text: On September 12, 2021, Smith lost in his head coaching debut against the Philadelphia Eagles by a score of 6–32. On September 26, 2021, Smith received his first career win as a head coach in a 17–14 victory over the New York Giants. On January 9, 2022, Smith and the Falcons lost to the New Orleans Saints in the final game of the season by a score of 20–30, ending the season with a 7–10 record. The Falcons finished 3rd in the NFC South and did not qualify for the playoffs.


title: Arthur Smith (American football, born 1982)

text: Smith and his wife, Allison, reside in Atlanta, Georgia, with their three children, Tanner, Sophie, and William. Smith's father is FedEx founder and former CEO Frederick W. Smith. He has nine siblings, including sisters Windland Smith Rice and Molly Smith.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Marc Bartra Aregall (, ; born 15 January 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Süper Lig club Trabzonspor.


title: Marc Bartra

text: He started his career at Barcelona, where he played 103 professional games and scored six goals across seven seasons, winning 13 honours including five La Liga titles. In 2016, he joined Borussia Dortmund for €8 million.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra won the 2013 European Championships with Spain's under-21 team. He made his senior debut in 2013, and was selected for Euro 2016.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Born in Sant Jaume dels Domenys, Tarragona, Catalonia, Bartra joined RCD Espanyol as a child before moving to FC Barcelona's youth system, "La Masia", at age 11. After progressing through its ranks, he was promoted to the B side in 2009.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra made his first-team debut on 14 February 2010, coming on as a substitute for Jeffrén Suárez for the final 30 minutes of a 2–1 loss to Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium. He started his first La Liga game one year and three months later, playing the entire 0–0 home draw against Deportivo de La Coruña, and scored his first goal on 21 May 2011 to help them come from behind to win it 3–1 at Málaga CF in the season's last round.


title: Marc Bartra

text: In the 2012–13 campaign, Bartra joined the first team squad permanently, but manager Tito Vilanova tended to field Javier Mascherano, Alex Song and Adriano ahead of him, and played only 16 games in all competitions. He signed a new three-year contract in March 2014.


title: Marc Bartra

text: On 16 April 2014, in the final of the Copa del Rey against Real Madrid, with five minutes remaining, Gareth Bale outsprinted Bartra from the halfway line – with the former running off the field at one point – before scoring the 2–1 winner. He himself had levelled the score midway into the second half, from a Xavi corner kick. He remained a third or fourth choice under new manager Luis Enrique, making 25 appearances and scoring once as the team won the treble in 2014–15.


title: Marc Bartra

text: On 3 June 2016, Bartra was sold to German club Borussia Dortmund for an estimated fee of €8 million, signing a four-year deal. He made his competitive debut on 14 August, playing the entire 2–0 loss against FC Bayern Munich for the DFL-Supercup, and a month later scored his first goal in a 6–0 win at Legia Warsaw for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League.


title: Marc Bartra

text: On 11 April 2017, when Dortmund was heading to Westfalenstadion for their Champions League quarter-final tie against AS Monaco FC, the team bus was hit by three explosions. Bartra, who broke the radial bone in his arm and had debris lodged in his hand in the bombing, underwent an operation the following day, when the Germans played the rescheduled game and lost 2–3; he later described the event as the "longest and hardest 15 minutes of my life", and returned to training 29 days after his surgery.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra's first match after returning took place on 20 May 2017, and he played the entire 4–3 home win over SV Werder Bremen– he had also been an unused substitute in the previous fixture against FC Augsburg. One week later, he helped to the conquest of the DFB-Pokal after starting in the 2–1 defeat of Eintracht Frankfurt in Berlin.


title: Marc Bartra

text: On 30 January 2018, Bartra completed his transfer to Real Betis on a five-and-a-half-year contract. He scored his first goal for his new team on 12 May, putting the hosts ahead in an eventual 2–2 derby home draw against Sevilla FC.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra won 37 caps for Spain at youth level all categories comprised, including 16 for the under-21s. He made his debut for the full side on 16 November 2013, playing the entire 2–1 friendly win in Equatorial Guinea. This game was later annulled by FIFA as they had not been notified early enough that the referee would be from Equatorial Guinea, and his first valid appearance took place on 8 September 2014 as he came on as a 68th-minute substitute for Sergio Ramos in a 5–1 home triumph against Macedonia for the UEFA Euro 2016 qualifiers.


title: Marc Bartra

text: On 17 May 2016, Bartra was named in Vicente del Bosque's provisional squad of 25 for the finals in France, and he also made it to the final list of 23. As the tournament ended at the round of 16, he was an unused member.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra scored his first goal for his country on 11 October 2018, contributing to a 4–1 friendly defeat of Wales at the Millennium Stadium.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra is known for his pace and passing. He is mentally strong, is skilled in the air and is able to play as a right-back, where he can cut in and assist.


title: Marc Bartra

text: Bartra's fraternal twin brother, Èric, also came through La Masia. He started a relationship with Grand Prix motorcycle racing journalist Melissa Jiménez in February 2014, and welcomed daughter Gala on 18 August of the following year.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis ( ) is a city and the county seat of Benton County in central western Oregon, United States. It is the principal city of the Corvallis, Oregon Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses all of Benton County. As of the 2020 United States Census, the population was 59,922. Corvallis is the location of Oregon State University and Good Samaritan Regional Medical Center. Corvallis is the westernmost city in the contiguous 48 states with a population larger than 50,000.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In October 1845, Joseph C. Avery arrived in Oregon from the east. Avery took out a land claim at the mouth of Marys River, where it flows into the Willamette River, and in June 1846 took up residence there in a log cabin hastily constructed to hold what seemed a potentially lucrative claim. Avery's primitive 1846 dwelling was the first home within the boundaries of today's Corvallis and his land claim included the southern section of the contemporary city.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Avery was quickly joined by other settlers along the banks of the Willamette River, including a claim directly to his north taken in September 1846 by William F. Dixon. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 temporarily stalled development of a township, with Avery leaving his Oregon claim to try his hand at mining in the fall of that year. His stay proved to be brief, and in January 1849, Avery returned to Oregon with a small stock of provisions with a view to opening a store.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: During 1849, Avery opened his store at the site, platted the land, and surveyed a town site on his land claim, naming the community Marysville. The city was possibly named after early settler Mary Lloyd, but now the name is thought to be derived from French fur trappers' naming of Marys Peak after the Virgin Mary.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In the summer of 1851, Joseph Avery and William Dixon each granted back-to-back land parcels from their land holdings for the establishment of a county seat. Avery's holding lay to the south and Dixon's to the north, with the Benton County Courthouse marking the approximate line of demarcation between these two land parcels.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In December 1853 the 5th Oregon Territorial Legislature met in Salem, where a petition was presented seeking to change the name of that city to either "Thurston" or "Valena". At the same time, another petition was presented seeking to change the name of Salem to "Corvallis", from the Latin meaning "heart of the valley", while a third resolution was presented to the upper house seeking to change the name of Marysville to Corvallis.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: A heated debate followed, with the name ultimately awarded to Corvallis in an act passed on December 20 of that same year. By way of rationale, the name "Marysville" was successfully argued to duplicate the moniker of a town in California, located on the same stagecoach route and that a name change was thus necessary to avoid confusion.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: A faction within the deeply divided legislature sought to make Corvallis the capital of the Oregon Territory, and in December 1855 the 6th Territorial Legislature initially convened there before returning to Salem later that month—the town which would eventually be selected as the permanent seat of state government.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis had a three-year boom beginning in 1889, which began with the establishment of a privately owned electrical plant by L.L. Hurd. A flurry of publicity and public and private investment followed, including construction of a grand county courthouse, planning and first construction of a new street railway, construction of a new flour mill along the river between Monroe and Jackson Avenues, and construction of the Hotel Corvallis, today known as the Julian Hotel.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In addition, a carriage factory was launched in the city and the town's streets were improved, while the size of the city was twice enlarged through annexation. Bonds were issued for a city-owned water works, a sewer system, and for public ownership of the electric plant. A publicity campaign was launched to attempt to expand the tax base through new construction for new arrivals. This effort proved mostly unsuccessful, however, and in 1892, normality returned, with the city saddled with about $150,000 in bonded debt.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis is at river mile 131–32 of the Willamette River. Corvallis is bordered on the northwest by the foothills of the Oregon Coast Range, with Bald Hill providing a view of the town.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and is covered by water.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis falls within the dry-summer temperate climate zone, also referred to as warm-summer Mediterranean (Köppen "Csb"). Temperatures are mild year round, with warm, dry, sunny summers and mild, wet winters with persistently overcast skies. Spring and fall are also moist seasons with varied cloudiness, and light rain falling for extended periods.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Winter snow is rare, but occasionally does fall, and amounts can range between a dusting and a few inches that do not persist on the ground for more than a day. The northwest hills will often experience more snow. During the midwinter months after extended periods of rain, thick, persistent fogs can form, sometimes lasting the entire day. This can severely reduce visibility to as low as . The fog often persists until a new storm system enters the area. This fog could be seen as a type of tule fog.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Rainfall totals within the town itself are surprisingly variable, due to Corvallis lying right on the eastern edge of the Oregon Coast Range, with a small portion of the town inside of the range. Rainfall amounts can range from an average of per year in the far northwest hills, compared to per year at Oregon State University, which is located in the center of Corvallis.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Because of its close proximity to the coastal range, Corvallis can experience slightly cooler temperatures, particularly in the hills, than the rest of the Willamette Valley. The average annual low temperature is , less than that of Portland just to the north. Despite this, temperatures dropping far below freezing are still a rare event.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis is the largest principal city of the Albany-Corvallis-Lebanon CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Corvallis metropolitan area (Benton County) and the Albany-Lebanon micropolitan area (Linn County), which had a combined population of 202,251 at the 2010 U.S. Census.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: As of the 2000 U.S. Census the median income for a household in the city was $35,437, and the median income for a family was $53,208. Males had a median income of $40,770 versus $29,390 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,317. About 9.7% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.2% of those under age 18 and 6.0% of those age 65 or over.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: As of the 2010 U.S. Census, there were 54,462 people, 22,283 households, and 10,240 families residing in the city. The population density was 4004.5 people per square mile (1,547.2/km). There were 23,423 housing units at an average density of 1,722.3 per square mile (665.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 83.8% White, 7.3% Asian, 1.1% Black or African American, 0.69% Native American, 0.33% Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 2.8% from other races, and 4.0% from two or more races. 7.4% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: There were 22,283 households, of which 20.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.3% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.0% were non-families. 33.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.82.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 14.9% under the age of 18, 32.4% from 18 to 24, 22.9% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26.4 years. For every 100 males there were 98.7 females.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In 1903, Franz Edmund Creffield, commonly known as Edmund Creffield ("circa" 1870–1906), a German-American religious leader who called himself Joshua, founded a movement in Corvallis which became known locally as the "Holy Rollers".


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis lies in the middle of the Unchurched Belt. A 2003 study, released once every 10 years, listed Benton County (of which Corvallis makes up the majority of the population) as the least religious county per capita in the United States. Only one in four people indicated that they were affiliated with one of the 149 religious groups the study identified. The study indicated that some of the disparity, however, may be attributed to the popularity of less common religions (ones not included as an option in the study) in the Pacific Northwest.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The campus of Oregon State University, which is the major local employer, is located near the edge of the main downtown area. Other major employers include Samaritan Health Services, SIGA Technologies, Evanite Fiber, ONAMI, and HP Inc., which has a large printing research and development operation in the northeast area of town. Because of this relative concentration of employment and the need for diversity, the city launched a website to attract creative industry to the region by branding it with the slogan "Yes Corvallis".


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The National Clonal Germplasm Repository at Corvallis is a gene bank of the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. The gene bank preserves temperate fruit, nut, and agronomic crops from around the world.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis was ranked number 48 on the 100 best places in the US to live and launch a business by "Fortune" Small Business 2008. This places Corvallis as the second-best place in Oregon to launch a business, after Portland (number 6). Bend (number 87) and Eugene (number 96) were other Oregon localities ranked in the top 100.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis is home to the Corvallis-OSU Symphony, which celebrated its centennial in 2005. According to the OSU College of Liberal Arts website (as of 2022) the symphony is the oldest continuously operating orchestra in the state of Oregon.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: As the home of Oregon State University, Corvallis is the home for 17 NCAA Division I OSU teams (7 men's, 10 women's) in the Pac-12 Conference. Corvallis is also the home of the Corvallis Knights baseball team, who play in the summer at OSU's Goss Stadium. The Knights play in the West Coast League, an independent collegiate summer baseball league with teams from Washington, Oregon, British Columbia and Alberta.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis is recognized as a Tree City USA. The city has at least 47 public parks within and adjacent to the city limits. One such park is Avery Park and Natural Area, which is one of Corvallis' most popular parks. The Avery Park Cross Country Course is located in the park. It is the home course for the Oregon State Beavers cross-country teams. Beazell Memorial Forest, the largest park maintained by Benton County, is located 10 miles from the town. Vineyard mountain is also


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Helen Berg served as mayor of Corvallis for three terms from 1994 until 2006. Berg was the first female mayor of Corvallis, and the longest-serving mayor of the city to date. The current mayor is Biff Traber, elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2018.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The City of Corvallis uses the City Council/City Manager form of government with a weak mayor. The City Council is made of nine city councilors who represent their representative wards and are elected to two-year terms. The City Manager is appointed by the City Council and serves at the pleasure of the City Council. The City Manager primary job is to run the administrative day-to-day operations of the City.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Education has had a place in Corvallis since the earliest days of the town, with the first school building constructed in 1848 and put to use in 1850.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: During the first decade of the 21st century, local boosters claimed that Corvallis had the highest education rate per capita of any city in the state of Oregon.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Public schools in the city are administered by the Corvallis School District, with two acting high schools, Corvallis High School and Crescent Valley. Corvallis is also the home of Oregon State University and the Benton Center campus of Linn-Benton Community College.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis is part of the Eugene, Oregon, radio and television market. Portland area TV stations like KATU, KOIN and KGW are also available on select cable providers.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In 2009, the Corvallis metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the highest in the United States for percentage of commuters who biked to work (9.3%), and the second-highest percentage of commuters who walked to work (11.2%). More than one of five Corvallis commuters traveled to work via some form of active transportation. In 2013, the Corvallis MSA represented the fifth-lowest mode share for commuting by private automobile (72.6%). During the same period, 8.8% of Corvallis-area commuters biked, another 7.9% walked, and 7.7% worked from home.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Long-distance bus service is provided in Corvallis by Greyhound. It stops at the Greyhound station in downtown Corvallis (station ID: CVI).


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Local bus service is provided by Corvallis Transit System (CTS). The Corvallis City Council approved an additional fee on monthly water utility bills in January 2011, allowing all CTS bus service to become fareless. The system runs a total of eight daytime routes Monday through Saturday, covering most of the city and converging at the Downtown Transit Center. Additional commuter routes run in the early morning and late afternoon on weekdays, and midmorning and midafternoon on Saturdays. When Oregon State University is in session, CTS also runs the "Night Owl", a set of late-night routes running Thursday through Saturday.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Two other short-distance intercity buses, the Linn-Benton Loop (to Albany) and the Philomath Connection, also stop at the Downtown Transit Center.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: From 2010 to 2011, CTS has saw a 37.87% increase in ridership, partially as a result of going fareless and "the rising cost of fuel for individual vehicles and the desire for residents to choose more sustainable options for commuting to work, school and other activities" According to Tim Bates, the Corvallis Transit System and Philomath Connection had 3,621,387 passenger miles traveled and 85,647 gallons of fuel consumed in fiscal year 2011, a period that covers July 1, 2010 - June 30, 2011. This means that riders in 2011 got 42.28 passenger miles per gallon.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: In 2019, the local bus system expanded to several more lines throughout the city, and the addition of a minimal Sunday service.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The League of American Bicyclists gave Corvallis a gold rating as a Bicycle-Friendly Community in 2011. Also, according to the United States Census Bureau's 2008–12 American Community Survey, 11.2% of workers in Corvallis bicycle to work. The city of Corvallis is ranked third-highest among 'small' U.S. cities (with populations under 200,000) for bicycle commuters, behind Key West, Florida (17.4) and Davis, California (18.6).


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: Corvallis Municipal Airport serves private and corporate aircraft. The closest commercial air service is available at Eugene Airport, , or Portland International Airport, .


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The city's water system has two water treatment plants, nine processed water reservoirs, one raw water reservoir, and some of pipe. The system can process up to about of water per day.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The Rock Creek treatment plant processes water from sources in the Rock Creek Municipal Watershed near Marys Peak. The three sources are surface streams, which are all tributaries of the Marys River. Rock Creek has a processing capacity of of water per day (gpd), though operational characteristics of the , pipeline to the city limits capacity to half that. The Rock Creek Plant output remains steady year round at about .


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The H.D. Taylor treatment plant obtains water from the Willamette River, and has been expanded at least four times since it was first constructed in 1949. Its output varies seasonally according to demand, producing from per day, though it has a capacity of per day.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The total reservoir capacity is , though measures to voluntarily reduce water usage begin when reservoir levels fall below 90% of capacity, and become mandatory at 80% or below. As part of its ongoing water-conservation program, the water department jointly publishes a guide to water-efficient garden plants.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: According to the federal Environmental Protection Agency report on its "green power communities", Corvallis is among the top cities in the nation in terms of buying electricity produced from renewable resources. Corvallis purchases more than 126 million kilowatt-hours of green power annually, which amounts to 21% of the city's total purchased electricity.


title: Corvallis, Oregon

text: The Corvallis Fire Department is headed by Fire Chief Ben Janes as of February 14, 2022 and currently has four stations in the City and 1 station located in the Corvallis Rural Fire Protection District staffed by 1 paid Lieutenant and several Resident Interns. A sixth fire station was shuttered several years ago due to budgeting shortfalls and remains closed to date. Corvallis Fire provides ALS ambulance service for all of Benton County with 5 frontline ambulances. In 2021 CFD ran almost 10,000 calls for service. The Corvallis Professional Firefighters IAFF Local 2240 represents all line personnel and prevention staff.


title: Easement

text: An easement is a nonpossessory right to use and/or enter onto the real property of another without possessing it. It is "best typified in the right of way which one landowner, A, may enjoy over the land of another, B". An easement is a property right and type of incorporeal property in itself at common law in most jurisdictions.


title: Easement

text: An easement is similar to real covenants and equitable servitudes. In the United States, the Restatement (Third) of Property takes steps to merge these concepts as servitudes.


title: Easement

text: Easements are helpful for providing access across two or more pieces of property, allowing individuals to access other properties or a resource, for example to fish in a privately owned pond or to have access to a public beach.


title: Easement

text: Courts now recognize more varieties of easements, but these original categories still form the foundation of easement law.


title: Easement

text: An affirmative easement is the right to use another property for a specific purpose while a negative easement is the right to prevent another from performing an otherwise lawful activity on their own property. For example, an affirmative easement might allow land owner A to drive their cattle over the land of B. A has an affirmative easement from B. Conversely, a negative easement might restrict land owner A from putting up a wall of trees that would block the adjacent land owner B's mountain view. A is subject to a negative easement from B.


title: Easement

text: As defined by Evershed MR in "Re Ellenborough Park" [1956] Ch 131, an easement requires the existence of at least two pieces of land. The land with the benefit of the easement is the dominant estate or dominant tenement, while the land burdened by the easement is the servient estate or servient tenement. For example, the owner of parcel A holds an easement to use a driveway on parcel B to gain access to A's house. Here, parcel A is the dominant estate, receiving the benefit, and parcel B is the servient estate, granting the benefit or suffering the burden.


title: Easement

text: A private easement is held by private individuals or entities. A public easement grants an easement to the public, for example, to allow public access over a parcel owned by an individual.


title: Easement

text: In the US, an easement "appurtenant" is one that benefits the dominant estate and "runs with the land" and so generally transfers automatically when the dominant estate is transferred. An appurtenant easement allows property owners to access land that is only accessible through a neighbor's land.


title: Easement

text: Conversely, an easement "in gross" benefits an individual or a legal entity, rather than a dominant estate. The easement can be for a personal use (for example, an easement to use a boat ramp) or a commercial use (for example, an easement to a railroad company to cross property to build and maintain a rail line). Historically, an easement in gross was neither assignable nor inheritable, but commercial easements are now freely transferable to a third party. They are divisible but must be exclusive (the original owner no longer uses it and exclusive to easement holder) and all holders of the easement must agree to divide. If subdivided, each subdivided parcel enjoys the easement.


title: Easement

text: A floating easement exists when there is no fixed location, route, method, or limit to the right of way. For example, a right of way may cross a field, without any visible path, or allow egress through another building for fire safety purposes. A floating easement may be public or private, appurtenant or in gross. One case defined it as "(an) easement defined in general terms, without a definite location or description, is called a floating or roving easement".


title: Easement

text: Furthermore, "a floating easement becomes fixed after construction and cannot thereafter be changed".


title: Easement

text: In British energy law and real property law, a wayleave is a type of easement, appurtenant to land or "in gross", used by a utility that allows a linesman to enter the premises, "to install and retain their cabling or piping across private land in return for annual payments to the landowner". Like a license or "profit-à-prendre", "[a] Wayleave is normally a temporary arrangement and does not automatically transfer to a new owner or occupier." More generally, a wayleave agreement can be used for any service provider.


title: Easement

text: In the United States, an "easement in gross" is used for such needs, especially for permanent rights.


title: Easement

text: An access easement can provide access from public land, road or path or a public right of way to a parcel of land. For example, if Zach and James own neighboring parcels of land, Zach's parcel may have easement rights to cross James's parcel from public land, road or path or a public right of way. In such a case, Zach's "dominant" parcel would contain an access easement to cross James's "servient" parcel.


title: Easement

text: Easements are most often created by express language in binding documents. Under most circumstances, having a conversation with another party is not sufficient. Parties generally grant an easement to another, or reserve an easement for themselves on disposition of land. An express easement may be "granted" or "reserved" in a deed or other legal instrument. Alternatively, it may be created by reference to a subdivision plan by "dedication" or in a restrictive covenant in the agreement of an owners association. Generally, the doctrines of contract law are central to disputes regarding express easements.


title: Easement

text: Implied easements are more complex and are determined by the courts based on the use of a property and the intention of the original parties, who can be private or public/government entities. Implied easements are not recorded or explicitly stated until a court decides a dispute, but reflect the practices and customs of use for a property. Courts typically refer to the intent of the parties, as well as prior use, to determine the existence of an implied easement. Disputes regarding implied easements usually apply the principles of property law.


title: Easement

text: A government authority or private service provider may acquire an implied easement over private land by virtue of the public service it performs. For example, a local authority may have the responsibility of installing and maintaining the sewage system in an urban area. Merely by the fact that it has that responsibility, usually enshrined in some statute or local laws, may give the authority the right, by virtue of an implied easement, to enter private property to carry out installation and maintenance. The location of the easement will not usually be described precisely, but its general position will be defined by the service route (i.e., the sewer pipes in this example). Power and water lines may also have implied easements linked to them, but drainage and stormwater systems are commonly precisely defined in location and recorded in the title documents for private land.


title: Easement

text: Despite the name, necessity alone is an insufficient claim to create any easement. Parcels without access to a public way may have an easement of access over adjacent land if crossing that land is "absolutely necessary" to reach the landlocked parcel and there has been some original intent to provide the lot with access, and the grant was never completed or recorded but is thought to exist. A court order is necessary to determine the existence of an easement by necessity. To obtain this generally the party which claims the easement files a lawsuit, and the judge weighs the relative damage caused by enforcing an easement against the servient estate against the damage to the dominant estate if the easement is found not to exist and is thus landlocked.


title: Easement

text: Because this method of creating an easement requires imposing a burden (the easement) upon another party for the benefit of the landlocked owner, the court looks to the original circumstances in weighing the relative apportionment of benefit and burden to both lots in making its equitable determination whether such easement shall be created by the court. This method of creating an easement, being an active creation by a court of an otherwise non-existent right, may be automatically extinguished upon termination of the necessity (for example, if a new public road is built adjacent to the landlocked tenement or another easement is acquired without regard to comparison of ease or practicality between the imposed easement and any valid substitute).


title: Easement

text: There is also an unwritten form of easement referred to as an implied easement or easement by implication, arising from the original subdivision of the land for continuous and obvious use of the adjacent parcel (e.g., for access to a road, or to a source of water) such as the right of lot owners in a subdivision to use the roadway on the approved subdivision plan without requiring a specific grant of easement to each new lot when first conveyed. An easement by necessity is distinguished from an "easement by implication" in that the easement by necessity arises only when "strictly necessary", whereas the easement by implication can arise when "reasonably necessary". Easement by necessity is a higher standard by which to imply an easement.


title: Easement

text: In India, easement of necessity could be claimed only in such cases where transfer, bequeathment or partition necessitates such claim.


title: Easement

text: As an example, some U.S. state statutes grant a permanent easement of access to any descendant of a person buried in a cemetery on private property.


title: Easement

text: An easement may also be created by prior use. Easements by prior use are based on the idea that land owners can intend to create an easement, but forget to include it in the deed.


title: Easement

text: A owns two lots. One lot has access to a public street and the second is tucked behind it and fully landlocked. A's driveway leads from the public street, across the first lot and onto the second lot to A's house. A then sells off the first lot but forgets to reserve a driveway easement in the deed.


title: Easement

text: Easements by prescription, also called prescriptive easements, are implied easements granted after the dominant estate has used the property in a hostile, continuous and open manner for a statutorily prescribed number of years. Prescriptive easements differ from adverse possession by not requiring exclusivity.


title: Easement

text: Once they become legally binding, easements by prescription hold the same legal weight as written or implied easements. But, before they become binding, they hold no legal weight and are broken if the true property owner takes appropriate acts to defend their ownership rights. Easement by prescription is typically found in legal systems based on common law, although other legal systems may also allow easement by prescription.


title: Easement

text: Laws and regulations vary among local and national governments, but some traits are common to most prescription laws:


title: Easement

text: Unlike fee simple adverse possession, prescriptive easements typically do not require "exclusivity". In states that do, such as Virginia, the exclusivity requirement has been interpreted to mean that the prescriptive user must use the easement in a different way from the general public, i.e., a use that is "exclusive" to that user.


title: Easement

text: The period of continuous use for a prescriptive easement to become binding is generally between 5 and 30 years depending upon local laws (sometimes based on the statute of limitations on trespass). Generally, if the true property owner acts appropriately to defend their property rights at any time during the required time period the hostile use will end, claims on adverse possession rights are voided, and the continuous use time period will be reset to zero.


title: Easement

text: In some jurisdictions, if the use is not hostile but given actual or implied consent by the legal property owner, the prescriptive easement may become a regular or implied easement rather than a prescriptive easement and immediately becomes binding. An example of this is the lengthy Irish Lissadell House rights of way case heard since 2010, that extended long-standing consents given to individuals into a public right of way.


title: Easement

text: In other jurisdictions, such permission immediately converts the easement into a terminable license, or restarts the time for obtaining a prescriptive easement.


title: Easement

text: Government- or railroad-owned property is generally immune from prescriptive easement in most cases, but some other types of government owned-property may be subject to prescription in certain instances. In New York, such government property is subject to a longer statute of limitations of action, 20 years instead of 10 years for private property.


title: Easement

text: In most U.S. jurisdictions, a prescriptive easement can only be determined for an "affirmative" easement not a "negative" easement. In all U.S. jurisdictions, an "easement for view" (which is a negative easement) cannot be created by prescription.


title: Easement

text: Prescription may also be used to end an existing legal easement. For example, if a servient tenement (estate) holder were to erect a fence blocking a legally deeded right-of-way easement, the dominant tenement holder would have to act to defend their easement rights during the statutory period or the easement might cease to have legal force, even though it would remain a deeded document. Failure to use an easement leading to loss of the easement is sometimes referred to as "non-user".


title: Easement

text: Under the civil law of Quebec possessors with the animus (will) to be owners can acquire a right of ownership (or to a dismemberment of ownership if animus is to inclined) as long as the nature of possession is peaceful, continuous, public and unequivocal throughout. (According to article 2922 of the Civil Code of Quebec or CCQ) the prescribed period is 10 years (2917–2920 CCQ), except as otherwise provided by law. (2918 sets a different time for unregistered property. Reduced from 30 years.)


title: Easement

text: Exceptions to prescription: Possession cannot establish a servitude under 1181 CCQ, but non-use of a servitude will extinguish it.


title: Easement

text: In the state of Louisiana, a mixed legal jurisdiction with strong civil law roots, prescription can be either acquisitive or liberative, both of which involve the creation or extinguishing of rights over time. "Acquisitive prescription" in Louisiana is analogous to the common law idea of adverse possession. As defined in La. C.C. Art. 3446, "acquisitive prescription is a mode of acquiring ownership or other real rights by possession for a period of time." Unlike the common law adverse position, Louisiana's acquisitive prescription is not a procedural bar to recovering property but the creation of a new ownership right in the property. Time periods for acquisitive prescription depend on whether the property is movable or immovable and whether the property is possessed in good faith (possessor believes they have title to the property) or in bad faith.


title: Easement

text: "Liberative prescription" is analogous to the common law statute of limitations. As defined in La. C.C. Art. 3447, "liberative prescription is a mode of barring of actions as a result of inaction for a period of time." It can be renewed by the party who has gained its protection. For example, a debtor's admission that a debt is still owed renews the creditor's claim against the debtor and starts the tolling of another prescriptive period. This differs from peremption, which is a fixed time for the existence of a legal right and which cannot be renewed like liberative prescription.


title: Easement

text: When a property owner misrepresents the existence of an easement while selling a property and does not include in the deed to the buyer an express easement over an adjoining property that the seller owns, a court may step in and create an easement. Easements by estoppel generally look to any promises not made in writing, any money spent by the benefiting party in reliance on the representations of the burdened party, and other factors. If the court finds that the buyer acted reasonably and in good faith and relied on the seller's promises, the court may create an easement by estoppel.


title: Easement

text: For example: Ray sells land to Joe on the promise that Joe can use Ray's driveway and bridge to the main road at any time, but Ray does not include the easement in the deed to the land. Joe, deciding that the land is now worth the price, builds a house and connects a garage to Ray's driveway. If Ray (or his successor) later decides to gate off the driveway and prevent Joe (or Joe's successor) from accessing the driveway, a court would likely find an easement by estoppel.


title: Easement

text: Because Joe purchased the land believing that there would be access to the bridge and the driveway and Joe then paid for a house and a connection, Joe can be said to rely on Ray's promise of an easement. Ray materially misrepresented the facts to Joe. In order to preserve equity, the court will likely find an easement by estoppel.


title: Easement

text: On the other hand, if Ray had offered access to the bridge and driveway "after" selling Joe the land, there may not be an easement by estoppel. In this instance, it is merely inconvenient if Ray revokes access to the driveway. Joe did not purchase the land and build the house in reliance on access to the driveway and bridge. Joe will need to find a separate theory to justify an easement.


title: Easement

text: In the United States, easements may be acquired (bought) by the government using its power of eminent domain in a "condemnation" proceeding in the courts. Note that in the United States, in accordance with the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, property cannot simply be taken by the government unless the property owner is compensated for the fair market value of what is taken. This is true whether the government acquires full ownership of the property ("fee title") or a lesser property interest, such as an easement. For example, utility providers are typically granted jurisdiction-wide easement to access and maintain their existing infrastructure.


title: Easement

text: In the law of England and Wales following the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into English law, any deprivation of the rights of the owner of property must be "in accordance with law" as well as "necessary in a democratic society" and "proportionate".


title: Easement

text: Licenses to use property in a nonpossessory manner are similar to but more limited than easements but, under certain circumstances, can be transformed into easements by the courts. Some general differences do exist:


title: Easement

text: Easements are regarded as a broader and more powerful than licenses and licenses that have any of the properties of an easement may be bound by the higher standards for termination granted by an easement.


title: Easement

text: Blocking access to someone who has an easement is a trespass upon the easement and creates a cause of action for civil suit. For example, putting up a fence across a long-used public path through private property may be a trespass and a court may order the obstacle removed. Turning off the water supply to a downstream neighbor may similarly trespass on the neighbor's water easement.


title: Easement

text: Open and continuous trespassing upon an easement can lead to the extinguishment of an easement by prescription (see above) if no action is taken to cure the limitation over an extended period.


title: Easement

text: Under the Torrens title system of land ownership registration, easements are recorded on the titles kept in the central land registry or cadastre and any unrecorded easement is not recognised. No easement by prescription or implication may be claimed unless it was created prior to the land being brought under the Torrens system or there is an exception to indefeasibility.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The illegal drug trade in Colombia has, since the 1970s, centered successively on four major drug trafficking cartels: Medellín, Cali, Norte del Valle, and North Coast, as well as several "bandas criminales", or BACRIMs. The trade eventually created a new social class and influenced several aspects of Colombian culture and politics.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Colombian government efforts to reduce the influence of drug-related criminal organizations is one of the origins of the Colombian conflict, an ongoing low-intensity war among rival narcoparamilitary groups, guerrillas and drug cartels fighting each other to increase their influence and against the Colombian government that struggles to stop them.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Colombia had the dubious distinction of being the world-leading producer of coca for many years Worldwide demand for psychoactive drugs during the 1960 and 1970s resulted in increased production and processing of these in Colombia. Cocaine produced at $1,500/kilo in jungle labs can be sold on the streets of the US for as much as $50,000/kilo. The US, the world's largest consumer of cocaine)and other illegal drugs, intervened in Colombia throughout this period in an attempt to cut off the supply of these drugs to the US. The drug barons of Colombia, such as Pablo Escobar and José Rodríguez Gacha, were long considered by authorities to be among the most dangerous, wealthy, and powerful men in the world.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Since the establishment of the War on Drugs, the United States and European countries have provided financial, logistical, tactical and military aid to the government of Colombia in order to implement plans to combat the illegal drug trade. The most notable of these programs has been the Plan Colombia which also intended to combat leftist organizations, such as the FARC guerrillas, who have controlled many coca-growing regions in Colombia over the past decades. These plans diminished the drug produced, to the extent that, in 2010 cocaine production was 60% lower than at the peak in 2000. In that same year, Peru surpassed Colombia as the main producer of coca leaves in the world. The level of drug-related violence was halved in the last 10 years and dropped below that of countries like Honduras, El Salvador, Venezuela, Guatemala and Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Colombia has acted in a more aggressive way than most of the countries which signed the 1988 Vienna Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, by including chemicals and drug precursors, that are freely traded in the rest of the world, in the list of nationally controlled substances. Notwithstanding the internal production of drugs, the rate of internal consumption in Colombia is smaller than in the United States and in many of the countries of the European Union and absolute drug consumption is even smaller.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Given the fact that the population of the United States is the largest user of illegal drugs in the world, with one in six citizens claiming to have used cocaine in their life, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), after reviewing the efficiency of the actions taken by the Colombian government for more than 20 years, has called for cocaine consuming countries - mostly in Europe and North America - to take their share of responsibility and reduce demand for cocaine, explaining that there are limits to what the Andean governments can do if cocaine consumption continues unabated, a position that has been maintained by the Colombian government for many years and was later accepted by the United States government.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Colombian National Police has captured and extradited drug lords at a rate of over 100 per year for the last 10 years and currently gives technical advice to 7 countries in Latin America and 12 in Africa. Drug traffickers have resisted those actions by killing five presidential candidates Luis Carlos Galán Sarmiento, Jaime Pardo Leal, Bernardo Jaramillo Ossa, Alvaro Gómez Hurtado and Carlos Pizarro Leongómez, by allegedly planning and financing the Palace of Justice siege that left 11 of the 25 Supreme Court Justices dead, by killing over 3,000 members of the Union Patriótica political party, and by assassinating countless police officers, judges and witnesses.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Between 1993 and 1999 Colombia became the main global producer of raw coca, as well as of refined cocaine, and one of the major exporters of heroin.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The value of the cocaine trade is assessed at $10 billion per year in U.S. dollars. Colombia's share of coca production is estimated at 43% of global production.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The effects of cocaine production range from environmental damage to effects on education, health and the country's economy.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The environment is damaged through deforestation caused by clearing fields for plant cultivation. Soil erosion and chemical pollution also have effects on Colombia. The issues are difficult to address because of the wealth and power of drug traffickers.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Many plantations provide prostitutes to sustain their employees. Sexually transmitted diseases are spread at a rapid pace and contribute to the workers' inability to heal from the flesh wounds and their incapability of survival outside of this environment.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The few positive outcomes from the manufacturing of cocaine include temporarily providing a job for a family struggling financially and raising Colombia's GDP and standard of living.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: In 2000 Colombia agreed, under US pressure, to begin researching fusarium based mycoherbicides. This was supported by some American politicians, but environmentalists were among those who fiercely objected to the use of the fungus, which causes the plant sickness fusarium wilt, citing broad ecological risks that it could endanger food crops and livestock. Significant opposition delayed the project, but its supporters said there was little scientific evidence to support such claims. According to a professor of botany at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel: "What you're doing is taking a disease that is already present and putting on more of it." However, fusarium outbreaks in Peru had little impact on coca cultivation and specialists expressed doubts about whether such an herbicide would be efficacious.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Prohibition of drugs in Colombia was based on the introduction of prohibition laws in the United States with the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 which prohibited the production and consumption of opiates and cocaine, in 1937 added marijuana, tobacco and alcohol and later on a variety of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogenic drugs between 1964 and 1968.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Some psychoactive drugs were already grown in Colombia at limited level by local indigenous groups, who mostly employed marijuana and coca leaves for ceremonial and traditional medical uses as part of their culture.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: To counter increasing production and consumption, the government of the United States and the government of Colombia along with other countries initiated a campaign called the "War on Drugs".


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Black Tuna Gang was a Miami-based Colombian marijuana-trafficking group. It was responsible for bringing in over 500 tons of marijuana over a 16-month period in the mid-70s.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: With prohibition, established producers and traffickers formed armed and clandestine cartels. During the 1980s, as demand increased, the cartels expanded and organized into major criminal conglomerates usually headed by one or several kingpins as in the case of the Medellín Cartel and the North Coast Cartel, along with federation-style groups such as the Cali Cartel and Norte del Valle Cartel.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Medellín Cartel led by Pablo Escobar established a ruthless organization, kidnapping or murdering those who interfered with its objectives. The Medellín Cartel was responsible for the murders of hundreds of people, including government officials, politicians, law enforcement members, journalists, relatives of same, and innocent bystanders. When conflicts emerged between the Medellín Cartel and the guerrillas, the cartel also promoted the creation of paramilitary groups.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The cartel originally imported most coca from Bolivia and Peru, processing it into cocaine inside Colombia and then distributing it through most of the trafficking routes and distribution points in the U.S., including Florida, California and New York.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The pressure mounted by the US and Colombian governments to counter them led to the cartel's destruction. Most of the cartel's associates were gunned down by police and military forces or turned themselves in to authorities in exchange for lenient prison terms.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Cali Cartel, also known as "Cali's Gentlemen", was based in southern Colombia, around the city of Cali and the Valle del Cauca Department. The Cali Cartel was founded by the Rodríguez Orejuela brothers, Gilberto and Miguel, as well as associate José Santacruz Londoño. The Cali Cartel originally began as a ring of kidnappers known as "Las Chemas". The profits of kidnapping helped finance the ring's move to drug trafficking, originally beginning in Marijuana and eventually spreading to cocaine. The cartel's estimated revenue would eventually reach an estimated $7 billion a year.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The cartel's influence spread to the political and justice system. It also played a role in the manhunt that led to the death of Pablo Escobar and helped form the vigilante group "Los Pepes", which worked alongside members of the government's elite Bloque de Busqueda, exchanging information on the whereabouts of Escobar and key figures in the Medellín Cartel.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: After the collapse of the cartel, it was discovered it was wiretapping phone calls made into and out of Bogotá, and was engaged in money laundering using numerous front companies spread throughout Colombia.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Norte del Valle Cartel, or North Valley Cartel, was a drug cartel which operated principally in the north of the Valle del Cauca department of Colombia. It rose to prominence during the second half of the 1990s, after the Cali Cartel and the Medellín Cartel fragmented, and was known as one of the most powerful organizations in the illegal drugs trade. The chiefs of the Norte del Valle cartel included Diego León Montoya Sánchez, Wilber Varela and Juan Carlos Ramírez Abadía. Of the original leaders of the cartel, Wilber Varela was the last remaining member being sought by the authorities, but was found dead on January 31, 2008.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The Norte del Valle cartel is estimated to have exported more than 1.2 million pounds – or 500 metric tons – of cocaine worth in excess of $10 billion from Colombia to Mexico and ultimately to the United States for resale. Indictments filed in the United States charge the Norte del Valle cartel with using violence and brutality to further its goals, including the murder of rivals, individuals who failed to pay for cocaine, and associates who were believed to be working as informants.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Leaders of the Norte del Valle cartel were further alleged to have bribed and corrupted Colombian law enforcement and Colombian legislators to, among other things, attempt to block the extradition of Colombian narcotics traffickers to the United States for further prosecution. According to the indictments filed in the United States, members of the Norte del Valle cartel even conducted their own wiretaps in Colombia to intercept the communications of rival drug traffickers and Colombian and United States law enforcement officials.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The cartel is believed to have employed the services of the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), a right-wing paramilitary organization internationally classified as a terrorist organization, to protect the cartel's drug routes, its drug laboratories, and its members and associates. The AUC is one of the 37 Foreign Terrorist Organizations identified by the U.S. State Department in 2004.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The North Coast Cartel was based in the Colombian city of Barranquilla by the Caribbean coast and was headed by Alberto Orlandez Gamboa ""Caracol"" (the snail), who was considered as ruthless as Pablo Escobar. The organization transshipped significant amounts of cocaine to the United States and Europe via the smuggling routes it controlled from Colombia's North Coast through the Caribbean. As head of the organization, Gamboa depended on his close associates to conduct the organization's operations and to insulate himself.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The success of Caracol's Barranquilla-based drug trafficking organization was attributed in part, to the respect the drug organization received from other traffickers operating on Colombia's North Coast. DEA Intelligence indicated that traffickers paid taxes to Gamboa's organization in order to be allowed to ship drugs out of the North Coast. His influence in this region was so strong that traffickers even asked him for permission before conducting assassinations.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: On June 6, 1998, Caracol was arrested in Barranquilla, as a result of an ongoing joint investigation between DEA's Barranquilla Resident Office and the Colombian National Police. After his arrest, Caracol immediately was flown to Bogotá, where he was held on murder, kidnapping, and terrorism charges. He was extradited to the United States in August 2000. On March 13, 2003, Caracol pleaded guilty to participating in a narcotics trafficking conspiracy that smuggled tens of thousands of kilograms of cocaine into New York and other cities. His plea was announced on the morning he was to go on trial in Federal District Court in Manhattan after losing a crucial appellate ruling. After the capture of Gamboa the Colombian National Police succeeded in dismantling the North Coast Cartel.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: New paramilitary groups and related drug trafficking organizations that have continued operating after the AUC demobilization process are referred to as "bandas criminales emergentes" or BACRIM (Spanish for "emerging criminal organizations") by the Colombian government.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Until 2011, Colombia remained the world's largest cocaine producer. Since 2003, Human Rights Watch stated that, according to their Colombian intelligence sources, "40 percent of the country's total cocaine exports" were controlled by these paramilitaries. And in 2011 an independent investigation made by the Colombian newspaper "El Tiempo" estimated that 50% of all Colombian cocaine was controlled by the same BACRIM groups.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: According to the Colombian National Police, these groups had 3,749 members by July 2010. The NGO "Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz" has indicated they would have approximately 6,000 armed combatants. Others estimate their ranks may include up to 10,000 people.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The successor groups are often made up of mid-level paramilitary commanders and criminal structures that either did not demobilize in the first place or were re-activated after the demobilizations had concluded. Many demobilized paramilitaries received recruitment offers, were threatened into joining the new organizations or have simultaneously rearmed and remained in government reintegration programs. New recruits have also come from traditional areas for paramilitary recruitment.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: These groups continue to be involved in the drug trade, commit widespread human rights abuses, engage in forced displacement and undermine democratic legitimacy in other ways, both in collusion with and opposition to FARC-EP guerrillas. Their targets have included human rights defenders, labor unionists and victims of the former AUC. Members of government security forces have also been accused of tolerating their growth.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: In December 2010, ERPAC paramilitary leader Pedro Guerrero, also known as "Cuchillo" or "Knife", died after a police raid.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Perhaps the greatest threat posed to the Medellín Cartel and the other traffickers was the implementation of an extradition treaty between the United States and Colombia. It allowed Colombia to extradite any Colombian suspected of drug trafficking to the US and to be put on trial there for their crimes.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: This was a major problem for the cartel since the drug traffickers had little access to their local power and influence in the US, and a trial there would most likely lead to imprisonment. Among the staunch supporters of the extradition treaty were Colombian Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, Police Officer Jaime Ramírez and numerous Supreme Court Judges.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: However, the cartel applied a "bend or break" strategy towards several of these supporters. When attacks against the police began to cause major losses, some of the major drug lords themselves were temporarily pushed out of Colombia, going into hiding while they ordered cartel members to take out key supporters of the extradition treaty.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: During the 1980s, the Medellín Cartel leader Pablo Escobar, who already possessed considerable wealth, attempted to expand his influence and notoriety by entering into Colombian political life through the political movement of liberal leader Luis Carlos Galán named New Liberalism. Escobar succeeded in becoming deputy to congressman Alberto Santofimio, but after the provenance of Escobar's wealth and his mounting influence were made a public controversy Galán was forced to reject him from his political movement and pushed for an extradition treaty with the United States.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Another member of the Medellín Cartel, Carlos Lehder, used his cocaine wealth to make a push for political power. His movement was populist, funding free education and health programs in rural areas and the construction of homes for slum-dwellers. His rhetoric was also anti-American, anti-Russian and anti-imperialist. His program showed similarities with that of Pablo Escobar, who paid for lighting to be installed in local football clubs and also paid for housing for slum-dwellers. The active political stance of some members of the Medellín Cartel was a significant factor in the attempts of the Colombian state to destroy their influence in the country.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: In contrast, the Cali Cartel adopted a much more subtle and non-confrontational attitude. Many of its bosses were from already wealthy and influential families, and they tended to invest their earnings from the cocaine trade in legitimate businesses. This often included complementary businesses, such as pharmacy and chemical manufacturing, which provided a cover for the purchase of the chemicals needed to refine the coca-paste purchased in the coca-growing regions into cocaine for export to the USA.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: The cartel's non-confrontational strategy and its integration within the existing power structure, in contrast to the political challenge attempted by members of the Medellín Cartel, meant that they were threatened much less by law enforcement, from both Colombian investigators and the DEA. The head of the DEA in Bogotá said that in comparison with the Medellín bosses, the Cali bosses were "more refined, more cultured". The DEA regularly left the Cali Cartel alone in exchange for information that would allow them to arrest figures from the Medellín Cartel.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: With the fall of the two main drug trafficking cartels of Medellín and Cali in the 1990s, some of organizations that inherited their drug routes were members of the newly formed Norte del Valle Cartel. The FARC and ELN guerrillas came to control the coca-growing regions in the Colombian Amazon and to tax the income from the sale of coca-paste. The right-wing para-military groups initially grew out of the private armies of cocaine cartels.


title: Illegal drug trade in Colombia

text: Para-military groups such as the AUC assassinated trade unionists, left-wing priests and any others deemed to be leftist sympathists. They have also collaborated with Colombian state forces. "The strengthening of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) during the 1990s was an unintended consequence of a series of tactical successes in U.S. anti-drug policies. These included dismantling the Medellín and Cali drug cartels, interdicting coca coming into Colombian processing facilities, and using drug certification requirements to pressure the Colombian government to attack drug cartels and allow aerial fumigation of coca crops. These successes, however, merely pushed coca cultivation increasingly to FARC-dominated areas while weakening many of the FARC's political-military opponents. This provided the FARC with unprecedented opportunities to extract resources from the cocaine industry to deepen its long insurgency against the Colombian state."


title: Hulder

text: A hulder (or huldra) is a seductive forest creature found in Scandinavian folklore. Her name derives from a root meaning "covered" or "secret". In Norwegian folklore, she is known as huldra ("the [archetypal] hulder", though folklore presupposes that there is an entire Hulder race and not just a single individual). She is known as the skogsrå "forest spirit" or Tallemaja "pine tree Mary" in Swedish folklore, and in Sámi folklore. Her name suggests that she is originally the same being as the völva divine figure Huld and the German Holda.


title: Hulder

text: The word hulder is only used of a female; a "male hulder" is called a "huldrekall" and also appears in Norwegian folklore. This being is closely related to other underground dwellers, usually called "tusser" (sg., "tusse").


title: Hulder

text: Though described as beautiful, the huldra is noted for having a distinctive inhuman feature—an animal's tail (usually a cow's or a fox's) and/or a back resembling a hollowed-out tree.


title: Hulder

text: The hulder is one of several "rå" (keeper, warden), including the aquatic "sjörå" or "havsfru", later identified with a mermaid, and the "bergsrå" in caves and mines who made life tough for the poor miners.


title: Hulder

text: More information can be found in the collected Norwegian folktales of Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe.


title: Hulder

text: The hulders were held to be kind to charcoal burners, watching their charcoal kilns while they rested. Knowing that she would wake them if there were any problems, they were able to sleep, and in exchange they left provisions for her in a special place. A tale from Närke illustrates further how kind a hulder could be, especially if treated with respect (Hellström 1985:15).


title: Hulder

text: A multitude of places in Scandinavia are named after the Hulders, often places by legend associated with the presence of the "hidden folk". Here are some examples showing the wide distribution of Hulder-related toponyms between the northern and southern reaches of Scandinavia, and the terms usage in different language groups' toponyms.


title: Hulder

text: In the subsequent "Year Walk: Bedtime Stories for Awful Children," the first chapter is devoted to the Huldra.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Sérgio Miguel Relvas de Oliveira (born 2 June 1992) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Süper Lig club Galatasaray and the Portugal national team.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: He spent the better part of his career with Porto after making his first-team debut at the age of 17, going on to appear in 174 competitive matches and win three Primeira Liga championships, three Taça de Portugal and two Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira. He was also loaned to Beira-Mar, Mechelen, Penafiel, Nantes, PAOK and Roma, winning another double with PAOK in the 2018–19 season and the Europa Conference League with Roma in 2022. In the Portuguese top division, he also represented Paços de Ferreira.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira finished second at the 2015 European Under-21 Championship with Portugal. He made his senior debut in 2018, being part of the squad at Euro 2020.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Born in Paços de Brandão, Santa Maria da Feira, Aveiro District, Oliveira arrived at FC Porto's youth system in 2002, at the age of 10. On 17 October 2009, he became the club's youngest ever player to appear for the first team, at the age of 17 years, four months and 15 days, in a 4–0 home win against Sertanense F.C. in the third round of the Taça de Portugal; during the game, he provided an assist for Hulk in one of the goals. The following month, he signed a renewed contract, running until June 2012 with a €30 million buyout clause.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira was loaned to S.C. Beira-Mar of the Primeira Liga for the 2010–11 campaign. He made his debut in the competition on 23 October 2010, playing one minute in a 1–1 away draw with F.C. Paços de Ferreira.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: In the summer of 2011, still owned by Porto, Oliveira was deemed surplus to requirements by new manager Vítor Pereira as practically all Portuguese players, and joined Belgian club K.V. Mechelen. In the following transfer window, in the same situation, he returned to his country and signed for F.C. Penafiel in the second division.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira agreed to a three-year contract with Paços de Ferreira for 2013–14, also in the Portuguese top tier. In each of his two seasons, he scored twice in the league.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: After having been sold back to Porto before the start of the 2015–16 campaign, Oliveira scored his first competitive goal for the side on 3 February 2016, helping to a 3–0 away defeat of Gil Vicente F.C. in the semi-finals of the domestic cup. Late into the 2017 January transfer window, he was loaned to FC Nantes as the French side was coached by compatriot Sérgio Conceição, who subsequently would be his boss at Porto.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira was a very important unit for the 2017–18 national champions, first rising to prominence after a remarkable performance against AS Monaco FC in the group stage of the UEFA Champions League. His importance grew even further as he spent the final stretch of the season as a starter, forming a revamped midfield partnership with Héctor Herrera after Danilo Pereira suffered a serious injury which ruled him out for several months.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira still took the field in the 2018 edition of the Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira, a 3–1 victory over C.D. Aves. On 31 January 2019, having ceased to be part of Conceição's plans, he joined PAOK FC on a five-month loan deal. On 18 February, he contributed to a 5–1 Super League Greece rout at Apollon Smyrnis F.C. for his first goal. He added two more the following month in wins against Atromitos FC (3–0) and Xanthi FC (2–1), and eventually helped the club conquer the double for the first time in its history.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: In the 2019–20 campaign, Oliveira played 34 games in all competitions and scored five times to win another double, edging S.L. Benfica on both domestic fronts. In the final of the Portuguese Cup, he came on as an 80th-minute substitute for Jesús Corona as his team (reduced to ten men since the end of the first half) held on to a 2–1 victory in Coimbra.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira achieved a career-best 20 goals in 2020–21. On 9 March 2021, he scored a brace in a 3–2 loss after extra-time to Juventus F.C. in the Champions League round of 16 – an early penalty and a 115th-minute free kick – to qualify his team on the away goals rule. Consequently, he was given the "Dragão de Ouro" award for Porto's footballer of the year.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Subsequently, Oliveira attracted interest from clubs such as ACF Fiorentina, A.S. Roma and Tottenham Hotspur. As the summer transfer window closed, no moves materialised, and he began the 2021–22 season on the bench, as fellow youth graduate Bruno Costa who had just been re-signed started in his place. However, after scoring a late winner in a 2–1 league victory against Gil Vicente, he returned to the starting eleven.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: On 12 January 2022, Oliveira joined Serie A club Roma, coached by his compatriot José Mourinho; the €1 million loan deal included a €13.5 million buying option at the end of the campaign. He scored on his debut four days later, his 33rd-minute penalty being the only goal of the home fixture with Cagliari Calcio. He made six appearances as the "Giallorossi" won the inaugural edition of the UEFA Europa Conference League, and scored the only goal in the last-16 first leg away to SBV Vitesse in which he was also sent off; he replaced the injured Henrikh Mkhitaryan after a quarter of an hour in the final on 25 May in another single-goal win over a Dutch side, Feyenoord.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: On 9 July 2022, Galatasaray S.K. announced the signing of Oliveira on a four-year contract. He made his Süper Lig debut on 7 August, starting as the season began with a 1–0 win at Antalyaspor. His first goal came on 16 September to open a 2–1 home victory over Konyaspor in 59 seconds.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira was selected by the Portugal under-19 team for the 2010 UEFA European Championship; in the tournament in France, he scored in a 2–0 group stage victory over Italy as both nations went on to be eliminated after the first three games. He was also part of the under-20 side at the 2011 FIFA World Cup in Colombia, finishing in second place.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira was the captain of the under-21s at the 2015 European Championship in the Czech Republic. He hit the crossbar in the first half of the final against Sweden, and was replaced as they went on to lose in a penalty shootout after a 0–0 draw in Prague.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: Oliveira was selected by full side manager Fernando Santos to a preliminary 35-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but he did not make the final cut. He won his first cap on 6 September of that year, replacing William Carvalho for the final ten minutes of a 1–1 friendly draw with Croatia in São João da Venda, Algarve. His maiden competitive appearance took place four days later, when he came on for the same player late into a 1–0 win over Italy for the UEFA Nations League.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: On 20 May 2021, Oliveira was named in the squad for UEFA Euro 2020. He made his debut in the competition on 23 June, in a 2–2 draw against France which closed the group stage.


title: Sérgio Oliveira

text: In October 2022, Oliveira was included in a preliminary 55-man squad for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are attributed to him, such as the Roman calendar, Vestal Virgins, the cult of Mars, the cult of Jupiter, the cult of Romulus, and the office of "pontifex maximus".


title: Numa Pompilius

text: According to Plutarch, Numa was the youngest of Pomponius's four sons, born on the day of Rome's founding (traditionally, 21 April 753 BC). He lived a severe life of discipline and banished all luxury from his home. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines and a colleague of Romulus, gave in marriage his only daughter, Tatia, to Numa. After 13 years of marriage, Tatia died, precipitating Numa's retirement to the countryside. According to Livy, Numa resided at Cures immediately before being elected king.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Titus Livius (Livy) and Plutarch refer to the story that Numa was instructed in philosophy by Pythagoras but discredit it as chronologically and geographically implausible.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Plutarch reports that some authors credited him with only a single daughter, Pompilia. Pompilia's mother is variously identified as Numa's first wife Tatia or his second wife Lucretia. She is said to have married the son of the first "pontifex maximus" Numa Marcius, also named Numa Marcius, and by him gave birth to the future king Ancus Marcius.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Other authors, according to Plutarch, gave Numa, in addition, five sons, Pompo (or Pomponius), Pinus, Calpus, Mamercus, and Numa, from whom the noble families "(gentes)" of the Pomponii, Pinarii, Calpurnii, Aemilii, and Pompilii respectively traced their descent. Still other writers, writes Plutarch, believed these were fictional genealogies to enhance the status of these families.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: After the death of Romulus, there was an interregnum of one year in which members of the Senate exercised the royal power in rotation for five days in a row. In 715 BC, after much bickering between the factions of Romulus (the Romans) and Tatius (the Sabines), a compromise was reached, and the Senate elected the Sabine, Numa, who was approximately forty years of age as the next king.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: At first, Numa refused the offer of kingship. He argued that Rome, under the influence of Romulus's rule, was still a country of war. It needed a ruler who would lead their armies, not someone who lived a life of piety and reflection. However, his father and Sabine kinsmen, including his teacher and the father of Numa's son-in-law, Marcus, along with an embassy of two senators from Rome, together persuaded him to accept. In Plutarch and Livy's account, Numa, after being summoned by the Senate from Cures, was offered the tokens of power amid an enthusiastic reception by the people of Rome. He requested, however, that an augur should divine the opinion of the gods on the prospect of his kingship before he accepted. Jupiter was consulted, and the omens were favourable. Thus approved by the Roman and Sabine people and the heavens, he took up his position as King of Rome.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: According to Plutarch, Numa's first act was to disband the personal guard of 300 so-called celeres (the "Swift") with which Romulus permanently surrounded himself. This gesture is variously interpreted as self-protection in the face of their questionable loyalty, a sign of humility, or a sign of peace and moderation.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Based on Roman chronology, Numa died of old age in 672 BC. After a reign of 43 years, he was about 81 years old. At his request, he was not cremated but instead buried in a stone coffin on the Janiculum near the altar of Fons. Tullus Hostilius succeeded him.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Rome had two kings in succession who differed in their methods. Romulus was a king of war while Numa was a king of peace, and thus Rome was well versed in both the arts of war and peace.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa was traditionally celebrated by the Romans for his wisdom and piety. In addition to the endorsement by Jupiter, he is supposed to have had a direct and personal relationship with a number of deities, most famously the nymph Egeria, who, according to legend, taught him to be a wise legislator. According to Livy, Numa claimed that he held nightly consultations with Egeria on the proper manner of instituting sacred rites for the city. Numa then appointed the priests for each of the deities. Plutarch suggests that he played on superstition to give himself an aura of awe and divine allure in order to cultivate more gentle behaviour among the warlike early Romans, such as honoring the gods, abiding by law, behaving humanely to enemies, and living proper, respectable lives.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa was said to have authored several "sacred books" in which he had written down divine teachings, mostly from Egeria and the Muses. Plutarch (citing Valerius Antias) and Livy record that at his request he was buried along with these "sacred books", preferring that the rules and rituals they prescribed be preserved in the living memory of the state priests, rather than preserved as relics subject to forgetfulness and disuse. About half of these books—Plutarch and Livy differ on their number—were thought to cover the priesthoods he had established or developed, including the "flamines", "pontifices", "Salii", and "fetiales" and their rituals. The other books dealt with philosophy ("disciplina sapientiae"). According to Plutarch, these books were recovered some four hundred years later (in reality almost five hundred years, i. e. in 181 BC according to Livy ) at the occasion of a natural accident that exposed the tomb. They were examined by the Senate, deemed to be inappropriate for disclosure to the people, and burned. Dionysius of Halicarnassus hints that they were actually kept as a very close secret by the "pontifices".


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa is reputed to have constrained the two minor gods Picus and Faunus into delivering some prophecies of things to come.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa, supported and prepared by Egeria, reportedly held a battle of wits with Jupiter himself, in an apparition whereby Numa sought to gain a protective ritual against lightning strikes and thunder.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Once, when a plague was ravaging the population, a brass shield fell from the sky and was brought to Numa. He declared that Egeria had told him it was a gift from Jupiter to be used for Rome's protection. He ordered ceremonies to give thanks for the gift and quickly brought about an end to the plague. The Ancile became a sacred relic of the Romans and was placed in the care of the Salii.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: One of Numa's first acts was the construction of a temple of Janus as an indicator of peace and war. The temple was constructed at the foot of the Argiletum, a road in the city. After securing peace with Rome's neighbours, the doors of the temples were shut and remained so for the duration of Numa's reign, a unique case in Roman history.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Another creation attributed to Numa was the cult of Terminus, a god of boundaries. Through this rite, which involved sacrifices at private properties, boundaries and landmarks, Numa reportedly sought to instill in Romans the respect of lawful property and non-violent relationships with neighbours. The cult of Terminus, preached Numa, involved absence of violence and murder. The god was a testament to justice and a keeper of peace. In a somehow comparable, more moral rather than legal fashion, Numa sought to associate himself with one of the roles of Vegoia in the religious system of the neighbouring Etruscans by deciding to set the official boundaries of the territory of Rome, which Romulus had never wanted, presumably with the same concern of preserving peace.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Recognizing the paramount importance of the "Ancile", King Numa had eleven matching shields made, so perfect that no one, even Numa, could distinguish the original from the copies. These shields were the "Ancilia", the sacred shields of Jupiter, which were carried each year in a procession by the Salii priests. Numa also established the office and duties of Pontifex Maximus and instituted (Plutarch's version) the flamen of Quirinus, in honour of Romulus, in addition to those of Jupiter and Mars that already existed. Numa also brought the Vestal Virgins to Rome from Alba Longa. Plutarch adds that they were then at the number of two, were later augmented to four by Servius Tullius and stayed so through the ages.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: By tradition, Numa promulgated a calendar reform, which divided the year into twelve months according to the lunar course, but adjusted to be in accordance with the solstitial revolution. It was during this time that the months of January and February were introduced. Numa also made the distinction of the days being either profane or sacred.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: In other Roman institutions established by Numa, Plutarch thought he detected a Laconian influence, attributing the connection to the Sabine culture of Numa, for "Numa was descended of the Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians."


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Livy and Dionysius give a largely concordant picture of the vast founding work carried out by Numa concerning Roman religion and religious institutions. Livy's account is concise: it occupies the whole chapters 20 and 21 of his first book.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: He created a residentiary flamen to Jupiter endowed with regal insignia, who could carry out the sacred functions of the royal office, which usually he himself discharged: he did so to avoid the neglect of the rites whenever the king went to war, for he saw the warlike attitude of the Romans. He also created the flamines of Mars and Quirinus, the Vestal virgins, who were salaried by the state treasury, the twelfth Salii of Mars Gradivus with their peculiar custom and ritual. Then he chose Numa Marcius as pontiff. To him he bestowed all the sacred ceremonies, his books and seals. The following words of this passage have been considered a systematic summary exposition of Roman religion:


title: Numa Pompilius

text: quibus hostiis, quibus diebus, ad quae templa sacra fierent atque unde in eos sumptus pecunia erogaretur. Cetera quoque omnia publica privataque sacra pontificis scitis subiecit, ut esset quo consultum plebes veniret, ne quid divini iuris negligendo patrios ritus peregrinosque adsciscendo turbaretur. Nec celestes modo caerimonias sed iusta quoque funebria placandosque manes ut idem pontificem edoceret, quaeque prodigia fulminibus a Iove quo visu missa susciperentur atque curarentur.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: [translated]...[showing] with what victims, upon what days, and at what temples the sacred rites were to be performed, and from what funds the money was to be taken to defray the expenses. He also placed all other religious institutions, public and private, under the control of the decrees of the pontiff, to the end that there might be some authority to whom the people should come to ask advice, to prevent any confusion in the divine worship being caused by their neglecting the ceremonies of their own country, and adopting foreign ones. He further ordained that the same pontiff should instruct the people not only in the ceremonies connected with the heavenly deities, but also in the due performance of funeral solemnities, and how to appease the shades of the dead; and what prodigies sent by lightning or any other phenomenon were to be attended to and expiated.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Livy lists the "hostiae", victims, as the first competence of the pontiffs: following come the days, temples, money, other sacred ceremonies, funerals and prodigies. The potential for classification inherent in this text has been remarked by modern historians of Roman religion, even though some, as Bouché-Leclercq, think of a tripartite structure, rather than a division into five (Turchi) or seven parts (Peruzzi). At any rate it is an important document of pontifical derivation that establishes a sort of hierarchic order of competences.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Livy continues saying Numa dedicated an altar to Jupiter Elicius as the source of religious knowledge and consulted the god by means of auguries as to what should be expiated; instituted a yearly festival to "Fides" (Faith) and commanded the three major flamines to be carried to her temple in an arched chariot and to perform the service with their hands wrapped up to the fingers, meaning Faith had to be sacred as in men's right hand; among many other rites he instituted he dedicated places of the Argei.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Dionysius of Halicarnassus devotes much more space to Numa's religious reforms. In his account the institution of eight priesthoods is attributed to Numa: "curiones", "flamines", "celeres", augurs, vestals, "salii", fetials, pontiffs. However, the space he devotes to the description of these priesthoods and the official duties they discharged is very uneven. He says only a few words about the "curiones", who were in charge of tending the sacrifices of the "curiae"; the "flamines"; the "tribuni celerum", who were the bodyguard of the king but who also took part in some religious ceremonies; and the augurs, who were in charge of official divination. He devotes much more attention to the last four priesthoods of his list, particularly the vestals and the "salii".


title: Numa Pompilius

text: His minute prescriptions about the ceremonies and sacrifices were certainly written down in order to remember them correctly. Plutarch records some of these such as sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even number to the nether gods; the prohibition of making libations to the gods with wine; the prohibition of sacrificing without flour; the necessity of making a complete turn on oneself while praying and worshiping the gods.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Numa was credited with dividing the immediate territory of Rome into "pagi" (villages) and establishing the traditional occupational guilds of Rome:


title: Numa Pompilius

text: So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he formed the companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers, skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and reduced into a single company, appointing every one their proper courts, councils, and observances. (Plutarch)


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Plutarch, in like manner, tells of the early religion of the Romans, that it was imageless and spiritual. He says Numa "forbade the Romans to represent the deity in the form either of man or of beast. Nor was there among them formerly any image or statue of the Divine Being; during the first one hundred and seventy years they built temples, indeed, and other sacred domes, but placed in them no figure of any kind; persuaded that it is impious to represent things Divine by what is perishable, and that we can have no conception of God but by the understanding".


title: Numa Pompilius

text: William Blackstone says that Numa may be credited with "originally inventing" corporations: "They were introduced, as Plutarch says, by Numa; who finding, upon his accession, the city torn to pieces by the two rival factions of Sabines, and Romans, thought it a prudent and politic measure, to subdivide these two into many smaller ones, by instituting separate societies of every manual trade and profession."


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Livy narrates that, in 181 BC, while digging in the field of the "scriba" L. Petilius at the foot of the Ianiculum, peasants found two stone coffers, eight feet long and four feet wide, inscribed both in Latin and in Greek characters, one stating that Numa Pompilus, son of Pompon, king of the Romans was buried (there) and the other that Numa's books were inside it. When Petilius after the advice of his friends opened it, the one that was inscribed with the name of the king was found empty, the other containing two bundles each of seven books, not complete but looking very recent, seven in Latin dealing with pontifical law and seven in Greek of philosophy as it was in that remote past.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: The books were shown to other people and the fact became public. Praetor Q. Petilius, who was friends with L. Petilius, requested them, found them very dangerous to religion and told Lucius he would have them burnt, but he allowed him to try and recover them by legal or other means. The scriba brought the case to the tribunes of the plebs, and the tribunes in turn brought it to the senate. The praetor declared he was ready to swear an oath that it was not a good thing either to read or to store those books, and the senate deliberated that the offer of the oath was sufficient by itself, that the books be burnt on the "Comitium" as soon as possible and that an indemnity fixed by the praetor and the tribunes be paid to the owner. L. Petilius though declined to accept the sum. The books were burnt by the "victimarii".


title: Numa Pompilius

text: The action of the praetor has been seen as politically motivated, and in accord with the Catonian reaction of those years. It is relevant though that some of the annalists of those times or only a few years later, do not seem to show any doubt about the authenticity of the books. The whole incident has been critically analyzed again by philologist E. Peruzzi, who by comparing the different versions, strives to demonstrate the overall authenticity of the books. By contrast, M.J. Pena's position is more reserved and critical.


title: Numa Pompilius

text: Francophone scholars A. Delatte and J. Carcopino believe the incident to be the result of a real initiative of the pythagoric sect of Rome. The fears of the Roman authorities should be explained in connection to the nature of the doctrines contained in the books, which are supposed to have contained a type of "physikòs lógos", a partly moral and partly cosmological interpretation of religious beliefs that has been proven by Delatte to be proper of the ancient pythagorism. Part of it must have been in contradiction with the beliefs of fulgural and augural art and of the "procuratio" of the prodigies. Most ancient authors relate the presence of treatises of pythagoric philosophy, but some, as Sempronius Tuditanus, mention only religious decrees.


title: The Hole (2001 film)

text: The Hole is a 2001 British psychological thriller film directed by Nick Hamm, based on the 1993 novel "After the Hole" by Guy Burt. The film stars Thora Birch, Desmond Harrington, Daniel Brocklebank, Laurence Fox, Keira Knightley, and Embeth Davidtz. Filmed in 2000, the film featured Thora Birch in the lead role which was attributed to her appearance in "American Beauty" (1999). It also marked Knightley's first major role in a feature film.


title: The Hole (2001 film)

text: "The Hole" was released in the United Kingdom on 20 April 2001 and grossed a total of $7.8 million. Dimension Films, which in October 2001 acquired the rights to distribute the film theatrically in the United States, never did so; it was instead released direct-to-video nearly two years later, by Dimension's then-fellow Disney subsidiary Buena Vista Distribution. The film was shot at Bray Studios and various locations around southern England, including Downside School in Somerset.


title: The Hole (2001 film)

text: Private school student Liz resurfaces, disheveled and bloody, after disappearing 18 days prior along with her peers Mike, Geoff, and Frankie. Liz is interviewed by a psychiatrist, Dr. Phillipa Horwood. Liz recounts how her friend Martin arranged for the four to spend the weekend in an abandoned underground nuclear fallout shelter to avoid a school field trip. Liz portrays herself as being unpopular but as Frankie is her friend, she was able to convince the others to go down into the shelter.


title: The Hole (2001 film)

text: When Martin fails to return for them, the four realise they are trapped, and begin to turn on one another. They discover hidden microphones in the shelter which were placed there by Martin. Attempting to get Martin's attention, Frankie pretends to be ill, while Mike and Liz feign hatred for one another; Martin has had unrequited romantic feelings for her since their childhood. Liz claims they woke up one morning and found the hatch opened, allowing them all to finally escape.


title: The Hole (2001 film)

text: Phillipa is skeptical of Liz's story. Martin is subsequently taken into police custody, where he tells an entirely different story: He claims Liz and Frankie orchestrated the scheme in order for Liz to get to know Mike better, and for Frankie to spend time with Geoff. Liz is not the unpopular loner she has portrayed herself as, in fact it is Martin who is the loner while Liz and Frankie are the popular girls. Meanwhile, Liz returns home, where she experiences disturbing flashbacks about what happened. An enraged Martin goes to visit Liz, believing she is framing him. She runs from him through the garden and approaches a weir. Martin cries, and Liz says that she knew they would let him go because they could not prove anything.