title: Wayne Allwine

text: Allwine's first appearance as Mickey was voicing the animated lead-ins for "The New Mickey Mouse Club" in 1977. His first appearance as Mickey for a theatrical release was in the 1983 featurette "Mickey's Christmas Carol". In the same film, he voiced a Santa Claus on the street appealing for charity donations at the start of the movie, Moley (who appears with Ratty) "collecting for the poor", and one of the two weasel undertakers in the Christmas future scene.


title: Wayne Allwine

text: He also starred in films such as "The Great Mouse Detective" (1986), "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" (1988), "The Prince and the Pauper" (1990) and "" (2004), and the TV series "Mickey Mouse Works" (1999–2000), "Disney's House of Mouse" (2001–2003), and "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse" (2006–2012). He has provided Mickey's voice in the popular "Kingdom Hearts" series of video games prior to "", which was done in collaboration with Japanese video game company Square Enix. "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days", which was the last game that used his voice (mainly with Mickey as a playable character in Mission Mode), would leave a message in his memory as the game was released in North America several months after his death.


title: Wayne Allwine

text: In addition to his voice work, Allwine had also been a sound effects editor on Disney films and TV shows including "Splash" (1984) and "Three Men and a Baby" (1987); as well as "Innerspace" (1987), "Alien Nation" (1988), and "" for other studios.


title: Wayne Allwine

text: He played rhythm guitar and briefly toured with the band Davie Allan & the Arrows, including on the 1967 single "Cycle-Delic". He was also an accomplished Dixieland jazz drummer, occasionally sitting in with Firehouse Five Plus Two alumni George Probert's "Monrovia Old Style Jazz Band".


title: Wayne Allwine

text: In 1991, he married Russi Taylor, who voiced Minnie Mouse from 1986 to 2019, and they were named Disney Legends in 2008; they remained married until his death in 2009. Allwine also has four children from previous marriages.


title: Wayne Allwine

text: Allwine died of hypertensive crisis caused by complications from acute diabetes at the age of 62 on May 18, 2009, at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles. His prospective understudy, Bret Iwan, assumed the role of voicing Mickey Mouse.


title: Wayne Allwine

text: His final performance was in the "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse" episode "The Golden Boo-Boo" (which premiered posthumously on September 28, 2012) and the English-language version of "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days", which are dedicated to his memory, dying twelve days before the game's Japanese release, along with the "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse" television movie "Choo-Choo Express". In 2013, his voice was used in the English-language version of "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix", and in 2014, his voice was again used in the English-language version of "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix" via archive audio from his previous work in "Kingdom Hearts", "Kingdom Hearts Re: Chain of Memories" and "Kingdom Hearts II". He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: The 2021 season was the San Francisco 49ers' 72nd season in the National Football League, their 76th overall and their fifth under the head coach/general manager tandem of Kyle Shanahan and John Lynch. In honor of the 75th anniversary of the team's founding in 1946, the 49ers introduced a commemorative logo to be used during this season.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: They improved from their 6–10 record from the previous year and they returned to the playoffs after a one-year absence. After an embarrassing Week 9 loss to an injury depleted Arizona Cardinals team, the 49ers had a disappointing 3–5 record. But they would rebound and end the season winning 7 of their last 9 games, including a dramatic Week 18 win over the Los Angeles Rams in which the 49ers fought back from a 17–0 deficit to win 27–24 in overtime, thus allowing them to sneak into the playoffs. During the season, the 49ers showcased a well rounded team, finishing top 10 in both total offense and total defense. The offense averaged 376 yards a game, good for 7th in the league, while averaging 25.1 points a game. The defense was even better, giving up just 310 yards a game, good for 3rd overall. This included the 6th best pass defense and 7th best rush defense. The defense also generated 48 sacks during the season, 5th best in the league.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: In the Wild Card Round, the 49ers upset the Dallas Cowboys 23–17. They would then upset the #1 seeded Green Bay Packers 13–10 in the Divisional Round, thus advancing to the NFC Championship for the second time in 3 years. However, they lost to their division rival and eventual Super Bowl champion Los Angeles Rams 17–20.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: In the first playoff meeting between these two teams since the 1994 NFC Championship, the 49ers upset the Cowboys 23–17. The 49ers' top-five defense shut down the NFL's highest scoring team (the Cowboys were averaging 31.1 points a game during the regular season) to just 17 points, well below the Cowboys' average. This included five sacks, holding the Cowboys to just 77 yards rushing, and one interception, which led to a 49ers touchdown on the next play. The 49ers dominated most of the game, leading 23–7 entering the fourth quarter, and retaining the lead despite a close comeback from the Cowboys. With the win, the 49ers improved their playoff record against the Cowboys to 3–5 all time and defeated the Cowboys for the first time since 2014.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: The 49ers' Cinderella run continued as they traveled to Lambeau Field and pulled off the upset in a 13–10 win over the heavily favored Green Bay Packers. The game, which was affected by snowfall, was a defensive battle. The Packers started the game with a six-yard touchdown run by AJ Dillion to take a 7–0 lead. For the rest of the game, the 49ers defense only surrendered three more points, aided by five sacks, a fumble recovery, and only giving up 263 total yards of offense to the Packers. The 49ers special teams was pivotal, as they blocked a Packers field goal right before halftime, returned a blocked punt for a game-tying touchdown late in the game, and finally, converted a game-winning field goal by kicker Robbie Gould as time expired, the last of which advanced them to their second NFC Championship in the last three seasons and the 17th NFC Championship overall as a franchise. With the Tennessee Titans' loss earlier in the day to the Cincinnati Bengals, coincidentally also on a field goal as time expired, this was the first time since 2010 that both #1 seeded teams were eliminated in the same weekend. With the win, the 49ers improved to 4–0 in the playoffs against Packers quarterback Aaron Rodgers. The 49ers recorded five sacks for the second game in a row, which is the first time that has happened in consecutive playoff games since the 1984 season.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: The 49ers flew to Los Angeles following their win over the Packers to play their division rival Los Angeles Rams in the NFC Championship Game. During the regular season, the 49ers won both games against the Rams, and were looking to complete the season sweep with a win.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: San Francisco won the coin toss and elected to defer. The two teams traded punts before Rams quarterback Matthew Stafford drove the offense to the 49ers' 3-yard line before throwing a drive-ending interception to Jimmie Ward. However, the 49ers were unable to muster any points off the pick, and were forced to punt. In the second quarter, the Rams struck first with Stafford completing a touchdown pass to wide receiver Cooper Kupp from 16 yards out to give the Rams a 7–0 lead. However, San Francisco struck right back with Jimmy Garoppolo hitting Deebo Samuel for a 44-yard touchdown to tie the game up at 7. On the Rams' next drive, the Rams drove to the 49ers' 38-yard line, but could only pick up 2 yards over the next three downs, and kicker Matt Gay's 54-yard field goal attempt sailed wide of the goalposts. With just under two minutes remaining in the first half, Garoppolo completed four straight passes to set up kicker Robbie Gould's 38-yard field goal at the end of the half to put San Francisco up 10–7.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: In the second half, the two teams once again traded punts. On the 49ers' second drive of the half, short runs by Samuel and short passes by Garoppolo drove San Francisco down to the Rams' 16-yard line, where he hooked up with tight end George Kittle for a touchdown to make the score 17–7. On the Rams' ensuing drive, long passes by Stafford led to Kupp's second touchdown of the game from 11 yards out to cut the deficit to 17–14 with thirteen minutes left. On the 49ers' next two drives, they were forced to punt. The Rams capitalized, with Gay scoring two field goals from 40 and 30 yards out respectively to make the score 20–17 in favor of Los Angeles.


title: 2021 San Francisco 49ers season

text: With just under two minutes remaining, the 49ers' offense trotted out on the field in an attempt to make a desperate last-minute drive to tie the game. After an incompletion on first down, Garoppolo completed a pass to Jauan Jennings, but was tackled immediately by the Rams' Travin Howard to bring up a 3rd-and-13 on the 49ers' 22-yard line. On the very next play, Garoppolo was washed out of the pocket by the Rams' defensive line. Defensive tackle Aaron Donald got a hand on Garoppolo, and in desperation, Garoppolo lobbed the ball up, where it was tipped by JaMycal Hasty before falling into the hands of Howard for a game and season-ending interception. Three kneeldowns by Stafford ended the game, and sent the Rams to their second Super Bowl in the last 4 years.


title: Inio Asano

text: Known for creating character-driven, realist stories, ranging from slice of life to psychological horror, Asano won first prize in the 2001 GX competition for young manga artists. In 2010, "Yomiuri Shimbun" described Asano as "one of the voices of his generation."


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship was a motor racing championship for Formula 3 cars that was sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA). The championship was the twelfth season of Formula 3 racing and the third season run under the guise of the FIA Formula 3 Championship, an open-wheel racing category that serves as the third tier of formula racing in the FIA Global Pathway. The category was run in support of selected rounds of the 2021 FIA Formula One World Championship. As the championship was a spec series, all teams and drivers that competed in the championship ran the same car, the Dallara F3 2019. The championship was contested over twenty-one races at seven circuits. It started in May with a round in support of the Spanish Grand Prix and ended in September on the weekend of the Russian Grand Prix.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Dennis Hauger became the third FIA F3 drivers' champion in his second year in the series. Having moved from Hitech Grand Prix to Prema Racing over the winter, Hauger laid down the gauntlet with pole position in Barcelona, but a collision in the final laps of Race 2 knocked him out of contention for a maiden victory in the series. Nevertheless, Hauger rebounded on Sunday to win Race 3 and assume the championship lead, which he never relinquished. Strong weekends at the Red Bull Ring and the Hungaroring enabled Hauger to extend his lead to 63 points—nearly a full weekend's worth—as the championship entered its summer break, and he ultimately secured the title in Race 1 of the final round at Sochi.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: A late surge from Jack Doohan propelled him to second place in the drivers' championship. Like fellow Red Bull–affiliated driver Hauger, Doohan took four wins across the season. In Belgium, Doohan became the first driver in series history to take two wins in one weekend after winning Races 2 and 3; with all three Prema cars struggling in the wet conditions at Spa-Francorchamps that weekend, Doohan and his Trident team—which also fielded Clément Novalak and David Schumacher—closed their respective championship gaps to Hauger and Prema significantly. Though Doohan could not supplant Hauger in the drivers' championship, Trident did beat Prema by four points to take their first teams' championship in the series and their first in any category in 16 years of competition.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: In an effort to cut costs during the COVID-19 pandemic, series organizers adopted a new format for both F3 and its parent championship, FIA Formula 2, for the 2021 season. Notably, each weekend comprised three races rather than two; the traditional feature race was moved from Saturday afternoon to Sunday morning and renamed Race 3, while Races 1 and 2 adopted reverse-grid formats based on the results of qualifying and Race 1 respectively. The extra race was made possible because F2 races were run on different weekends to F3, with the exception of the Sochi round, leaving more space in the timetable of each race weekend.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The schedule adjustments also allowed several drivers to move between F2 and F3 mid-season. Matteo Nannini entered the opening F2 event with his F3 team, HWA Racelab, and two later events with Campos Racing; Jake Hughes and Enzo Fittipaldi joined the grid at Monza in September; and Doohan, Novalak, Logan Sargeant, and Olli Caldwell all made their F2 débuts at Jeddah in December. Despite enabling these opportunities, the format used in 2021 was unpopular with many in the paddock, and it has been altered again for the 2022 season.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: As the championship was a spec series, all teams competed with an identical Dallara F3 2019 chassis and tyre compounds developed by Pirelli. Each car was powered by a naturally-aspirated V6 engine developed by Mecachrome.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Prema Racing fielded a new driver lineup as reigning champion Oscar Piastri graduated to Formula 2, Logan Sargeant moved to Charouz Racing System and Mercedes-backed Frederik Vesti joined ART Grand Prix. The seats were filled by Ferrari-backed Formula Regional European runner-up Arthur Leclerc, Red Bull-backed Dennis Hauger, who moved from Hitech Grand Prix, and Olli Caldwell, who moved from Trident.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Trident signed three new drivers to replace Caldwell, Lirim Zendeli and David Beckmann, as Zendeli and Beckmann graduated to Formula 2. Clément Novalak and David Schumacher joined the team from Carlin Buzz Racing, alongside Red Bull-supported Jack Doohan who switched from HWA Racelab.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: ART Grand Prix's Théo Pourchaire, who finished as runner-up in 2020, graduated to the team's Formula 2 outfit. Sebastián Fernández also left the series. ART retained Aleksandr Smolyar and signed Frederik Vesti and Juan Manuel Correa, who made his return to racing after being seriously injured in a Formula 2 crash in 2019.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Hitech Grand Prix fielded three new drivers as Dennis Hauger left, Liam Lawson graduated to Formula 2 and Pierre-Louis Chovet moved to Jenzer Motorsport. The team signed Red Bull juniors Jak Crawford and Ayumu Iwasa, ADAC Formula 4 runner-up and French Formula 4 champion respectively, alongside Roman Staněk who moved from Charouz Racing System.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: HWA Racelab did not retain Jake Hughes, who left the series to become Venturi Racing's reserve driver in Formula E. Enzo Fittipaldi and Jack Doohan also left the team, with Fittipaldi joining Charouz Racing System. HWA Racelab signed Matteo Nannini, who switched from Jenzer Motorsport, Formula Regional European graduate Oliver Rasmussen and Formula 4 graduate Rafael Villagómez.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: MP Motorsport's 2020 drivers Richard Verschoor, Bent Viscaal and Lukas Dunner all left the series, with Verschoor and Viscaal graduating to Formula 2. The team signed Alpine Academy drivers Victor Martins and Caio Collet, reigning Formula Renault Eurocup champion and runner-up respectively, alongside Tijmen van der Helm who also graduated from the series.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Campos Racing signed three new drivers as Alex Peroni left to compete in Indy Lights, Alessio Deledda graduated to Formula 2 and Sophia Flörsch left the series to race in Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters and the FIA World Endurance Championship. Formula Renault Eurocup graduates László Tóth, Lorenzo Colombo and Amaury Cordeel joined the team.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Carlin Buzz Racing fielded a new lineup as Clément Novalak and David Schumacher left, and Cameron Das returned to the Euroformula Open championship. Red Bull junior and reigning ADAC Formula 4 champion Jonny Edgar joined the team, alongside reigning BRDC British Formula 3 champion Kaylen Frederick and Euroformula Open graduate Ido Cohen.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Jenzer Motorsport retained Calan Williams, and Matteo Nannini and Federico Malvestiti left the team. Formula 4 graduate Filip Ugran joined Jenzer alongside Pierre-Louis Chovet.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Charouz Racing System did not retain Igor Fraga or Michael Belov, with Roman Staněk leaving the team. Charouz signed Formula Renault Eurocup graduate Reshad de Gerus to race alongside Logan Sargeant and Enzo Fittipaldi.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: For the second round at the Circuit Paul Ricard, BRDC British Formula 3 runner-up Johnathan Hoggard replaced Pierre-Louis Chovet at Jenzer, with Chovet citing sponsorship issues as the reason for the change. Campos driver László Tóth tested positive for COVID-19 shortly prior to the round and was forced to withdraw. He was replaced by Chovet. Tóth returned to Campos for the third round at the Red Bull Ring.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Kaylen Frederick missed the fourth round at the Hungaroring as he was still recovering from a thumb injury sustained in a crash at the Red Bull Ring. Former HWA Racelab driver Jake Hughes replaced him at Carlin Buzz Racing.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Charouz Racing System made two driver changes for the fifth round at Spa-Francorchamps. Enzo Fittipaldi was promoted to the team's Formula 2 outfit and Reshad de Gerus left the team. They were replaced by Indy Pro 2000 racer Hunter Yeany and Euroformula Open driver Zdeněk Chovanec. Kaylen Frederick was set to return at Spa-Francorchamps having recovered from his thumb injury, but was required to sit out the event after testing positive for COVID-19. Carlin did not replace him and the team only fielded two cars. Frederick returned to Carlin for the sixth round at Circuit Zandvoort.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Hunter Yeany was forced to miss the season finale at Sochi Autodrom due to clashing commitments. He was replaced by GB3 Championship title contender Ayrton Simmons.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: As a consequence of cost-cutting measures, the Formula 2 and Formula 3 championships will adopt a new format. The two championships will alternate between Grands Prix meetings and will no longer appear together on the support race bill. Although this will reduce the number of rounds, both championships will run three races at a Grand Prix instead of two. The format change was designed to cut costs for teams competing in both championships by allowing them to rotate staff between each championship.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: As the 2020 championship was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 calendar featured substantial revisions:


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The final round of the championship was set to take place at the Circuit of the Americas on 23-24 October, in what would have been the circuit's début in the series. However, in early September, the round was replaced "following unavoidable logistical changes" with a round at the Sochi Autodrom taking place on 25-26 September.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The weekend format was changed with two races held on Saturday and one race on Sunday. The qualifying determined the grid of the Sunday race and the first Saturday race, which will also see the top twelve drivers from Qualifying have their grid positions reversed. The grid of the second race was formed by results of the first Saturday race, with top twelve finishers reversed. The addition of a third race to the weekend meant that teams were provided with an extra set of tyres.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The season began at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya, with Dennis Hauger setting the fastest time in qualifying and hence taking pole position for Race 3. Jonny Edgar qualified 12th, giving him reverse-grid pole position for Race 1. Aleksandr Smolyar passed Edgar early in the race, which later ended under safety car conditions after Oliver Rasmussen went off-track and became stuck in the gravel. This allowed Smolyar to claim his first FIA Formula 3 victory.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Enzo Fittipaldi started from pole position in Race 2 by virtue of finishing Race 1 in 12th place. Race 1 winner Smolyar and Logan Sargeant were eliminated on the first lap after colliding with each other and spinning into the gravel. On lap 12 of 22, David Schumacher passed Fittipaldi for the lead of the race, however both drivers were eliminated three laps later when Fittipaldi attempted to reclaim the lead and the two collided. The lead now passed to Matteo Nannini. On the penultimate lap, Hauger attempted to pass Nannini and the two made contact, breaking Hauger's front wing and causing Nannini to spin. Olli Caldwell, who started the race in seventh place, crossed the finish line to take his maiden FIA Formula 3 victory.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Hauger led the entirety of Race 3 to take his first FIA Formula 3 race win ahead of Jack Doohan and Nannini. This result allowed Hauger to claim the lead of the championship after Round 1, two points ahead of teammate Caldwell.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The season resumed at the Circuit Paul Ricard. Frederik Vesti took pole position in qualifying for Race 3, while Calan Williams qualified 12th to start on pole for Race 1. The first race featured five drivers – Williams, Logan Sargeant, Ayumu Iwasa, Aleksandr Smolyar and Victor Martins – trading the lead of the race. Iwasa was later penalised for taking the lead whilst off the track. On the final lap, Martins – who had made his way into the lead after starting 10th – was overtaken by Smolyar, who took his second race victory in four races. After starting from 30th place after breaking his suspension in qualifying, Arthur Leclerc progressed to 12th place in the race, earning himself pole position for Race 2.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Leclerc maintained his lead for the entirety of Race 2 to claim his first victory, and first points finish, in FIA Formula 3. Jak Crawford, who started the race alongside Leclerc on the front row, stalled his car at the race start and eventually finished 14th. Leclerc's teammate Dennis Hauger finished second and Martins climbed from 11th on the grid to pass Olli Caldwell on the penultimate lap for third place.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Race 3 took place in wet conditions. Hauger took the lead from polesitter Vesti at the race start, who would gradually drop back to sixth by the end of the race. Hauger held the lead until lap 15 of 20 when Jack Doohan, who had made his way up from fifth place, overtook him. Doohan crossed the finish line to take his first FIA Formula 3 victory, followed by Hauger and Caio Collet. At the conclusion of the round, Hauger held the lead of the championship by six points over Martins, with Doohan a further two points adrift in third place.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Caio Collet initially set the fastest time in qualifying at the Red Bull Ring, however Dennis Hauger was awarded Race 3 pole position after Collet's time was deleted for exceeding track limits. Logan Sargeant took reverse-grid pole position for Race 1. Sargeant, Matteo Nannini and Clément Novalak spent the race exchanging the lead, before Nannini and Novalak collided with three laps remaining. This allowed Hauger, who had progressed to third place after starting 12th, to take his second victory of the season ahead of teammate Olli Caldwell with Sargeant third. After the race, eleven drivers in total were penalised, with most penalties issued for violating track limits at turns nine and ten. This promoted Jack Doohan to third place.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: After all penalties from Race 1 were applied, David Schumacher took reverse-grid pole position for Race 2. The race was interrupted by safety car periods after collisions between Logan Sargeant and Tijmen van der Helm and later Juan Manuel Correa and Kaylen Frederick, with the latter collision leaving Frederick with a fractured thumb. Schumacher held the lead for the entire race distance to claim his first FIA Formula 3 victory and points finish. Second place had been traded between Jak Crawford, Victor Martins and Roman Staněk, however Crawford and Martins both retired with apparent mechanical issues and the podium was completed by Frederik Vesti and Hauger. Arthur Leclerc claimed the fastest lap and finished sixth, having started the race in 27th place.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Vesti took the lead of Race 3 from pole-sitter Hauger on lap five of 24, and Aleksandr Smolyar briefly claimed the lead before it was retaken by Vesti. On lap 15, Leclerc took to the grass whilst attempting to overtake Martins, losing control of his car and causing a heavy accident that also eliminated Novalak from the race. The safety car was deployed as a result. Vesti held his lead to take his first race win of the season, followed by Hauger in second place and Caldwell in third. Having taken a podium finish at all three races, Hauger extended his championship lead, 41 points ahead of Vesti in second place.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Arthur Leclerc took Race 3 pole in qualifying at the Hungaroring. Jonny Edgar qualified 12th making him the pole-sitter for Race 1. Edgar held the lead of Race 1 until lap eight, when he was overtaken by Lorenzo Colombo. Edgar retired with a mechanical issue shortly after. The safety car was later deployed after Frederik Vesti's car stopped with mechanical problems. Colombo maintained his lead and crossed the finish line in first place, however he was later judged to have fallen more than ten car lengths behind the safety car. The resulting five-second penalty dropped him to seventh place and allowed Ayumu Iwasa to take his first FIA Formula 3 victory. Logan Sargeant was elevated to third place, claiming Charouz Racing System's first FIA Formula 3 podium finish.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Enzo Fittipaldi started Race 2 in pole position. Matteo Nannini, who started third, passed second-placed Roman Staněk at the first corner and later overtook Fittipaldi for the lead. Fittipaldi claimed another podium finish for Charouz Racing System and Staněk took his first podium of the season.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Race 3 took place in wet conditions. Pole-sitter Leclerc battled for the lead with, and was eventually passed by, teammate Dennis Hauger. The race ended under the safety car after a collision involving Rafael Villagómez, Ido Cohen and László Tóth left the latter two stranded on track. After claiming his third race win of the season, Hauger now held a 63-point advantage in the championship over second-placed Jack Doohan.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: The qualifying session and all three races at Spa-Francorchamps took place in wet conditions. Jack Doohan claimed Race 3 pole position in qualifying and Lorenzo Colombo was the pole-sitter for Race 1. A multi-car battle in Race 1 for fourth place saw Caio Collet penalised for overtaking off-track. Colombo led the entirety of the race and finished over thirteen seconds ahead of second-placed Jak Crawford to claim Campos' first FIA Formula 3 race victory.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Doohan started Race 2 from pole position. The race was interrupted by a safety car in order to collect Matteo Nannini's car, which was stranded on track after a spin. The race later ended under safety car conditions after a collision at the Raidillon curve involving Amaury Cordeel and Calan Williams. Trident took a 1-2 finish with Doohan winning the race ahead of David Schumacher.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Pole-sitter Doohan and Victor Martins competed for the lead during Race 3. Martins briefly claimed the lead from Doohan, but later relinquished the position as his overtaking move was completed off-track. Doohan led the rest of the race to claim a second consecutive win. Championship leader Dennis Hauger had qualified only 14th and collected six points from the three races. This allowed Doohan to close the gap between them in the championship from 63 to 25 points by the end of the round.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Dennis Hauger set the fastest time in qualifying to claim his third Race 3 pole position of the season. Amaury Cordeel began Race 1 as pole-sitter. Arthur Leclerc, who started the race in third place, took the lead at the first corner. Shortly after, Cordeel and Aleksandr Smolyar collided, causing Cordeel to spin and fall the back of the field. The race was interrupted by a safety car period after an accident involving Johnathan Hoggard and Hunter Yeany, and Leclerc held the lead of the race from Logan Sargeant at the restart to take his second victory of the season.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Ido Cohen started on pole position for Race 2. Clément Novalak took the lead of the race from Cohen at the first corner. Victor Martins, who started fifth, gained places to eventually pass Novalak for the lead with nine laps remaining. The safety car was deployed late into the race when Cordeel spun into the gravel and could not resume, and the race was restarted with two laps remaining. Championship contenders Hauger and Jack Doohan failed to score points due to incidents at the restart; Hauger and Cohen made contact whilst competing for fourth place which ended the races of both drivers, and eighth-placed Doohan ran wide into the gravel on the final lap. Martins held his lead to take his first FIA Formula 3 race victory.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Hauger took a lights-to-flag victory in the final race of the weekend, extending his advantage in the championship over Doohan, who finished fourth, to 43 points. Novalak took another second-place finish after a Lap 22 collision between David Schumacher and Martins, who were fighting for second, eliminated Schumacher from the race and left Martins with a 10-second penalty. The penalty demoted Martins from third to tenth, so Smolyar took his place on the podium.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Jack Doohan secured pole position for Race 3 and four points in qualifying, though transponder issues meant teammate Clément Novalak was erroneously awarded pole position at first. It was announced during that session that Race 1 had been moved to Friday afternoon because of concerns over inclement weather on Saturday morning. Victor Martins started that race from the front, but Logan Sargeant took the lead into Turn 2, which he never relinquished despite late pressure from Dennis Hauger, allowing Sargeant to claim Charouz Racing System's first FIA Formula 3 race victory. Starting fourth, Hauger worked his way up to second after passing Jak Crawford and Martins. With title rival Doohan failing to score, Hauger had enough points to secure the championship title with two races to spare.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Race 2 was set to run on Saturday afternoon with Johnathan Hoggard on pole position, but the race was cancelled due to adverse weather conditions.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: With the track dry and the skies clear by Sunday, regular running resumed, and Doohan held on to take victory in Race 3, albeit under controversial circumstances. Doohan led much of the race from Novalak and Frederik Vesti, but Novalak was setting faster times than his teammate. Trident ordered Doohan to relinquish the lead to Novalak, which he refused to do, saying after the race concluded that he was "racing for [his] own career." Doohan and Novalak briefly exchanged positions in an on-track battle on Lap 17, which allowed Vesti to close in and overtake Novalak for second the following lap. This, of course, was crucial in the battle for the teams' championship between Trident and Prema Racing. Coming into the race, Trident were 27 points behind, but Hauger, the lead Prema at the beginning of Race 3, fell out of the points after a collision with Oliver Rasmussen on Lap 7. With the other Premas of Arthur Leclerc and Olli Caldwell only finishing seventh and tenth, Trident's 40-point haul—despite the intra-team conflict—was enough to secure them their first teams' championship in the series. The exact gap between the teams, however, was only decided after the race. Hauger had set the original fastest lap of the race, but the time was voided post-race as it was deemed that he had deliberately pitted to set the fastest lap. Fortunately for Prema, the failed ploy actually worked out in their benefit: the fastest lap instead went to Leclerc, who took with it the extra two points. The final result in the constructors' championship was 381 points for Trident and 377 for Prema.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Points were awarded to the top ten classified finishers in all 3 races. The pole-sitter in Race 3 also received four points, and two points were given to the driver who set the fastest lap inside the top ten in all 3 races. No extra points were awarded to the pole-sitter in Race 1 or Race 2 as the grid for Race 1 was set by reversing the top twelve qualifiers and the grid for Race 2 was based on the results of the first race reversed from the top twelve.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers. Two points were awarded to the driver who set the fastest lap if he finishes in the top 10. No fastest lap points were awarded if it was set by a driver outside the top 10.


title: 2021 FIA Formula 3 Championship

text: Points were awarded to the top ten classified finishers. Bonus points were awarded to the pole-sitter and to the driver who set the fastest lap and finished in the top ten.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: Ian Stephen McCulloch (born 5 May 1959) is an English singer-songwriter and musician, best known as the lead vocalist of the rock band Echo & the Bunnymen.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: McCulloch was a singer-songwriter with the Crucial Three, one of many local bands that sprang up amongst the regulars who patronised a Liverpool club called Eric's in the late '70s. The other two members were Julian Cope and Pete Wylie who went on to form Wah!. The band existed between May and June 1977, and never got beyond rehearsals. In July 1978, along with future members of the Teardrop Explodes – Cope, Mick Finkler and Paul Simpson – and drummer Dave Pickett, McCulloch formed A Shallow Madness. Again the band did not perform or record, but an acoustic version of the band, under the name 'Uh', played live twice. The band split up in September 1978.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In October 1978, McCulloch founded Echo & the Bunnymen with Will Sergeant (guitar), Les Pattinson (bass), and a drum machine (allegedly named Echo), making their live début at Eric's in November that year. In October 1979, the Bunnymen exchanged the drum machine for Pete de Freitas on drums. With their line up solidified, the Bunnymen played in the late 1970s and early 1980s, releasing their critically praised debut album, "Crocodiles" in 1980, and the heavier, bass-driven "Heaven Up Here" in 1981. They released their third album "Porcupine" in 1983 with the lead single "The Cutter" finishing in the top 10 of the UK charts. "Ocean Rain" followed in 1984. Shortly before the album was released, McCulloch described "Ocean Rain" as "the greatest album ever made." McCulloch later said: "When I sing 'The Killing Moon' I know there isn't a band in the world who's got a song anywhere near that."


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1988, McCulloch left the group to pursue a solo career under the impression the Bunnymen would be laid to rest, if only temporarily. When the remaining Bunnymen continued using the name with new singer Noel Burke, the split became permanent with McCulloch referring to the band as "Echo & the Bogusmen".


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1990, McCulloch released the album "Candleland" which reflected a more mature outlook on the world, owing to the recent deaths of McCulloch's father and Pete de Freitas, and peaked at number 18 on the UK Albums Chart. It yielded two Modern Rock Tracks hits, "Proud to Fall" (No. 1 for 4 weeks) and "Faith and Healing". The album "Mysterio" was released in 1992 as the public's interest in the former Bunnyman was waning and sold less than its predecessor. Shortly after, McCulloch left the public eye to devote more time to his family.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1993, McCulloch partnered with Johnny Marr of the Smiths, writing an album's worth of material. McCulloch has credited Marr with helping him regain his lost confidence and rejuvenating his desire to create music. When it was suggested that Will Sergeant be brought in to work on the songs, the tapes were allegedly stolen from a courier van preventing Sergeant from offering any input.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: The rekindling of the relationship between McCulloch and Sergeant led to the formation of Electrafixion in 1994. The band released the album "Burned" which peaked at number 38 in the UK and included the top-30 hit "Sister Pain". The band soon found themselves performing set lists composed of half Electrafixion songs and half Echo & the Bunnymen songs.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1997, Echo & the Bunnymen reformed and released the album "Evergreen" to positive reviews and chart success. "Evergreen" made the top 10 of the UK Albums Chart and the single "Nothing Lasts Forever" reached No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart. The reformed Bunnymen have since recorded several further albums, the most recent being "Meteorites" which was released in 2014.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: At the height of the Bunnymen's popularity, McCulloch earned the nickname "Mac the Mouth" due to a penchant for witty, blunt criticism of artists he deemed inferior, while proclaiming the Bunnymen's superiority. Targets of his observations included Bono of U2 and Julian Cope. More recently, in 2011, McCulloch said of Bono: "Had he been in Liverpool, he would have been laughed out of the place. U2 have never been liked in Liverpool. We know a fake when we see one." McCulloch said that during the early 1980s, Bono told him the Bunnymen could break America but only if they toured there for three months. McCulloch said: "Three months? I can't spend three minutes in Birkenhead without going daft, let alone America."


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1998, McCulloch teamed up with the Spice Girls, Tommy Scott of Space, and Simon Fowler of Ocean Colour Scene as 'England United' to record "Top of the World", the official song for Team England in the 1998 FIFA World Cup, although it fared less well than a reissue of "Three Lions". He enjoyed more success working as a mentor for Coldplay during the recording of their 2002 album "A Rush of Blood to the Head".


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 2003, McCulloch released his third solo album "Slideling" and undertook a solo tour in support of the album.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: McCulloch has been a lifetime supporter of Liverpool F.C. In 2006, he took part in recording the team's anthem with the Bootroom Allstars – a remake of the Johnny Cash song "Ring of Fire", and was on the judging panel for the music competition Pringles Unsung.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 2010, McCulloch featured in a guest role on the song "Some Kind of Nothingness" by the Manic Street Preachers from their tenth album "Postcards from a Young Man".


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In October 2017, McCulloch featured on the Norwegian band A-ha's acoustic album "MTV Unplugged – Summer Solstice", singing "Scoundrel Days" and "The Killing Moon". The performance was recorded at Giske island in Norway in June 2017.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: McCulloch has cited Lou Reed, Iggy Pop, the Doors, Leonard Cohen and particularly David Bowie as influences for his work. He has described Cohen's song "Suzanne" as "the perfect lyric with the perfect melody" and Bowie as "so influential and the greatest solo artist of the 20th Century in any walk of art."


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: In 1983, McCulloch married Lorraine Fox. They have two daughters, Candy and Mimi. Candy appeared in the video for his solo single "Faith and Healing" when she was a young girl. The couple separated in late 2003. He was in a relationship with singer-songwriter Zoe Devlin, formerly of Alabama 3. They had a daughter, Dusty, but have now separated.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: McCulloch was brought up in the Norris Green area of Liverpool. The road on which he originally lived, Parthenon Drive, is the title of a song contained in the 2005 Echo & the Bunnymen album, "Siberia". He attended Alsop High School.


title: Ian McCulloch (singer)

text: McCulloch was featured in a YouTube video appeal in October 2010 which campaigned for Tom Hicks and George Gillett to be removed from Liverpool F.C. In a 2013 interview, McCulloch said that he was no longer attending Liverpool matches.


title: Mount Nebo

text: Mount Nebo (; ) is an elevated ridge located in Jordan, approximately above sea level. Part of the Abarim mountain range, Mount Nebo is mentioned in the Bible as the place where Moses was granted a view of the Promised Land before his death. The view from the summit provides a panorama of the West Bank across the Jordan River valley. The city of Jericho is usually visible from the summit, as is Jerusalem on a very clear day. The biblical town of Nebo, now known as Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, is located 3.5 km away.


title: Mount Nebo

text: According to the Bible (Deuteronomy), Moses ascended Mount Nebo, in the land of Moab (today in Jordan), and from there he saw the Land of Canaan (the Promised Land), which God had said he would not enter; Moses then died there. The Bible () says Moses' burial place was unknown. A monument atop Mount Nebo commemorates Moses' death after seeing Canaan, across the Jordan valley. A purported grave of Moses is located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, in the West Bank, south of Jericho and east of Jerusalem.


title: Mount Nebo

text: Mount Nebo is then mentioned again in the Bible in 2 Maccabees (), when the prophet Jeremiah hid the tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant in a cave there.


title: Mount Nebo

text: On March 20, 2000, Pope John Paul II visited the summit of Mount Nebo during his pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During his visit, he planted an olive tree next to the Byzantine chapel, as a symbol of peace. Pope Benedict XVI visited the site in 2009, gave a speech, and looked out from the top of the mountain in the direction of Jerusalem.


title: Mount Nebo

text: A serpentine cross sculpture atop Mount Nebo was created by Italian artist Giovanni Fantoni. It is symbolic of the miracle of the bronze serpent invoked by Moses in the wilderness () and the cross upon which Jesus was crucified ().


title: Mount Nebo

text: Systematic exploration begun by Sylvester J. Saller O.F.M. were continued in 1933 by Jerome Mihaic of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. On the highest point of the mountain, Syagha, the remains of a Byzantine church and monastery were discovered in 1933. The church was first constructed in the second half of the 4th century to commemorate the place of Moses' death. The church design follows a typical basilica pattern. It was enlarged in the late fifth century AD and rebuilt in AD 597. The church is first mentioned in an account of a pilgrimage made by a lady Aetheria in AD 394. Six tombs have been found hollowed from the natural rock beneath the mosaic-covered floor of the church.


title: Mount Nebo

text: Bellarmino Bagatti worked on the site in 1935. Virgilio Canio Corbo later excavated the interior of the basilica.


title: Mount Nebo

text: The ancient church, a pilgrimage destination since the 4th century, was excavated between 1933 and 1938 by Sylvester Saller, bringing to light the basilica with its chapels and the annexes of the monastery. The exquisite mosaics were then covered back with soil for protection. In 1963, the Custody of the Holy Land decided to restore the mosaic floors and Virgilio Corbo was put in charge of the project. A metal shelter designed in Oxford was erected over the ruins, but work was interrupted by the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Renewed work ensued between 1976-1984, when a new mosaic was discovered in the diaconicon-baptistery. By 1984 the consolidation work was completed, and as a result, the basilica could be used both for liturgical purposes, as well as for displaying the restored mosaics, either in situ or mounted on the walls. After renewed plans drawn in 1989 and geological surveys and assessments of the ancient and modern structures made a decade later, a new shelter, basically a complete basilica was built over the ancient church between December 2007 and the reopening day on 15 October 2016. Not even the sudden death of Michelle Piccirillo, a key figure in the project, in October 2008, lead to a break in the work.


title: Mount Nebo

text: In the modern chapel presbytery, built to protect the site and provide worship space, remnants of mosaic floors from different periods can be seen. The earliest of these is a panel with a braided cross presently placed on the east end of the south wall.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: Bed and breakfast (typically shortened to B&B or BnB) is a small lodging establishment that offers overnight accommodation and breakfast. Bed and breakfasts are often private family homes and typically have between four and eleven rooms, with six being the average. In addition, a B&B usually has the hosts living in the house.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: "Bed and breakfast" is also used to describe the level of catering included in a hotel's room prices, as opposed to room only, half-board or full-board.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: In China, expatriates have remodelled traditional structures in quiet picturesque rural areas and opened a few rustic boutique hotels with minimum amenities. Most patrons are foreign tourists but they are growing in popularity among Chinese domestic tourists.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: In India, the government is promoting the concept of bed & breakfast. The government is doing this to increase tourism, especially keeping in view of the demand for hotels during the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi. They have classified B&Bs in 2 categories – Gold B&Bs, and Silver B&Bs. All B&Bs must be approved by the Ministry of Tourism, who will then categorize it as Gold or Silver based upon a list of pre-defined criteria.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: The Israeli B&B is known as a "zimmer" (German for 'room'). All over the country, but especially in northern Israel (Galilee, Upper Galilee and the Golan Heights) the zimmer has developed into an extensive industry. This industry began to develop in the 1990s, when agriculture became less profitable, and many families with farms in moshavim, kibbutzim, farms and even in cities decided to try their luck in the business of hospitality. In the last decade, there has been development of bed and breakfasts also in southern Israel in the Negev.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: In Italy, regional law regulates B&Bs. There is a national law "Legge 29 marzo 2001, n. 135" but each region maintains a specific regulation. Each region can adopt different regulations but they must observe the national law on Tourism (Law N° 135 /2001).


title: Bed and breakfast

text: B&Bs are graded by VisitBritain and the AA on a star system. 3, 4 and 5-star establishments have a higher standard. A majority of B&Bs in the UK have en-suite facilities.


title: Bed and breakfast

text: In January 2003 Tourism Queensland conducted a review of current research to gain a better understanding of the Bed & Breakfast (B&B) market:


title: Bed and breakfast

text: According to this study, many bed and breakfast visitors make use of evaluations, given by other guests. This system of independent reviews is one of the fastest growing consumer content oriented sites on the net.


title: Alyy Khan

text: Alyy Khan (or Aly Khan, ; born 6 December 1968) is a British-Asian actor and host who has worked in Hollywood, Bollywood and Lollywood films and television series.


title: Alyy Khan

text: He is known for his roles in the films "A Mighty Heart" (2007), "Traitor" (2008), "Don 2" (2011), "3 Bahadur" (2015), "Actor in Law" (2016) and "Mogul Mowgli" (2020), and also played a parallel lead in the telefilm "Anjuman" (2013).


title: Alyy Khan

text: Khan has also appeared in several television series, including "The Bill" (2006), "Strike Back" (2011), "Saat Pardon Mein" (2012), "Indian Summers" (2015) and "Pakeezah" (2016).


title: Alyy Khan

text: Recent credits include "The Serpent" (2020) on Netflix, "Shantaram" (2022) Paramount/Apple + TV and "The Archie's" (2022) Netflix India.


title: Alyy Khan

text: Studied at Bombay Scottish School, Mumbai. Studied drama under the tutelage of the late Hima Devi of the Hima Kala Kendra, Mumbai affiliated to the Trinity College,London. He also has a diploma in film and television production from the "Pimlico Arts and Media College, London."


title: Shahu I

text: Chhatrapati Shahu Bhosale I (Pronunciation: ]; CE) was the fifth Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire founded by his grandfather, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Born into the Bhonsle family, he was the son of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Shivaji Maharaj's eldest son and successor. He was captured at a very young age and held captive by the Mughals till the death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. At that time, he was released from captivity in the hope of keeping the Marathas locked in an internecine struggle.


title: Shahu I

text: Under Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj's reign, Maratha power and influence extended to all corners of the Indian subcontinent, which eventually turned into a strong Maratha Empire during his time. After his death, his ministers and generals such as the Peshwas, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Gaikwad, Shinde and Holkar carved out their own fiefdoms and turned the empire into a confederacy.


title: Shahu I

text: Shahu, as a seven year old child, was taken prisoner along with his mother in 1689 by Mughals after the Battle of Raigarh.


title: Shahu I

text: The Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, then fighting the Marathas, hoped to use Shahu as a pawn in his struggle with them, and therefore treated Shahu and his mother well. During captivity, he was married to two daughters of Maratha sardars in the Mughal service. The Mughals also granted him lands and revenue rights, around Akkalkot and Khargone respectively, for his maintenance. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, one of his sons, Prince Azam Shah, released Shahu in the hope of starting an internecine conflict between the Marathas, and also to have Shahu on his side for a succession battle for the Mughal throne. At that time his aunt Tarabai, the widow of Rajaram who governed the Maratha realm in the name of her son Shivaji, denounced Shahu as an impostor substituted by the Mughals for the son of Sambhaji. He fought a brief war with Tarabai to gain the Maratha throne in 1708.


title: Shahu I

text: Kanhoji Angre seized the opportunity of war between Tarabai and Shahu to effectively free himself of the suzerainty of either. Instead, he captured the major trading center of Kalyan and the neighboring forts of Rajmachi and Lohgad. Shahu sent a large force under his "Peshwa" or Prime Minister, Bahiroji Pingale. Kanhoji defeated Pingale and imprisoned him at Lohagad, and started to advance towards Shahu's capital of Satara. Shahu commanded Balaji Vishwanath to raise another army to subdue Kanhoji. Balaji preferred the path of negotiation and was appointed as Shahu's plenipotentiary to negotiate with the admiral. Balaji and Kanhoji met at Lonavala. The newly appointed Peshwa appealed to the old sailor's patriotism for the Maratha cause. Angre agreed to become the "Sarkhel" (admiral) of Shahu's navy with control of the Konkan. Balaji and Angre then jointly attacked the Muslim Siddis of Janjira. Their combined forces captured most of the Konkan coast, including Balaji's birthplace of Shrivardhan, which became part of the Angre fiefdom. Delighted with Balaji's success, Shahu dismissed Bahiroji Pingale and appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa on 16 November 1713.


title: Shahu I

text: Shahu and his successors were recognized by the Mughal Emperors as the rightful heirs to Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The Mughals became a puppet government of the Marathas, and gave a quarter of their total revenue as Chauth and an additional 10% for their protection.


title: Shahu I

text: Over the next fifty years, Balaji, followed by his son Bajirao I and grandson Balaji Bajirao and with the help of capable military leaders from the clans of Shinde, Holkar, Gaekwad, Pawar and Bhonsle of Nagpur, expanded Maratha power in all directions of the Indian subcontinent. The Battle of Palkhed was fought on February 28, 1728 at the village of Palkhed, near the city of Nashik, Maharashtra, India between the Maratha Empire and the Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad, wherein the Marathas defeated the Nizam. After the Battle of Bundelkhand, the Marathas became major players in the all-important Ganga-Yamuna Doab. During Shahu's lifetime, Marathas conquered Bundelkhand, Bundi, Malwa and Ganga-Yamuna Doab.


title: Shahu I

text: Shahu had four wives, who gave him two sons and four daughters. Shahu adopted Parvatibai when she was 3 years old. She was the daughter of a mamledar of Pen, Raigad. He trained her in warfare and administration. He later had her married to Sadashivrao Bhau when she was 15 years old. Even though her father was alive, he did her kanyadan. He also adopted two sons, Fatehsinh I and Rajaram II of Satara (who succeeded him as the Raja of Satara). Rajaram II had been brought to him by Shahu's paternal aunt, Tarabai, who initially claimed that the young man was her grandson and a descendant of Shivaji Maharaj, but later disowned him as an imposter. After Shahu's death, the powers were indirectly shifted to the Peshwa Balaji Bajirao.


title: Shahu I

text: Shahu also adopted Ranoji Lokhande, later known as Fatehsinh I Raje Sahib Bhonsle, the son of Meherban Sayaji Lokhende, the Patil of Parud. Fatehsinh became the first Raja of Akalkot around the year 1708. Upon his adoption, Fatehsinh received the town of Akkalkot and surrounding areas. The descendants of Fatehsinh later went on to establish the Bhonsle dynasty in Akkalkot state.


title: Shahu I

text: Shahu died in December 1749. At that time his widow, Sakvarbai and his concubines committed sati because of political intrigues by Tarabai and Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao regarding succession at the Satara court.His adopted son Rajaram II of Satara, claimed by Tarabai to be her grandson, succeeded to the Satara throne. But the actual power was held by others: first by Tarabai and then by Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Lepidium meyenii, known as maca or Peruvian ginseng, is an edible herbaceous biennial plant of the family Brassicaceae that is native to South America in the high Andes mountains of Peru. It was found at the Meseta de Bombón plateau close to Lake Junin in the late 1980s. It is grown for its fleshy hypocotyl that is fused with a taproot, which is typically dried, but may also be freshly cooked as a root vegetable. As a cash crop, it is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw, or processed further as a gelatinized starch or as an extract. If dried, it may be processed into a flour for baking or as a dietary supplement.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa gave a description of the plant following his visit to Peru "circa" 1598 and Bernabé Cobo gave a description of this plant in the early 17th century. Gerhard Walpers named the species "Lepidium meyenii" in 1843. In the 1990s, Gloria Chacon made a further distinction of a different species. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species, "L. peruvianum".


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Most botanists doubt this distinction, however, and continue to call the cultivated maca "L. meyenii". The Latin name recognized by the USDA similarly continues to be "Lepidium meyenii". It has been debated whether it is botanically correct to consider "meyenii" and "peruvianum" to be distinct from one another. A 2015 multi-center study found differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences when comparing "L. meyenii" and "L. peruvianum", suggesting that they are in fact different and that their names should not be considered synonyms.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of radishes and turnips, to which it is related, but it also resembles a parsnip. The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground. The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing more than in height. The leaves show a dimorphism according to reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase, and are continuously renewed from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white, self-fertile flowers are borne on a central raceme, and are followed by siliculate fruits, each containing two small reddish-gray ovoid seeds. Seeds are the maca’s only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 64 chromosomes. From experiments with different day lengths, maca is a short-day plant. Some sources consider the maca to be an annual plant, as in favorable years it can complete a lifecycle within a year.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Maca is the only member of the genus "Lepidium" with a fleshy hypocotyl, which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted pear-shaped body. Maca does vary greatly in the size and shape of the root, which may be triangular, flattened circular, spherical, or rectangular, the latter of which forms the largest roots. Traditionally, native growers have acknowledged four varieties of maca, based on their root color: cream-yellow, half purple, purple, and black; varying levels of anthocyanin is primarily responsible for the color differences. Maca hypocotyls may be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black, or green. Each is considered a "genetically unique variety", as seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Specific phenotypes (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been propagated exclusively to increase commercial interest. Cream-colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is both sweet and slightly bitter in taste.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The natural environment of the maca is at 11-12ºS latitude and at an elevation of above sea level. At this elevation, temperatures of the growing season vary from in monthly mean minimum or maximum, respectively. Temperatures can decline, however, as low as and frosts are common. Of the cultivated plants, maca is one of the most frost tolerant. Strong winds and sunlight also are characteristics of the native habitat of the maca. Maca today is still mainly cultivated in Peru, in the high Andes of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in Brazil. Maca can be cultivated beyond its natural elevation range, over above sea level.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Maca (Peruvian ginseng) seedlings usually emerge about one month after sowing with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, until May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl, as well as the upper part of the tap root, grows in size. After 260 to 280 days, it is formed to the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant is capable of forming up to 1000 tiny seeds, 1600 of which together weigh about one gram. Thus, only relatively few plants are needed for propagation. The plants for cultivation are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50–100 mm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are fertilized heavily, as maca is a soil exhaustive crop. The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing also is used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures. Maca croplands thus traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Weeding or pesticide application usually is not necessary as the climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically, as maca itself is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant naturally repels most root crop pests.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The harvest is done manually, with the leaves left in the field as livestock feed or organic fertilizer.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The yield for a cultivated hectare may reach an estimated 15 tons in fresh hypocotyls resulting in around 5 tons of dried material. According to the Ministry of Agriculture of Peru, however, average maca yields for 2005 were only 7 t/ha, with a great variation between different sites.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat is not yet clear. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses, or in warm climates.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The average composition, on a dry matter basis, is 60-75% carbohydrates (mostly as polysaccharides), 10-14% protein, 8.5% dietary fiber, and 2.2% fats.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Maca contains glucotropaeolin, "m"-methoxyglucotropaeolin, benzyl glucosinolates, polyphenols, (1"R",3"S")-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA), and "p"-methoxybenzyl isothiocyanate. Alkamides are also present in maca.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: No pharmacokinetic data have been published for maca. The presence of (1"R",3"S")-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) in the extracts of maca indicate a potential safety issue as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (re. which see β-carboline) and possibility as a mutagen. Due to these potential mutagenic properties of MTCA, the Agency for Sanitary Security in France warned consumers about the possible health risks of powdered maca root, a declaration disputed on the assumption that MTCA would be deactivated by boiling to process maca roots. MTCA-like compounds are associated with craving behaviour.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Due to its purported effects on fertility, maca grew in agricultural, commercial, and research interest over the decades of the 1990s to 2014. Market studies showed low acceptance of the particular maca taste by consumers when first exposed to it, creating a barrier for popularity of this food as a culinary vegetable. The economic interest existed more in the perceived, but unproven, health effects of the root's constituents supplied as an extract in a dietary supplement.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: By 2014, agricultural and market interest for maca grew in China, but with challenges from Peruvian institutions who accused Chinese companies of illegally exporting maca and of biopiracy, as several Chinese patents had been filed to improve the propagation and genetic diversity of maca.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Maca is mainly grown for consumption of its root. The majority of harvested maca is dried. In this form, the hypocotyls can be stored for several years. In Peru, maca is prepared and consumed in various ways, although traditionally it is always cooked. The freshly harvested hypocotyl may be roasted in a pit (called "huatia"), and is considered a delicacy. Fresh roots usually are available only in the vicinity of the growers. The root can also be mashed and boiled to produce a sweet, thick liquid, then dried and mixed with milk to form a porridge, "mazamorra". The cooked roots are also used with other vegetables in "empanadas", jams, or soups. The root may be ground to produce a flour for bread, cakes, or pancakes. If fermented, a weak beer called "chicha de maca" may be produced. In 2010, a U.S.-based brewery, called Andean Brewing Company, became the first company to produce and commercialize beer made from maca under the brand KUKA Beer. From the black morphotype, a liquor is produced. Also, the leaves are edible or may serve as animal fodder. They can be prepared raw in salads or cooked much like "L. sativum" and "L. campestre", to which it is closely related genetically.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: The prominent product for export is maca flour, which is a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots. It is called "harina de maca". Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, much like wheat flour or potato flour. The supplement industry uses both the dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. Another common form is maca processed by gelatinization. This extrusion process separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, as raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Archaeological evidence exists for varying degrees of cultivation of maca in the Lake Junin region from around 1700 BC to 1200 AD. Maca has been harvested and used by humans in the puna grasslands of the Andean Mountains for centuries. Contrary to frequent claims that maca's cultivation was common in what is today Peru, until the late 1980s, maca has been cultivated only in a limited area around Lake Junin, in central Peru. Historically, maca often was traded for lowland tropical food staples, such as maize, rice, manioc (tapioca roots), quinoa, and papaya. It also was used as a form of payment of Spanish imperial taxes.


title: Lepidium meyenii

text: Maca has been marketed for its supposed uses in traditional medicine, but there is no high-quality research to indicate it has any effect on health or diseases. A 2016 systematic review found little evidence that it affects semen quality in healthy and infertile men. A 2011 review found no good evidence either for the effectiveness of maca as a treatment for menopausal symptoms in women or for its safety.


title: Ghanaian name

text: Ghanaian names (or personal names in Ghana) consist of several given names and surnames based on the language of ethnic groups in Ghana: including Akan, Mole-Dagombas, Ga, Ewe and Nzema. Frequently, children are given a "day name" which corresponds to the day in the week when they were born. These day names have further meanings concerning the soul and character of the person. Middle names have considerably more variety and can refer to their birth order, twin status, or an ancestor's middle name. These names are also used among Ghanaians living abroad and among Africans living in the diaspora who wish to identify with their ancestral homeland. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the enslaved people from modern day Ghana in the Caribbean were referred to as Coromantees. Most day names among the Mole-Dagombas are usually given to girls, and few are given to both sexes.


title: Ghanaian name

text: Most Ghanaians have at least one name from this system, even if they also have an Arabic or western name. Notable figures with day names include Ghana's first president Kwame Nkrumah and former United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: On December 28, 2017, a fatal swatting incident occurred in Wichita, Kansas, United States. During an online dispute between Casey Viner and Shane Gaskill, regarding the video game "", Viner threatened to have Gaskill swatted. Gaskill responded by giving him a false address for his residence, one that was occupied by an uninvolved person, Andrew Finch. Viner then asked Tyler Barriss to make the required fraudulent call to initiate the swatting. Wichita Police responded to the address, and as Finch was exiting his house, police officer Justin Rapp fatally shot him.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Barriss pled guilty to involuntary manslaughter and many other charges from unrelated incidents for which he was wanted. In March 2019, Barriss was sentenced to 20 years in federal prison. Viner was sentenced to 15 months imprisonment and 2 years supervised release for his involvement, while Gaskill was sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. Rapp was not charged for Finch's death.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: At the time of the incident, Tyler Raj Barriss was a 25-year-old homeless man living in Los Angeles, California. Known online as "SWAuTistic", he had a criminal record including domestic violence, and had served 16 months in Los Angeles County Jail for making false bomb threats against KABC-TV, an elementary school in Los Angeles, and a middle school in Granada Hills. He was wanted by police in Panama City, Florida, for calling approximately 30 other bomb threats, including one to a high school, and on fraud and mischief charges in Canada for harassing a woman in Calgary.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Reports surfaced that the deadly series of events reportedly began with an online argument over a $1.50 wager in an online match of "" on UMG Gaming, which operates online tournaments, including one involving said game. Two men, Casey Viner (known by pseudonym Baperizer) and Shane Gaskill (known by pseudonym Miruhcle), fought over friendly fire in the "Call of Duty: WWII" match, causing them to lose both the match and $1.50 in wagers. The two gamers took to Twitter in an argument about the loss.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Viner threatened to swat Gaskill over the loss. Gaskill intentionally gave Viner the wrong address: a place in Wichita where he previously resided with his family, and where he said he would "be waiting". Gaskill's family had been evicted in 2016. Viner then contacted Barriss and provided him with the address given to swat Gaskill. Finch was not a known gamer and had nothing to do with the "Call of Duty" match.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Using voice over IP through the free Wi-Fi provided by a South Los Angeles library, Barriss called the Wichita police department. Because the call was transferred from Wichita City Hall to 911, the dispatcher believed the call was coming from the Wichita area. Barriss, identifying himself as "Brian", claimed that he was at the residence at 1033 West McCormick Street, had fatally shot his father, and was holding family members at gunpoint. He asked if police were coming to the house, saying he had already poured gasoline all over the house and was threatening to set it on fire.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Wichita Police Department officers, who were not SWAT team members, untrained for tactical situations or hostage rescues, responded to Barriss' call and surrounded Finch's residence. Andrew Finch is reported by his mother Lisa Finch, who was at the scene, to have seen the police lights outside and opened the front door to see what was happening. Mrs. Finch reports that her 28-year-old son "screamed and then they shot him." Moments after Finch stepped onto his front porch, police ordered him to put his hands up. According to officer testimony, he began to do so and then stopped. A Wichita police officer standing on the other side of the street fired a single round striking Finch and piercing his heart and right lung. Finch was transported to Ascension Via Christi St. Francis, where he was pronounced dead 17 minutes after he was shot.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Finch's mother reports the police then ordered her and other family members to exit the residence. The family was handcuffed and taken to the police station for questioning. Initial reports from Deputy Wichita Police Chief Troy Livingston stated that "A male came to the front door. As he came to the front door, one of our officers discharged his weapon." Livingston did not initially state if Finch was armed, or what caused the officer to fire his weapon. In a later statement on December 30, the Wichita Police Department stated the shooting was caused by Finch "reaching into his waistband". The officer involved was eventually identified as Justin Rapp, a seven-year veteran of the force.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: In court, Rapp testified in May 2018 that he was given no information when he arrived at the scene, including when Finch was given his first verbal command, when the 911 call ended, or whether officers at the scene were aware the caller was still on the phone with 911. Sedgwick County Department of Emergency Communications has also denied an open-records request pertaining to the 911 call, stating the police department had asked that no more records be released.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Many Wichita residents and other U.S.-based commentators have expressed concern over the death of Finch. Wichita residents used the opportunity of a city council meeting on January 9, 2018 to voice concerns on the subject, including questioning the release of only seven seconds of the police body cam footage, and arguing that the city should assume full responsibility to avoid a lengthy struggle by the Finch family for justice. The council did not comment directly, but indicated a willingness to consider training procedures at a later time.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Nearly a week after the shooting, Andrew Finch's mother Lisa Finch wrote to the Wichita mayor and police chief, stating that she did not know where her son's body was being kept, and that she wanted to give him a "proper funeral service and burial." "Please let me see my son's lifeless body," she wrote in a letter dated January 3, 2018. In the same letter, Mrs. Finch asked why the police officer who killed her son had not, at that time, been identified, why the family was handcuffed, and when police will return their belongings, including two cell phones and a computer, seized from the house. The family attorney, Andrew M. Stroth, has also called for the city, police department, and officer involved in the shooting to be held liable "for the unjustified shooting of Andrew Finch."


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Finch's 18-year-old niece Adelina died by suicide by gunshot on January 11, 2019. Adelina was raised by Lisa and Andrew Finch after her own mother had died; she was 17 at the time of the shooting, and witnessed her uncle's death. Lisa Finch blames Adelina's death on the events of December 28.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Barriss was arrested on December 29, 2017, in Los Angeles on a fugitive warrant stemming from a 2015 charge of making false bomb threats to KABC-TV, and was charged with false alarm, a felony. On January 12, 2018, Barriss was extradited to Kansas, where he was charged with involuntary manslaughter and held in Sedgwick County Jail.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Barriss, Viner, and Gaskill were indicted in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas on May 23 on charges related to the swatting. Barriss was charged with false information and hoaxes, cyberstalking resulting in death, making threats of death or damage to property by fire, interstate threats, conspiracy to make false reports, and wire fraud. Viner was charged with wire fraud, conspiracy to make false/hoax reports, obstruction of justice, and conspiracy to obstruct justice. Gaskill was charged with obstruction of justice, wire fraud, and conspiracy to obstruct justice. Gaskill was re-indicted in July on additional charges, after it was discovered that he goaded Barriss to "try again" after the fatal shooting.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: On October 26, 2018, forty-six additional charges against Barriss were added, which included financial fraud, and fake threats of bombs and shootings made to police and schools; some of these charges involved unindicted co-conspirators residing in Des Plaines, Illinois; Gulf Breeze, Florida; Grand Rapids, Michigan; and Greenwood, Missouri. On November 13 he pleaded guilty to 51 federal charges, for which U.S. Attorney Stephen McAllister recommended a sentence of 20 years' incarceration. Under the terms of the plea agreement, Barriss has also been required to formally apologize to Finch's family and pay $10,100 in fines and restitution, and has agreed to five years of supervised release.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Barriss' sentencing was held March 29, 2019; he received 90 months' imprisonment for the California charges, and 150 months for the Kansas charges, to be served consecutively. Barriss also paid a $5,000 fine, the full amount of which was awarded by the Kansas Crime Victims Compensation Board to Finch's family as restitution. He is scheduled to be released from FCI Phoenix on January 14, 2035.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: In April 2019, Viner pleaded guilty to conspiracy and obstruction of justice, and was sentenced in September to a 15-month prison sentence in addition to two years' probation, during which time he would be banned from playing video games. Viner was released from custody at USP Big Sandy on November 14, 2020.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: In September 2019, it was reported that Gaskill struck a deal for deferred prosecution that could allow the charges against him to be dropped. Under terms of Gaskill's pretrial diversion agreement, the government agreed not to pursue prosecution for at least 18 months. Gaskill agreed to waive any speedy trial defenses and pay $1,000 in restitution, costs and penalties. In September 2021, it was reported that Gaskill had violated the terms of his pretrial diversion and the trial against Gaskill resumed. Gaskill pled guilty to one count of wire fraud in May 2022, and was sentenced to 18 months in prison in September 2022.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: As of July 2022, Officer Rapp faces civil trial. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the 10th Circuit agreed with a lower federal court in Kansas a family could pursue a lawsuit against a Wichita police officer but not the city of Wichita for a fatal shooting of an innocent, unarmed man who was targeted in a hoax emergency call to law enforcement.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: In response to Finch's slaying, the Kansas state legislature approved a bill in March 2018 to establish creating a false alarm resulting in injury or death as a class-one felony, carrying a prison sentence between 10 and 41 years. The bill was signed into law by Governor Jeff Colyer on April 12.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: The Andrew T. Finch Memorial Act of 2018 was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives by Rep. Ron Estes in March 2018. The bill, also known as the Preventing Swatting and Protecting Our Communities Act of 2018, would make providing false information with the intent to cause an emergency response punishable by up to five years' imprisonment, up to 20 years' imprisonment if serious injury results, and up to life imprisonment if the act results in death. The bill was referred to the House Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, Homeland Security, and Investigations, but was never taken up for a vote and died in committee.


title: 2017 Wichita swatting

text: Rep. Eliot Engel introduced a bill in January 2019 to amend the Communications Act of 1934, to provide for enhanced penalties for the transmission of misleading or inaccurate caller identification information with the intent to trigger an emergency response. As of March 2019, it has been referred to the Subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security.


title: Optical disc

text: In computing and optical disc recording technologies, an optical disc (OD) is a flat, usually circular disc that encodes binary data (bits) in the form of pits and lands on a special material, often aluminum, on one of its flat surfaces. Its main uses are physical offline data distribution and long-term archival. Changes from pit to land or from land to pit correspond to a binary value of codice_1; while no change, regardless of whether in a land or a pit area, corresponds to a binary value of codice_2.


title: Optical disc

text: The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate (usually polycarbonate) that makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and extending from the innermost track to the outermost track.


title: Optical disc

text: The data are stored on the disc with a laser or stamping machine, and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated with a laser diode in an optical disc drive that spins the disc at speeds of about 200 to 4,000 RPM or more, depending on the drive type, disc format, and the distance of the read head from the center of the disc (outer tracks are read at a higher data speed due to higher linear velocities at the same angular velocities).


title: Optical disc

text: Most optical discs exhibit a characteristic iridescence as a result of the diffraction grating formed by its grooves. This side of the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usually lacquer.


title: Optical disc

text: The reverse side of an optical disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper but often printed or stamped onto the disc itself. Unlike the 3-inch floppy disk, most optical discs do not have an integrated protective casing and are therefore susceptible to data transfer problems due to scratches, fingerprints, and other environmental problems. Blu-rays have a coating called durabis that mitigates these problems.


title: Optical disc

text: Optical discs are usually between 7.6 and 30 cm (3 to 12 in) in diameter, with 12 cm (4.75 in) being the most common size. The so-called "program area" that contains the data commonly starts 25 millimetres away from the center point. A typical disc is about 1.2 mm (0.05 in) thick, while the track pitch (distance from the center of one track to the center of the next) ranges from 1.6 μm (for CDs) to 320 nm (for Blu-ray discs).


title: Optical disc

text: An optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read-only (e.g.: CD and CD-ROM), recordable (write-once, e.g. CD-R), or re-recordable (rewritable, e.g. CD-RW). Write-once optical discs commonly have an organic dye (may also be a (Phthalocyanine) Azo dye, mainly used by Verbatim, or an oxonol dye, used by Fujifilm) recording layer between the substrate and the reflective layer. Rewritable discs typically contain an alloy recording layer composed of a phase change material, most often AgInSbTe, an alloy of silver, indium, antimony, and tellurium. Azo dyes were introduced in 1996 and phthalocyanine only began to see wide use in 2002. The type of dye and the material used on the reflective layer on an optical disc may be determined by shining a light through the disc, as different dye and material combinations have different colors.


title: Optical disc

text: Blu-ray Disc recordable discs do not usually use an organic dye recording layer, instead using an inorganic recording layer. Those that do are known as low-to-high (LTH) discs and can be made in existing CD and DVD production lines, but are of lower quality than traditional Blu-ray recordable discs.


title: Optical disc

text: Optical discs are often stored in special cases sometimes called jewel cases and are most commonly used for digital preservation, storing music (e.g. for use in a CD player), video (e.g. for use in a Blu-ray player), or data and programs for personal computers (PC), as well as offline hard copy data distribution due to lower per-unit prices than other types of media. The Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) promoted standardized optical storage formats.


title: Optical disc

text: Libraries and archives enact optical media preservation procedures to ensure continued usability in the computer's optical disc drive or corresponding disc player.


title: Optical disc

text: File operations of traditional mass storage devices such as flash drives, memory cards and hard drives can be simulated using a UDF live file system.


title: Optical disc

text: For computer data backup and physical data transfer, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs are gradually being replaced with faster, smaller solid-state devices, especially the USB flash drive. This trend is expected to continue as USB flash drives continue to increase in capacity and drop in price.


title: Optical disc

text: Additionally, music, movies, games, software and TV shows purchased, shared or streamed over the Internet has significantly reduced the number of audio CDs, video DVDs and Blu-ray discs sold annually. However, audio CDs and Blu-rays are still preferred and bought by some, as a way of supporting their favorite works while getting something tangible in return and also since audio CDs (alongside vinyl records and cassette tapes) contain uncompressed audio without the artifacts introduced by lossy compression algorithms like MP3, and Blu-rays offer better image and sound quality than streaming media, without visible compression artifacts, due to higher bitrates and more available storage space. However, Blu-rays may sometimes be torrented over the internet, but torrenting may not be an option for some, due to restrictions put in place by ISPs on legal or copyright grounds, low download speeds or not having enough available storage space, since the content may weigh up to several dozen gigabytes. Blu-rays may be the only option for those looking to play large games without having to download them over an unreliable or slow internet connection, which is the reason why they are still (as of 2020) widely used by gaming consoles, like the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One X. As of 2020, it is unusual for PC games to be available in a physical format like Blu-ray.


title: Optical disc

text: Discs should not have any stickers and should not be stored together with paper; papers must be removed from the jewel case before storage. Discs should be handled by the edges to prevent scratching, with the thumb on the inner edge of the disc. The ISO Standard 18938:2008 is about best optical disc handling techniques. Optical disc cleaning should never be done in a circular pattern, to avoid concentric cirles from forming on the disc. Improper cleaning can scratch the disc. Recordable discs should not be exposed to light for extended periods of time. Optical discs should be stored in dry and cool conditions to increase longevity, with temperatures between -10 and 23 °C, never exceeding 32 °C, and with humidity never falling below 10%, with recommended storage at 20 to 50% of humidity without fluctuations of more than ±10%.


title: Optical disc

text: Although optical discs are more durable than earlier audio-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily-use damage, if handled improperly.


title: Optical disc

text: Optical discs are not prone to uncontrollable catastrophic failures such as head crashes, power surges, or exposure to water like hard disk drives and flash storage, since optical drives' storage controllers are not tied to optical discs themselves like with hard disk drives and flash memory controllers, and a disc is usually recoverable from a defective optical drive by pushing an unsharp needle into the emergency ejection pinhole, and has no point of immediate water ingress and no integrated circuitry.


title: Optical disc

text: As the media itself only is accessed through a laser beam, no internal control circuitry, it can not contain malicious hardware such as so-called "rubber-duckies" or "USB killers".


title: Optical disc

text: Malware is unable to spread over factory-pressed media, finalized media, or "-ROM" (read-only memory) drive types whose lasers lack the strength to write data. Malware is conventionally programmed to detect and spread over traditional mass storage devices such as flash drives, external solid state drives and hard disk drives.


title: Optical disc

text: The first recorded historical use of an optical disc was in 1884 when Alexander Graham Bell, Chichester Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter recorded sound on a glass disc using a beam of light.


title: Optical disc

text: Optophonie is a very early (1931) example of a recording device using light for both recording and playing back sound signals on a transparent photograph.


title: Optical disc

text: An early analog optical disc used for video recording was invented by David Paul Gregg in 1958 and patented in the US in 1961 and 1969. This form of optical disc was a very early form of the DVD (). It is of special interest that , filed 1989, issued 1990, generated royalty income for Pioneer Corporation's DVA until 2007 —then encompassing the CD, DVD, and Blu-ray systems. In the early 1960s, the Music Corporation of America bought Gregg's patents and his company, Gauss Electrophysics.


title: Optical disc

text: American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record a digital signal on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russell's patent application was first filed in 1966 and he was granted a patent in 1970. Following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russell's patents (then held by a Canadian company, Optical Recording Corp.) in the 1980s.


title: Optical disc

text: Both Gregg's and Russell's disc are floppy media read in transparent mode, which imposes serious drawbacks. In the Netherlands in 1969, Philips Research physicist, Pieter Kramer invented an optical videodisc in reflective mode with a protective layer read by a focused laser beam , filed 1972, issued 1991. Kramer's physical format is used in all optical discs. In 1975, Philips and MCA began to work together, and in 1978, commercially much too late, they presented their long-awaited Laserdisc in Atlanta. MCA delivered the discs and Philips the players. However, the presentation was a commercial failure, and the cooperation ended.


title: Optical disc

text: In Japan and the U.S., Pioneer succeeded with the Laserdisc until the advent of the DVD. In 1979, Philips and Sony, in consortium, successfully developed the audio compact disc.


title: Optical disc

text: In 1979, Exxon STAR Systems in Pasadena, CA built a computer controlled WORM drive that utilized thin film coatings of Tellurium and Selenium on a 12" diameter glass disk. The recording system utilized blue light at 457 nm to record and red light at 632.8 nm to read. STAR Systems was bought by Storage Technology Corporation (STC) in 1981 and moved to Boulder, CO. Development of the WORM technology was continued using 14" diameter aluminum substrates. Beta testing of the disk drives, originally labeled the Laser Storage Drive 2000 (LSD-2000), was only moderately successful. Many of the disks were shipped to RCA Laboratories (now David Sarnoff Research Center) to be used in the Library of Congress archiving efforts. The STC disks utilized a sealed cartridge with an optical window for protection .


title: Optical disc

text: The CD-ROM format was developed by Sony and Philips, introduced in 1984, as an extension of Compact Disc Digital Audio and adapted to hold any form of digital data. The same year, Sony demonstrated a LaserDisc data storage format, with a larger data capacity of 3.28 GB.


title: Optical disc

text: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Optex, Inc. of Rockville, MD, built an erasable optical digital video disc system using Electron Trapping Optical Media (ETOM). Although this technology was written up in Video Pro Magazine's December 1994 issue promising "the death of the tape", it was never marketed.


title: Optical disc

text: In the mid-1990s, a consortium of manufacturers (Sony, Philips, Toshiba, Panasonic) developed the second generation of the optical disc, the DVD.


title: Optical disc

text: Magnetic disks found limited applications in storing the data in large amount. So, there was the need of finding some more data storing techniques. As a result, it was found that by using optical means large data storing devices can be made that in turn gave rise to the optical discs. The very first application of this kind was the Compact Disc (CD), which was used in audio systems.


title: Optical disc

text: Sony and Philips developed the first generation of the CDs in the mid-1980s with the complete specifications for these devices. With the help of this kind of technology the possibility of representing the analog signal into digital signal was exploited to a great level. For this purpose, the 16-bit samples of the analog signal were taken at the rate of 44,100 samples per second. This sample rate was based on the Nyquist rate of 40,000 samples per second required to capture the audible frequency range to 20 kHz without aliasing, with an additional tolerance to allow the use of less-than-perfect analog audio pre-filters to remove any higher frequencies. The first version of the standard allowed up to 75 minutes of music, which required 650MB of storage.


title: Optical disc

text: The third generation optical disc was developed in 2000–2006 and was introduced as Blu-ray Disc. First movies on Blu-ray Discs were released in June 2006. Blu-ray eventually prevailed in a high definition optical disc format war over a competing format, the HD DVD. A standard Blu-ray disc can hold about 25 GB of data, a DVD about 4.7 GB, and a CD about 700 MB.


title: Optical disc

text: From the start optical discs were used to store broadcast-quality analog video, and later digital media such as music or computer software. The LaserDisc format stored analog video signals for the distribution of home video, but commercially lost to the VHS videocassette format, due mainly to its high cost and non-re-recordability; other first-generation disc formats were designed only to store digital data and were not initially capable of use as a digital video medium.


title: Optical disc

text: Most first-generation disc devices had an infrared laser reading head. The minimum size of the laser spot is proportional to the wavelength of the laser, so wavelength is a limiting factor upon the amount of information that can be stored in a given physical area on the disc. The infrared range is beyond the long-wavelength end of the visible light spectrum, so it supports less density than shorter-wavelength visible light. One example of high-density data storage capacity, achieved with an infrared laser, is 700 MB of net user data for a 12 cm compact disc.


title: Optical disc

text: Other factors that affect data storage density include: the existence of multiple layers of data on the disc, the method of rotation (Constant linear velocity (CLV), Constant angular velocity (CAV), or zoned-CAV), the composition of lands and pits, and how much margin is unused is at the center and the edge of the disc.


title: Optical disc

text: Second-generation optical discs were for storing great amounts of data, including broadcast-quality digital video. Such discs usually are read with a visible-light laser (usually red); the shorter wavelength and greater numerical aperture allow a narrower light beam, permitting smaller pits and lands in the disc. In the DVD format, this allows 4.7 GB storage on a standard 12 cm, single-sided, single-layer disc; alternatively, smaller media, such as the DataPlay format, can have capacity comparable to that of the larger, standard compact 12 cm disc.


title: Optical disc

text: Third-generation optical discs are used for distributing high-definition video and videogames and support greater data storage capacities, accomplished with short-wavelength visible-light lasers and greater numerical apertures. Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD uses blue-violet lasers and focusing optics of greater aperture, for use with discs with smaller pits and lands, thereby greater data storage capacity per layer.


title: Optical disc

text: In practice, the effective multimedia presentation capacity is improved with enhanced video data compression codecs such as H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and VC-1.


title: Optical disc

text: The following formats go beyond the current third-generation discs and have the potential to hold more than one terabyte (1 TB) of data and at least some are meant for cold data storage in data centers:


title: Optical disc

text: In 2004, development of the Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD) commenced, which promised the storage of several terabytes of data per disc. However, development stagnated towards the late 2000s due to lack of funding.


title: Optical disc

text: In 2006, it was reported that Japanese researchers developed ultraviolet ray lasers with a wave length of 210 nanometers, which would enable a higher bit density than Blu-ray discs. As of 2022, no updates on that project have been reported.