical, and scientific value relating to these subjects; to sponsor public programs in order to study and preserve the heritage of Ukrainian Americans."


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: For more than 85 years, Kowalski Sausage Co. has manufactured meat products at 2270 Holbrook Street, which are distributed in the metropolitan Detroit area.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Notwithstanding the statement in the credits that it was filmed "in Detroit, Michigan", the 1998 Indie film "Polish Wedding" was filmed mainly in Hamtramck, particularly at a house on Wyandotte Street. Theresa Connelly, who wrote and directed the film, had spent her childhood in Hamtramck.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In December 2010, citing general budget woes and the city of Detroit withholding a portion of shared revenue for the Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant straddling the border of both cities, Hamtramck requested that the State of Michigan allow it to declare bankruptcy. The request was denied. Receivership was avoided when a deal was struck between the city and Detroit which required Detroit to pay $3.2 million in collected taxes to Hamtramck in exchange for Hamtramck paying Detroit nearly the same amount for a water and sewage bill that was in arrears.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The United States Postal Service operates the Hamtramck Post Office at 2933 Caniff Street. The post office annex is located at 14600 Dequindre Street in the City of Detroit.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck is home to Detroit City FC (DCFC) a professional American soccer club that plays in United Soccer League Championship (USLC), the second tier of the American Soccer Pyramid. The club plays their home matches at Keyworth Stadium, which is owned by Hamtramck Public Schools. The club is managed by Trevor James, a former Ipswich Town F.C. player who later was an assistant coach and scout under Bobby Robson.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2020, there were 28,433 people residing in the city. The population density was . There were 8,139 occupied housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 55.9% White, 10.0% African American, 0.1% Native American, 26.9% Asian, 1.0% from other races, and 6.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents, of any race, were 1.1% of the population.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 22,423 people, 8,897 households, and 5,115 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 8,693 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 53.5% White, 19.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 21.5% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 4.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.4% of the population.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: There were 7,063 households, of which 43.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.3% were married couples living together, 18.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.7% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.09 and the average family size was 3.98.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The median age in the city was 28.8 years. 31.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 12.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.9% were from 25 to 44; 20.7% were from 45 to 64; and 7.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.6% male and 48.4% female.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 22,976 people, 8,033 households, and 4,851 families residing in the city. The population density was , making it the most densely populated city in Michigan. There were 8,894 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 60.96% White (which includes people of Middle Eastern ancestry), 15.12% African American, 0.43% Native American, 10.37% Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, 1.14% from other races, and 11.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.31% of the population.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: 3.1% of Hamtramck's population reported Albanian ancestry. This made it the second most Albanian place in the United States by percentage of the population, second only to Fairview, North Carolina.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: There were 8,033 households, out of which 33.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.3% were married couples living together, 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.6% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.59.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.8% under the age of 18, 10.8% 18 through 24, 31.9% 25 through 44, 17.7% 45 through 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 110.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.6 males.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The median income for a household in the city was $26,616, and the median income for a family was $30,496. Males had a median income of $29,368 versus $22,346 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,691. About 24.1% of families and 27.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36.9% of those under age 18 and 18.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: From the 1990 census to the 2000 census, the city's population increased by 25%. Sally Howell, author of "Competing for Muslims: New Strategies for Urban Renewal in Detroit", wrote that this was "overwhelmingly" due to immigration from majority Muslim countries.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: From 1990 to 2000, of all of the municipalities in Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties, Hamtramck had the highest percentage growth in the Asian population. It had 222 Asians according to the 1990 U.S. Census and 2,382 according to the 2000 U.S. Census, an increase of 973%.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Historically, Hamtramck received a lot of immigration from Eastern Europe. In the 20th century, Hamtramck was mostly Polish. George Tysh of the "Metro Times" stated that "In the early days of the auto industry, Hamtramck's population swelled with Poles, so much so that you were more likely to hear Polish spoken on Joseph Campau than any other tongue." Later waves of immigration brought Albanians, Bosnians, Macedonians, Ukrainians, and Yemenis. By 2001 many Bangladeshis, Bosnians, and Iraqi Chaldeans were moving to Hamtramck. As of 2011 almost one in five Hamtramck residents was Asian (excluding those from South-west Asia). As of 2003, over 30 languages are spoken in Hamtramck and more than four religions are present. The four principal religions are, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In June 2013, the city's Human Relations Commission facilitated the raising of flags of 18 countries from which Hamtramck residents emigrated. They are displayed on Joseph Campau Street, with an American flag flying at either end.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In the 1930s, the first group of Bangladeshi-Bengalis came to Detroit and Hamtramck. The first significant population of Bengalis began arriving in the late 1980s and the Bengalis became a large part of the city's population in the 1990s. The largest growth occurred in the 1990s and 2000s. By 2001 many Bangladeshi Americans had moved from New York City, particularly Astoria, Queens, to Hamtramck and the east side of Detroit. Many moved because of lower costs of living, larger amounts of space, work available in small factories, and the large Muslim community in Metro Detroit. Many Bangladeshi Americans moved into Queens, and then onwards to Metro Detroit.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 2002, over 80% of the Bangladeshi population within Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties lived in Hamtramck and some surrounding neighborhoods in Detroit. That area overall had almost 1,500 ethnic Bangladeshis. Almost 75% of Bangladeshi Michiganders live in Hamtramck.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: By 2002, a Bengali business district formed along Conant Avenue and some residents called it "Little Bengal". The district, along Caniff and Conant streets, included markets, stores, mosques, and bakeries owned by Bangladeshis, Indians, and Pakistanis. By 2008 the Bengali business district, between Davison and Harold Street, and partially within the city limits of Detroit, received the honorary title "Bangladesh Avenue" and was to be dedicated as such on November 8, 2008. Akikul H. Shamin, the president of the Bangladesh Association of Michigan, estimated that Bangladeshi people operate 80% of the buildings and businesses in the portion of Conant Avenue. As of February 2008 the city planned to erect signage reading "Bangladesh Town" in the business district.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 2002, the estimate of Hamtramck inhabitants of origins from the South Asia was from 7,000 to 10,000. As of 2001, 900 registered students who spoke Bengali and Urdu attended Hamtramck Public Schools.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: As of 2006, most of the Middle Eastern population in Hamtramck is Yemeni. Hakim Almasmari wrote in 2006 that "Several streets seem to be populated exclusively by Yemeni Americans, and Yemeni culture pervades the city's social, business, and political life." Many Yemeni restaurants are in Hamtramck, and the Yemeni community operates the Mu'ath bin Jabal Mosque (), which was established in 1976. In 2005 the mosque, located just outside the southeastern border of Hamtramck, was the largest mosque out of the ten within a three-mile radius. Sally Howell, author of "Competing for Muslims: New Strategies for Urban Renewal in Detroit", wrote that the mosque "has been credited" by public officials and area Muslims "with having turned around one of Detroit's roughest neighborhoods at the height of the crack cocaine epidemic of the 1980s, making its streets safe, revitalizing a dormant housing market, attracting new business to the area, and laying the foundation for an ethnically mixed, highly visible Muslim population in Detroit and Hamtramck."


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: According to Almasmari, some of the first Yemenis to have arrived in Hamtramck said that Yemeni people first arrived in Hamtramck in the 1960s. The "Building Islam in Detroit: Foundations/Forms/Futures" project of the University of Michigan stated that Yemenis began arriving in the 1970s.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 2013 Dasic Fernandez, a Chilean artist, created a by mural on the Sheeba restaurant celebrating the Yemeni population. The mural depicts a girl in a veil decorated with the blue sky, a farmer wearing a turban, and a woman in a hijab. The Arab American and Chaldean Council and the coalition OneHamtramck commissioned the mural.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In the 2000s a Bengali mosque named the Al-Islah Jamee Masjid wanted permission to broadcast the adhan, the Islamic call to prayer, from loudspeakers outside of the mosque and requested permission to do so from the city government. It was one of the newer mosques in Hamtramck. Sally Howell, author of "Competing for Muslims: New Strategies for Urban Renewal in Detroit", wrote that the request "brought to a head simmering Islamophobic sentiments" in Hamtramck. Muslims and interfaith activists supported the mosque. Some anti-Muslim activists, including some from other states including Kentucky and Ohio, participated in the controversy. Howell added that the controversy, through an "international media storm", gave "a cathartic test of the "freedoms" we were said to be "fighting for" in Afghanistan and Iraq" to the remainder of the United States. In 2004 the city council voted unanimously to allow mosques to broadcast the adhan on public streets, making it one of the few U.S. cities to allow this to occur. Some individuals had strongly objected to the allowing of the adhan, some continue to object. In 2015, some residents complained that they could hear the electronically amplified call to prayer inside their homes five times a day, with one of those daily times being at 6 A.M.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck is governed under a council-manager form of government in which the elected mayor of the city is the chief executive officer. The city council consists of six seats. Though part of the council, the mayor is elected separately, and votes only in the case of a tie and on ordinances and contracts. The city council hires a city manager, who becomes the city's chief administrative officer. The city manager has the vested powers and responsibility to appoint and remove all city employees and department heads, prepare the city's budget, and other city functions.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The current Hamtramck City Hall is a former hospital building. In 1927 the Hamtramck Municipal Hospital, housed in a Georgian Revival building, opened. The Mayor of Hamtramck asked the Sisters of Saint Francis to operate the hospital. In 1931 the religious order began leasing the hospital from the city government for $1 per year. The hospital was renamed the Saint Francis Hospital. During its lifetime it offered services to Polish-speakers. In 1969 the hospital closed and the building became the city's city hall.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In November 2015, Hamtramck became the first American city to elect a Muslim-majority city council. In 2022 it became the first American city to have an all-Muslim government. The Wayne County Jail Division operates The William Dickerson Detention Facility in Hamtramck. The city levies a city income tax of 1 percent on residents and 0.5 percent on nonresidents.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck is served by Hamtramck Public Schools. Hamtramck High School is the public high school of Hamtramck. In addition Hanley International Academy, Frontier International Academy, Hamtramck Academy, Bridge Academy (of the Global Educational Excellence (GEE) company), Caniff Liberty Academy and Oakland International Academy are all charter schools, in Hamtramck. Frontier International Academy, a charter school operated by GEE, is in nearby Detroit.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck was historically a Polish Catholic community, so it housed Catholic schools by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit. One of the buildings once used by Hanley charter school was previously St. Florian Elementary School. The other Catholic primary schools included Our Lady Queen of Apostles and St. Ladislaus Elementary School. The city also housed St. Florian High School, a Catholic high school which opened in 1940 and was located in another wing of the same building as St. Florian.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: The parishes that established St. Florian, Our Lady Queen of Apostles, and St. Ladislaus had been built after 1909. In 1925 2,217 students attended St. Florian, making it the largest Catholic elementary school in the city. That year, St. Ladislaus had 1,540 students, Vinyard, p. .</ref> and Our Lady Queen of Apostles had 1,316 students. JoEllen McNergney Vinyard, author of "", wrote that the classrooms were "more crowded than most any Polish parish school in Detroit." In the Catholic schools in Hamtramck there were often 70 students per classroom compared to 45 students per classroom in Hamtramck public schools. It was common for children to attend religious schools selectively during certain periods so they could absorb religious ideals, but go to public school for preschool and later stages. In the 1920s Hamtramck had no Catholic high school and the majority of parents sent their children to public high school. Felician Academy and St. Josephat's Polish Catholic High School, two schools in Detroit, were located several blocks away from the Hamtramck border. Some parents sent their children to those schools.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 1992 Dickinson West Elementary School opened in the former St. Ladislaus building. In the fall of 2002, St. Florian High and Bishop Gallagher High School in Harper Woods merged to form Trinity Catholic High School in Harper Woods. At that point, St. Florian Elementary remained open. In 2005 the archdiocese announced that St. Florian Elementary would close. After St. Florian Elementary's closing, no Catholic schools are located within the city limits of Hamtramck. During the same year, the archdiocese announced that Trinity High School would close.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In the 1920s Hamtramck families often sent their children to public school for Kindergarten due to convenience, then moved their children to parochial schools during the periods with the most important religious instruction. Therefore, the age group 7 to 12 had the largest Catholic school enrollment. After the critical period ended, many students returned to public school. In 1925 the public schools had 1,467 students of ages 14–15 while the non-public schools had 217 students aged 14 and 15. In the early 1920s the annual growth rate of Hamtramck Public Schools buildings was 27% while non-public schools had an annual growth rate of 6% in that period.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In the 1920s there was a high level of school dropout in Hamtramck. During the decade Hamtramck had three 12th-grade students per 100 5th-grade students while the City of Detroit had 21 12th-grade students per 100 5th-grade students. In the 1920s 58% of 16-year-olds and 85% of 17-year-olds in Hamtramck were no longer attending high school. One public school survey stated that in 1924-1925 65% of male school dropouts began working in factories.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: Hamtramck Public Library Albert J. Zak Memorial is located at 2360 Caniff. The Tau Beta Association founded the library in November 1918. The library opened at its second location, the second floor of a professional building, on November 14, 1938. In 1951 the City Hall branch opened in the first floor of the municipal building; it was dedicated on January 22, 1952. The current library received its groundbreaking ceremony on July 5, 1955. It was completed on May 31, 1956, and dedicated on July 1, 1956.


title: Hamtramck, Michigan

text: In 1910 Hamtramck, then a village, had 3,559 residents. Between 1910 and 1920 Hamtramck's population grew by 1,266 percent. The growth of Hamtramck and neighboring Highland Park broke records for increases of population; both municipalities withstood annexation efforts from Detroit.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: The Greatest Game Ever Played is a 2005 American biographical sports film based on the early life of amateur golf champion Francis Ouimet and his surprise winning of the 1913 U.S. Open. The film was directed by Bill Paxton, and was his last film as a director. Shia LaBeouf plays the role of Ouimet. The film's screenplay was adapted by Mark Frost from his 2002 book, "The Greatest Game Ever Played: Harry Vardon, Francis Ouimet, and the Birth of Modern Golf". It was shot in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, with the Kanawaki Golf Club, in Kahnawake, Quebec, the site of the golf sequences.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: Set mainly in 1913, the film is about Francis Ouimet (Shia LaBeouf), the first amateur to win the U.S. Open. Amateur golf in that era was a sport only for the wealthy, and Ouimet came from an Irish and French-Canadian immigrant family that was part of the working class. Ouimet watches an exhibition by legendary Jersey golf pro Harry Vardon (Stephen Dillane) as a 7-year-old boy, and becomes very interested in golf. He begins as a caddie at The Country Club, a posh enclave located across the street from his home in suburban Brookline, Massachusetts, while making friends with the other caddies. He works on his own golf game at every chance, and gradually accumulates his own set of clubs. Francis practices putting at night in his room. He wins the Massachusetts Schoolboy Championship.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: One day, a Club member, Mr. Hastings (Justin Ashforth), asks Ouimet to play with him over The Country Club course, where caddies have almost no access of their own, and he shoots a fine round of 81 despite a 9 on one hole. His talent, composure, and good manners earn admirers and interest. With the help of Mr. Hastings and the Club Caddiemaster, Francis gets a chance to play in an upcoming tournament, the U.S. Amateur, the local qualifying for which is to be held at the very same Country Club course. However, his father Arthur (Elias Koteas) tells his son to quit golf and get a "real job". Ouimet needs $50 for the entry fee, and so agrees to get a real job and never play golf again if he could not qualify; his father lends him the money. On the 18th, Francis faces a three-foot putt that would secure him a spot in the championship, but he looks over and his father is watching. Ouimet is distracted, misses and falls one stroke short of qualifying for the championship proper.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: With much jeer from the rich folk, Ouimet, now 20, fulfills his promise to his dad and works at a sporting goods shop, while continuing to live at home. After some time with his golf forgotten, Ouimet is still at the bottom of the working class. But one day, the president of the United States Golf Association enters the store and personally invites him to play in the upcoming U.S. Open. After some maneuvering and consideration from his employer, Ouimet secures entry. His father informs Ouimet that he must find his own place to live after the tournament and Ouimet agrees to this arrangement. However, his mother has been supportive of his golf from the start. She admonishes Ouimet's father for not recognizing Ouimet's talent and that he now has a chance to demonstrate it in an important tournament.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: Ouimet competes in the 1913 U.S. Open that takes place at The Country Club. The favorites are British champions Vardon and Ted Ray (Stephen Marcus), who are accompanied by the snobbish Lord Northcliffe (Peter Firth), and the reigning U.S. Open champion, John McDermott. Northcliffe looks to see that either Vardon or Ray wins the Open, to affirm British dominance over the Americans in golf, and also to prove that only gentlemen were able champions. Ouimet competes with his 10-year old friend, Eddie Lowery (Josh Flitter), who skips school to caddie for Ouimet. After the first two rounds, Vardon and Ray have a seemingly comfortable lead, with McDermott unable to keep up. After some initial struggles, Ouimet rallies back and ends up tying with Vardon and Ray at the end of the fourth round, meaning that the three of them would compete in an 18-hole playoff to determine the champion. The night before, Northcliffe mocks Ouimet's social status to Vardon, who came from humble beginnings himself, and Vardon finally tells Northcliffe that he is going to try to win only for his own pride, not Britain's and that if Ouimet wins, it will be because of his own skill, not his background.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: The playoff round commences, with all three competitors keeping it close until the final holes, where Ray fades out, and Ouimet ahead of Vardon by a stroke going into the final hole. Vardon finishes with a par, giving Ouimet the chance to clinch the win with a par himself. Seeing him become nervous before the final putt, Eddie calms him down, and Ouimet is able to make the putt and win the U.S. Open. As the crowd carries him and Eddie on their shoulders, they start to hand him money. Ouimet refuses it all, only accepting one bill from his now proud father. In the clubhouse, Vardon privately congratulates Ouimet and suggests that they should play a friendly round together in the future. Ouimet and Eddie then walk home, carrying the U.S. Open trophy.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: A series of texts shows that Harry Vardon went on to win his sixth British Open Championship the following year, also Francis won two amateur championships and became a businessman and Eddie went on to become a multi-millionaire.


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: The movie shows a dramatic finish in the playoff, with Ouimet sinking a putt on the 18th hole to win the Championship by a single stroke. In reality, Ouimet finished birdie-par on 17 and 18 to Vardon's bogey-double bogey to end the playoff five strokes clear of Vardon and six ahead of Ray. The movie also shows the playoff as being in fair weather, and moves the rain to the third round. In the movie the historical 17th hole plays as a "dog leg right" when in fact at Brookline Country Club is played as a "dog leg left".


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: The film received generally positive reviews, from golf fans and non fans of the sport alike. Roger Ebert gave it three of four stars, stating it gave the real history of the greatest golf match with a strong human element while showing the golf play in a "gripping story". He notes that he is "not a golf fan but found (it) absorbing all the same... Paxton and his technicians have used every trick in the book to dramatize the flight and destination of the golf balls. We follow balls through the air, we watch them creep toward the green or stray into the rough, we get not only an eagle's-eye view but a club's-eye view and sometimes, I am convinced, a ball's-eye view." Larry King proclaimed it "every bit as good as "Seabiscuit"."


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, 63% of critics gave the film a positive "fresh" review. The website concludes, "Despite all the underdog sports movie conventions, the likable cast and lush production values make "The Greatest Game Ever Played" a solid and uplifting tale."


title: The Greatest Game Ever Played

text: The film has been released on DVD and UMD by Walt Disney Home Entertainment. Special features include two "making of" documentaries with cast and crew members, plus a rare 1963 interview with the real Francis Ouimet on WGBH, the Boston public television station, at Brookline, Massachusetts golf course where the 1913 U.S. Open took place. It was released on Blu-ray Disc in 2009, and again as a DVD/Blu-ray combo pack in 2011. It is now available to stream via Disney+ as of 2019.


title: Separate but equal

text: Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States constitutional law, according to which racial segregation did not necessarily violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which nominally guaranteed "equal protection" under the law to all people. Under the doctrine, as long as the facilities provided to each "race" were equal, state and local governments could require that services, facilities, public accommodations, housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation be segregated by "race", which was already the case throughout the states of the former Confederacy. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate".


title: Separate but equal

text: The doctrine was confirmed in the "Plessy v. Ferguson" Supreme Court decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation. Though segregation laws existed before that case, the decision emboldened segregation states during the Jim Crow era, which had commenced in 1876, and supplanted the Black Codes, which restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans during the Reconstruction Era.


title: Separate but equal

text: In practice, the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal; usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. For example, in the 1930 census, Black people were 42% of Florida's population. Yet according to the 1934–36 report of the Florida Superintendent of Public Instruction, the value of "white school property" in the state was $70,543,000, while the value of African-American school property was $4,900,000. The report says that "in a few south Florida counties and in most north Florida counties many Negro schools are housed in churches, shacks, and lodges, and have no toilets, water supply, desks, blackboards, etc. [See Station One School.] Counties use these schools as a means to get State funds and yet these counties invest little or nothing in them." At that time, high school education for African Americans was provided in only 28 of Florida's 67 counties. In 1939–40, the average salary of a white teacher in Florida was $1,148, whereas for a Black teacher it was $585.


title: Separate but equal

text: During the era of segregation, the myth was that the races were separated but were provided equal facilities. No one believed it. Almost without exception, black students were given inferior buildings and instructional materials. Black educators were generally paid less than were their white counterparts and had more students in their classrooms... In 1938, Pompano white schools collectively had one teacher for every 25 students, while the Pompano Colored School had one teacher for every 54 students. At the Hammondville School, the single teacher employed there had 67 students.


title: Separate but equal

text: Because new research showed that segregating students by "race" was harmful to them, even if facilities were equal, "separate but equal" facilities were found to be unconstitutional in a series of Supreme Court decisions under Chief Justice Earl Warren, starting with "Brown v. Board of Education" of 1954. However, the subsequent overturning of segregation laws and practices was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation (especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964), and many court cases.


title: Separate but equal

text: The American Civil War brought slavery in the United States to an end with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Following the war, the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection under the law to all people and Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to assist the integration of former slaves into Southern society. The Reconstruction Era brought new freedoms and laws promoting racial equality to the South. However, after the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction and withdrew federal troops from all Southern states, many former slaveholders and Confederates were elected to office. The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection to all people but Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a way that kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases.


title: Separate but equal

text: After the end of Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (Morrill Act of 1890). Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act (Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act implicitly accepted the legal concept of "separate but equal" for the 17 states that had institutionalized segregation.


title: Separate but equal

text: Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges "separately" for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be "equitably" divided as hereinafter set forth.


title: Separate but equal

text: In the late 1800s, many states of the former Confederacy adopted laws, collectively known as Jim Crow laws, that mandated separation of whites and African Americans. The Florida Constitution of 1885 and that of West Virginia mandated separate educational systems. In Texas, laws required separate water fountains, restrooms, and waiting rooms in railroad stations. In Georgia, restaurants and taverns could not serve white and "colored" patrons in the same room; separate parks for each "race" were required, as were separate cemeteries. These are just examples from a large number of similar laws.


title: Separate but equal

text: Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the land-grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate land-grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. (The constitutionality of such laws was upheld in "Berea College v. Kentucky (1908)" 211 U.S. 45)


title: Separate but equal

text: The legitimacy of such laws under the 14th amendment was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of "Plessy v. Ferguson", 163 U.S. 537 (1896). The "Plessy" doctrine was extended to the public schools in "Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education", 175 U.S. 528 (1899).


title: Separate but equal

text: In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all-white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was white and black, he was informed that he had to move to a coloreds-only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately.


title: Separate but equal

text: One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson. Plessy's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy's 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment gave equal protection to all under the law.


title: Separate but equal

text: The Supreme Court decision in "Plessy v. Ferguson" formalized the legal principle of "separate but equal". The ruling required "railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races". Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.


title: Separate but equal

text: The "separate but equal" doctrine applied in theory to all public facilities: not only railroad cars but schools, medical facilities, theaters, restaurants, restrooms, and drinking fountains. However, neither state nor Congress put "separate but equal" into the statute books, meaning the provision of equal services to non-whites could not be legally enforced. The only possible remedy was through federal court, but costly legal fees and expenses meant that this was out of the question for individuals; it took an organization with resources, the NAACP, to file and pursue "Brown v. Board of Education."


title: Separate but equal

text: Equal facilities were unusual. The facilities and social services offered to African Americans were almost always of a lower quality than those offered to white Americans, if they existed at all. Most African-American schools had less public funding per student than nearby white schools; they had old textbooks, discarded by the white schools, used equipment, and poorly paid, prepared, or taught and trained teachers. In addition, according to a study conducted by the American Psychological Association, black students are emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age. In Texas, the state established a state-funded law school for white students but none for black students. As previously mentioned, the majority of counties in Florida during the 1930s had no high school for African-American students. African Americans had to pay state and local taxes that were used for the benefit of whites only. (See Florida A&M Hospital for an example.)


title: Separate but equal

text: Although the "Separate but Equal" doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in "Brown v. Board of Education" (1954), the implementation of the changes this decision required was long, contentious, and sometimes violent (see massive resistance and Southern Manifesto). While modern legal doctrine interprets the 14th amendment to prohibit "explicit" segregation on the basis of race, societal issues surrounding racial discrimination still remain topical (see racial profiling).


title: Separate but equal

text: The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, was a key focus of the Civil Rights Movement prior to 1954. In "Sweatt v. Painter", the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine when a Texan black student, Heman Marion Sweatt, was seeking admission into the state-supported School of Law of the University of Texas. Since Texas did not have a law school for black students, the lower court continued the case for six months so that a state-funded law school for black students (now known as Thurgood Marshall School of Law at Texas Southern University) could be created. When further appeals to the Texas Supreme Court failed, Sweatt, along with the NAACP, took the case to the federal courts, before it eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. Here, the original decision was reversed and Sweatt was admitted into the University of Texas School of Law. This decision was based on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal", because of both quantitative differences, such as its facilities, and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangible factors must be considered as part of "substantive equality". The same day, the Supreme Court in "McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents" ruled that segregation laws in Oklahoma, which had required an African-American graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door, did not qualify as "separate but equal". These cases ended the "separate but equal" doctrine in graduate and professional education.


title: Separate but equal

text: In 1953, Earl Warren became the 14th Chief Justice of the United States, and the Warren Court started a liberal Constitutional Revolution which outlawed racial segregation and "Separate but equal" throughout the United States in a series of landmark rulings.


title: Separate but equal

text: In "Brown v. Board of Education (1954)" "347 U.S. 483" , attorneys for the NAACP referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in "Plessy v. Ferguson" as a custom "de jure" racial segregation enacted into law. The NAACP, led by Thurgood Marshall (who became the first black Supreme Court Justice in 1967), was successful in challenging the constitutional viability of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The Warren Court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under "Plessy". The Warren Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of "Bolling v. Sharpe", "347 U.S. 497" outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the District of Columbia. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court opinion:


title: Separate but equal

text: We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Separate but equal

text: Although "Brown" overturned the doctrine of "separate but equal" in institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would prohibit racial discrimination in facilities that were deemed public accommodations (transportation, hotels, etc.).


title: Separate but equal

text: Additionally, in 1967, under "Loving v. Virginia", the Warren Court declared Virginia's anti-miscegenation statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, unconstitutional, thus invalidating all anti-miscegenation laws in the United States. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court majority opinion: