title: History of Alaska

text: The Depression caused prices of fish and copper, which were vital to Alaska's economy at the time, to decline. Wages were dropped and the workforce decreased by more than half. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt thought Americans from agricultural areas could be transferred to Alaska's Matanuska-Susitna Valley for a fresh chance at agricultural self-sustainment. Colonists were largely from northern states, such as Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota under the belief that only those who grew up with climates similar to that of Alaska's could handle settler life there. The United Congo Improvement Association asked the president to settle 400 African American farmers in Alaska, saying that the territory would offer full political rights, but racial prejudice and the belief that only those from northern states would make suitable colonists caused the proposal to fail.


title: History of Alaska

text: The exploration and settlement of Alaska would not have been possible without the development of the aircraft, which allowed for the influx of settlers into the state's interior, and rapid transportation of people and supplies throughout. However, due to the unfavorable weather conditions of the state, and high ratio of pilots-to-population, over 1700 aircraft wreck sites are scattered throughout its domain. Numerous wrecks also trace their origins to the military build-up of the state during both World War II and the Cold War.


title: History of Alaska

text: During World War II, two of the outer Aleutian Islands—Attu and Kiska—were invaded and occupied by Japanese troops. They were the only parts of the continental United States to be invaded and occupied by an enemy nation during the war. Their recovery became a matter of national pride.


title: History of Alaska

text: On June 3, 1942, the Japanese launched an air attack on Dutch Harbor, a U.S. naval base on Unalaska Island, but were repelled by U.S. forces. A few days later, the Japanese landed on the islands of Kiska and Attu, where they overwhelmed Attu villagers. The villagers were taken to Japan, where they were interned for the remainder of the war. Aleuts from the Pribilofs and Aleutian villages were evacuated by the United States to Southeast Alaska. Many suffered during their two years internment there, and the federal government, charged with their care, provided inadequate health care, food, and shelter.


title: History of Alaska

text: Attu was regained in May 1943 after two weeks of intense fighting and 3,829 American casualties: 549 were killed, 1,148 were injured, 1,200 had severe cold injuries, 614 succumbed to disease, and 318 died of miscellaneous causes. The U.S. then turned its attention to the other occupied island, Kiska. From June through August, a multitude of bombs were dropped on the tiny island, though the Japanese ultimately escaped via transport ships. After the war, the Native Attuans who had survived their internment were resettled to Atka by the federal government, which considered their home villages too remote to defend.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1942, the Alaska–Canada Military Highway was completed, in part to form an overland supply route to the Soviet Union on the other side of the Bering Strait. Running from Great Falls, Montana, to Fairbanks, the road was the first stable link between Alaska and the rest of America. The construction of military bases, such as the Adak base, contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities. Anchorage almost doubled in size, from 4,200 people in 1940 to 8,000 in 1945.


title: History of Alaska

text: By the turn of the 20th century, a movement pushing for Alaska statehood began, but in the contiguous 48 states, legislators were worried that Alaska's population was too sparse, distant, and isolated, and its economy was too unstable for it to be a worthwhile addition to the United States. World War II and the Japanese invasion highlighted Alaska's strategic importance, and the issue of statehood was taken more seriously, but it was the discovery of oil at Swanson River on the Kenai Peninsula that dispelled the image of Alaska as a weak, dependent region. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act into United States law on July 4, 1958, which paved the way for Alaska's admission into the Union on January 3, 1959. Juneau, the territorial capital, continued as state capital, and William A. Egan was sworn in as the first governor.


title: History of Alaska

text: Alaska does not have counties, unlike every other American state except Louisiana. (Louisiana has parishes). Instead, it is divided into 16 boroughs and one "unorganized borough" made up of all land not within any borough. Boroughs have organized area-wide governments, but within the unorganized borough, where there is no such government, services are provided by the state. The unorganized borough is divided into artificially-created census areas by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes only.


title: History of Alaska

text: Pioneering conditions in Alaska awoke ingenuity leading to invention of the Alaskan sawmill, an attachment to a chainsaw letting it be used to cut a felled tree into neat parallel-sided planks or boards.


title: History of Alaska

text: On March 27, 1964 the Good Friday earthquake struck South-central Alaska, churning the earth for four minutes with a magnitude of 9.2. The earthquake was one of the most powerful ever recorded and killed 139 people. Most of them were drowned by the tsunamis that tore apart the towns of Valdez and Chenega. Throughout the Prince William Sound region, towns and ports were destroyed and land was uplifted or shoved downward. The uplift destroyed salmon streams, as the fish could no longer jump the various newly created barriers to reach their spawning grounds. Ports at Valdez and Cordova were beyond repair, and the fires destroyed what the mudslides had not. At Valdez, an Alaska Steamship Company ship was lifted by a huge wave over the docks and out to sea, but most hands survived. At Turnagain Arm, off Cook Inlet, the incoming water destroyed trees and caused cabins to sink into the mud. On Kodiak, a tsunami wiped out the villages of Afognak, Old Harbor, and Kaguyak and damaged other communities, while Seward lost its harbor. Despite the extent of the catastrophe, Alaskans rebuilt many of the communities.


title: History of Alaska

text: "North to the Future" is the official state motto of Alaska, adopted in 1967 for the centennial of the Alaska Purchase. As one of the events leading up to the celebration, the Alaska Centennial Commission sponsored a contest in 1963 to come up with a centennial motto and emblem that would express the unique character of the State of Alaska. They offered a $300.00 (which is about $2000 in 2010 dollars) prize to the winning entry. 761 entries were received by the Commission. In December 1963, the commission announced that they had selected Juneau journalist Richard Peter's suggestion. He stated that the motto "...is a reminder that beyond the horizon of urban clutter there is a Great Land beneath our flag that can provide a new tomorrow for this century's 'huddled masses yearning to be free'." The motto represents a visionary optimism for a state filled with promise; promoting the State of Alaska by advising that the future lies with the next-to-the-last United States star located to the north of the Lower 48.


title: History of Alaska

text: The 1968 discovery of oil on the North Slope's Prudhoe Bay—which would turn out to have the most recoverable oil of any field in the United States—would change Alaska's political landscape for decades.


title: History of Alaska

text: This discovery catapulted the issue of Native land ownership into the headlines. In the mid-1960s, Alaska Natives from many tribal groups had united in an effort to gain title to lands wrested from them by Europeans, but the government had responded slowly before the Prudhoe Bay discovery. The government finally took action when permitting for a pipeline crossing the state, necessary to get Alaskan oil to market, was stalled pending the settlement of Native land claims.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1971, with major petroleum dollars on the line, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by Richard Nixon. Under the Act, Natives relinquished aboriginal claims to their lands in exchange for access to 44 million acres (180,000 km²) of land and payment of $963 million. The settlement was divided among regional, urban, and village corporations, which managed their funds with varying degrees of success.


title: History of Alaska

text: Though a pipeline from the North Slope to the nearest ice-free port, almost 800 miles (1,300 km) to the south, was the only way to get Alaska's oil to market, significant engineering challenges lay ahead. Between the North Slope and Valdez, there were active fault lines, three mountain ranges, miles of unstable, boggy ground underlain with frost, and migration paths of caribou and moose. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline was ultimately completed in 1977 at a total cost of $8 billion.


title: History of Alaska

text: The pipeline allowed an oil bonanza to take shape. Per capita incomes rose throughout the state, with virtually every community benefiting. State leaders were determined that this boom would not end like the fur and gold booms, in an economic bust as soon as the resource had disappeared. In 1976, the state's constitution was amended to establish the Alaska Permanent Fund, in which a quarter of all mineral lease proceeds is invested. Income from the fund is used to pay annual dividends to all residents who qualify, to increase the fund's principal as a hedge against inflation, and to provide funds for the state legislature. Since 1993, the fund has produced more money than the Prudhoe Bay oil fields, whose production is diminishing. , the fund's value was over $30 billion.


title: History of Alaska

text: Oil production was not the only economic value of Alaska's land, however. In the second half of the 20th century, Alaska discovered tourism as an important source of revenue. Tourism became popular after World War II, when military personnel stationed in the region returned home praising its natural splendor. The Alcan Highway, built during the war, and the Alaska Marine Highway System, completed in 1963, made the state more accessible than before. Tourism became increasingly important in Alaska, and today over 1.4 million people visit the state each year.


title: History of Alaska

text: With tourism more vital to the economy, environmentalism also rose in importance. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) of 1980 added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km²) to the National Wildlife Refuge system, parts of 25 rivers to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system, 3.3 million acres (13,000 km²) to National Forest lands, and 43.6 million acres (176,000 km²) to National Park land. Because of the Act, Alaska now contains two-thirds of all American national parklands. Today, more than half of Alaskan land is owned by the Federal Government.


title: History of Alaska

text: The possible environmental repercussions of oil production became clear in the "Exxon Valdez" oil spill of 1989. On March 24, the tanker "Exxon Valdez" ran aground in Prince William Sound, releasing 11 million gallons of crude oil into the water, spreading along 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of shoreline. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, at least 300,000 sea birds, 2,000 otters, and other marine animals died because of the spill. Exxon spent US$2 billion on cleaning up in the first year alone. Exxon, working with state and federal agencies, continued its cleanup into the early 1990s. Government studies show that the oil and the cleaning process itself did long-term harm to the ecology of the Sound, interfering with the reproduction of birds and animals in ways that still aren't fully understood. Prince William Sound seems to have recuperated, but scientists still dispute the extent of the recovery. In a civil settlement, Exxon agreed to pay $900 million in ten annual payments, plus an additional $100 million for newly discovered damages. In a class action suit against Exxon, a jury awarded punitive damages of US$5 billion, but as of 2008 no money has been disbursed and appellate litigation continues.


title: History of Alaska

text: Today, the tension between preservation and development is seen in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) drilling controversy. The question of whether to allow drilling for oil in ANWR has been a political football for every sitting American president since Jimmy Carter. Studies performed by the US Geological Survey have shown that the "1002 area" of ANWR, located just east of Prudhoe Bay, contains large deposits of crude oil. Traditionally, Alaskan residents, trade unions, and business interests have supported drilling in the refuge, while environmental groups and many within the Democratic Party have traditionally opposed it. Among native Alaskan tribes, support is mixed. In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, votes about the status of the refuge occurred repeatedly in the U.S. House and Senate, but as of 2007 efforts to allow drilling have always been ultimately thwarted by filibusters, amendments, or vetoes.


title: History of Alaska

text: On March 11, Governor Mike Dunleavy's office declared a state of emergency to ensure all entities have the necessary response resources. The next day, the first case, a foreign national in Anchorage, was announced to the public.


title: History of Alaska

text: On March 21, 2020, Ketchikan, a small, coastal town of approximately 8,000 residents located in Southeast Alaska was determined to have a cluster of six COVID-19 cases. The town sheltered in place for the following 14 days. On March 24, 2020, three more cases of COVID-19 were found in Ketchikan, bringing the total there to nine. The next day, the total cases there reached 11. On April 1, 2020, the number of positive cases of COVID-19 in Ketchikan rose to 14.


title: Suresh Chandra Menon

text: Suresh Chandra Menon is an Indian actor, cinematographer and film director of Tamil and Malayalam films.


title: Suresh Chandra Menon

text: After meeting the popular actress Revathi during a film shoot of Marumagal Tamil movie (1986), they fell in love and were married in 1986 with the blessings of their parents. They did not have any children. Though they looked like an ideal couple, differences arose between the two and they decided to amicably separate in 2002. Revathi and Suresh Menon then filed separate petitions, seeking mutual split, before the court. On 22 April 2013 a family court in Chennai granted them mutual divorce considering the fact that they had been living separately for the past 10 years. Revathi said in an interview that they would remain good friends even after the divorce.


title: Suresh Chandra Menon

text: Suresh is known for directing many documentaries and advertisements. Having started his career as cinematographer for the films produced by Sujatha Cine Arts, he directed, produced and played the lead role in the Tamil film "Pudhiya Mugam" which was released in 1993. His then wife Revathi was the lead heroine in the film. It was both a critical and commercial success. He went on to direct another film "Paasamalargal" (1994) which was released in 1994. This film also featured Revathi in the lead along with Arvind Swami. Ajith Kumar who later become a popular actor in Tamil cinema played a minor supporting role in the film.


title: Sanremo

text: Sanremo (; or , ) or San Remo is a city and comune on the Mediterranean coast of Liguria, in northwestern Italy. Founded in Roman times, it has a population of 55,000, and is known as a tourist destination on the Italian Riviera. It hosts numerous cultural events, such as the Sanremo Music Festival and the Milan–San Remo cycling classic.


title: Sanremo

text: The name of the city is a phonetic contraction of "Sant'Eremo di San Romolo", which refers to Romulus of Genoa, the successor to Syrus of Genoa. It is often stated in modern folk stories that Sanremo is a translation of Saint Remus. In Ligurian, his name is "San Rœmu". The spelling "San Remo" is on all ancient maps of Liguria, the ancient Republic of Genoa, Italy in the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Italy. It was used in 1924 in official documents under Mussolini. This form of the name appears still on some road signs and, more rarely, in unofficial tourist information. It has been the most widely used form of the name in English at least since the 19th century.


title: Sanremo

text: Once the Roman settlement of "Matutia" or "Villa Matutiana", Sanremo expanded in the early Middle Ages when the population moved to the high grounds. The nobility built a castle and the walled village of La Pigna to protect the town from Saracen raids.


title: Sanremo

text: At first subjected to the countship of Ventimiglia, the community later passed under the dominion of the Genoese bishops. In 1297 they sold it to the Doria and De Mari families. It became a free town in the second half of the 15th century, after which it expanded to the Pigna hill and at Saint Syrus Cathedral. The almost perfectly preserved old village remains.


title: Sanremo

text: Sanremo remained independent of the Genoese Republic. In 1753, after 20 years of fierce conflicts, it rose against Genoese hegemonical attempts. At that time Genoa built the fortress of Santa Tecla, situated on the beach near the port. The fortress was used as a prison until 2002. It is now used as a museum.


title: Sanremo

text: After the French domination and the Savoy restoration in 1814, Sanremo was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. From the middle of the 18th century the town grew rapidly, in part due to the development of tourism, which saw the first grand hotels built and the town extended along the coast. The Empress "Sissi" of Austria, Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, and Emperor Nicholas II of Russia vacationed in Sanremo, while Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel made it his permanent home.


title: Sanremo

text: The San Remo conference, 19–26 April 1920, of the post-World War I Allied Supreme Council determined the allocation of Class "A" League of Nations mandates for administration of the former Ottoman-ruled lands of the Middle East by the victorious powers. The most notable of these was the British Mandate of Palestine.


title: Sanremo

text: In 1972, the first public demonstration for the defense of the dignity and rights of gay people in Italy took place in Sanremo in protest against an international congress on sexual deviance organized by the catholic-inspired Italian Center for Sexology.


title: Sanremo

text: Sanremo's Mediterranean climate and attractive seacoast setting on the Italian Riviera make it a popular tourist destination. Besides tourism, the city is active in the production of extra virgin-grade olive oil, whose regional "designation of origin" is protected (D.O.P., "Denominazione di Origine Protetta"). It is one of the agricultural commodities in western Liguria and in particular within the province of Imperia. Sanremo is known as the City of Flowers ("la Città dei Fiori"), this being another important aspect of the economy of the city. The nearby towns of Arma di Taggia, Bordighera and Ospedaletti are also involved in the cultivation of flowers for the international flower market of Sanremo.


title: Sanremo

text: The Municipal Casino, built in 1905, is an example of Art Nouveau building. The Ariston Theatre offers annual series of concerts, operas and theatre plays. The Symphony Orchestra is one of twelve symphony orchestras recognized by the state of Italy; it performs some 120 concerts throughout the year, most in the Municipal Casino's Opera Theatre.


title: Sanremo

text: The city is connected to Genoa and to Ventimiglia, the border city with France, by the A10 motorway, whose last part is also known as the "Autostrada dei Fiori" ("Motorway of Flowers"). It has a large number of elevated sections with viaducts that give a panoramic view of the coast. The A10 joins the French A8 highway at the border between Ventimiglia and Menton. Together these national routes are part of the European route E80. The A10 motorway is a toll road, and the A8 demands a toll in sections, and some sections are free of charge. When travelling from Italy into France, one does not pay until after the towns of Menton and Monaco.


title: Sanremo

text: Other roads of importance are the SS1, the "Aurelia Bis", which connects Sanremo to Taggia. This is a non-toll bypass route. The coast road is the via Aurelia or SS1 and follows the route of a Roman road. This can be heavily congested when it passes through towns, as it has only one lane in either direction for most of way around Sanremo. A trolleybus line along the via Aurelia links Sanremo with both Taggia and Ventimiglia.


title: Sanremo

text: The closest airport to Sanremo is in France, the Côte d'Azur International Airport in Nice, 45 minutes away by car. The railway connects the city to the other Ligurian cities like Imperia, Genoa and to Nice, Milan, Turin and Rome.


title: Sanremo

text: The railway line used to be along the coast, running close to the sea, and providing a view for travellers. The line has been moved further north and underground, which allows for faster trains; Sanremo railway station was relocated next to the City Hall. The city has refurbished the old railway line and converted it into a bike route and pedestrian area. There are several bike hire kiosks along the route and a choice of beaches to visit in either direction from San Remo. The path stretches between Ospedaletti in the west and San Lorenzo al Mare in the east.


title: Sanremo

text: The Ariston Theatre hosts the celebrated annual Sanremo Music Festival, which has been held in the city since 1951. This festival inspired the Eurovision Song Contest, which started in 1956, and has often been used to select the Italian entry for the European contest. The internationally notable song "Nel blu, dipinto di blu", popularly known as "Volare", was performed at this festival for the first time by Domenico Modugno in 1958. The festival is so popular among Italians that it is often referred to simply as "Il Festival" ("The" Festival). Other events include the Tenco Prize (autumn), a song contest for authors dedicated to the memory of Luigi Tenco; the Flowers Parade in January/February in which every city of the Italian Riviera presents an original composition of flowers displayed on a Carnival/Mardi-Gras style moving car; and the summer Firework International Contest in the second week of August also called Ferragosto.


title: Sanremo

text: The culinary specialities of Sanremo and environs include Sardenara, Focaccia, Focaccia alle Cipolle, Torta Verde, Farinata and Taggiasca olives.


title: Sanremo

text: The Sanremo Casino ("Casino Municipale di Sanremo") opened in 1905 and has operated continuously since then with the exception of the years of World War II. For much of its history, the casino was tolerated or granted exceptions to Italian gambling laws in order to allow the resort to compete with the casino towns in nearby France and Monaco.


title: Sanremo

text: Sanremo hosts an annual poker tournament as part of the European Poker Tour. The city is widely accepted as the origin of the five-card stud variant "telesina".


title: Sanremo

text: The Rallye Sanremo is a rally competition that was part of the FIA World Rally Championship from 1973 to 2003, when it was replaced by Rally d'Italia Sardegna on the island of Sardinia, in hosting the Italian round of the WRC. It is now part of European Rally Championship. Formerly a mixed surface event (tarmac and gravel), the rally has later been an all-tarmac event and takes place around the mountains.


title: Sanremo

text: Sanremo is the finish of the classic Milan–San Remo cycle race. It is considered to be a "monument" - one of the five most important one-day races of the cycling season. Milan – San Remo is traditionally held in March and is one of the first major fixtures on the cycling season. At long, it is the longest professional one-day race in cycling, giving the race a unique character.


title: Sanremo

text: The most important local football club is the Sanremese that has played also in Serie B and in Serie C.


title: Hydrosphere

text: The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to change in shape. This is caused by seafloor spreading and continental drift, which rearranges the land and ocean.


title: Hydrosphere

text: It has been estimated that there are 1.386 billion cubic kilometres (333 million cubic miles) of water on Earth. This includes water in gaseous, liquid and frozen forms as soil moisture, groundwater and permafrost in the Earth's crust (to a depth of 2 km); oceans and seas, lakes, rivers and streams, wetlands, glaciers, ice and snow cover on Earth's surface; vapour, droplets and crystals in the air; and part of living plants, animals and unicellular organisms of the biosphere. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount, whereas fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic and mountain glaciers; 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater; and only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.


title: Hydrosphere

text: The total mass of Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 10 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total mass. At any given time, about 2 × 10 tonnes of this is in the form of water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs 1 tonne). Approximately 71% of Earth's surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometres (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).


title: Hydrosphere

text: According to Merriam Webster, the word hydrosphere was brought into English in 1887, translating the German term "hydrosphäre", introduced by Eduard Suess.


title: Hydrosphere

text: The water cycle refers to the transfer of water from one state or reservoir to another. Reservoirs include atmospheric moisture (snow, rain and clouds), streams, oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, subterranean aquifers, polar ice caps and saturated soil. Solar energy, in the form of heat and light (insolation), and gravity cause the transfer from one state to another over periods from hours to thousands of years. Most evaporation comes from the oceans and is returned to the earth as snow or rain.Sublimation refers to evaporation from snow and ice. Transpiration refers to the expiration of water through the minute pores or stomata of trees. Evapotranspiration is the term used by hydrologists in reference to the three processes together, transpiration, sublimation and evaporation.


title: Hydrosphere

text: Marq de Villiers has described the hydrosphere as a closed system in which water exists. The hydrosphere is intricate, complex, interdependent, all-pervading, stable, and "seems purpose-built for regulating life." De Villiers claimed that, "On earth, the total amount of water has almost certainly not changed since geological times: what we had then we still have. Water can be polluted, abused, and misused but it is neither created nor destroyed, it only migrates. There is no evidence that water vapor escapes into space."Every year the turnover of water on Earth involves 577,000 km of water. This is water that evaporates from the oceanic surface (502,800 km) and from land (74,200 km). The same amount of water falls as atmospheric precipitation, 458,000 km on the ocean and 119,000 km on land. The difference between precipitation and evaporation from the land surface (119,000 − 74,200 = 44,800 km/year) represents the total runoff of the Earth's rivers (42,700 km/year) and direct groundwater runoff to the ocean (2100 km/year). These are the principal sources of fresh water to support life necessities and man's economic activities.Water is a basic necessity of life. Since two thirds of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. The hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became its present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved into the rain water. In turn, this further caused water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when cyanobacteria evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, Earth's atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of other planets and allowed for life to evolve on Earth.


title: Hydrosphere

text: Human activity has had an impact on the water cycle. Infrastructure, like dams, have a clear, direct impact on the water cycle by blocking and redirecting water pathways. Human caused pollution has change the biogeochemical cycles of some water systems, and climate change has significantly altered weather patterns. Water withdrawals have exponentially increased because of agriculture, state and domestic use, and infrastructure.


title: Hydrosphere

text: According to Igor A. Shiklomanov, it takes 2500 years for the complete recharge and replenishment of oceanic waters, 10,000 years for permafrost and ice, 1500 years for deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers, 17 years in lakes, and 16 days in rivers.


title: Hydrosphere

text: "Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water." Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998, 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m³ per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies," and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. Only 2.5% of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh water and only 0.25% of that water is accessible for our use.


title: Hydrosphere

text: The activities of modern humans have drastic effects on the hydrosphere. For instance, water diversion, human development, and pollution all affect the hydrosphere and natural processes within. Humans are withdrawing water from aquifers and diverting rivers at an unprecedented rate. The Ogallala Aquifer is used for agriculture in the United States; if the aquifer goes dry, more than $20 billion worth of food and fiber will vanish from the world's markets. The aquifer is being depleted so much faster than it is replenished that, eventually, the aquifer will run dry. Additionally, only one third of rivers are free-flowing due to the extensive use of dams, levees, hydropower, and habitat degradation. Excessive water use has also caused intermittent streams to become more dry, which is dangerous because they are extremely important for water purification and habitat. Other ways humans impact the hydrosphere include eutrophication, acid rain, and ocean acidification. Humans also rely on the health of the hydrosphere. It is used for water supply, navigation, fishing, agriculture, energy, and recreation.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde (CHCHO) is an organic compound consisting of a benzene ring with a formyl substituent. It is the simplest aromatic aldehyde and one of the most industrially useful.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-like odor. The primary component of bitter almond oil, benzaldehyde can be extracted from a number of other natural sources. Synthetic benzaldehyde is the flavoring agent in imitation almond extract, which is used to flavor cakes and other baked goods.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde was first extracted in 1803 by the French pharmacist Martrès. His experiments focused on elucidating the nature of amygdalin, the poisonous material found in bitter almonds, the fruit of "Prunus dulcis". Further work on the oil by Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, two French chemists, produced benzaldehyde. In 1832, Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig first synthesized benzaldehyde.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: As of 1999, 7000 tonnes of synthetic and 100 tonnes of natural benzaldehyde were produced annually. Liquid phase chlorination and oxidation of toluene are the main routes. Numerous other methods have been developed, such as the partial oxidation of benzyl alcohol, alkali hydrolysis of benzal chloride, and the carbonylation of benzene.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: A significant quantity of natural benzaldehyde is produced from cinnamaldehyde obtained from cassia oil by the retro-aldol reaction: the cinnamaldehyde is heated in an aqueous/alcoholic solution between 90 °C and 150 °C with a base (most commonly sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) for 5 to 80 hours, followed by distillation of the formed benzaldehyde. This reaction also yields acetaldehyde. The natural status of benzaldehyde obtained in this way is controversial.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: "Site-specific nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy", which evaluates H/H isotope ratios, has been used to differentiate between naturally occurring and synthetic benzaldehyde.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde and similar chemicals occur naturally in many foods. Most of the benzaldehyde that people eat is from natural plant foods, such as almonds.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Almonds, apricots, apples, and cherry kernels contain significant amounts of amygdalin. This glycoside breaks up under enzyme catalysis into benzaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide and two equivalents of glucose.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde can be oxidized to benzoic acid; in fact "[B]enzaldehyde readily undergoes autoxidation to form benzoic acid on exposure to air at room temperature" causing a common impurity in laboratory samples. Since the boiling point of benzoic acid is much higher than that of benzaldehyde, it may be purified by distillation. Benzyl alcohol can be formed from benzaldehyde by means of hydrogenation. Reaction of benzaldehyde with anhydrous sodium acetate and acetic anhydride yields cinnamic acid, while alcoholic potassium cyanide can be used to catalyze the condensation of benzaldehyde to benzoin. Benzaldehyde undergoes disproportionation upon treatment with concentrated alkali (Cannizzaro reaction): one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to the benzyl alcohol and another molecule is simultaneously oxidized to benzoic acid.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde is commonly employed to confer almond flavor to foods and scented products, including e-cigarette liquids. It is sometimes used in cosmetics products.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: In industrial settings, benzaldehyde is used chiefly as a precursor to other organic compounds, ranging from pharmaceuticals to plastic additives. The aniline dye malachite green is prepared from benzaldehyde and dimethylaniline. Benzaldehyde is also a precursor to certain acridine dyes. Via aldol condensations, benzaldehyde is converted into derivatives of cinnamaldehyde and styrene. The synthesis of mandelic acid starts with the addition of hydrocyanic acid to benzaldehyde:


title: Benzaldehyde

text: The resulting cyanohydrin is hydrolysed to mandelic acid. (The scheme above depicts only one of the two formed enantiomers).


title: Benzaldehyde

text: Benzaldehyde is used as a bee repellent. A small amount of benzaldehyde solution is placed on a Fume Board near the honeycombs. The bees then move away from the honey combs to avoid the fumes. The beekeeper can then remove the honey frames from the bee hive with less risk to both bees and beekeeper. It is also sometimes used as an electronic cigarette flavorant.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: As used in food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soap, benzaldehyde is "generally regarded as safe" (GRAS) by the US FDA and FEMA. This status was reaffirmed after a review in 2005. It is accepted in the European Union as a flavoring agent. Toxicology studies indicate that it is safe and non-carcinogenic in the concentrations used for foods and cosmetics, and may even have anti-carcinogenic (anti-cancer) properties.


title: Benzaldehyde

text: For a 70 kg human, the lethal dose is estimated at 50 mL. An acceptable daily intake of 15 mg/day has been identified for benzaldehyde by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Benzaldehyde does not accumulate in human tissues. It is metabolized and then excreted in urine.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sundarbans National Park is a national park, tiger reserve and biosphere reserve in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta and adjacent to the Sundarban Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. It is located to south-west of the Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by mangrove forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger. It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile. The present Sundarban National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarban Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a national park. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed in 1987, and it has been designated as a Ramsar site since 2019. It is considered as a World Network of Biosphere Reserve (Man and Biosphere Reserve) from 1989.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The first forest management division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of the forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A forest division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in Khulna, Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–1898.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: In 1911, it was described as a tract of unexamined waste country and was excluded from the census. It then stretched for about from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna river and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the 24 parganas, Khulna and Bakerganj. The total area (including water) was estimated at . It was a water-logged jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at reclamation had not been very successful. The Sundarbans was everywhere intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water communication throughout the Bengal region both for steamers and for native ships. The maximum part of the delta is located in Bangladesh.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of the Sundarbans. The Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal, is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a deputy field director and an assistant field director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The park receives financial aid from the state government as well as the Ministry of Environment and Forests under various plan and non-plan budgets. Additional funding is received under the Project Tiger from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the World Heritage Fund.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sundarban National Park is located between 21° 432′ – 21° 55′ N latitude and between 88° 42′ – 89° 04′ E longitude. The average altitude of the park is 7.5 m above sea level. The park is composed of 54 small islands and intersected by several distributaries of the Ganges river.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The average minimum and maximum temperature is 20 °C and 48 °C respectively. Rainfall is heavy with humidity as high as 80% as it is close to the Bay of Bengal. The monsoon lasts from mid-June to mid-September. Prevailing wind is from the north and north-east from October to mid-March and southwest westerlies prevails from mid-March to September. Storms which sometimes develop into cyclones are common during the months of May to October.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Seven main rivers and innumerable watercourses form a network of channels at this estuarine delta. All the rivers have a southward course towards the sea. The eco-geography of this area is totally dependent on the tidal effect of two flow tides and two ebb tides occurring within 24 hours with a tidal range of 3–5 m and up to 8 m in normal spring tide, inundating the whole of Sundarban in varying depths. The tidal action deposits silts back on the channels and raising the bed, it forms new islands and creeks contributing to uncertain geomorphology. There is a great natural depression called the "Swatch of No Ground" in the Bay of Bengal between 21°00' to 21°22' latitude where the depth of water changes suddenly from 20 m to 500 m. This mysterious depression pushes back the silts towards south and/or further east to form new islands.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sunderban mudflats are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The interior parts of the mudflats are the right environment for mangroves.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: There are a number of mudflats outside the Sundarbans National Park is a mudflat that have the potential to be tourist spots in the Sundarbans. One can visit them and enjoy the beauty of the place during low tide. If one is lucky, one can see sea anemones, horseshoe crab (Nearing extinction)and small octopus.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The coastal active delta of Sundarban at the mouth of Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh, having a complex geomorphologic and hydrological character with climatic hazards, has a vast area of mangrove forests with a variety of flora and diverse fauna in a unique ecosystem. The natural environment and coastal ecosystem of this Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site is under threat of physical disaster due to unscientific and excessive human interferences. Conservation and environmental management plan for safeguarding this unique coastal ecology and ecosystem is urgently required.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Sundarban has achieved its name from the Sundari tree. It is the most exquisite variety of tree that are found in this area, a special kind of mangrove tree. It has specialised roots called pneumatophores which emerge above ground and help in gaseous exchange i.e. respiration. During the rainy season when the entire forest is waterlogged, the spikes rising from the ground has their peak in the air and helps in the respiration process.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sundarbans forest is home to more than 400 tigers. Density of Tigers is 12 per 100 Sq. Meter area, which is 2nd highest after Jim Corbett National park in India. The royal Bengal tigers have developed a unique characteristic of swimming in the saline waters, and are famous for their man-eating tendencies. Tigers can be seen on the river banks sunbathing between November and February. Yearly 100-200 people, mainly fishermen get killed by Tigers in Sunderbans. Apart from the Bengal tiger, fishing cats, leopard cats, macaques, wild boar, Indian grey mongoose, fox, jungle cat, flying fox, chital, etc are also found in abundance in the Sundarbans.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Some of the birds commonly found in this region are openbill storks, black-capped kingfishers, black-headed ibis, water hens, coots, pheasant-tailed jacanas, pariah kites, brahminy kite, marsh harriers, swamp partridges, red junglefowl, spotted doves, common mynahs, jungle crows, jungle babblers, cotton teals, herring gulls, Caspian terns, gray herons, common snipes, wood sandpipers, green pigeons, rose ringed parakeets, paradise-flycatchers, cormorants, grey-headed fish eagles, white-bellied sea eagles, seagulls, common kingfishers, peregrine falcons, woodpeckers, Eurasian whimbrels, black-tailed godwits, little stints, eastern knots, curlews, golden plovers, northern pintails, white-eyed pochards and whistling teals.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Some of the aquatic animals found in the park are sawfish, butter fish, electric rays, silver carp, starfish, common carp, horseshoe crabs, prawn, shrimps, Gangetic dolphins, skipping frogs, common toads and tree frogs.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sundarbans National Park houses a large number of reptiles as well, including gharials, estuarine crocodiles, chameleons, monitor lizards, turtles, including olive ridley, hawksbill, and green turtles, and snakes, including python, king cobra, rat snake, Russell's viper, dog faced water snake, checkered keelback, red tailed bamboo pit viper, Taipan, Chinese Green viper(Trimeresurus stejnegeri), common krait, etc. Yearly 100-200 people are killed due to snake bites in Sunderbans.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The endangered species that lives within the Sundarbans are royal Bengal tiger, saltwater crocodile, river terrapin, olive ridley turtle, Ganges river dolphin, hawksbill turtle and mangrove horseshoe crab.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The proposed "Sundarbans Cetacean Diversity Protected Area", includes the coastal waters off Sundarbans that host critical habitats for endangered cetaceans; resident groups of Bryde's whales, a newly rediscovered critical population of Irrawaddy dolphins, Spinner dolphins, Ganges river dolphins, and Chinese white dolphins. Indo-Pacific finless porpoises, Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, and Pantropical spotted dolphins are also regularly found in this area, while Minke whales and Rough-toothed dolphins and False killer whales are rarer.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Bengal tiger is the commonly found species in the park. Having protection since its creation, the core area is free from all human disturbances such as collection of wood, honey, fishing, and other forest products. However, in the buffer area, these activities are permitted in limited form. The forest staff, using motorboats and launches, protect the park from illegal poaching and theft. Forest offices and camps are located at several important parts of the park. Under the supervision of a range officer, two or three experienced workers manage anti-poaching camps.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Habitat of wildlife is maintained through eco-conservation, eco-development, training, education and research. Ten Forest Protection Committees and 14 Eco-development Committees have been formed in the fringe of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve to help in this regard. Seminars, workshops and awareness camps are organised in the vicinity of park to educate the people on eco-conservation, eco-development, and such other issues. Mangrove and other plants are planted in the fringe area to meet the local need of fuel wood for about 1000 villages and to conserve the buffer area. Conservation of soil is done to maintain the ecological balance. Several sweet water ponds have been dug up inside the park to provide drinking water for the wild animals.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Controlling man-eating tigers is another major activity. The number of casualties has been reduced from 40 to 10 per year. The reduction in number of casualties is a result of strict control over the movement of the people inside the tiger reserve, alternative income generation and awareness building among people. It is also believed that due to use of human masks and electric human dummies the tigers will stay away from the people. Straying of tigers into nearby villages is prevented through measures such as nylon net fencing and solar illumination of villages. The youths of the villages are given training in controlling the straying of tigers into the villages.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Mangrove Interpretation Centre is established at Sajnekhali to make the local people and tourists aware of the importance of conservation of nature in general and specially the mangrove ecosystems.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Though protection exists in the park, there are a few loopholes. The geographical topography with hostile terrain cris-crossed by several rivers and their tributaries, long international border with Bangladesh, fishing trawlers and launches enables poaching and the cutting of wood, affecting the mangrove forests. Lack of staff, infrastructure and lack of funds exacerbate the situation.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The only means of travelling the park is by boat, down the various lanes formed by the many flowing rivers. Local boats or vessels operated by the West Bengal Tourism Development Corporation, namely "M.V. Chitrarekha" and "M.V. Sarbajaya". Accommodation on land and cruise safaris are provided by "Sunderban Tiger Camp", the only government-approved resort in the region. They conduct fixed departures and private tours from Kolkata throughout the year.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Apart from viewing the wildlife from boat safaris, visitors also visit the Sudhanyakali Watch Tower, Dobanki Watch Tower, Burirdabri Watch Tower, Netidhopani Watch Tower, Sajnekhali Bird Sanctuary, Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project (a crocodile breeding farm), Sagar Island, Jambudweep, Haliday Island, and Kanak.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sunderban Tiger Reserve is located in the South 24 Parganas district of the Indian state of West Bengal, and has a total geographical area of 2585 km, with 1437.4 km consisting of populated areas and forest covering the remaining 1474 km. The Sunderban landscape is contiguous with the mangrove habitat in Bangladesh.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Sunderban mangroves form part of the largest mangrove system of the Indian subcontinent with a tiger population in a distinct ecological setting. These forests have saltwater crocodiles, estuarine and marine turtles, and a number of bird species. The reserve also contains species of the fishing cat, spotted deer, rhesus monkey, and wild pig.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sunderban is isolated with no forest connection to other tiger-occupied mainlands. Due to this, there is heavy biotic pressure for forest resources. On average, 50 metric tonnes of honey and 3 metric tonnes of wax are collected each year by locals under licence from the Indian Forest Service. The habitat is traversed by many narrow tidal channels forming small to large islands. Tigers readily cross these islands and human-tiger interactions are common.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The estimation of tiger population in Sunderban, as a part of the all India tiger estimation using the refined methodology, could not be carried out owing to the unique habitat and obliteration of evidences due to high and low tides. Phase-I data collection has been completed and process is on for tiger estimation using a combination of radio telemetry and pugmark deposition rate from known tigers.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Cyclone Aila struck Sunderban on 25 May 2009, causing damage to field camps and fringe villages bordering the reserve. Breaches in the embankments on the village side have caused large scale flooding, leaving lakhs of people marooned in the area. The field camps were under 12 to 15 feet of water for around seven hours, resulting in soil erosion and damage to staff quarters, generators and bamboo pilling. There was a report of a tiger wandering inside an abandoned cattle shed in a village, which was captured and released back in the wild. No tiger death has been reported, apart from the mortality of two spotted deer. Several NGOs have been involved in the relief operation.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Forest Department of the State has constituted a Committee and has assessed damage of almost Rs. 11150,000. Central assistance amounting to Rs. 10 million under Project Tiger has been provided to the State for restoring the damage done to infrastructure.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Cyclone Amphan made landfall near Sagar Island of South 24 Parganas district on 20 May 2020. Lives have been lost and damage has been meted out to infrastructure. The cyclone damaged "almost the entire nylon fencing" in the forest which prevents the tigers from entering the forest-fringe villages, thereby keeping a check on the man-animal conflict. Besides the fencing, the cyclone also damaged "dozens of forest camp offices, tents, watch towers and staff quarters". The West Bengal Forest Department were initially apprehensive about tigers being harmed or killed by the cyclone but the post cyclone patrolling revealed no dead bodies of the tigers and instead offered glimpses of the animals roaming around in the forest.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: The Sunderban Tiger Reserve has several challenges to its future operations. Due to wandering tigers, human-tiger conflict continues to be an issue. Sunderban tigers hunt humans, and it is estimated that over a thousand of the local people have been killed by tigers over the past four decades. An estimation of the number of tigers present in the reserve using the refined method has not yet been completed. A tiger conservation plan is awaited as are constitutions for the State level Steering Committee under the Chairmanship of the Chief Minister and the reserve-specific Tiger Conservation Foundation.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Air: Sundarban National Park is located 140 kilometres from Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport, which operates international flights across the world.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Rail: The nearest railway station to Sundarbans National Park is Canning railway station which is located 29 km far from the Gate way of Sundarban (i.e. Godhkhali).


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: A 2015 economic assessment study of the Sundarbans estimated that the national park provides flow benefits worth ₹12.8 billion (approximately ₹50,000 per hectare of land) annually.


title: Sundarbans National Park

text: Important ecosystem services and their annual valuations include nursery function (₹5.17 billion), gene-pool protection (₹2.87 billion), provisioning of fish (₹1.6 billion) and waste assimilation services (₹1.5 billion). The study also mentioned services such as the generation of employment for local communities (₹36 million), moderation of cyclonic storms (₹275 million), provision of habitat and refugia for wildlife (₹360 million) and sequestration of carbon (₹462 million).


title: Richard Burgi

text: Richard William Burgi (, born July 30, 1958) is an American film and television actor best known for the roles of Det. Jim Ellison on "The Sentinel" and as Karl Mayer on "Desperate Housewives". He also portrayed Paul Hornsby in the ABC daytime soap opera "General Hospital", and Ashland Locke in the CBS daytime soap opera "The Young and the Restless".


title: Richard Burgi

text: Burgi was born in the suburbs of New York City in Montclair, New Jersey. His family was involved in community theatre. His brother, Chuck Burgi, is a well-known rock drummer who has most recently toured with Billy Joel. After high school, Burgi travelled through the US and Europe, taking odd jobs.


title: Richard Burgi

text: Burgi began his career in New York, which led to regular roles on the Manhattan-based daytime soap operas "One Life to Live", "Another World" and "As the World Turns". After moving to Los Angeles, he appeared on the serial, "Days of Our Lives". He made a number of guest appearances on episodic television shows, and was also cast in "Chameleons", a TV movie, in 1989. He had a role on "Viper", and landed his first lead role in the 1994 television series "One West Waikiki".


title: Richard Burgi

text: Burgi was cast as the lead in the series "The Sentinel". The show ran for three seasons; its cancellation left key plot issues unresolved, which led to a successful fan campaign for additional episodes to end the story. Burgi went on to roles on "The District", "24" and "Judging Amy" as well as bit parts in other television series and films, including "Matlock". In the 1998 made-for-TV remake of the movie "I Married a Monster", Burgi starred as Nick Farrell (the monster).


title: Richard Burgi

text: One of Burgi's most notable roles was on "Desperate Housewives" as Karl Mayer, the ex-husband of Susan Mayer and father to Julie. Burgi appeared as Karl for several seasons. He also starred in the big-screen thriller "Cellular" in 2004 as well as a remake of "Fun with Dick and Jane" and "In Her Shoes"as Toni Collette's love interest in 2005. In 2007, Burgi was cast in the horror film" . "In 2009, he played the police officer in "Friday the 13th"and a stylish doctor in" Nip/Tuck."


title: Richard Burgi

text: In 2010, Burgi guest-starred in an episode of "". In 2011, Burgi guest-starred on TV Land's "Hot in Cleveland". In 2011, it was announced that he would play Karl Parker in "My Family USA", which premiered on September 26, 2011. In 2011, Burgi landed a new recurring role as CIA hitman Clyde Decker, who is part of a government conspiracy targeting the title character in "Chuck". In 2011, Burgi appeared in season 9 of "One Tree Hill" as Brooke Davis's father. In 2012, he starred in cult classic "Christmas Twister" as TV Reporter 1, in which his character was killed trying to parry away a low flying shipping container. In 2013, Burgi guest-starred on Lifetime's "Devious Maids" as a brother, uncle, and love interest, Henri.


title: Richard Burgi

text: In 2021, Soap Opera Digest reported that Burgi had been cast in the recurring role of Ashland Locke on CBS' daytime soap opera, "The Young and the Restless", with the character first appearing on March 11, 2021. In 2022, Burgi was fired from "Y&R" for violating the show's COVID-19 policy, and his role on the show was recast with former "Guiding Light" star Robert Newman.


title: Richard Burgi

text: Burgi married Lori Kahn on November 25, 1995. They have two sons: Jack, born December 8, 1996, and Samuel, born August 15, 2000. Burgi married Liliana Lopez in February 2012.


title: Agouti

text: The agouti (, ) or common agouti is any of several rodent species of the genus Dasyprocta. They are native to Middle America, northern and central South America, and the southern Lesser Antilles. Some species have also been introduced elsewhere in the West Indies. They are related to guinea pigs and look quite similar, but they are larger and have longer legs. The species vary considerably in colour, being brown, reddish, dull orange, greyish, or blackish, but typically with lighter underparts. Their bodies are covered with coarse hair, which is raised when alarmed. They weigh and are in length, with short, hairless tails.


title: Agouti

text: The related pacas were placed by some authorities in a genus called "Agouti", though "Cuniculus" has priority and is the correct term.


title: Agouti

text: In West Africa (especially Ivory Coast), the name "agouti" designates the greater cane rat which, while an agricultural pest, is often sought as a bushmeat delicacy.


title: Agouti

text: The Spanish term is "agutí." In Mexico, the agouti is called the '. In Panama, it is known as the ' and in eastern Ecuador, as the "".


title: Agouti

text: The name "agouti" is derived from either Guarani or Tupi, both South American indigenous languages, in which the name is written variously as "agutí", "agoutí", or "acutí". The Portuguese term for these animals, "cutia", is derived from this original naming.


title: Agouti

text: Agoutis have five toes on their front feet and three toes on their hind feet; the first toe is very small. The tail is very short or nonexistent and hairless. The molar teeth have cylindrical crowns, with several islands and a single lateral fold of enamel. Agoutis may grow to be up to in length and in weight. Most species are brown on their backs and whitish or buff on their bellies; the fur may have a glossy appearance and then glimmers in an orange colour. Reports differ as to whether they are diurnal or nocturnal animals.


title: Agouti

text: In the wild, they are shy animals and flee from humans, while in captivity they may become trusting. In Trinidad, they are renowned for being very fast runners, able to keep hunting dogs occupied with chasing them for hours.


title: Agouti

text: Agoutis are found in forested and wooded areas in Central and South America. Their habitats include rainforests, savannas, and cultivated fields, depending on the species. They conceal themselves at night in hollow tree trunks or in burrows among roots. Active and graceful in their movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series of springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a gallop. They take readily to water, in which they swim well.


title: Agouti

text: When feeding, agoutis sit on their hind legs and hold food between their fore paws. They may gather in groups of up to 100 to feed. They eat fallen fruit, leaves and roots, although they may sometimes climb trees to eat green fruit. They will hoard food in small, buried stores. In a pinch, they have also been seen eating the eggs of ground-nesting birds and even shellfish on the seashore. Sometimes, they can cause damage to sugarcane and banana plantations. They are regarded as one of the few species (along with macaws) that can open Brazil nuts without tools, mainly thanks to their strength and exceptionally sharp teeth. In southern Brazil, their main source of energy is the nut of "Araucaria angustifolia".


title: Agouti

text: Agoutis give birth to litters of two to four young after a gestation period of three months. Some species have two litters a year in May and October, while others breed year round. Young are born into burrows lined with leaves, roots and hair. They are well developed at birth and may be up and eating within an hour. Fathers are barred from the nest while the young are very small, but the parents pair bond for the rest of their lives. They can live for as long as 20 years, a remarkably long time for a rodent.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: Wildflowers is the second solo studio album by American musician Tom Petty, released on November 1, 1994. The album was the first released by Petty after signing a contract with Warner Bros. Records (where he had recorded as part of the Traveling Wilburys) and the first of three albums produced by Rick Rubin. The album was certified 3× platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: "Wildflowers" was credited only to Petty and not to his usual band, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers because, in Petty's words, "Rick [Rubin] and I both wanted more freedom than to be strapped into five guys." Nonetheless, the Heartbreakers predominantly served as the musicians on the album. The album features all the band's members with the exception of drummer Stan Lynch. Petty auditioned numerous drummers for the album, and eventually chose Steve Ferrone. Petty fired Lynch from the Heartbreakers soon before the album's release, and Ferrone officially joined the touring band the following year, and later became a full band member. (Lynch did play on one outtake from "Wildflowers", "Something Could Happen").


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: Petty wrote and recorded numerous songs for the album, and the original plan was to have "Wildflowers" be a double album, with 25 songs in total. However, Lenny Waronker of Warner Bros. Records felt that the album was too long, and it was decided to reduce the album to 15 tracks. Of the 10 tracks left out, one, "Leave Virginia Alone", notably became a hit single the following year when it was recorded by Rod Stewart, while another four were included, in modified form, in Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' next album, the soundtrack album to the 1996 film "She's the One". All ten songs, in their original form, were finally released in the 2020 re-released edition of "Wildflowers", "Wildflowers & All the Rest".


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: Four singles were released from the album between 1994 and 1995, the most successful of which, "You Don't Know How It Feels", reached No. 13 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and topped the Album Rock Tracks chart for one week. It was followed by "You Wreck Me", "It's Good to Be King" and "A Higher Place" which reached Nos. 2, 6, and 12 respectively on the Mainstream Rock chart. The title track, while not released as a single, charted at #16 on the "Billboard" Hot Rock Songs chart and at #3 on the "Billboard" Lyric Find. and became one of Petty's most streamed and popular songs.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: "Rolling Stone" placed "Wildflowers" at number 12 on their list of the best albums of the 1990s. "Guitar World" placed the album at number 49 in their "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: In April 2015, when Petty's back catalog was released in high-resolution audio, this was one of only two albums not included in the series ("Songs and Music from "She's the One"" was the other one), but a hi-res version was available on Pono Music.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: The title of the 2020 book "Somewhere You Feel Free: Tom Petty and Los Angeles" comes from a lyric in the album's title song "Wildflowers".


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: Petty's family and bandmates arranged a 2020 re-release of the album that includes deleted songs, demos, and live tracks, entitled "Wildflowers & All the Rest". The super deluxe edition of the box set included a fifth disc of alternate versions of the "Wildflowers" tracks, called "Finding Wildflowers". In April 2021, "Finding Wildflowers" was released individually.


title: Wildflowers (Tom Petty album)

text: The making of "Wildflowers" is the subject of the 2021 documentary film "Tom Petty: Somewhere You Feel Free - The Making of Wildflowers", directed by Mary Wharton. The documentary includes a significant amount of archival footage from the recording sessions, recorded by Martyn Atkins, which had only recently been unearthed following Petty's death; as well as new interviews with many of the producers and musicians who had been involved with the album. The film was released in November 2021 on YouTube.


title: Geodesy

text: Geodesy ( ) is the Earth science of accurately measuring and understanding Earth's figure (geometric shape and size), orientation in space, and gravity. The field also incorporates studies of how these properties change over time and equivalent measurements for other planets (known as "planetary geodesy"). Geodynamical phenomena, including crustal motion, tides and polar motion, can be studied by designing global and national control networks, applying space geodesy and terrestrial geodetic techniques and relying on datums and coordinate systems.


title: Geodesy

text: It is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravitational field. Geodesy in the German-speaking world is divided into "higher geodesy" ( or ), which is concerned with measuring Earth on the global scale, and "practical geodesy" or "engineering geodesy" (), which is concerned with measuring specific parts or regions of Earth, and which includes surveying. Such geodetic operations are also applied to other astronomical bodies in the Solar System. It is also the science of measuring and understanding Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field.


title: Geodesy

text: To a large extent, the shape of Earth is the result of rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and of volcanism, resisted by Earth's gravitational field. This applies to the solid surface, the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and Earth's atmosphere. For this reason, the study of Earth's gravitational field is called physical geodesy.


title: Geodesy

text: The geoid is essentially the figure of Earth abstracted from its topographical features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents and air pressure variations, and continued under the continental masses. The geoid, unlike the reference ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between the geoid and the reference ellipsoid is called the geoidal undulation. It varies globally between ±110 m, when referred to the GRS 80 ellipsoid.


title: Geodesy

text: A reference ellipsoid, customarily chosen to be the same size (volume) as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial


title: Geodesy

text: radius) "a" and flattening "f". The quantity "f" = , where "b" is the semi-minor axis (polar radius), is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical ellipticity of Earth (dynamical flattening, symbol "J") can be determined to high precision by observation of satellite orbit perturbations. Its relationship with the geometrical flattening is indirect. The relationship depends on the internal density distribution, or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.


title: Geodesy

text: The 1980 Geodetic Reference System (GRS 80) posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. This system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). It is essentially the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System (GPS) and is thus also in widespread use outside the geodetic community. The numerous systems that countries have used to create maps and charts are becoming obsolete as countries increasingly move to global, geocentric reference systems using the GRS 80 reference ellipsoid.


title: Geodesy

text: The geoid is "realizable", meaning it can be consistently located on Earth by suitable simple measurements from physical objects like a tide gauge. The geoid can, therefore, be considered a real surface. The reference ellipsoid, however, has many possible instantiations and is not readily realizable, therefore it is an abstract surface. The third primary surface of geodetic interest—the topographic surface of Earth—is a realizable surface.


title: Geodesy

text: The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, "X", "Y" and "Z". Since the advent of satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the "Z"-axis is aligned with Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.


title: Geodesy

text: Prior to the era of satellite geodesy, the coordinate systems associated with a geodetic datum attempted to be geocentric, but their origins differed from the geocenter by hundreds of meters, due to regional deviations in the direction of the plumbline (vertical). These regional geodetic data, such as ED 50 (European Datum 1950) or NAD 27 (North American Datum 1927) have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional "best fits" to the geoids within their areas of validity, minimizing the deflections of the vertical over these areas.


title: Geodesy

text: It is only because GPS satellites orbit about the geocenter, that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.


title: Geodesy

text: The coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good approximation by (apparent) sidereal time, which takes into account variations in Earth's axial rotation (length-of-day variations). A more accurate description also takes polar motion into account, a phenomenon closely monitored by geodesists.


title: Geodesy

text: In surveying and mapping, important fields of application of geodesy, two general types of coordinate systems are used in the plane:


title: Geodesy

text: Rectangular coordinates in the plane can be used intuitively with respect to one's current location, in which case the "x"-axis will point to the local north. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from three-dimensional coordinates using the artifice of a map projection. It is impossible to map the curved surface of Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen—called a conformal projection—preserves angles and length ratios, so that small circles are mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.


title: Geodesy

text: An example of such a projection is UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates "x" and "y". In this case, the north direction used for reference is the "map" north, not the "local" north. The difference between the two is called meridian convergence.


title: Geodesy

text: It is easy enough to "translate" between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be "α" and "s" respectively, then we have


title: Geodesy

text: In geodesy, point or terrain "heights" are "above sea level", an irregular, physically defined surface.


title: Geodesy

text: Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are heights in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: m s) and not metric. The reference surface is the geoid, an equipotential surface approximating mean sea level. (For normal heights, the reference surface is actually the so-called quasi-geoid, which has a few metre separation from the geoid, because of the density assumption in its continuation under the continental masses.)


title: Geodesy

text: These heights can be related to "ellipsoidal height" (also known as "geodetic height"), which express the height of a point above the reference ellipsoid, by means of the geoid undulation. Satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they are fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the geoid.


title: Geodesy

text: Because geodetic point coordinates (and heights) are always obtained in a system that has been constructed itself using real observations, geodesists introduce the concept of a "geodetic datum": a physical realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. The realization is the result of "choosing" conventional coordinate values for one or more datum points.


title: Geodesy

text: In the case of height data, it suffices to choose "one" datum point: the reference benchmark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical data like the NAP (Normaal Amsterdams Peil), the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD 88), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, and so on.


title: Geodesy

text: In case of plane or spatial coordinates, we typically need several datum points. A regional, ellipsoidal datum like ED 50 can be fixed by prescribing the undulation of the geoid and the deflection of the vertical in "one" datum point, in this case the Helmert Tower in Potsdam. However, an overdetermined ensemble of datum points can also be used.


title: Geodesy

text: Changing the coordinates of a point set referring to one datum, so to make them refer to another datum, is called a "datum transformation". In the case of vertical data, this consists of simply adding a constant shift to all height values. In the case of plane or spatial coordinates, datum transformation takes the form of a similarity or "Helmert transformation", consisting of a rotation and scaling operation in addition to a simple translation. In the plane, a Helmert transformation has four parameters; in space, seven.


title: Geodesy

text: In the abstract, a coordinate system as used in mathematics and geodesy is called a "coordinate system" in ISO terminology, whereas the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) uses the term "reference system". When these coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO says "coordinate reference system", while IERS says "reference frame". The ISO term for a datum transformation again is a "coordinate transformation".


title: Geodesy

text: Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point on land, at sea, or in space with respect to a coordinate system. Point position is solved by computation from measurements linking the known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points with the unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems. The known points used for point positioning can be triangulation points of a higher-order network or GPS satellites.


title: Geodesy

text: Traditionally, a hierarchy of networks has been built to allow point positioning within a country. Highest in the hierarchy were triangulation networks. These were densified into networks of traverses (polygons), into which local mapping surveying measurements, usually with measuring tape, corner prism, and the familiar red and white poles, are tied.


title: Geodesy

text: Nowadays all but special measurements (e.g., underground or high-precision engineering measurements) are performed with GPS. The higher-order networks are measured with static GPS, using differential measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These vectors are then adjusted in traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the IERS is used to define a single global, geocentric reference frame which serves as the "zero order" global reference to which national measurements are attached.


title: Geodesy

text: For surveying mappings, frequently Real Time Kinematic GPS is employed, tying in the unknown points with known terrestrial points close by in real time.


title: Geodesy

text: One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control.


title: Geodesy

text: In every country, thousands of such known points exist and are normally documented by national mapping agencies. Surveyors involved in real estate and insurance will use these to tie their local measurements.


title: Geodesy

text: In geometric geodesy, two standard problems exist—the first (direct or forward) and the second (inverse or reverse).


title: Geodesy

text: In plane geometry (valid for small areas on Earth's surface), the solutions to both problems reduce to simple trigonometry.


title: Geodesy

text: On a sphere, however, the solution is significantly more complex, because in the inverse problem the azimuths will differ between the two end points of the connecting great circle, arc.


title: Geodesy

text: On the ellipsoid of revolution, geodesics may be written in terms of elliptic integrals, which are usually evaluated in terms of a series expansion—see, for example, Vincenty's formulae. In the general case, the solution is called the geodesic for the surface considered. The differential equations for the geodesic can be solved numerically.


title: Geodesy

text: Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and coordinates, defined in geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the viewpoint of the local observer.


title: Geodesy

text: The level is used for determining height differences and height reference systems, commonly referred to mean sea level. The traditional spirit level produces these practically most useful heights above sea level directly; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the geoid, as GPS only gives heights above the GRS80 reference ellipsoid. As geoid knowledge accumulates, one may expect the use of GPS heighting to spread.


title: Geodesy

text: The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points. These angles are referred to the local vertical. The tacheometer additionally determines, electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated to even robotic in its operations. The method of free station position is widely used.


title: Geodesy

text: For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used as well. Data collected are tagged and recorded digitally for entry into a Geographic Information System (GIS) database.


title: Geodesy

text: Geodetic GPS receivers produce directly three-dimensional coordinates in a geocentric coordinate frame. Such a frame is, e.g., WGS84, or the frames that are regularly produced and published by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS).


title: Geodesy

text: GPS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys. For planet-wide geodetic surveys, previously impossible, we can still mention satellite laser ranging (SLR) and lunar laser ranging (LLR) and very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) techniques. All these techniques also serve to monitor irregularities in Earth's rotation as well as plate tectonic motions.


title: Geodesy

text: Gravity is measured using gravimeters, of which there are two kinds. First, "absolute gravimeters" are based on measuring the acceleration of free fall (e.g., of a reflecting prism in a vacuum tube). They are used to establish the vertical geospatial control and can be used in the field. Second, "relative gravimeters" are spring-based and are more common. They are used in gravity surveys over large areas for establishing the figure of the geoid over these areas. The most accurate relative gravimeters are called "superconducting" gravimeters, which are sensitive to one-thousandth of one-billionth of Earth-surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide for studying Earth's tides, rotation, interior, and ocean and atmospheric loading, as well as for verifying the Newtonian constant of gravitation.


title: Geodesy

text: In the future, gravity and altitude will be measured by relativistic time dilation measured by optical clocks.


title: Geodesy

text: Geographical latitude and longitude are stated in the units degree, minute of arc, and second of arc. They are "angles", not metric


title: Geodesy

text: measures, and describe the "direction" of the local normal to the reference ellipsoid of revolution. This is "approximately" the same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical position determination – measuring the direction of the plumbline by astronomical means – works fairly well provided an ellipsoidal model of the figure of Earth is used.


title: Geodesy

text: One geographical mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. One nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and the shortest at the equator as is the nautical mile.


title: Geodesy

text: A metre was originally defined as the 10-millionth part of the length from equator to North Pole along the meridian through Paris (the target was not quite reached in actual implementation, so that is off by 200 ppm in the current definitions). This means that one kilometre is roughly equal to (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, which equals 0.54 nautical mile, though this is not exact because the two units are defined on different bases (the international nautical mile is defined as exactly 1,852 m, corresponding to a rounding of 1,000/0.54 m to four digits).


title: Geodesy

text: In geodesy, temporal change can be studied by a variety of techniques. Points on Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:


title: Geodesy

text: The science of studying deformations and motions of Earth's crust and its solidity as a whole is called geodynamics. Often, study of Earth's irregular rotation is also included in its definition. The geodynamics studies require terrestrial reference frames that are realized by the stations belonging to the Global Geodedetic Observing System (GGOS).


title: Bugsnax

text: Bugsnax is an adventure video game developed by independent game studio Young Horses. In the game, players explore a mysterious island and attempt to find and capture the eponymous half-bug-half-snack creatures. The game was unveiled in June 2020 during Sony's PlayStation 5 live-streamed reveal event. British indie pop band Kero Kero Bonito performed the game's theme song, which was featured in the announcement trailer. The game was released in November 2020 for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5, as well as Microsoft Windows and macOS via the Epic Games Store. Versions of the game for Steam, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S followed in April 2022.


title: Bugsnax

text: "Bugsnax" is a first-person adventure game, in which players traverse the mysterious Snaktooth Island to find clues regarding the disappearance of a missing explorer. The core gameplay revolves around finding and capturing different species of Bugsnax, the half-bug-half-snack creatures that inhabit the island. The game launched with 100 Bugsnak species available for capture, each of which can be found in one of eight biomes during different times of day. The player is equipped with a "SnaxScope" that can be used to scan each Bugsnak, which displays its movement patterns, tastes, and clues as to how to capture it. The player can also obtain several tools to assist in capturing the Bugsnax, including a slingshot that can shoot different sauces such as ketchup and chocolate to lure Bugsnax; a tripwire that can be used to stun Bugsnax; and a Strabby, a strawberry-like Bugsnak in a plastic ball that can be guided using a laser pointer. Some Bugsnax require more advanced techniques to capture them, such as using multiple tools in combination or baiting one Bugsnak into attacking another.


title: Bugsnax

text: The town of Snaxburg acts as the game's central hub from which all other areas can be reached. During the story, the player will encounter several Grumpuses, the residents of Snaxburg who have scattered themselves around the island. The player must convince each of the Grumpuses to return to Snaxburg to advance the story. When a Grumpus has returned to Snaxburg, they will begin asking the player for favors, which take the form of side quests, and reveal more of their personal history and motivations as each one is completed. These side quests typically involve the player capturing specific Bugsnax and feeding them to the Grumpuses, which transforms parts of their bodies based on the properties of whatever Bugsnak they eat. A "Snaktivator" device unlocked during the game allows the player to more heavily customize each Grumpus's appearance, such as selecting specific body parts to transform.


title: Bugsnax

text: A free update to the game in April 2022 added a new area to explore and 12 additional Bugsnax to collect for a total of 112. The Bugsnax in this area are larger than normal and must be temporarily shrunken using special "Shrink Spice" before they can be captured. The new area is accessed during the main story as part of a larger side quest. The update also added the ability to fast travel between areas, 25 hats that can be collected and placed on Bugsnax the player has captured, and a hut for the player character in Snaxburg, which can be customized with furniture and decorations received from the other Grumpuses. New hut decorations can be obtained by completing missions sent by the Grumpuses to the player's mailbox, such as finding a lost item or feeding a Grumpus a specific combination of Bugsnax; there are over 100 missions that can be completed.


title: Bugsnax

text: "Bugsnax" takes place in a world populated by furry muppet-like humanoids called Grumpuses. The game is set on Snaktooth Island, a mysterious island inhabited solely by creatures called Bugsnax who are "half bug and half snack." The ruins of an ancient Grumpus civilization can be found around the island, along with their skeletal remains. Upon discovering the existence of Bugsnax, disgraced explorer Elizabert "Lizbert" Megafig leads an expedition team to the island to study them, establishing the makeshift town of Snaxburg as a base of operations, but disappears under mysterious circumstances. As part of the "Isle of Bigsnax" update, the small neighboring island of Broken Tooth becomes accessible later in the game.


title: Bugsnax

text: The player controls a nameless newspaper journalist who is invited by Lizbert to visit Snaktooth Island over the objections of their supervisor, C. Clumby Clumbernut. Aiding the journalist is Filbo Fiddlepie, the self-appointed Mayor of Snaxburg who was left in charge by Lizbert before she disappeared, despite lacking self-confidence. Over the course of the game, the journalist meets several other Grumpuses who joined Lizbert on her expedition. These include Wambus Troubleham, a stubborn sauce-farmer; Beffica Winklesnoot, a gossip-seeking photographer; Gramble Gigglefunny, a rancher who treats Bugsnax as pets instead of food; Wiggle Wigglebottom, a washed-up musician; Triffany Lottablog, Wambus's estranged archaeologist wife investigating her grandmother's disappearance; Cromdo Face, a greedy entrepreneur and con-man; Snorpington "Snorpy" Fizzlebean, an inventor and conspiracy theorist obsessed with the "Grumpinati"; Chandlo Funkbun, Snorpy's overprotective bodybuilder boyfriend; Floofty Fizzlebean, Snorpy's antisocial scientist sibling; Shellsy "Shelda" Woolbag, an alleged prophet who preaches the evils of Bugsnax; and Eggabell Batternugget, the town doctor and Lizbert's romantic partner who also went missing.


title: Bugsnax

text: A struggling newspaper journalist receives a film strip in the mail from Lizbert, who encourages the journalist to come to Snaktooth Island and document the Bugsnax living there for the world to see. Intrigued, the journalist takes an airship to the island, only to discover that Lizbert has gone missing and all the other Grumpuses that joined her on her expedition have scattered due to interpersonal conflict. Filbo requests that the journalist help him bring the others back to Snaxburg, as they may have clues regarding Lizbert's disappearance.


title: Bugsnax

text: The journalist gradually convinces each Grumpus to return to Snaxburg. However, the Grumpuses regularly argue with each other, and each of them suffer from their own personal issues that they believe can be solved by eating Bugsnax. Some of them believe that there is a secret conspiracy behind the island: Snorpy thinks that the "Grumpinati" are controlling the Bugsnax, while Shelda warns of their harmful "toxins". One night, Snaxburg is attacked, and signs appear warning its residents to leave the island. Wiggle claims that the "Queen of Bugsnax" is planning to eat the Grumpuses. In the "Isle of Bigsnax" expansion, the journalist can discover a secret room with audio recordings from researcher Alegander Jamfoot. These recordings reveal that the supposed "Grumpinati" are actually the Snakolytes, a secret order Jamfoot is a member of whose goal is to create a new Bugsnak Queen and gain control of all Bugsnax, and that they were responsible for the disappearance of Triffany's grandmother.


title: Bugsnax

text: After the journalist brings all residents back to Snaxburg, a volcano erupts, triggering an earthquake that destroys the town. Eggabell arrives and leads the journalist and Filbo to a hidden chamber beneath the island, which is itself revealed to be made of Bugsnax. There, they discover that Lizbert has been mutated into a giant creature made up of various Bugsnax. Lizbert explains that Bugsnax are actually mind-altering parasites that eventually transform anyone who regularly consumes them into more Bugsnax, as they had done to the island's previous inhabitants, and she has been attempting to keep the Bugsnax under control as their queen. With her control waning, Lizbert urges the group to flee the island, and Eggabell becomes part of the "queen" as well to support her efforts. Filbo and the journalist return to Snaxburg, which is now under attack from various Bugsnax. If the player fails to defend the Grumpuses during the sequence, they can die from eating the Bugsnax attacking them, becoming Bugsnax themselves. However, any Grumpus whose side quests have all been completed will fight back against the Bugsnax and automatically survive the encounter. After fending off the Bugsnax, the journalist, Filbo, and any survivors escape on the journalist's airship.


title: Bugsnax

text: Upon returning to the mainland, Filbo acts as a witness for the journalist's story, in which they intentionally omit any mention of Bugsnax. Clumby is impressed with the story, but fires the journalist anyway. Filbo then decides to run for Mayor of New Grump City, asking for the journalist's help. Saving every Grumpus during the finale unlocks an alternate credits sequence revealing each Grumpus's current whereabouts, including that Filbo has been elected Mayor and Lizbert and Eggabell have been de-transformed, and a post-credits scene. In it, Clumby can be heard talking to Jamfoot, believing that the journalist is hiding the truth and deciding to keep watch on them, revealing herself to be a Snakolyte. Meanwhile, a single Strabby emerges from inside the airship. If the player also listened to all of Jamfoot's audio recordings, an alternate scene plays in which Jamfoot calls Clumby, fearful that the journalist knows all the Snakolytes' secrets, and orders her to find out all she can about the survivors of Snaktooth.


title: Bugsnax

text: Young Horses took about six years to develop the game in order "not to burn out", as well as "to figure out what the game was." The initial idea was when the company's creative director Kevin Zuhn drew a sketch of a "Wafflepillar"—a caterpillar made out of waffles. Initially the gameplay was inspired heavily by "Pokémon Snap", but over time the gameplay evolved into "a weird amalgamation of all of these different game ideas." In addition to "Pokémon Snap", the final game also takes inspiration from "Ape Escape", "Dark Cloud" and "Viva Piñata". Zuhn also stated that during the developmental phase, the storyline for "Bugsnax" was intended to be much darker.


title: Bugsnax

text: The game was first revealed via an announcement trailer during Sony's "Future Revealed" PlayStation 5 event on June 11, 2020. The trailer featured the game's theme song "It's Bugsnax!", performed by British indie pop band Kero Kero Bonito. The song became popular in its own right, with GamesRadar calling it "the internet's new favorite meme ingredient", also writing "even if you haven't heard of Bugsnax, the game, there's a good chance you've probably "heard" Bugsnax, the theme tune."


title: Bugsnax

text: "Bugsnax" was released as a launch title for PlayStation 5 on November 12, 2020, alongside versions for PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows and macOS via the Epic Games Store.


title: Bugsnax

text: In January 2021, Young Horses confirmed they were working on a followup to "Bugsnax", but had not determined whether this would be a proper sequel or downloadable content. The following October, this was revealed to be an expansion, "Bugsnax: The Isle of Bigsnax", which would be added to the game via a free update in Q1 2022. The expansion was released on April 28, 2022, alongside ports of the game for Steam, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S.


title: Bugsnax

text: "Bugsnax" on home consoles received "generally favorable reviews", while the Windows version saw "mixed or average reviews", according to the review aggregator Metacritic. Several critics noted how the story and presentation was perceived as light hearted but that the ending's effect gave the plot a dark tone. The game was also praised for its emphasis on character development and worldbuilding.


title: Bugsnax

text: LGBT-video game blog "Gayming Magazine" praised the game's inclusion of same-sex couples. The game was nominated for a GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Video Game.


title: Bugsnax

text: Despite releasing as a launch title via PlayStation Plus on PlayStation 5 for two months, "Bugsnax" has outsold "", Young Horses' previous game.