title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: BMG and Minogue's company, Darenote, released the "Guest List Edition" on 12 November 2021. The packaging includes previously unseen images from the "Disco" album, as well as a new album cover. Like the original "Disco" album, Minogue released a variety of formats of the re-issue on her website's store to promote the album's release. The double disc-standard edition contains all twelve original tracks as well as bonus tracks from the original, while the second disc contains three new singles and six new remixes. A five-disc limited-edition media book version of the album, featuring a 20-page booklet with photographs and song lyrics and notes of the new tracks, was released with audio and footage from Minogue's Infinite Disco tour. On the same day, a digital version of the standard and deluxe editions were released. A double gatefold vinyl re-issue included all songs from the original and new edition of "Disco".


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: To accompany the re-release, Minogue and BMG remixed the album into extended mixes of each track, titled "Disco: Extended Mix". The same day, a double gatefold vinyl with a holographic design of the original "Disco" artwork was released. It was part of an exclusive limited edition box set that came in a blue vinyl package and included the vinyl version of the "Guest List Edition" as well as a vinyl cover. Due to popular demand of the extended mixes, it was released digitally on 10 December that same year.


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: "Disco" received positive reviews from most music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 72 based on 16 reviews, indicating "generally favourable reviews". Additionally, AnyDecentMusic? assigned a normalised rating of 7.2 out of 10, based on 22 reviews from music critics. In a positive review for "NME", Nick Levine described the album as "a consistently uplifting set that feels like Minogue's best album since 2010's "Aphrodite" [...] "Disco" shimmers with a warm glittery glow that's just irresistible." Writing in "The Guardian", Michael Cragg described "Disco" as being "saturated in Kylie's supernatural mix of high camp and total sincerity", while also praising the album for its "consistent sonic palette".


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: Some music critics praised the album's upbeat nature and production value, describing it as a hopeful sonic adventure during the latter half of the COVID-19 pandemic. Describing the album as "pure fantasia", Will Hodgkinson of "The Times" said: "the best thing about "Disco", coming at a time when hopefulness has been at a premium, is how optimistic it sounds." Robin Murray of music title "Clash" called "Disco" "sheer escapism from start to finish, an exit point from the darkness that has fallen over 2020", while also complimenting the album's fusion of vintage and modern styles. Elisa Bray of "i News" called the album "pure euphoria", praising its production while describing its sound as "unabashedly retro [...] with a thoroughly modern sheen".


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: A few critics cited "Disco" amongst Minogue's best works. Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic praised the album for reaching the same "highs" as her albums from the early 2000s and considered it a return to form following "Golden". Arts critic Ben Neutze, writing for "The Guardian" on 17 November 2020, gave "Disco" a 4-out-of-5-star rating and commented: "It's a fitting album to rack up this milestone: a collection of songs exemplifying the cathartic joy that's been central to Kylie's brand since the beginning. It's music that makes you want to dance, and while the dance floors where many of her fans gather are currently off limits, it doesn't feel like a tease. Instead, it's a gift."


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: Despite positive feedback, minor criticism was levelled at Minogue's lack of an adventurous approach to the genre, which was perceived to be safe. "Pitchfork" contributor Katherine St. Asaph gave "Disco" 5.6 out of ten. In contrast to a few songs, Asaph felt the album had a "uncoolness" to it, and that the first half of the record was the "weakest". She stated, "The album, with a couple exceptions, has two modes: overly tasteful cruise-ship programming and gauche rehashes". Lisa Wright from "DIY" awarded it three-and-a-half stars out of five, stating that whilst "Disco" "might not be the most progressive or groundbreaking album of the year, it’s certainly up there as one of the most charming." Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" gave it the same rating, saying Minogue "has made a version of this album before," referring to Minogue's 2001 record "Fever". He concluded, "For better or worse, though, "Disco" doesn't attempt to adapt the classic titular sound in a contemporary context like those albums did, instead content to bask in unapologetic homage. In the end, it's a sugar rush worth the hangover."


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: "Disco" received nominations for music show awards and was included on year-end album lists. It received a nomination for Best Adult Contemporary Album at the 2021 ARIA Music Awards, her first nomination in that category since 2010's "Aphrodite", as well as a nomination for Best Artist, her first nomination in that category. In the former, she was defeated by Crowded House's record "Dreamers Are Waiting", and the Kid Laroi and Justin Bieber for their work in "Stay" in the latter category. "Disco" was also nominated as Top Dance/Electronic Album at the 2021 "Billboard" Music Awards, her first nomination through the association and its specific category. She lost to "Chromatica" by American singer Lady Gaga. Nordic magazine "Gaffa" shortlisted the album, and Minogue, in their categories Best International Solo Act and Best International Album, respectively. Additionally, "Disco" was submitted and shortlisted for Best Pop Vocal Album for the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, but did not received a nomination. "Music Week" awarded "Disco" the Digital Marketing Masters award, whilst Minogue and her label BMG were nominated for Artist Marketing Campaign, and Minogue and Murray Chalmers PR (MCPR) were nominated for best PR Campaign for the album, respectively.


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: On 21 August 2020, the head of BMG, Alistair Norbury, gave an interview with "Music Week" about the marketing campaign for "Disco". According to Norbury, "Disco" was outperforming her previous studio album "Golden" when compared with the same stage in its album campaign. This was according to key metrics such as streaming, Amazon pre-orders, D2C pre-orders and video views. In the United Kingdom, "Disco" debuted at number one on the Official Albums Chart on 13 November 2020, becoming her second consecutive number one studio album after "Golden", and her sixth overall. "Disco" debuted 5,000 units ahead of its closest competitor, "Confetti" by Little Mix, in what several outlets deemed to be a hotly contested chart battle.


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: "Disco" overtook American singer-songwriter Lady Gaga's record "Chromatica" as the biggest opening week release of 2020, selling 54,905 units. This was quickly surpassed by "Power Up" by Australian band AC/DC, which sold 62,000 units in its first week. "Disco" became Minogue's eighth number one album in the UK and in the process, Minogue broke the record as the first female artist to earn a number one album in five consecutive decades, following "Kylie" (1988), "Enjoy Yourself" (1989), "Greatest Hits" (1992), "Fever" (2001), "Aphrodite" (2010), "Golden" (2018) and "Step Back In Time: The Definitive Collection" (2019). Within a month of its release, the album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), and was later upgraded to Gold on 18 December 2020, having shipped over 100,000 units in the UK. To date, the album had sold 156,039 copies in the country.


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: In Minogue's native Australia, "Disco" debuted at number one, becoming her seventh chart topping on the ARIA Charts. It descended to number two the following week, and lasted eight non-consecutive weeks in the chart. After the re-release of the "Guest List Edition", it re-entered the chart at number seven for a sole week. In New Zealand, the album opened at number nine on their national chart, Minogue's first top-ten entry since "Fever" in 2001. However, it only stayed in the chart for a sole week. In France, the album debuted at number eight, her highest charting position since "Aphrodite" peaked at number three. It quickly fell down the chart, and after re-entering at 45 during the promotional phase of the "Guest List Edition", it fell off again the following week.


title: Disco (Kylie Minogue album)

text: In the United States, "Disco" opened and peaked at number 26 on the "Billboard" 200 with 19,000 album-equivalent units, 15,000 of which were pure sales, becoming her third highest-charting album in the country after "Fever" in 2002 and "Aphrodite" in 2010. It also debuted at number two on the "Billboard" Top Albums Sales chart and atop the Dance/Electronic Albums chart, making it her first number-one on the chart. As of November 2021, "Disco" has sold 35,000 copies in the United States. It debuted at number 64 on the regional Oricon Albums Chart and number 65 on the "Billboard Japan" Hot Albums chart in Japan. It has reportedly sold 2,980 units in that country.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Carlos Joseph Marcello (; born Calogero Minacore ; February 6, 1910 – March 3, 1993) was an Italian-American crime boss of the New Orleans crime family from 1947 until the late 1980s.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Aside from his role in the American Mafia, he is also notorious for the reason that G. Robert Blakey and others have alleged that Carlos Marcello, Santo Trafficante Jr., and Sam Giancana conspired in the 1963 assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in retaliation for federal investigations and prosecutions that threatened both the power and the


title: Carlos Marcello

text: multibillion-dollar profits of organized crime. Marcello was strongly affiliated with the LeJeune, Broussard, and Trahan families.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Marcello was born on February 6, 1910 to Sicilian immigrants Giuseppe and Luigia Minacore, in Tunis, French Tunisia. With his family, Marcello immigrated to the United States in 1911 and settled in a decaying plantation house near Metairie in Jefferson Parish, a suburb of New Orleans. His father adopted a different family name to avoid confusion with his supervisor on the sugar plantation where he had started work. His overseer, also Minacore, chose the appellation Marcello. The family changed all their other names, and Calogero Minacore became Carlos Joseph Marcello. He had eight siblings: Peter, Rose, Mary, Pascal, Vincent, Joseph Jr., Anthony and Salvador Marcello.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Young Marcello turned to petty crime in the French Quarter. He was later imprisoned for masterminding a crew of teenage gangsters who carried out armed robberies in the small towns surrounding New Orleans. At the time, local newspapers compared him to the character of Fagin from Charles Dickens' novel "Oliver Twist". This conviction was later overturned. However, the following year he was convicted of assault and robbery and was sentenced to the Louisiana State Penitentiary in West Feliciana Parish for nine years. He was released after five years.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In 1938, Marcello was arrested and charged with the sale of more than 10 kg (23 pounds) of marijuana. Despite receiving another lengthy prison sentence and a $76,830 fine, Marcello served less than ten months and only paid a $400 fine thanks to a deal cut with former Governor Huey Long. On his release from prison, Marcello became associated with Frank Costello, the leader of the Genovese crime family, in New York City. At the time, Costello was involved in transporting illegal slot machines from New York City to New Orleans. Marcello provided the muscle and arranged for the machines to be placed in local businesses.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: By the end of 1947, Marcello had taken control of Louisiana's illegal gambling network. He had also joined forces with Genovese crime family associate Meyer Lansky in order to skim money from some of the most important casinos in the New Orleans area shortly after becoming associated with the Todaro family through marriage. According to former members of the Chicago Outfit, Marcello was also assigned a cut of the money skimmed from Las Vegas casinos, in exchange for providing "muscle" in Florida real estate deals. By this time, Marcello had been selected as "The Godfather" of the New Orleans Mafia, by the family's capos and with the approval of The Commission after the deportation of his predecessor, Sylvestro Carolla, to Sicily. He held this position for the next thirty years. In a 1975 extortion trial, two witnesses described Marcello as "The Godfather" of the New Orleans crime syndicate.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Marcello appeared before the U.S. Senate's Kefauver Committee on organized crime on January 25, 1951. He pleaded the Fifth Amendment 152 times. The Committee called Marcello "one of the worst criminals in the country".


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Marcello continued the family's long-standing tradition of fierce independence from interference by mafiosi in other areas. He enacted a policy that forbade mafiosi from other families from visiting Louisiana without first asking permission.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: On March 24, 1959, Marcello appeared before the United States Senate's McClellan Committee investigating organized crime. Serving as Chief Counsel to the committee was Robert F. Kennedy; his brother, Senator John F. Kennedy, was a member of the committee. In response to committee questioning, Marcello invoked the Fifth Amendment and refused to answer any questions relating to his background, activities, and associates. From then on, Marcello became an avowed enemy of the Kennedys.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: The New Orleans crime family frequently met at Mosca's Italian restaurant in the New Orleans suburb of Avondale, in a building which Marcello had owned.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: On April 4, 1961, the U.S. Justice Department, under the direction of Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, apprehended Marcello as he made what he assumed was a routine visit to the immigration authorities in New Orleans, then deported him to Guatemala. Two months later, he was back in New Orleans. Thereafter, he successfully fought efforts by the government to deport him. His immigration lawyer was Jack Wasserman.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In November 1963, Marcello was tried for "conspiracy to defraud the United States government by obtaining a false Guatemalan birth certificate" and "conspiracy to obstruct the United States government in the exercise of its right to deport Carlos Marcello". He was acquitted later that month on both charges. However, in October 1964, Marcello was charged with "conspiring to obstruct justice by fixing a juror [Rudolph Heitler] and seeking the murder of a government witness [Carl Noll]". Marcello's attorney admitted Heitler had been bribed but said that there was no evidence to connect the bribe with Marcello. Noll refused to testify against Marcello in the case. Marcello was acquitted of both charges.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In September 1966, 13 members of the New York, Louisiana and Florida crime families were arrested for "consorting with known criminals" at the La Stella Restaurant in Queens, New York. However, the charges were later dropped. Returning to New Orleans a few days later, Marcello was arrested for assaulting an FBI agent. His first trial resulted in a hung jury, but he was retried and convicted. He was sentenced to two years but served less than six months.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In 1981, Marcello, Aubrey W. Young (a former aide to Governor John J. McKeithen), Charles E. Roemer, II (former commissioner of administration to Governor Edwin Edwards), and two other men were indicted in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana in New Orleans with conspiracy, racketeering, and mail and wire fraud in a scheme to bribe state officials to give the five men multimillion-dollar insurance contracts. The charges were the result of a Federal Bureau of Investigation probe known as BriLab. U.S. District Judge Morey Sear allowed the admission of secretly-recorded conversations that he said demonstrated corruption at the highest levels of state government. Marcello and Roemer were convicted, but Young and the two others were acquitted.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In its 1978 investigation of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the House Select Committee on Assassinations said that it recognized Jack Ruby's murder of Lee Harvey Oswald as a primary reason to suspect organized crime as possibly having involvement in the assassination. In its investigation, the HSCA noted the presence of "credible associations relating both Lee Harvey Oswald and Jack Ruby to figures having a relationship, albeit tenuous, with Marcello's crime family or organization". Their report stated: "The committee found that Marcello had the motive, means and opportunity to have President John F. Kennedy assassinated, though it was unable to establish direct evidence of Marcello's complicity".


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In their book, "Fatal Hour: The Assassination of President Kennedy By Organized Crime", authors Richard N. Billings and G. Robert Blakey (who was chief counsel of the House Select Committee on Assassinations and previously Special Attorney in the Organized Crime and Racketeering Section of the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice under Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy) conclude that President Kennedy's murder was planned and carried out by Marcello and conspirators. They claim that their book lays out evidence that has been corroborated by additional sources and official records released in subsequent years.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In his 1989 book, "Mafia Kingfish: Carlos Marcello and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy", author John H. Davis implicates Marcello in the assassination of Kennedy. According to Davis, Oswald and Ruby had "strong ties" to Marcello. Davis claims that Ruby ran Dallas businesses for Marcello lieutenant Joseph Campisi.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In his 1994 autobiography "Mob Lawyer", attorney Frank Ragano says that he relayed a message in 1963 from Teamsters Union leader Jimmy Hoffa to Marcello and Santo Trafficante, the Mafia boss of Florida, urging the two Mafia bosses to kill Kennedy. Ragano later claimed that four days before Trafficante died, the mob boss described to Ragano how he and Marcello organized the murder of President Kennedy.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In his 2013 book "The Hidden History of the JFK Assassination", Lamar Waldron claimed that Marcello masterminded the assassination of Kennedy. According to Waldron, Marcello admitted his involvement to two other inmates during a fit of rage in the prison yard at the Federal Correctional Institution in Texarkana, Texas. In his book, Waldron also presented the account of Marcello's prison cellmate, Jack Van Laningham, who claimed in 1985 that Marcello bragged to him that he had masterminded the Kennedy assassination, while planting red herrings to confuse the press and embarrass the FBI and CIA into suppressing evidence. According to Waldron, Marcello arranged for two hit men to carry out the assassination after entering the United States from Canada and Europe, while setting up Oswald as the fall guy and ordering the subsequent murder of various conspirators and witnesses who risked turning informants, including mobsters Johnny Roselli and Sam Giancana.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: According to criminal underworld investigator and author Charles Brandt, "While in Texarkana Federal prison, during a two-day period in which Marcello was having blood pressure problems and was sent to the prison hospital, Marcello spoke to medical attendants as if they were members of his crime family. On three occasions he told them he had just met in New York with [Genovese capo Tony] 'Provenzano' and they would soon be celebrating, because they were 'going to get that smiling m.f. Kennedy in Dallas".


title: Carlos Marcello

text: In 1936, Marcello married Jacqueline Todaro, the niece of senior New Orleans Mafioso Frank Todaro. They had four children, Louise Hampton, Joseph C. Marcello, Florence Black and Jacqueline Dugas.


title: Carlos Marcello

text: Early in 1989, Marcello suffered a series of strokes. In July, in a surprise move, the 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals threw out his BriLab conviction. One judge denied this reversal, but his decision in turn was overruled. In October, after having served six years and six months of his sentence, Marcello was released. Carlos Marcello died on March 2, 1993.


title: Walloons

text: Walloons (; ; ) are a Gallo-Romance ethnic group living native to Wallonia and the immediate adjacent regions of France. Walloons primarily speak "langues d'oïl" such as Belgian French, Picard and Walloon. Walloons are historically and primarily Roman Catholic.


title: Walloons

text: In modern Belgium, Walloons are, by law, termed a "distinctive linguistic and ethnic community" within the country, as are the neighbouring Flemish, a Germanic group.


title: Walloons

text: When understood as a regional identification, the ethnonym is also extended to refer to the inhabitants of the Walloon region in general, regardless of ethnicity or ancestry.


title: Walloons

text: The term "Walloon" is derived from "*walha", a Proto-Germanic term used to refer to Celtic and Latin speakers.


title: Walloons

text: "Walloon" originated in Romance languages alongside other related terms, but it supplanted them. Its oldest written trace is found in Jean de Haynin's "Mémoires de Jean, sire de Haynin et de Louvignies" in 1465, where it refers to Roman populations of the Burgundian Netherlands. Its meaning narrowed yet again during the French and Dutch periods and, at Belgian independence, the term designated only Belgians speaking a Romance language (French, Walloon, Picard, etc.) The linguistic cleavage in the politics of Belgium adds a political content to "the emotional cultural, and linguistic concept". The words "Walloon" and "Wallons" can be seen in the book of Charles White, "The Belgic Revolution" (1835): "The restless Wallons, with that adventurous daring which is their historical characteristic, abandoned their occupations, and eagerly seizing the pike and the musket marched towards the centre of the commotion." The Spanish terms of Walon and Walona from the 17th century referred to a Royal Guard Corps recruited in the Spanish Flanders. They were involved in many of the most significant battles of the Spanish Empire.


title: Walloons

text: Albert Henry wrote that although in 1988 the word "Walloon" evoked a constitutional reality, it originally referred to Roman populations of the Burgundian Netherlands and was also used to designate a territory by the terms "provinces wallonnes" or "pays wallon" (Walloon country), from the 16th century to the Belgian revolution, and later Wallonia. The term 'Walloon country' was also used in Dutch viz. "Walsch land". The term existed also in German, perhaps "Wulland" in Hans Heyst's 1571 book, where that word is later (1814) translated to Wallonia in English. In German it is however generally "Wallonenland". In English, it is Walloon country (see further James Shaw). In French it is "le Pays wallon". For Félix Rousseau, Walloon country is, after "le Roman pays" the old name of the country of the Walloons.


title: Walloons

text: The term ""state reform"" in the Belgian context indicates a process towards finding constitutional and legal solutions for the problems and tensions among the different segments of the Belgian population, mostly Dutch-speakers of Flanders and French-speakers of Wallonia. In general, Belgium evolved from a unitary state to a federal state with communities, regions and language areas.


title: Walloons

text: The area now known as Wallonia has been settled by various Celtic tribes and later by Roman and Frankish settlers. From the early Middle Ages up until the early modern period, the region has been separated between many city-states and external powers. Such changing rule brought variations to borders, culture, and language. The Walloon language, widespread in use up until the Second World War, has been dying out of common use due in part to its prohibition by the public school system, in favor of French.


title: Walloons

text: Starting from the end of the 19th century, the Walloon Movement, aiming to assert the identity of Wallons as French-speaking (rather than Wallon speaking) people of Belgium. In this context, the concept of Wallonia, as a heartland of the Walloon people was invented in 1886.


title: Walloons

text: Later, this was complicated by the federal structure given to Belgium, which splits Belgium into three communities with the privilege of using their own tongues in official correspondence, but also into three autonomous regions. The communities are: French community (though not Walloon, but sometimes controversially called "Wallonia-Brussels"), Flemish community (which uses Dutch), and German-speaking community. The division into political regions does not correspond with the communities: Flemish Region, Walloon Region (including the German community but generally called Wallonia), and the bilingual (French-Dutch) Brussels-Capital Region.


title: Walloons

text: Many non-French-speaking observers (over)generalize "Walloons" as a term of convenience for all Belgian French-speakers (even those born and living in the Brussels-Capital Region). The mixing of the population over the centuries means that most families can trace ancestors on both sides of the linguistic divide. But, the fact that Brussels is around 85% French-speaking, but is located in Dutch-speaking Flanders, has led to friction between the regions and communities. The local dialect in Brussels, "Brussels Vloms", is a Brabantic dialect, reflecting the Dutch heritage of the city.


title: Walloons

text: Walloons are historically credited with pioneering the industrial revolution in Continental Europe in the early 19th century. In modern history, Brussels has been the major town or the capital of the region. Because of long Spanish and minor French rule, French became the sole official language. After a brief period with Dutch as the official language while the region was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the people reinstated French after achieving independence in 1830. The Walloon region, a major coal and steel-producing area, developed rapidly into the economic powerhouse of the country. Walloons (in fact French-speaking elites who were called "Walloons") became politically dominant. Many Flemish immigrants came to work in Wallonia. Between the 1930s and the 1970s, the gradual decline of steel and more especially coal, coupled with too little investment in service industries and light industry (which came to predominate in Flanders), started to tip the balance in the other direction. Flanders became gradually politically and economically dominant. In their turn, Walloon families have moved to Flanders in search of jobs. This evolution has not been without political repercussions.


title: Walloons

text: The heartland of Walloon culture are the Meuse and Sambre river valleys, Charleroi, Dinant, Namur (the regional capital), Huy, Verviers, and Liège.


title: Walloons

text: The Walloon language is an element of Walloon identity. However, the entire French-speaking population of Wallonia cannot be culturally considered Walloon, since a significant portion in the west (around Tournai and Mons) and smaller portions in the extreme south (around Arlon) possess other languages as mother tongues (namely, Picard, Champenois, Lorrain, Flemish, German and Luxembourgish).


title: Walloons

text: A survey of the "Centre liégeois d'étude de l'opinion" pointed out in 1989 that 71.8% of the younger people of Wallonia understand and speak only a little or no Walloon language; 17.4% speak it well; and only 10.4% speak it exclusively. Based on other surveys and figures, Laurent Hendschel wrote in 1999 that between 30 and 40% people were bilingual in Wallonia (Walloon, Picard), among them 10% of the younger population (18–30 years old). According to Hendschel, there are 36 to 58% of young people have a passive knowledge of the regional languages. On the other hand, Givet "commune", several villages in the Ardennes "département" in France, which publishes the journal "Causons wallon" (Let us speak Walloon); and two villages in Luxembourg are historically Walloon-speaking.


title: Walloons

text: Since the 11th century, the great towns along the river Meuse, for example, Dinant, Huy, and Liège, traded with Germany, where "Wallengassen" (Walloons' neighborhoods) were founded in certain cities. In Cologne, the Walloons were the most important foreign community, as noted by three roads named "Walloonstreet" in the city. The Walloons traded for materials they lacked, such as copper, found in Germany, especially at Goslar.


title: Walloons

text: In the 13th century, the medieval German colonization of Transylvania (central and North-Western Romania) also included numerous Walloons. Place names such as "Wallendorf" (Walloon Village) and family names such as "Valendorfean" (Wallon peasant) can be found among the Romanian citizens of Transylvania.


title: Walloons

text: Translation: "We are called "Walloons" by the Belgians because when the ancient people of Gallia were travelling the length and breadth of the earth, it happened that they asked each other: 'Où allons-nous?' [Where are we going? : the pronunciation of these French words is the same as the French word "Wallons" (plus 'us')], i.e. 'To which goal are we walking?.' It is probable they took from it the name "Ouallons" ("Wallons"), which the Latin speaking are not able to pronounce without changing the word by the use of the letter G." One of the best translations of his (humorous) sayings used daily in Wallonia is "These are strange times we are living in."


title: Walloons

text: Shakespeare used the word Walloon: "A base Walloon, to win the Dauphin's grace/Thrust Talbot with a spear in the back." A note in "Henry VI, Part I" says, "At this time, the Walloons [were] the inhabitants of the area, now in south Belgium, still known as the 'Pays wallon'." Albert Henry agrees, quoting Maurice Piron, also quoted by A.J. Hoenselaars: "'Walloon' meaning 'Walloon country' in Shakespeare's 'Henry VI'..."


title: Walloons

text: Starting from the 1620s, numerous Walloon miners and iron-workers, with their families, settled in Sweden to work in iron mining and refining. Walloon methods of iron production were incorporated into Swedish practice, to supplement the existing German techniques. Many Walloon workers settled around the mine at Dannemora producing Öregrund iron which represented 15 per cent of Sweden's iron production at that time.


title: Walloons

text: They were originally led by the entrepreneur Louis de Geer, who commissioned them to work in the iron mines of Uppland and Östergötland. The wave of migration continued substantially into the 18th century. Walloons became gradually integrated into Swedish society, but it was not until the end quarter of the 20th century when they were fully integrated, when the Swedish legislation allowed Catholics to become civil servants. Walloon ancestry is traceable through Walloon surnames. Some people of Walloon descent belong to the "Sällskapet Vallonättlingar" (Society of Walloon Descendants).


title: Walloons

text: A 1786 history of the Netherlands noted, "[The] Haynault and Namur, with Artois, now no longer an Austrian Province, compose the Walloon country. The Walloon name and language are also extended into the adjacent districts of the neighbouring Provinces. A large part of Brabant, where that Province borders on Haynault and Namur, is named Walloon Brabant. The affinity of language seems also on some occasions to have wrought a nearer relation."


title: Walloons

text: The Belgian revolution was recently described as firstly a conflict between the Brussels municipality which was secondly disseminated in the rest of the country, "particularly in the Walloon provinces". We read the nearly same opinion in Edmundson's book: The royal forces, on the morning of September 23, entered the city at three gates and advanced as far as the Park. But beyond that point they were unable to proceed, so desperate was the resistance, and such the hail of bullets that met them from barricades and from the windows and roofs of the houses. For three days almost without cessation the fierce contest went on, the troops losing ground rather than gaining it. On the evening of the 26th the prince gave orders to retreat, his troops having suffered severely. The effect of this withdrawal was to convert a street insurrection into a national revolt. The moderates now united with the liberals, and a Provisional Government was formed, having amongst its members Charles Rogier, Van de Weyer, Gendebien, , Félix de Mérode and Louis de Potter, who a few days later returned triumphantly from banishment. The Provisional Government issued a series of decrees declaring Belgium independent, releasing the Belgian soldiers from their allegiance, and calling upon them to abandon the Dutch standard. They were obeyed. The revolt, which had been confined mainly to the Walloon districts, now spread rapidly over Flanders. Jacques Logie wrote: "On the 6th October, the whole Wallonia was under the Provisional Government's control. In the Flemish part of the country the collapse of the Royal Government was as total and quick as in Wallonia, except Ghent and Antwerp." Robert Demoulin, who was Professor at the University of Liège, wrote: "Liège is in the forefront of the battle for liberty", more than Brussels but with Brussels. He wrote the same thing for Leuven. According to Demoulin, these three cities are the "républiques municipales" at the head of the Belgian revolution. In this chapter VI of his book, "Le soulèvement national" (pp. 93–117), before writing "On the 6th October, the whole Wallonia is free", he quotes the following municipalities from which volunteers were going to Brussels, the "centre of the commotion", in order to take part in the battle against the Dutch troops: Tournai, Namur, Wavre (p. 105) Braine-l'Alleud, Genappe, Jodoigne, Perwez, Rebecq, Grez-Doiceau, , Nivelles (p. 106), Charleroi (and its region), Gosselies, Lodelinsart (p. 107), Soignies, Leuze, Thuin, Jemappes (p. 108), Dour, Saint-Ghislain, (p. 109) and he concluded: "So, from the Walloon little towns and countryside, people came to the capital.." The Dutch fortresses were liberated in Ath ( 27 September), Mons (29 September), Tournai (2 October), Namur (4 October) (with the help of people coming from Andenne, Fosses, Gembloux), Charleroi (5 October) (with people who came in their thousands).The same day that was also the case for Philippeville, Mariembourg, Dinant, Bouillon. In Flanders, the Dutch troops capitulated at the same time in Bruges, Ypres, Ostend, Menen, Oudenaarde, Geeraardsbergen (pp. 113–114), but nor in Ghent nor in Antwerp (only liberated on 17 October and 27 October).


title: Walloons

text: Against these interpretation, in any case for the troubles in Brussels, John W. Rooney Jr wrote: It is clear from the quantitative analysis that an overwhelming majority of revolutionaries were domiciled in Brussels or in the nearby suburbs and that the aid came from outside was minimal. For example, for the day of 23 September, 88% of dead and wounded lived in Brussels identified and if we add those residing in Brabant, it reached 95%. It is true that if you look at the birthplace of revolutionary given by the census, the number of Brussels falls to less than 60%, which could suggest that there was support "national" (to different provinces Belgian), or outside the city, more than 40%.But it is nothing, we know that between 1800 and 1830 the population of the capital grew by 75,000 to 103,000, this growth is due to the designation in 1815 in Brussels as a second capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the rural exodus that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. It is therefore normal that a large part of the population of Brussels be originating provinces. These migrants came mainly from Flanders, which was hit hard by the crisis in the textile 1826-1830. This interpretation is also nationalist against the statements of witnesses: Charles Rogier said that there were neither in 1830 nor nation Belgian national sentiment within the population. The revolutionary Jean-Baptiste Nothomb ensures that "the feeling of national unity is born today." As for Joseph Lebeau, he said that "patriotism Belgian is the son of the revolution of 1830.." Only in the following years as bourgeois revolutionary will "legitimize ideological state power.


title: Walloons

text: A few years after the Belgian revolution in 1830, the historian Louis Dewez underlined that "Belgium is shared into two people, Walloons and Flemings. The former are speaking French, the latter are speaking Flemish. The border is clear (...) The provinces which are back the Walloon line, i.e.: the Province of Liège, the Brabant wallon, the Province of Namur, the Province of Hainaut are Walloon [...] And the other provinces throughout the line [...] are Flemish. It is not an arbitrarian division or an imagined combination in order to support an opinion or create a system: it is a fact..." Jules Michelet traveled in Wallonia in 1840 and mentions many times in his "History of France" his interest for Wallonia and the Walloons (this page on the Culture of Wallonia), 476 (1851 edition published online)


title: Walloons

text: The Walloon Region institutionally comprises also the German-speaking community of Belgium around Eupen, in the east of the region, next to Germany which ceded the area to Belgium after the First World War. Many of the 60,000 or so inhabitants of this very small community reject being considered as Walloon and – with their community executive leader Karl-Heinz Lambertz want to remain a federating unit, and to have all the powers of the Belgian Regions and Communities. Even if they do not want them absolutely and immediately (10 July 2008, official speech for the Flanders' national holiday).


title: Walloons

text: The Manifesto for Walloon culture in 1983 was a major event of the History of Wallonia quoted in the important books about the region's history.


title: Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout

text: In automotive design, an F4, or front-engine, four-wheel drive (4WD) layout places the internal combustion engine at the front of the vehicle and drives all four roadwheels. This layout is typically chosen for better control on many surfaces, and is an important part of rally racing, as well as off-road driving. In terms of racing purposes, whether it be on-road or off-road, can be described as follows,


title: Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout

text: A team that pursues the Weak LS4WD architecture will minimize the development cost of the front-wheel drive system at the expense of having a larger rear powertrain. The Weak architecture produces a vehicle with a large powersplit between the front and rear powertrains, while the Strong architecture recommends a vehicle with more similar power and torque requirements for the front and rear.


title: Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout

text: Most four-wheel-drive layouts are front-engined and are derivatives of earlier front-engine, rear-wheel drive, or front-engine, front-wheel drive designs. The first origins of it were introduced in the 1820s from steam coach builders Burstall & Hill. This was then re-created by many other manufactures, such as "British engineer Joseph Diplock patented a four-wheel-drive system for a traction engine, while in Vienna, Austria, Ferdinand Porsche developed an electric vehicle that also had all wheels driven, with an electric motor at each corner, as early as 1899". This layout is designed for off road vehicles to have the most traction in strenuous situations without losing too much cargo space at the same time. However, the 1903 Spyker 60 HP was the first car built with an F4 drive layout.


title: Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout

text: This layout is also the drive train of choice for off-road pickup trucks and SUVs. It allows these vehicles to get the most traction without sacrificing cargo or passenger room. Part-time four-wheel drive vehicles frequently have a transfer case and no center differential, meaning, in many cases, the 4WD mode does not allow any difference in front and rear axle speeds. For normal road driving, these vehicles are shifted into 2WD mode, to prevent damage to the transfer case. Full-time four-wheel drive systems, on the other hand, cannot do without some kind of center differential. The purpose of four-wheel drive is to maintain optimal traction when manually selected. A vehicle has four-wheel drive when the front and rear driveshafts can be locked together to move at the same speed and send the same amount of torque to all four wheels.


title: Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout

text: Several four-wheel-drive vehicles have been built without a drive shaft between the front combustion engine and rear wheels; instead the rear wheels receive power and torque from a rear electric motor. This setup has been mainly used by hybrid electric vehicles, although some conventional vehicles had also adopted the system.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Sunset Overdrive is an action-adventure shooter video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Microsoft Studios. The game is set in 2027, in a fictional metropolis called Sunset City. The player controls an employee of FizzCo, who has to fight off the OD, short for Overcharge Drinkers: humans who have turned into mutants after drinking FizzCo's energy drink beverage. In the dystopian Sunset City, the player character can wall-run, use zip-lines, and grind rails to swiftly navigate through it, with a large arsenal of weapons to use. The game also has a cooperative multiplayer mode called Chaos Squad, which tasks players to complete a series of missions with seven players. As the game puts emphasis on momentum, the game does not feature any cover system.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The development of the game began in 2011 when Insomniac completed "Resistance 3." After the project was green-lit internally, the studio partnered with Microsoft Studios, which helped fund the game and allowed Insomniac to keep the rights to the franchise. Insomniac described the game as a "celebration of games", as the team took inspiration from different sources, including "Prince of Persia", "Jet Set Radio" and "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater", though at its early stage of development the team took inspirations from "DayZ" instead. The game is set in a post-apocalyptic future, but the team depicted it as an "awesomepocalypse" that turns the game's initial world depiction into a "playground" for players. "Sunset Overdrive" uses Insomniac's internal engine, previously used in "Fuse".


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: It was announced at E3 2013, and released worldwide for Xbox One in October 2014. A Windows version, developed by Blind Squirrel Games, was released in November 2018. The game received generally positive reviews, with praise for its visuals, traversal system, combat system, and humor. However, the game was criticized for the lack of a compelling story or innovative quest design. It received numerous nominations, including Best Xbox Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications. The game was supported with multiple pieces of downloadable content, including the story-based "The Mystery of the Mooil Rig" and "Dawn of the Rise of the Fallen Machine", after the game's release.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: "Sunset Overdrive" is an action-adventure game set in a third-person perspective. Players navigate a metropolis called Sunset City in the year 2027. This dystopian world has been overrun by mutants called the OD, short for Overcharge Drinkers. The player character is a former FizzCo employee, tasked with cleaning up the mess left behind from a party FizzCo had thrown to celebrate the launch of its new energy drink, Overcharge Delirium XT.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: At the start of the game, players can customize the protagonist's sex, body type, hairstyle, and outfit using the character creator. Players may also alter the look of their customized character at any point during the game by approaching a vendor named Callista. After creating their characters, players proceed to the game's open world, which is free for players to explore at any time. A fast travel system is provided allowing players to reach different locations and to navigate the world quickly. The game features a main campaign with story elements and side-missions, which are triggered automatically when players enter certain locations in the city. These quests mainly involve players delivering objects to other non-playable characters and collecting items from the world. Some of these quests have time limits.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game's combat focuses on velocity, and encourages players to defeat enemies in a fast-paced way. As a result, players can employ different moves including wall running, air-dashing, zip lining, performing parkour, acrobatics, and water traversal. Players use grind rails to deftly navigate city streets, and are able to switch direction instantly at will. The city is also filled with items for players to bounce up into the air. Players may utilize their weapons while performing these movements and slow down time for players to take aim. On-foot, players cannot walk, take cover, or take out enemies silently, but instead must rely on agility to survive as they will be overwhelmed quickly by enemies if they choose to walk on the ground. The game also features a Style Meter. Shown in the head-up display (HUD) of the game, the Meter increases as players perform stylish moves like killing enemies and grinding on-rails without touching the ground. When players are killed, they do not have to wait for the game to load. Players can respawn and return to the world by different methods, such as descending with a rocket or exiting a golden sarcophagus. Insomniac named this system "Next-Gen Respawning".


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Throughout the game, players encounter both human enemies, such as gang members, FizzCo's robots, OD'd humans who have mutated from drinking too much of the energy drink, and several bosses who are more difficult to defeat compared with other ordinary enemies. The game features a variety of weapons for players to use to combat enemies. These include the standard assault rifle AK-FU and the TNTeddy grenade launcher, which fires teddy bears strapped to sticks of dynamite, fireworks and toy helicopters. All weapons eventually run out of ammunition but do not need to be reloaded while being used. Different weapons are effective against different enemies, and players unlock more weapons by progressing through the story or purchasing them from shops. Weapons can be upgraded and modified by applying "Amps", which increases weapons' lethality, efficiency, and strength, though some amps are only activated when the player reached a certain style level. The weapons can be leveled up when players earn enough experience points or defeat enough enemies with them. In addition, players gained different badges throughout the game for completing actions such as grinding and killing enemies. These badges can be used to purchased Overdrives which grant players additional passive skills such as increasing the damage or ammo capacity of a certain type of weapon.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game features an eight-player co-operative multiplayer mode called the Chaos Squad, which tasks players to complete a series of missions, as decided by the players themselves. Players defend vats of Overcharge Delirium XT from waves of OD'd at night and stop their progression by setting up fortifications and barriers, in a manner similar to tower defense games. It is inter-connected with the single-player mode allowing players to transfer their story character, with all the weapons and gadgets they have already accumulated, to the mode. Although players work together, players also try to earn more Style points during play than their co-op partners.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: On July 13, 2027, megaconglomerate FizzCo hosts a massive pre-release party in Sunset City for its new energy drink, OverCharge Delirium XT (also known as OverCharge), allowing the citizens to be the first to try it. In an attempt to sell OverCharge faster, FizzCo skipped health regulation protocols and rushed through testing, leading to the drink being so toxic that anyone who drinks it transforms into a violent, boil-covered mutant known as an Overcharge Drinker (OD). The mutants infest the city within hours of the pre-release party, which comes to be known as "Horror Night". In order to cover up the deception, FizzCo claims that a viral outbreak has happened and quarantines the whole city, preventing anyone from entering or exiting. The player, a janitor employed by FizzCo, is saved from an attacking OD by Walter, a former FizzCo security guard. Walter admits him into a small group of fellow survivors, which also includes Floyd, a former FizzCo chemist whose concerns about OverCharge's safety went unheeded.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: To help Walter build a makeshift helicopter to escape the city and reveal the truth about the outbreak, the player goes out looking for a propeller, and rescues nerdy college student Sam in the process. Once the player and Sam enlist the help of Sam's rich and lazy Oxford West classmates, they 3D print him a propeller. The player joins Walter in the helicopter to escape the city, but at the last second, Walter notices an invisible wall and rescues the player by pushing them out of the helicopter, sacrificing himself in the process.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Floyd tells the player about a friend of Walter's named Bryllcream, who is the scout leader of Troop Bushido and can likely help them figure out another escape plan. The player visits the troop's hideout in a Japanese samurai museum, where their interim scout leader Norton claims he hasn't been able to find Bryllcream. However, the player teams up with an exiled trooper named 4Kim to rescue Bryllcream from the back of a garbage truck (having been trapped inside by Norton for nearly three weeks since Horror Night, Bryllcream had to eat all four of his own limbs to survive). The three of them return to the Japanese museum to confront Norton and, in a last-ditch effort to retain leadership of the troop, he chugs a can of OverCharge that turns him into a dragon. The player then slays Norton to rescue Bryllcream.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Bryllcream refers the player to Ignatius, an engineer and passionate larper who can likely build them a boat to escape. Despite Ignatius and almost everyone in his LARP club "Fargarthia" being under the panic-induced delusion that their medieval role-play is real, Ignatius is able to design them a boat that, by being made of garbage, would trick the wall's sensors into letting them through. The player and Wendy, the only non-delusional member of the LARP club, make it past the invisible wall – however, FizzCo robots enter the city to try to kill all the witnesses inside (including the Oxfords and Troop Bushido), and when Sam calls the player to plea for help, the player feels compelled to go back to the city and rescue his friends.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: After being rescued, Sam suggests that they try to infiltrate FizzCo headquarters in search of evidence, an escape route, and/or a rumored superweapon inside the building. He elaborates that the only people who managed to infiltrate the building are Las Catrinas, a band of La Calavera Catrina-themed Mexican American cheerleaders who rigorously defend the children's ward of a local hospital. Though they are standoffish towards the player at first, the player wins them over by organizing a concert for the children headlined by King Buzzo (voiced and mocapped by the real Melvins singer).


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The player rallies the four factions to attack FizzCo headquarters, and attempts to destroy FizzCo HQ by riding a giant bottle of OverCharge into it. The player is killed in the blast, and the factions mourn them. However, the player breaks the fourth wall by pausing the credits rolling after this scene to complain about how depressing the ending is, and decides to change it. The player survives and gets respawned, and it is revealed that the superweapon is the FizzCo building itself, which turns into a giant robot and tries to destroy the city (erasing all evidence of the OverCharge outbreak). The player destroys the robot and has milk and crackers with the other survivors. After the credits, however, computers in the FizzCo headquarters automatically activate a protocol sending FizzCo helicopters full of OverCharge around the world, foreshadowing an international OD outbreak.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: "Sunset Overdrive" was developed by Insomniac Games, which had mainly developed games for PlayStation consoles. Drew Murray and Marcus Smith, the game's creative directors, began brainstorming "Sunset Overdrive" after the completion of "Resistance 3" in 2011. They presented their ideas to Insomniac's owners and CEO Ted Price, outlining a project that would borrow influences from the documentary "Hyena Men of Kenya", "Tank Girl" comics, the novel "I Am Legend", the British television series "The Young Ones", Halloween masks from the 1960s, and Lego. The initial presentation failed to generate interest, but Murray and Smith were asked to come back a week later to explain how the game would actually be played. In their second presentation, they explained their vision of a game featuring fast-paced action that would be "the rock and roll end times". According to Smith, this confused some team members who thought that they were making "Brütal Legend".


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The team received approval after their second presentation. After "Sunset Overdrive" was green-lit internally, Insomniac had to pitch it to a number of publishers. Insomniac wanted to retain brand ownership, causing some firms to opt-out of publishing it. Murray and Smith traveled to Microsoft Studios a number of times to pitch the game to them. The main pitch began with the playing of "Kick Out the Jams" by MC5, and ended with Murray: "...on top of a chair, mimicking how the game was going to play, and the last-minute heroics." Microsoft was eager to work with Insomniac and agreed to fund and publish the game. The team originally did not want to make it a console exclusive, but they were impressed by Microsoft's philosophy toward the development of Xbox One, and the capabilities of Xbox Live features, which allow the initiation of a "two-way dialogue" with players.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Choosing a name for the game was the first thing the team did before starting development. They decided on the name "Sunset Overdrive" because they felt it was unique, and captured the feeling of the "grindhouse" from the 1970s. The project was originally conceived as an open world survival game similar to "DayZ". The initial version of the game did not feature the traversal system, nor the unusual weapons included in the final version, and was described as "grounded" by Murray. In this version, players were tasked with scavenging resources during daytime, and defending their base at night. This later evolved to become the game's cooperative multiplayer mode. It employed the animation model from Insomniac's previous game, "Fuse". The direction of the game changed after the team watched the music video for "On Melancholy Hill" by Gorillaz, and Murray gave up the idea of a realistic survival game. He then asked the team to start prototyping ideas for a game that they thought would work. Some team members came up with the idea of having skateboarding elements in the game, which led the development team to start working and experimenting with a new traversal system. In hindsight, Murray described the shift in focus as an "organic, evolutionary process". As the game's development progressed, the team began to draw on elements from other video game franchises such as "Prince of Persia", "Jet Set Radio", and "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater", and put the emphasis on momentum.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: In 2013, the team had released "Fuse", which was a critical and commercial failure. The team now reflected on the reasons for its poor reception, and felt that they should go back to Insomniac's roots — developing unusual titles with vibrant visuals — instead of another dark shooter like "Fuse". They also thought that "Sunset Overdrive"'s stylization should reflect the personality of the company, and that building a world that has a sense of humor and irreverence was something the team was eager to do. Ted Price, CEO of Insomniac Games, described it as a game Insomniac had wanted to develop for a long time. The game's producer, Bryan Intihar, called it: "...the game [they've] been meaning to make for 20 years." Microsoft supported it and shared the same vision and the idea of creating something new.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: According to Price, Insomniac wanted to "break the rules of shooters". He felt that the last generation of shooters had established a formula of staying behind cover for defense, and leaning out from it to attack. He wanted to change that pattern with "Sunset Overdrive" by encouraging players to attack in an aggressive manner and to focus on momentum. To accomplish this, the team developed a city that supported parkour and fast movements. They also hoped that with the introduction of a new generation of video game consoles, they could establish a new standard for the genre which would "retrain" shooter fans playing the game.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Smith compared "Sunset Overdrive"s gameplay to pinball games, where a player's every movement has consequences, and the on-screen chaos created by players is based on their actions. The game's combat and traversal elements were originally separate from each other, but were later connected as the team began to think that: "shooting while grinding was fun". The combination of these aspects led the studio to adjust the game's world design. The team calculated how the city should be designed so that it could support both combat and traversal. As a result, they ensured that the world was built in modular 4x4 blocks and that no surface featured an angle that was between 26 and 45 degrees. Furthermore, the team considered how long grinds should be and decided that they should be at least 8 meters in length. The grinds were designed to be longer than usual in enemy-concentrated areas so as to allow additional time for players to consider both combat and traversal options. In order to encourage experimentation, the game features a vertical map-design, in which the difficulty of enemies increases as players move towards higher ground.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Insomniac described the game as "a celebration of games", in which the team pushed existing concepts in a new direction. Besides drawing influences from "Prince of Persia", "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater" and "Jet Set Radio" series of games for the game's traversal system, they drew influences from "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure" for their "Next-Gen Respawn" system, "Scott Pilgrim" and "The Omega Man" for the game's setting, and "Peggle" when they were creating the game's weaponry. The game's humor was inspired by Insomniac's own game series "Ratchet & Clank" and "Spyro the Dragon". There are also references to other pop culture icons such as "Breaking Bad" and "Portal". Despite that, Smith said that the game would be completely different from "The Last of Us".


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game's character creator function allowed players to create different kinds of combinations in an avatar. The team ensured that there were many customization options, including allowing players to "dress like a crazy person". The developers felt that this feature would suit the story, because the game's city enters a state of anarchy, where social norms no longer exist. The team wanted the character creator to feature diversity, so that players could build an avatar based on their own choices. They found the process of introducing diversity challenging. As a result, a system was developed that broke the character creator down into three different categories: mainstream, street (emo and goth), and costume. The team originally added role-playing games-styled stats to the game's costumes, but later decided to scrap that so that players "would just choose what they thought looked cool."


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game is set in a near-future, post-apocalyptic world. The team wanted to try something different, unwilling to return to a setting that was similar to "Resistance 3". Instead of depicting a world with a dark atmosphere and gritty environments, the catastrophe that occurs in the game's story line is referred to as an "awesomepocalypse” that transforms the user's initial view of the game's world as a "playground" for players to explore and do whatever they want – "emphasizing the fun of free during end times." The goal was to make players feel that the post-apocalyptic world in "Sunset Overdrive" is fun and limitless, delighting and lively, instead of a place that is dreadful and worrying. To achieve this, vibrant and vivid colors were used to create the game's world and the team hoped that by tweaking the nature of the setting, the game would be "self-aware, humorous, and fun". The team also intentionally avoided creating a very serious tone because the final product needed to be entertaining and comparable to games like "Crazy Taxi" and "Jet Grind Radio", instead of something too serious that looked like an interactive movie. The team emphasized "fun trumps realism" and reflected that through the "Next-gen Respawn" system, unrealistic weaponry, and the game's visual style.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: While the game features colorful graphics that appeal to a broad audience, it was intended for a mature audience which is reflected in the game's story, dialogue, and characters' portrayals. The story was designed to be casual, but compelling. The game's setting is inspired by both "I Am Legend" and imagining Iggy Pop as the last person surviving in a post-apocalyptic world. The team also wanted to create a satirical story, and explore the theme of anti-corporatism. The punk rock style was implemented in the game because the game's directors thought that it reflected a sense of "aggression", which suited the gameplay.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: When designing the cover art, the team collaborated with the English studio Ilovedust. They wanted it to be easily recognized and stand out from the cover art of other video games in stores. They also wanted it to represent the game's characteristics: "intensity", "fun in the end times" in a "dynamic and vibrant world". There were three different iterations of the cover art, with major changes made to the game's protagonist throughout its development, as the studio struggled with the protagonist's portrayal. Insomniac was ultimately satisfied with Ilovedust's finished art design.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Price called "Sunset Overdrive" the biggest game the studio had worked on. As it was the first open world game developed by Insomniac they had to deploy new design and development skills to produce it. The time and resources needed to develop the game also expanded significantly. While developing the game's world, the team broke it down into 10 to 11 hexes and zones. They are classified into three different types: low resolution zones, shadow zones, and mission zones, and they overlap each other so that they can keep all zones loaded at the same time. Sunset City had three different iterations. In the early stages, it was called Greenlight City, based on Burbank, California. This version of the city featured interior structures that could be explored by players, and existed when the game's core concept revolved around "scavenge, craft, defend". This city was replaced with "Razor City" when skateboarding, which later became oil slicks and trampolines, was introduced to the game. Razor City was "Neo-Tokyo"-styled, but was later replaced by Sunset City which was more organized. While designing the game's artificial intelligence, the team thought that the game's enemies must force players to use the traversal system while simultaneously engaging in combat with them. Because of the game's vertical design, the enemies were designed to adopt the game's vertical map-design. The team also developed a “nav position tracker”, which programmed these enemies to detect the location of players and find an ambush point.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game is powered by an internal engine developed previously by Insomniac Games for its game "Fuse". The engine of the game was reworked and optimized for the Xbox One. The game runs on 900p at 30 frames per second. The game originally ran at a higher definition of 1080p, but it was decided to fix it at 900p so that more actions and enemies can appear on-screen.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Development of the game's music was led by Boris Salchow, who had composed scores for Insomniac's previous games "", "Resistance 2" and "Resistance 3". He collaborated with composers from Microsoft Studios, and Pyramind music studio. The design team wanted the composers to implement eight different styles of music for eight different sections featured in the game. However, this idea was dropped as being confusing and overly-chaotic. The team wanted to achieve a "high energy vibe" for this title and the resulting soundtrack features a lot of punk rock and electronic dance music. Fourteen different bands and artists were hired to perform the music often avoiding using musical instruments and writing lyrics for the game instead. The game's soundtrack was also inspired by works from FIDLAR, DZ Deathrays and Ty Segall.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: Composers tried to match beats-per-minute to the gameplay and traversal system. The game features a dynamic music system, in which in-game actions are reflected by the music. When there is more on-screen action, or when players perform kills, the music becomes more frantic and exciting to help players further immerse themselves in the game.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: "Sunset Overdrive" was one of the first Xbox One exclusives revealed at Microsoft's press conference at E3 2013. The first gameplay details were revealed by gaming magazine "Edge" in May 2014. A gameplay demo and a release date announcement happened at E3 2014. Insomniac had worked solely for the PlayStation family for about twenty years, and the announcement of "Sunset Overdrive" being an Xbox exclusive led to speculation that the relationship between Sony and Insomniac had ended. Insomniac denied such rumors, saying the company would still be working with other publishers to produce titles and that petitions would not change "Sunset Overdrive"'s status as an Xbox exclusive. It was released on October 28, 2014. On November 15, 2018, it was announced that the title would be released for both Windows 10 and Steam on November 16, 2018 without the multiplayer component. THQ Nordic published the game's retail version while Microsoft retained its digital publishing rights.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: In addition to the game's standard edition, players can purchase the game's "Season Pass", which adds new in-game items, locations, quests, and bosses. There is also a "Day One Edition", which includes three different downloadable content items: "Nothin' but the Hits" gun, the Hardcore Hammer, and a Fizzie costume. Players who pre-ordered the game from Xbox Live Marketplace also got two additional weapons: the Accordes de la Muerte and the Hangover. A white Xbox One bundle was also released for the game. To promote the game, Insomniac organized a series of shows called the Sunset TV. They provided new information to players regarding the game prior to its release. Microsoft also launched a website called "Sunset Overdrive: Walter's Workshop", which is a browser game that allows players to use some of the weapons featured in the game with footage captured in real-life.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: A three-hour free trial of the game was available for players to download for a limited time. Once it was launched the game was supported with downloadable content (DLC). Insomniac released multiple packs which add new weapons to the game. A story-based DLC, titled "The Mystery of the Mooil Rig", was released on December 23, 2014. Another story DLC, "Dawn of the Rise of the Fallen Machine", was released on April 1, 2015.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game's tone was praised by reviewers. Daniel Bischoff from Game Revolution praised the game's comedic elements describing them as "contemporary". He added that the game is one of the rare few that made him laugh while playing. Sam Prell from Joystiq appreciated the humor, and thought that its quality was boosted by the performance of the voice-actors. His opinion was echoed by Peter Brown from GameSpot, who found the voice acting in the game entertaining and believable. However, Prell considered some humorous moments "hit-or-miss". Andrew Reiner from "Game Informer" described the game as a "full circle", in which Insomniac has incorporated all the elements from their previous games into this one. As a result, he thought that while the story emphasized comedy, it successfully reflected some pressing issues existing in society. Mollie L Patterson from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" appreciated the game's humor, but noted that it would not be able to satisfy every type of player. Arthur Gies from "Polygon" described the story as "gleefully stupid", and commended the self-aware narrative. Chris Carter from Destructoid praised the jokes featured in the game. However, he disliked the story, which he thought failed to offer motivation for players to complete the game.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: "Sunset Overdrive"s gameplay was also commended by many reviewers. Prell compared the game favorably to "Jet Grind Radio", "Saints Row The Third", "Infamous", and "Ratchet & Clank". He singled out the traversal system, which he thought was fluid and well-executed. He added that the fast travel system was not useful in this game, since players can find a lot of fun by simply traveling between different locations in the game's world. He thought that all of the game's systems intertwined with each other, and ultimately made the game a complete and worthwhile experience. Reiner echoed similar thoughts, and considered getting around "Sunset City" fun for players. He added that the traversal system increased the game's replay value. However, he was disappointed by the game's occasionally repetitive mission design. Sliva and Brown shared similar thoughts, with the latter saying that the game featured too many fetch quests. Patterson disliked the game's traversal; she found that the system was frustrating at times. However, she thought that this problem lessened as players unlocked new moves and skills. Gies felt overwhelmed by the traversal options. He added that Insomniac had successfully created a system that was accessible for ordinary players, while creating challenges for those who want to master the system. However, he noted the camera system may not be able to track the movement of the character accurately. He further commended the game's world design, and described it as one of the most "navigationally sophisticated" worlds he had ever experienced in a game. Bischoff considered the shooting mechanic "loose", but thought that the problem was overshadowed by the game's forgiving aiming and steady difficulty curve. Lucas Sullivan also criticized the mechanic, calling it "inconsistent".


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The customization options received acclaim. Bischoff praised the arsenal of weapons featured in the game, which he thought was deep, interesting, and creative, benefited by the Amps system, which added additional complexity to them. Prell described it as the "king" of the game. He praised the game's ability to allow players to customize their characters, and considered the weapons featured "varied", and thought they enhanced the game with personality. Reiner thought that all of the weapons featured in the game were fun to use, and that the amps system made experimenting with different weapons rewarding. Patterson also commended the game's weapons though she was initially skeptical about them. Gies thought that the customization options allowed players to play the game as they preferred, and described the character creator as "flexible". Marty Sliva from IGN praised the Amp upgrade system, which he felt encouraged players to try out unusual ways to experiment with it.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game's art style was applauded. Bischoff praised the colorful graphics and the different graphical effects featured in the game. He further praised the game's presentation, which he thought would lead "the Xbox One console's personality this generation." Reiner compared the colorful graphics of the game to "Sesame Street", and thought the bright colors "[electrified] the screen". Reiner also praised the "Next-Gen Respawn" system, and the protagonist's animation. Sliva praised the design of the city, as he thought it featured a unique artistic style, and aided the traversal system. He added that the game's visuals "pop", and compared them to the "Easter Bunny on an acid trip". Carter praised the variety existing within the game's world, which he considered has prevented the game's world from being repetitive, and made landmarks easily recognizable. Brown thought that the game did not look realistic, but felt this did not stop the game from being one of the best-looking games available for the console. Sullivan also praised the use of colors, which he found was organic and vibrant.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game's multiplayer received mixed reviews. Prell thought that the mission-design was varied, and the voting system kept the mode from being repetitive. He also praised the interconnected structure between the single-player and multiplayer, noting that the items that could be carried over from multiplayer to campaign made the mode rewarding. Reiner thought that the action featured in this mode is satisfying, but thought that the system lacked enough depth and complexity to engage players. Patterson echoed similar thoughts, and felt that the ability of players to switch between the campaign and the Chaos Squad mode made the multiplayer mode a rewarding experience. Brown criticized the mode, saying that its difficulty was not properly scaled.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: The game was the second best-selling game in the UK on its release, and was outsold by "FIFA 15". In its second week of release, it was the eighth best-selling game.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: In addition to earning several nominations at major events and ceremonies, it was selected as Best Xbox One Game for the year 2014 by IGN, "Hardcore Gamer", "Game Revolution", as well as Best Original Game by IGN AU Black Beta Select Awards in December 2014.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: On September 13, 2018, Insomniac Games expressed interest in making a "Sunset Overdrive" sequel after completing work on the first game. However, as the rights to the intellectual property is wholly owned by Insomniac, they would need to find a new publishing partner that can support the game's large scope. In August 2019, Insomniac Games was acquired by Sony Interactive Entertainment. Then SIE Chairman Shawn Layden stated that "Sunset Overdrive 2" was not a priority for Sony and Insomniac.


title: Sunset Overdrive

text: On May 4, 2021, Sony registered the trademark for "Sunset Overdrive". Eleven days later, Smith said there is nothing stopping the studio developing a sequel to the game in an interview. He went on to express interest in returning to the series.


title: Sericulture

text: Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, "Bombyx mori" (the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth) is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm. Silk was believed to have first been produced in China as early as the Neolithic Period. Sericulture has become an important cottage industry in countries such as Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, and Russia. Today, China and India are the two main producers, with more than 60% of the world's annual production.


title: Sericulture

text: According to Confucian text, the discovery of silk production dates to about 2700 BC, although archaeological records point to silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). In 1977, a piece of ceramic created 5400–5500 years ago and designed to look like a silkworm was discovered in Nancun, Hebei, providing the earliest known evidence of sericulture. Also, by careful analysis of archaeological silk fibre found on Indus Civilization sites dating back to 2450–2000 BC, it is believed that silk was being used over a wide region of South Asia. By about the first half of the 1st century AD, it had reached ancient Khotan, by a series of interactions along the Silk Road. By AD 140, the practice had been established in India. In the 6th century AD, the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire led to its establishment in the Mediterranean, remaining a monopoly in the Byzantine Empire for centuries (Byzantine silk). In 1147, during the Second Crusade, Roger II of Sicily (1095–1154) attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Palermo and Calabria, eventually spreading the industry to Western Europe.


title: Sericulture

text: The silkworms are fed with mulberry leaves, and after the fourth moult, they climb a twig placed near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous filament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each worm, and a gum called sericin, which cements the filaments.


title: Sericulture

text: The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for reeling. This is known as the degumming process. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkmoth pupa.


title: Sericulture

text: Single filaments are combined to form thread, in a process called "throwing," which is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. This process of throwing produces various yarns depending on the amount and direction of the twisting. The threads may be plied to form yarn (short staple lengths are spun; see silk noil). After drying, the raw silk is packed according to quality.


title: Sericulture

text: The most popular substitute for traditional silk is peace silk, also known as ahimsa silk. The primary factor that makes this form of silk more ethical is that moths are permitted to emerge from their cocoons and fly away before they are properly boiled. It denotes that no moth is ever cooked alive during manufacture. Even though peace silk is superior to regular silk, there is a big disadvantage to be aware of. Domesticated silkworms used to make silk have undergone thousands of years of selective breeding, yet they are not "manufactured" to emerge from their cocoons. They are unable to defend themselves against predators since they cannot fly or see clearly. They typically die very rapidly after emerging from their cocoons as a result.


title: Sericulture

text: The cocoons of Tussar silkworms, which are found in open woodlands, are used to produce wild silk, also known as Tussar silk. Compared to conventional silk, their cocoons are typically picked after the moths have emerged, making it a more ethical option. Because wild silkworms consume a variety of plants, their fabric is less uniform but more robust. The fabric is made with less chemicals as well. The larvae are still inside the cocoons when they are harvested by certain enterprises that employ "wild silk," though.


title: Sericulture

text: Mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy "not to hurt any living thing". He also promoted "Ahimsa silk", made without boiling the pupa to procure the silk and wild silk made from the cocoons of wild and semiwild silkmoths. The Human League also criticised sericulture in their early single "Being Boiled". The organisation PETA has also campaigned against silk.


title: Sericulture

text: The conventional method of silk production results in ~8 kg of wet silkworm pupae and ~2 kg of dry pupae per kilogram of raw silk. This byproduct has historically been consumed by people in silk-producing areas.


title: History of penicillin

text: The history of penicillin follows a number of observations and discoveries of apparent evidence of antibiotic activity of the mould "Penicillium" that led to the development of penicillins that became the most widely used antibiotics. Following the identification of "Penicillium rubens" as the source of the compound in 1928 and with the production of pure compound in 1942, penicillin became the first naturally derived antibiotic. There are anecdotes about ancient societies using moulds to treat infections, and in the following centuries many people observed the inhibition of bacterial growth by various moulds. However, it is unknown if the species involved were "Penicillium" species or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: While working at St Mary's Hospital in London, Scottish physician Alexander Fleming was the first to experimentally discover that a "Penicillium" mould secretes an antibacterial substance, and the first to concentrate the active substance involved, which he named penicillin in 1928. The mould was determined to be a rare variant of "Penicillium notatum" (now "Penicillium rubens"), a laboratory contaminant in his lab. For the next 16 years, he pursued better methods of production of penicillin, medicinal uses and clinical trial. His successful treatment of Harry Lambert who had otherwise fatal streptococcal meningitis in 1942 proved to be a critical moment in the medical usage of penicillin.


title: History of penicillin

text: Many later scientists were involved in the stabilization and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of "Penicillium". Important contributors include Ernst Chain, Howard Florey, Norman Heatley and Edward Abraham. Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery and development of penicillin. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin received the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry determining the structures of important biochemical substances including penicillin. Shortly after the discovery of penicillin, there were reports of penicillin resistance in many bacteria. Research that aims to circumvent and understand the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance continues today.


title: History of penicillin

text: Many ancient cultures, including those in Egypt, Greece and India, independently discovered the useful properties of fungi and plants in treating infection. These treatments often worked because many organisms, including many species of mould, naturally produce antibiotic substances. However, ancient practitioners could not precisely identify or isolate the active components in these organisms.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal spores) to treat wounds. The technique was mentioned by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his 1884 book "With Fire and Sword". In England in 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by apothecaries such as John Parkinson, King's Herbarian, who advocated the use of mould in his book on pharmacology.


title: History of penicillin

text: The modern history of penicillin research begins in earnest in the 1870s in the United Kingdom. Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson, who started out at St. Mary's Hospital (1852–1858) and later worked there as a lecturer (1854–1862), observed that culture fluid covered with mould would produce no bacterial growth. Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted Joseph Lister, an English surgeon and the father of modern antisepsis, to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also did not permit the growth of bacteria. Lister also described the antibacterial action on human tissue of a species of mould he called "Penicillium glaucum". A nurse at King's College Hospital whose wounds did not respond to any traditional antiseptic was then given another substance that cured him, and Lister's registrar informed him that it was called "Penicillium". In 1874, the Welsh physician William Roberts, who later coined the term "enzyme", observed that bacterial contamination is generally absent in laboratory cultures of "Penicillium glaucum". John Tyndall followed up on Burdon-Sanderson's work and demonstrated to the Royal Society in 1875 the antibacterial action of the "Penicillium" fungus.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1876, German biologist Robert Koch discovered that "Bacillus anthracis" was the causative pathogen of anthrax, which became the first demonstration that a specific bacterium caused a specific disease, and the first direct evidence of germ theory of diseases. In 1877, French biologists Louis Pasteur and Jules Francois Joubert observed that cultures of the anthrax bacilli, when contaminated with moulds, could be successfully inhibited. Reporting in the "Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences", they concluded:Neutral or slightly alkaline urine is an excellent medium for the bacteria... But if when the urine is inoculated with these bacteria an aerobic organism, for example one of the "common bacteria," is sown at the same time, the anthrax bacterium makes little or no growth and sooner or later dies out altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the same phenomenon is seen in the body even of those animals most susceptible to anthrax, leading to the astonishing result that anthrax bacteria can be introduced in profusion into an animal, which yet does not develop the disease; it is only necessary to add some "common 'bacteria" at the same time to the liquid containing the suspension of anthrax bacteria. These facts perhaps justify the highest hopes for therapeutics.The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named as "antibiosis" by French biologist Jean Paul Vuillemin in 1877. (The term antibiosis, meaning "against life", was adopted as "antibiotic" by American biologist and later Nobel laureate Selman Waksman in 1947.) It has also been asserted that Pasteur identified the strain as "Penicillium notatum". However, Paul de Kruif's 1926 "Microbe Hunters" describes this incident as contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould. In 1887, Swiss physician Carl Alois Philipp Garré developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results. Using his gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently, as he reported:I inoculated on the untouched cooled [gelatin] plate alternate parallel strokes of "B. fluorescens" ["Pseudomonas fluorescens"] and "Staph. pyogenes" ["Streptococcus pyogenes" ]... B. fluorescens grew more quickly... [This] is not a question of overgrowth or crowding out of one by another quicker-growing species, as in a garden where luxuriantly growing weeds kill the delicate plants. Nor is it due to the utilization of the available foodstuff by the more quickly growing organisms, rather there is an antagonism caused by the secretion of specific, easily diffusible substances which are inhibitory to the growth of some species but completely ineffective against others.In 1895, Vincenzo Tiberio, an Italian physician at the University of Naples, published research about moulds initially found in a water well in Arzano; from his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action.


title: History of penicillin

text: Two years later, Ernest Duchesne at École du Service de Santé Militaire in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of a "Penicillium glaucum" mould, even curing infected guinea pigs of typhoid. He published a dissertation in 1897 but it was ignored by the Institut Pasteur. Duchesne was himself using a discovery made earlier by Arab stable boys, who used moulds to cure sores on horses. He did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that the mould somehow protected the animals. The penicillin isolated by Fleming does not cure typhoid and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible for Duchesne's cure. An Institut Pasteur scientist, Costa Rican Clodomiro Picado Twight, similarly recorded the antibiotic effect of "Penicillium" in 1923. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of "Penicillium" were non-specifically referred to as "Penicillium glaucum", so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth.


title: History of penicillin

text: Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the Free University of Brussels, Belgium, were studying the effects of mould samples on bacteria. In 1924, they found that dead "Staphylococcus aureus" cultures were contaminated by a mould, a streptomycete. Upon further experimentation, they shows that the mould extract could kill not only "S. aureus", but also "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" and "Escherichia coli". Gratia called the antibacterial agent as "mycolysate" (killer mould). The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit anthrax bacterium ("B. anthracis"). Reporting in "Comptes Rendus Des Séances de La Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales" they identified the mould as "Penicillium glaucum". But these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical value were not fully understood; moreover, Gratia's samples were lost.


title: History of penicillin

text: Penicillin was discovered by a Scottish physician Alexander Fleming in 1928. While working at St Mary's Hospital, London, Fleming was investigating the pattern of variation in "S. aureus". He was inspired by the discovery of an Irish physician Joseph Warwick Bigger and his two students C.R. Boland and R.A.Q. O’Meara at the Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland, in 1927"." Bigger and his students found that when they cultured a particular strain of "S. aureus," which they designated "Y" that they isolated a year before from a pus of axillary abscess from one individual, the bacterium grew into a variety of strains. They published their discovery as “Variant colonies of "Staphylococcus aureus"” in "The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology," by concluding:


title: History of penicillin

text: We were surprised and rather disturbed to find, on a number of plates, various types of colonies which differed completely from the typical "aureus" colony. Some of these were quite white; some, either white or of the usual colour were rough on the surface and with crenated margins.


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming and his research scholar Daniel Merlin Pryce pursued this experiment but Pryce was transferred to another laboratory in early 1928. After a few months of working alone, a new scholar Stuart Craddock joined Fleming. Their experiment was successful and Fleming was planning and agreed to write a report in "A System of Bacteriology" to be published by the Medical Research Council by the end of 1928.


title: History of penicillin

text: In August, Fleming spent a vacation with his family at his country home The Dhoon at Barton Mills, Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory, he inoculated several culture plates with "S. aureus." He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight and to make space for Craddock to work in his absence. While in a vacation, he was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the St Mary's Hospital Medical School on 1 September 1928. He arrived at his laboratory on 3 September, where Pryce was waiting to greet him. As he and Pryce examined the culture plates, they found one with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming commented as he watched the plate: "That's funny". Pryce remarked to Fleming: "That's how you discovered lysozyme."


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming went off to resume his vacation and returned for the experiments late in September. He collected the original mould and grew them in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He later recounted his experience:


title: History of penicillin

text: When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.


title: History of penicillin

text: He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth, and he produced culture broth of the mould and subsequently concentrated the antibacterial component. After testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only specific bacteria. For example, "Staphylococcus", "Streptococcus", and diphtheria bacillus ("Corynebacterium diphtheriae") were easily killed; but there was no effect on typhoid bacterium ("Salmonella typhimurium") and influenza bacillus ("Haemophilus influenzae"). He prepared large-culture method from which he could obtain large amounts of the mould juice. He called this juice "penicillin", as he explained the reason as "to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'Mould broth filtrate,' the name 'penicillin' will be used." He invented the name on 7 March 1929. He later (in his Nobel lecture) gave a further explanation, saying:


title: History of penicillin

text: I have been frequently asked why I invented the name "Penicillin". I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus "Penicillium" just as many years ago the word "Digitalin" was invented for a substance derived from the plant "Digitalis".


title: History of penicillin

text: Fleming had no training in chemistry so that he left all the chemical works to Craddock – he once remarked, "I am a bacteriologist, not a chemist." In January 1929, he recruited Frederick Ridley, his former research scholar who had studied biochemistry, specifically to the study the chemical properties of the mould. But they could not isolate penicillin and before the experiments were over, Craddock and Ridley both left Fleming for other jobs. It was due to their failure to isolate the compound that Fleming practically abandoned further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin, although he did biological tests up to 1939.


title: History of penicillin

text: After structural comparison with different species of "Penicillium", Fleming initially believed that his specimen was "Penicillium chrysogenum," a species described by an American microbiologist Charles Thom in 1910. He was fortunate as Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had just recently joined as a mycologist at St Mary's to investigate fungi as the cause of asthma. La Touche identified the specimen as "Penicillium rubrum," the identification used by Fleming in his publication.


title: History of penicillin

text: In 1931, Thom re-examined different "Penicillium" including that of Fleming's specimen. He came to a confusing conclusion, stating, "Ad. 35 [Fleming's specimen] is "P. notatum" WESTLING. This is a member of the "P. chrysogenum" series with smaller conidia than "P. chrysogenum" itself." "P. notatum" was described by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as "P. notatum" and "P. chrysogenum." But Thom adopted and popularised the use of "P. chrysogenum." In addition to "P. notatum", newly discovered species such as "P. meleagrinum" and "P. cyaneofulvum" were recognised as members of "P. chrysogenum" in 1977"." To resolve the confusion, the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress held in Vienna, Austria, in 2005 formally adopted the name "P. chrysogenum" as the conserved name ("nomen conservandum)." Whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis in 2011 revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to "P. rubens," a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923, and also that "P. chrysogenum" is a different species.