title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Robert Houghwout Jackson (February 13, 1892 – October 9, 1954) was an American lawyer, jurist, and politician who served as an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1941 until his death in 1954. He had previously served as United States Solicitor General and United States Attorney General, and is the only person to have held all three of those offices. Jackson was also notable for his work as Chief United States Prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals following World War II.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was the last U.S. Supreme Court justice who did not have a law degree. He was admitted to the bar via the older tradition of reading law under an established lawyer, after studying at Albany Law School for just a year. Jackson is well known for his advice that, "Any lawyer worth his salt will tell the suspect, in no uncertain terms, to make no statement to the police under any circumstances", and for his aphorism describing the Supreme Court, "We are not final because we are infallible, but we are infallible only because we are final." Jackson developed a reputation as one of the best writers on the Supreme Court and one of the most committed to enforcing due process as protection from overreaching federal agencies. He was considered a moderate liberal and is known for his dissents in "Terminiello v. City of Chicago", "Zorach v. Clauson", "Everson v. Board of Education", and "Korematsu v. United States", as well as his majority opinion in "West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette".


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was born on his family's farm in Spring Creek Township, Warren County, Pennsylvania, on February 13, 1892, and was raised in Frewsburg, New York. The son of William Eldred Jackson and Angelina Houghwout, he graduated from Frewsburg High School in 1909 and spent the next year as a post-graduate student attending Jamestown High School, where he worked to improve his writing skills.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson decided on a legal career; since attendance at college or law school was not a requirement if a student learned under the tutelage of an established attorney, at age 18 he began to study law with the Jamestown, New York firm in which his uncle, Frank Mott, was a partner. His uncle soon introduced him to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was then serving as a member of the New York State Senate. Jackson attended Albany Law School of Union University from 1911 to 1912. At the time, students at Albany Law School had three options: taking individual courses without receiving a degree; completing a two-year program and receiving an LL.B. degree; or demonstrating the knowledge required of a first-year student and then taking the second year of the two-year program, which produced a certificate of completion. Jackson chose the third option; he successfully completed the second-year courses, and received his certificate in 1912.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: After completing the year at Albany Law School, Jackson returned to Jamestown to complete his studies. He passed the New York bar examination in 1913 at the age of twenty-one by reading law, and then joined a law practice in Jamestown. In 1916, he married Irene Alice Gerhardt, in Albany. In 1917, Jackson was recruited to work for Penney, Killeen & Nye, a leading Buffalo firm, primarily defending the International Railway Company in trials and appeals. In late 1918, Jackson was recruited back to Jamestown to serve as the city's corporation counsel.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Over the next 15 years, he built a successful practice, and became a leading lawyer in New York State; he also enhanced his reputation nationally, through leadership roles with bar associations and other legal organizations. In 1930, Jackson was elected to membership in the American Law Institute; in 1933, he was elected Chairman of the American Bar Association's Conference of Bar Association Delegates (a predecessor to today's ABA House of Delegates).


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson became active in politics as a Democrat; in 1916, he spearheaded Jamestown's local Wilson for President organization. In the years during and after World War I, he was a member of the New York State Democratic Committee. He also continued his association with Roosevelt; when Roosevelt served as Governor of New York from 1929 to 1933, he appointed Jackson to a commission which reviewed the state judicial system and proposed reforms. He served on that commission from 1931 to 1939. Jackson also turned down Roosevelt's offer to appoint him to the New York Public Service Commission, because he preferred to remain in private practice.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1932, Jackson was active in Franklin Roosevelt's Presidential campaign as Chairman of an organization called Democratic Lawyers for Roosevelt. (Another Robert H. Jackson was also active in the Roosevelt campaign. That Jackson (1880-1973) was Secretary of the Democratic National Committee, and was a resident of New Hampshire.)


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1934, Jackson agreed to join the Roosevelt administration; he served initially as Assistant General Counsel of the U.S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Internal Revenue (today's Internal Revenue Service), where he was in charge of 300 lawyers who tried cases before the Board of Tax Appeals. In 1936, Jackson became Assistant Attorney General, heading the Tax Division of the Department of Justice, and in 1937, he became Assistant Attorney General, heading the Antitrust Division.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was a supporter of the New Deal, litigating against corporations and utilities holding companies. He participated in the 1934 prosecution of Samuel Insull, the 1935 income tax case against Andrew Mellon, and the 1937 anti-trust case against Alcoa, in which the Mellon family held an important interest.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In March 1938, Jackson became United States Solicitor General, succeeding Stanley Forman Reed, who had been appointed to the Supreme Court. Jackson served as Solicitor General until January 1940, working as the government's chief advocate before the U.S. Supreme Court. During his time in this post, he argued 44 cases to the Supreme Court on behalf of the federal government, and lost only six. His record of accomplishment caused Justice Louis Brandeis to once remark that Jackson should be Solicitor General for life.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Roosevelt regarded Jackson as a possible successor to the presidency in 1940, and worked with his staff on an effort to raise Jackson's public profile. Their plan was to mention Jackson favorably in presidential remarks as often as possible, and to have Jackson take part frequently in Roosevelt's public appearances. Roosevelt and his advisers next intended for Jackson to become the Democratic nominee for Governor of New York in 1938. They abandoned their effort to create a groundswell of support for Jackson's gubernatorial candidacy when they ran into resistance from state Democratic Party leaders. In addition, Roosevelt's decision to run for a third term in 1940 rendered moot the need to identify and promote a successor. Instead of running for Governor or President, Jackson joined Roosevelt's cabinet when he was appointed as Attorney General.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was appointed as United States Attorney General by Roosevelt, on January 4, 1940, replacing Frank Murphy, whom Roosevelt had appointed to the Supreme Court. As Attorney General, Jackson supported a bill introduced by Sam Hobbs that would have legalized wiretapping by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or any other government agency, if it was suspected that a felony was occurring. The bill was opposed by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) chairman James Lawrence Fly, and it did not pass. While in office, he also helped President Roosevelt organize the Lend-Lease agreement, which allowed the United States to supply materials to help with the war effort to the Allied forces, before formally entering World War II.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On June 12, 1941, Roosevelt nominated Jackson as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to fill the vacancy created when Harlan Fiske Stone replaced Charles Evans Hughes as chief justice. Jackson was confirmed by the United States Senate on July 7, 1941, and took the judicial oath of office on July 11, 1941. On the Court, he was known for his eloquent writing style and championing of individual liberties.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1943, Jackson wrote the majority opinion in "West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette", which overturned a public school regulation making it mandatory to salute the flag, and imposing penalties of expulsion and prosecution upon students who failed to comply. Jackson's stirring language in "Barnette" concerning individual rights is widely quoted. Jackson's concurring opinion in 1952's "Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer" (forbidding President Harry Truman's seizure of steel mills during the Korean War to avert a strike), in which Jackson formulated a three-tier test for evaluating claims of Presidential power, remains one of the most widely cited opinions in Supreme Court history. (It was quoted repeatedly by Supreme Court nominees John Roberts and Samuel Alito during their confirmation hearings.)


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Justices Jackson and Hugo Black had profound professional and personal disagreements dating back to October 1941, the first term during which they served together on the Supreme Court. According to Dennis Hutchinson, editor of "The Supreme Court Review", Jackson objected to Black's practice of importing his personal preferences into his jurisprudence. Hutchinson quotes Jackson as having remarked, "With few exceptions, we all knew which side of a case Black would vote on when he read the names of the parties." While Hutchinson points out that Jackson objected to Black's style of jurisprudence in such cases as "Minersville v. Gobitis" (1940) and "United States v. Bethlehem Steel" (1942), Black's involvement in the "Jewell Ridge" case struck Jackson as especially injudicious.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In "Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers" (1945), the Supreme Court faced the issue of whether to grant the coal company's petition for a rehearing, on the grounds that the victorious miners were, in a previous matter, represented by Crampton P. Harris, who was Justice Black's former law partner and personal lawyer. Despite this apparent conflict of interest, Black lobbied the Court for a per curiam denial of the petition. Justice Jackson objected, with the result that Jackson filed a concurrence disassociating himself from the ruling and, by implication, criticizing Black for not addressing the conflict of interest. Jackson also strongly objected to Black's judicial conduct in "Jewell Ridge" for another reason. As Jackson later alleged, while Justice Murphy was preparing his opinion, Black urged that the Court hand down its decision without waiting for the opinion and dissent. In Jackson's eyes, the "...only apparent reason behind this proposal was to announce the decision in time to influence the contract negotiations during the coal strike" between the coal company and the miners, which were taking place at the time.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson probably regarded Black's conduct as unbecoming of a Supreme Court Justice in another related matter. On April 3, 1945, the Southern Conference for Human Welfare held a dinner, at which it honored Justice Black as the 1945 recipient of the Thomas Jefferson Award. Fred M. Vinson spoke at the dinner. While Jackson declined an invitation to the event, citing a conflict arising out of the fact that a number of leading sponsors of the dinner were then litigants before the Supreme Court, Black attended the dinner and received his award. Crampton Harris, counsel in two pending cases, "Jewell Ridge" and "CIO v. McAdory" (1945), was one of the sponsors.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson later took these grievances public in two cables from Nuremberg. Jackson had informally been promised the Chief Justiceship by Roosevelt; however, the seat came open while Jackson was in Germany, and Roosevelt was dead. President Harry S. Truman was faced with two factions, one recommending Jackson for the seat, and the other advocating for Hugo Black. In an attempt to avoid controversy, Truman appointed Vinson. Jackson blamed machinations by Black for his being passed over for the seat, and publicly exposed some of Black's controversial behavior and feuding within the Court. The controversy was heavily covered in the press, casting the New Deal Court in a negative light, and had the effect of tarnishing Jackson's reputation in the years that followed.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On June 8, 1946, Jackson sent a cable to President Truman. Jackson's cable to Truman began with an insincere offer of congratulations to the President for his appointment of Vinson. However, the cable then quickly addressed the rumor, which Jackson had gotten wind of in Nuremberg, according to which Truman had appointed Fred Vinson, in part, to avert a resignation on the part of Justice Black. Rumors had been circulating in Washington that Black would resign in the event that Truman chose Jackson as Chief Justice Stone's successor. "I would be loath to believe that you would concede to any man a veto over court appointments." Jackson closed his cable by stating that he could not continue his service as an Associate Justice under Vinson if an associate "had something on [him]", which would disqualify him from serving, or if he, Truman, regarded Jackson's opinion in the "Jewell Ridge" case as a "gratuitous insult" to Justice Black.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: After receiving a response from Truman in which he denied having given consideration to, or having even heard of, the rumor of Black's threatened resignation, Jackson rashly fired off a second cable to Congress, on June 10. This cable stated Jackson's reasons for his belief that Justice Black faced a conflict of interest in "Jewell Ridge", from which he wrongfully, at least, in Jackson's eyes, did not recuse himself, and ended with Jackson's threat that if such a practice "is ever repeated while I am on the bench, I will make my "Jewell Ridge" opinion look like a letter of recommendation, by comparison."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1919, the Supreme Court decided "Schenck v. United States". In Schenck, the petitioners, members of the Socialist Party, were convicted of violating the Espionage Act of 1917 for printing and distributing circulars asserting that American citizens had a right to oppose the draft during World War I because, among other things, it violated the United States Constitution. The "Schenck" decision promulgated the "clear and present danger test," which provided the standard for sustaining a conviction when speech is relied upon as evidence that an offense has been committed. Justice Holmes, writing for a unanimous court, affirmed the decision of the lower court positing:


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: We admit that, in many places and in ordinary times, the defendants, in saying all that was said in the circular, would have been within their constitutional rights. But the character of every act depends upon the circumstances in which it is done ... The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances, and are of such a nature as to create a "clear and present danger" that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent. It is a question of proximity and degree.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1951, the Supreme Court decided "Dennis v. United States". In Dennis, the petitioners were zealous Communists who organized for the purpose of teaching the "Marxist-Leninist Doctrine." The principal texts used to teach the doctrine were: "History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"; "Foundations of Leninism" by Stalin; "The Communist Manifesto" by Marx and Engels; and "State and Revolution" by Lenin. The Petitioners were convicted for violating clause 2 and clause 3 of the Smith Act which, among other things, made it unlawful to conspire to organize a group which advocates the overthrow of the United States government by force or violence. The issue before the Supreme Court was "[w]hether either §2 or §3 of the Smith Act, inherently, or as construed and applied in the instant case, violates the First Amendment and other provisions of the Bill of Rights ..."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In "Dennis", Jackson concluded that the "clear and present danger test" should not be applied. To this end, Jackson analyzed: the effect Communism had outside the United States; the nature of Communists; and the problems with applying the test. Jackson's analysis can be summarized as follows:


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On the effect that Communists historically had on foreign countries, Jackson analyzed their effect on Czechoslovakia. In Czechoslovakia, a Communist organization disguised as a competing political faction secretly established its roots in key control positions "of police and information services." During a period of national crisis, a clandestine Communist organization appeared and overthrew the Czechoslovakian government. Establishing control of mass communication and industry, the Communist organization's rule was one of "oppression and terror." Ironically, as Jackson points out, the Communist organization suppressed the very freedoms which made its conspiracy possible.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On the nature of Communists, Jackson characterized them as an extraordinarily dedicated and highly selective group, disciplined and indoctrinated by Communist policy. The goal of Party members is to secretly infiltrate key positions of government, industry, and unions and to leverage their power once in such positions. Jackson goes on to say that, although "Communist[s] have no scruples against sabotage, terrorism, assassination, or mob disorder," they "advocate force only when prudent," which "may never be necessary, because infiltration and deception may be enough."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On the problems with applying the clear and present danger test in "Dennis", Jackson deemed significant that the test was authored "before the era of World War II revealed the subtlety and efficacy of modernized revolutionary technique used by totalitarian parties." Jackson believed that the application of the test should be limited to cases bearing strong enough likeness to those for which it was originally crafted – i.e., "...criminality of hot-headed speech on a street corner, or parading by some zealots behind a red flag, or refusal of a handful of Jehovah Witness school children to salute our flag." Expressing strong concern that the expansive construction the Court had recently given the test in "Bridges v. California," Jackson asserted that the test provided Communists with "unprecedented immunities," while the "Government is captive in a judge-made verbal trap." Jackson goes on to describe the application of the test to Communists, when determining the constitutionality of the Smith Act facially, or as applied as one of "...apprais[ing] imponderables, including international and national phenomena, which baffle the best informed foreign offices and our most experienced politicians."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: The authors of the "clear and present danger test" never applied it to a case like this, nor would I. If applied as it is proposed here, it means that the Communist plotting is protected during its period of incubation; its preliminary stages of organization and preparation are immune from the law; the Government can move only after imminent action is manifest, when it would, of course, be too late.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In the end, the Court applied its own version of the "clear and present danger test" in "Dennis", essentially disregarding the analytical elements of probability and temporality which had previously appeared to be requirements of the doctrine. Jackson, however, as one commentator put it, expressed in "Dennis" (at least with regards to Communists) that, "when used as part of a conspiracy to act illegally, speech loses its First Amendment protection."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, there was great suspicion surrounding Japanese-Americans, particularly those residing on the West Coast of the United States. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, giving the War Department permission to declare some zones "military zones" in which they could prohibit certain people from accessing prescribed areas. With this executive order, the War Department was able to declare that all United States citizens of Japanese ancestry were prohibited from areas in California that were deemed unsafe for Japanese-American habitation for national security purposes, and it forced them into internment camps.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Fred Korematsu, born to Japanese parents on American soil, believed that this was an unconstitutional infringement on an individual's civil liberty. The question that came before the Supreme Court was whether the Executive and Legislative branches went beyond their war powers by depriving citizens of rights with no criminal basis.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: The Supreme Court decided that the President and Congress did not stretch their war powers too far by choosing national security over an individual's rights in a time of war. Justice Hugo Black wrote the majority opinion for this case, and Jackson wrote a dissenting opinion. The opening paragraph of Jackson's dissent illustrated his view of the case:


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Korematsu was born on our soil, of parents born in Japan. The Constitution makes him a citizen of the United States by nativity, and a citizen of California by residence. No claim is made that he is not loyal to this country. There is no suggestion that apart from the matter involved here, he is not law-abiding and well- disposed. Korematsu, however, has been convicted of an act not commonly a crime. It consists merely of being present in the state whereof he is a citizen, near the place where he was born, and where all his life he has lived.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson warned of the danger that this great allowance of executive power presented, through the War Department's ability to deprive individuals of their rights in favor of national security in time of war:


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: But if we cannot confine military expedients by the Constitution, neither would I distort the Constitution to approve all that the military may deem expedient. That is what the Court appears to be doing, whether consciously or not. I cannot say, from any evidence before me, that the orders of General DeWitt were not reasonably expedient military precautions, nor could I say that they were. But even if they were permissible military procedures, I deny that it follows that they are constitutional. If, as the Court holds, it does follow, then we may as well say that any military order will be constitutional, and have done with it.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was not concerned in evaluating the validity of DeWitt's claim that the internment of Japanese citizens on the West Coast was necessary for national security purposes, but whether this would set a precedent of war-time racial discrimination that would be used to strip individual liberties.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: But once a judicial opinion rationalizes such an order to show that it conforms to the Constitution, or rather rationalizes the Constitution to show that the Constitution sanctions such an order, the Court for all time has validated the principles of racial discrimination in criminal procedure, and of transplanting American citizens. The principle then lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need. Every repetition imbeds that principle more deeply in our law and thinking, and expands it to new purposes.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: One of Jackson's law clerks during 1952 – 53, William H. Rehnquist, was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1971, and became chief justice in 1986. In December 1971, after Rehnquist's nomination had been approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee and was pending before the full Senate, a 1952 memorandum came to light that he had written as Jackson's law clerk in connection with the landmark case "Brown v. Board of Education" that argued in favor of affirming the separate-but-equal doctrine of "Plessy v. Ferguson". Rehnquist wrote a brief letter attributing the views to Jackson, and was confirmed. In his 1986 hearing, he was questioned about the matter. His explanation of the memorandum was disputed in both 1971 and 1986 by Jackson's former secretary, and scholars have questioned its plausibility. However, the papers of Justices Douglas and Frankfurter indicate that Jackson voted for "Brown" in 1954 only after changing his mind.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: The views of Justice Jackson about "Brown" can be found in his 1954 unpublished draft concurrence. The "Memorandum by Mr. Justice Jackson, March 15th, 1954", is available with Jackson's papers in the Library of Congress, but did not become publicly available until after Rehnquist's 1986 hearing for chief justice. Jackson's draft concurrence in "Brown", divided into four parts, shows how he struggled with how to write an effective opinion to strike down segregation. In Part 1 of Jackson's draft concurrence in "Brown", he wrote that he went to school where "Negro pupils were very few" and that he was "predisposed to the conclusion that segregation elsewhere has outlived whatever justification it may have had." Despite his own opinions regarding desegregation, Jackson acknowledged the inability of the Court to "eradicate" the "fears, prides and prejudices" that made segregation an important social practice in the South. Jackson thus concluded that the Northerners on the Court should be sensitive to the conditions that brought segregation to the South.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In Part 2 of the draft memorandum, Justice Jackson described the legal framework for forbidding segregation in "Does Existing Law Condemn Segregation?". Jackson notes that it was difficult for the Court, which expected "not to make new law, but only to declare existing law," to overturn a decision of such longevity as "Plessy". Looking at the doctrine of original intent with regard to the Fourteenth Amendment, Jackson found no evidence that segregation was prohibited, particularly since states that had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment had segregated schools at the time. Jackson concluded, "I simply cannot find in the conventional material of constitutional interpretation any justification for saying" that segregated schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Part 3 of the draft memorandum, titled "Enforcement Power Limits", describes enforcement by Congress of the Fourteenth Amendment. Jackson addressed the possibility of leaving enforcement to Congress, particularly because the "courts have no power to enforce general declarations of law." Jackson noted that while segregation was already fading in some states, it would be difficult to overcome in those states where segregation was firmly established. While Jackson recognized the difficulties in the Supreme Court enforcing its judgment, he did not want the task to be left to the lower courts, as suggested by the Government. Jackson concluded that the Court must act because "our representative system has failed", and even though this "premise is not a sound basis for judicial action."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Finally, in Part 4 of the draft memorandum, "Changed Conditions", Jackson began by stating that prior to "Brown", segregation was legal. According to Jackson, the premise for overruling "Plessy" was the now erroneous "factual assumption" that "there were differences between the Negro and the white races, viewed as a whole." The draft asserted that the "spectacular" progress of African-Americans, under adverse circumstances, "enabled [them] to outgrow the system and to overcome the presumptions on which it was based." Jackson emphasized that the changed conditions, along with the importance of a public education, required the Court to strike down the concept of "separate but equal" in public education. While Jackson could not justify the decision in "Brown" in law, he did so on the basis of a political and social imperative. It is unknown if Jackson ever intended to publish this concurrence.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Justice Jackson was in the hospital from March 30 to May 17, 1954. It is reported that Chief Justice Warren visited Jackson in the hospital several times, and discussed both Jackson's draft opinion and Warren's drafts. One suggestion that Warren took from Jackson was adding the following sentence: "Negroes have achieved outstanding success in the arts and sciences, as well as in the business and professional world." This quote is tied to the arguments in Part 4 of Jackson's draft opinion. On May 17, 1954, Jackson went to the Court from the hospital, so that he could be there the day that the "Brown" decision was handed down. When the "Brown" decision was handed down, a full court was present, to emphasize the unanimity of the decision. Robert H. Jackson died on October 9, 1954, and so there was not enough time between "Brown" and the death of Jackson to fully explore his views on desegregation.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Jackson was a staunch defender (along with Felix Frankfurter) of procedural due process, for the rule of law that protects members of the public from overreaching by government agencies. One of his hymns to due process is often quoted:


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: In 1945, President Harry S. Truman appointed Jackson (who took a leave of absence from the Supreme Court), as U.S. Chief of Counsel for the prosecution of Nazi war criminals. He helped draft the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal, which created the legal basis for the Nuremberg Trials. He then served in Nuremberg, Germany, as United States Chief Prosecutor at the International Military Tribunal. Jackson pursued his prosecutorial role with a great deal of vigor. His opening and closing arguments before the Nuremberg court were widely celebrated. In the words of defendant Albert Speer, the Nazi Minister of Armaments and War Production,


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: However, some believe that his cross-examination skills were generally weak, and it was British prosecutor David Maxwell-Fyfe who got the better of Hermann Göring in cross-examination, rather than Jackson, who was rebuked by the Tribunal for losing his temper and being repeatedly baited by Göring during the proceedings.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: On March 30, 1954, Jackson suffered a massive heart attack. He was confined to the hospital until May 17 when he returned to the Court. He remained functioning in his position as Justice until October 4, 1954. On Saturday, October 9, 1954, Jackson had another heart attack. At 11:45 a.m. he died at age 62. Funeral services were held in Washington's National Cathedral and later in Jamestown's St. Luke's Church. All eight of the other Supreme Court Justices traveled together to Jamestown, New York, to attend his funeral service; the last time, for security purposes, that the Supreme Court all traveled together. Other prominent guests included Thomas E. Dewey. He was interred near his boyhood home in Frewsburg, New York. His headstone reads "He kept the ancient landmarks and built the new."


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: The Robert H. Jackson Center, located in Robert H. Jackson's hometown of Jamestown, New York, offers guided tours to visitors who can see exhibits on Jackson's life, collections of his writings, and photos from the International Military Tribunal. An extensive collection of Jackson's personal and judicial papers is archived at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress and is open for research. Smaller collections are available at several other repositories.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: There are statues dedicated to Robert H. Jackson outside the Robert H. Jackson Center in Jamestown, New York, as well as the Robert H. Jackson field at the Chautauqua County-Jamestown Airport. The United States District Court for the Western District of New York main courthouse, which is located in Buffalo and opened in November 2011, is dedicated to Justice Jackson and is named the Robert H. Jackson United States Courthouse.


title: Robert H. Jackson

text: Robert H. Jackson has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television, and theater productions:


title: High Maintenance

text: High Maintenance is an American anthology comedy-drama television and web series created by ex-husband and wife team Ben Sinclair and Katja Blichfeld. The show follows The Guy, a cannabis courier (played by Sinclair), as he delivers his product to clients in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Each episode focuses on different characters as their lives intersect with The Guy. The full series consists of six web series followed by four television seasons, released from November 2012 to April 2020.


title: High Maintenance

text: "High Maintenance" originally premiered as a web series on Vimeo on November 11, 2012, and began airing as a television series on HBO on September 16, 2016. The show's second HBO season premiered on January 19, 2018, and its third on January 20, 2019. HBO renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on February 7, 2020. On January 14, 2021, it was confirmed that the series would not return for a fifth season.


title: High Maintenance

text: "High Maintenance" has received critical acclaim for its portrayals of boredom, loneliness, and the human condition. First season episodes "Meth(od)" and "Grandpa" both placed on numerous year-end lists in 2016, while second season episode "Globo" was ranked as one of the best episodes of 2018 by sources such as "Time" and "Variety".


title: High Maintenance

text: Largely lacking serial plotlines, the show consists of vignettes in the lives of various New Yorkers as they come into direct or indirect contact with The Guy. The web series was shot throughout various neighborhoods in Brooklyn and occasionally Manhattan, and its episodes range from 5 to 20 minutes in length. "Freed of the constraints of thirty-minute or one-hour formulas, the episodes are luxurious and twisty and humane, radiating new ideas about storytelling," wrote television critic Emily Nussbaum in an article for "The New Yorker".


title: High Maintenance

text: When the series moved to HBO, its episodes expanded to the half-hour format. The television version continued the practice of on-location photography.


title: High Maintenance

text: Sinclair said that the TV shows "Six Feet Under" and "Party Down" were inspirations for the web series.


title: High Maintenance

text: The talent pool in New York City is rich—and familiar to Blichfeld (who is an Emmy Award-winning casting director of "30 Rock"). Each episode cost less than $1,000 to make.


title: High Maintenance

text: In June 2014, Vimeo announced that the website would provide financial backing for upcoming episodes of original programming via their Vimeo on Demand platform.


title: High Maintenance

text: Vimeo funded six episodes of "High Maintenance" before the series was picked up by HBO. Three episodes were released November 11, 2014, and the remaining three on February 5, 2015.


title: High Maintenance

text: Critical response has been positive. The actor Dan Stevens, who later appeared on the show, calls it "a brilliant collection of succinct character portraits from a cross-section of New York society." Jenji Kohan said that "High Maintenance" was one of her favorite recent discoveries, calling the episodes little jewels, "beautiful glimpses into people's lives," "really well crafted," "delicious."


title: High Maintenance

text: The Guy often interacts with members of the Jewish community in the areas of New York that he services, and he himself is Jewish. This aspect of the series has been noted approvingly by Jewish reviewers for its representation of contemporary Jewish life. Ethnic diversity in the show as it moved from web series to an HBO series has also been noted.


title: Adenine

text: Adenine () (symbol A or Ade) is a nucleobase (a purine derivative). It is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The three others are guanine, cytosine and thymine. Its derivatives have a variety of roles in biochemistry including cellular respiration, in the form of both the energy-rich adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and Coenzyme A. It also has functions in protein synthesis and as a chemical component of DNA and RNA. The shape of adenine is complementary to either thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA.


title: Adenine

text: The adjacent image shows pure adenine, as an independent molecule. When connected into DNA, a covalent bond is formed between deoxyribose sugar and the bottom left nitrogen (thereby removing the existing hydrogen atom). The remaining structure is called an "adenine residue", as part of a larger molecule. Adenosine is adenine reacted with ribose, as used in RNA and ATP; deoxyadenosine is adenine attached to deoxyribose, as used to form DNA.


title: Adenine

text: Adenine forms several tautomers, compounds that can be rapidly interconverted and are often considered equivalent. However, in isolated conditions, i.e. in an inert gas matrix and in the gas phase, mainly the 9H-adenine tautomer is found.


title: Adenine

text: Purine metabolism involves the formation of adenine and guanine. Both adenine and guanine are derived from the nucleotide inosine monophosphate (IMP), which in turn is synthesized from a pre-existing ribose phosphate through a complex pathway using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate.


title: Adenine

text: Patented Aug. 20, 1968, the current recognized method of industrial-scale production of adenine is a modified form of the formamide method. This method heats up formamide under 120 degree Celsius conditions within a sealed flask for 5 hours to form adenine. The reaction is heavily increased  in quantity by using a phosphorus oxychloride (phosphoryl chloride) or phosphorus pentachloride as an acid catalyst and sunlight or ultraviolet conditions. After the 5 hours have passed and the formamide-phosphorus oxychloride-adenine solution cools down, water is put into the flask containing the formamide and now-formed adenine. The water-formamide-adenine solution is then poured through a filtering column of activated charcoal. The water and formamide molecules, being small molecules, will pass through the charcoal and into the waste flask; the large adenine molecules, however, will attach or "adsorb" to the charcoal due to the van der Waals forces that interact between the adenine and the carbon in the charcoal. Because charcoal has a large surface area, it's able to capture the majority of molecules that pass a certain size (greater than water and formamide) through it. To extract the adenine from the charcoal-adsorbed adenine, ammonia gas dissolved in water (aqua ammonia) is poured onto the activated charcoal-adenine structure to liberate the adenine into the ammonia-water solution. The solution containing water, ammonia, and adenine is then left to air dry, with the adenine losing solubility due to the loss of ammonia gas that previously made the solution basic and capable of dissolving adenine, thus causing it to crystallize into a pure white powder that can be stored.


title: Adenine

text: Adenine is one of the two purine nucleobases (the other being guanine) used in forming nucleotides of the nucleic acids. In DNA, adenine binds to thymine via two hydrogen bonds to assist in stabilizing the nucleic acid structures. In RNA, which is used for protein synthesis, adenine binds to uracil.


title: Adenine

text: Adenine forms adenosine, a nucleoside, when attached to ribose, and deoxyadenosine when attached to deoxyribose. It forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a nucleoside triphosphate, when three phosphate groups are added to adenosine. Adenosine triphosphate is used in cellular metabolism as one of the basic methods of transferring chemical energy between chemical reactions. ATP is thus a derivative of adenine, adenosine, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, and adenosine diphosphate.


title: Adenine

text: In older literature, adenine was sometimes called Vitamin B. Due to it being synthesized by the body and not essential to be obtained by diet, it does not meet the definition of vitamin and is no longer part of the Vitamin B complex. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), respectively. Hermann Emil Fischer was one of the early scientists to study adenine.


title: Adenine

text: It was named in 1885 by Albrecht Kossel after Greek "ἀδήν" aden "gland", in reference to the pancreas, from which Kossel's sample had been extracted.


title: Adenine

text: Experiments performed in 1961 by Joan Oró have shown that a large quantity of adenine can be synthesized from the polymerization of ammonia with five hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules in aqueous solution; whether this has implications for the origin of life on Earth is under debate.


title: Adenine

text: On August 8, 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting building blocks of DNA and RNA (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space. In 2011, physicists reported that adenine has an "unexpectedly variable range of ionization energies along its reaction pathways" which suggested that "understanding experimental data on how adenine survives exposure to UV light is much more complicated than previously thought"; these findings have implications for spectroscopic measurements of heterocyclic compounds, according to one report.


title: Dormouse

text: A dormouse is a rodent of the family Gliridae (this family is also variously called Myoxidae or Muscardinidae by different taxonomists). Dormice are nocturnal animals found in Africa, Asia, and Europe. They are named for their long, dormant hibernation period of six months or longer.


title: Dormouse

text: As only one species of dormouse – the hazel dormouse – is native to the United Kingdom, in everyday English usage "dormouse" can refer either to that one species or to the family as a whole.


title: Dormouse

text: The English name of the species derived from the French "dormeuse", and the latter in turn possibly from the Languedocien "radourmeire".


title: Dormouse

text: Concerning the dormouse's name, etymonline says "long-tailed Old World rodent noted for its state of semi-hibernation in winter, early 15c., possibly from Anglo-French "dormouse" 'tending to be dormant' (from stem of "dormir" 'to sleep,' see "dormant"), with the second element mistaken for "mouse"; or perhaps it is from a Middle English dialectal compound of "mouse" (n.) and Middle French "dormir". French "dormeuse", fem. of "dormeur" 'sleeper' is attested only from 17c."


title: Dormouse

text: Dormice are small rodents, with body lengths between , and weight between . They are generally mouse-like in appearance, but with furred, rather than scaly, tails. They are largely arboreal, agile, and well adapted to climbing. Most species are nocturnal. Dormice have an excellent sense of hearing and signal each other with a variety of vocalisations.


title: Dormouse

text: Dormice are omnivorous, and typically feed on berries, flowers, fruits, insects, and nuts. They are unique among rodents in that they lack a cecum, a part of the gut used in other species to ferment vegetable matter. Their dental formula is similar to that of squirrels, although they often lack premolars:


title: Dormouse

text: Dormice breed once or occasionally twice each year, producing litters with an average of four young after a gestation period of 22–24 days. They can live for as long as five years. The young are born hairless and helpless, and their eyes do not open until about 18 days after birth. They typically become sexually mature after the end of their first hibernation. Dormice live in small family groups, with home ranges that vary widely between species and depend on the availability of food.


title: Dormouse

text: One of the most notable characteristics of those dormice that live in temperate zones is hibernation. They can hibernate six months out of the year, or even longer if the weather does not become warm enough, sometimes waking for brief periods to eat food they had previously stored nearby. During the summer, they accumulate fat in their bodies to nourish them through the hibernation period.


title: Dormouse

text: The edible dormouse ("Glis glis") was considered a delicacy in ancient Rome, either as a savoury appetizer or as a dessert (dipped in honey and poppy seeds). The Romans used a special kind of enclosure, a glirarium, to raise and fatten dormice for the table. It is still considered a delicacy in Slovenia and in several places in Croatia, namely Lika, and the islands of Hvar and Brač. Dormouse fat was believed by the Elizabethans to induce sleep since the animal put on fat before hibernating.


title: Dormouse

text: In more recent years dormice have begun to enter the pet trade, though they are uncommon as pets and are considered an exotic pet. The woodland dormouse ("Graphiurus murinus)" is the most commonly seen species in the pet trade. Asian garden dormice ("Eliomys melanurus") are also occasionally kept as pets.


title: Dormouse

text: The Gliridae are one of the oldest extant rodent families, with a fossil record dating back to the early Eocene. As currently understood, they descended in Europe from early Paleogene ischyromyids such as "Microparamys" ("Sparnacomys") "chandoni". The early and middle Eocene genus "Eogliravus" represents the earliest and most primitive glirid taxon; the oldest species, "Eogliravus wildi", is known from isolated teeth from the early Eocene of France and a complete specimen of the early middle Eocene of the Messel pit in Germany. They appear in Africa in the upper Miocene and only relatively recently in Asia. Many types of extinct dormouse species have been identified. During the Pleistocene, giant dormice the size of large rats, "Leithia melitensis", lived on the islands of Malta and Sicily.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Cass Robert Sunstein (born September 21, 1954) is an American legal scholar known for his studies of constitutional law, administrative law, environmental law, law and behavioral economics. He is also "The New York Times" best-selling author of "The World According to Star Wars" (2016) and "Nudge " (2008). He was the Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2012.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: As a professor at the University of Chicago Law School for 27 years, he wrote influential works on regulatory and constitutional law, among other topics. Since leaving the White House, Sunstein has been the Robert Walmsley University Professor at Harvard Law School. In 2014, studies of legal publications found Sunstein to be the most frequently cited American legal scholar by a wide margin.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein was born on September 21, 1954, in Waban, Massachusetts, to Marian (née Goodrich), a teacher, and Cass Richard Sunstein, a builder, both Jewish. He graduated in 1972 from Middlesex School. He has said that as a teenager, he was briefly infatuated with the works of Ayn Rand, "[b]ut after about six weeks of enchantment, her books started to make me sick. Contemptuous toward most of humanity, merciless about human frailty, and constantly hammering on the moral evils of redistribution, they produced a sense of claustrophobia."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: After high school, Sunstein attended Harvard College. He was a member of the varsity squash team and an editor of the "Harvard Lampoon", and graduated in 1975 with a Bachelor of Arts, "magna cum laude". He then attended the Harvard Law School, where he became the executive editor of the "Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review" and was a member of the winning team of the Ames Moot Court Competition. He graduated in 1978 with a Juris Doctor, "magna cum laude".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: After law school, Sunstein first clerked for Justice Benjamin Kaplan of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from 1978 to 1979, then for Justice Thurgood Marshall of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1979 to 1980.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: After his clerkships, Sunstein spent one year as an attorney-advisor in the U.S. Department of Justice's Office of Legal Counsel. In 1981, he became an assistant professor of law at the University of Chicago Law School (1981–1983), where he also became an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science (1983–1985). In 1985, Sunstein was made a full professor of both political science and law; in 1988, he was named the Karl N. Llewellyn Professor of Jurisprudence in the Law School and Department of Political Science. The university honored him in 1993 with its "distinguished service" accolade, permanently changing his title to Karl N. Llewellyn Distinguished Service Professor of Jurisprudence in the Law School and Department of Political Science. In 2009, Sunstein was described by fellow Chicago professor Douglas G. Baird as a "Chicago person through and through".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein was the Samuel Rubin Visiting Professor of Law at Columbia Law School in the fall of 1986 and a visiting professor at Harvard Law School in the spring 1987, winter 2005, and spring 2007 terms. He teaches courses in constitutional law, administrative law, and environmental law, as well as the required first-year course "Elements of the Law", which is an introduction to legal reasoning, legal theory, and the interdisciplinary study of law, including law and economics. In the fall of 2008, he joined the faculty of Harvard Law School and began serving as the director of its Program on Risk Regulation:


title: Cass Sunstein

text: The Program on Risk Regulation will focus on how law and policy deal with the central hazards of the 21st century. Anticipated areas of study include terrorism, climate change, occupational safety, infectious diseases, natural disasters, and other low-probability, high-consequence events. Sunstein plans to rely on significant student involvement in the work of this new program.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: On January 7, 2009, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Sunstein would be named to head the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA). That news generated controversy among progressive legal scholars and environmentalists. Sunstein's confirmation was long blocked because of controversy over allegations about his political and academic views. On September 9, 2009, the Senate voted for cloture on Sunstein's nomination as Administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, Office of Management and Budget. The motion passed in a 63–35 vote. The Senate confirmed Sunstein on September 10, 2009, in a 57–40 vote.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In his research on risk regulation, Sunstein is known for developing, together with Timur Kuran, the concept of availability cascades, wherein popular discussion of an idea is self-feeding and causes individuals to over weigh its importance.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein's books include "After the Rights Revolution" (1990), "The Partial Constitution" (1993), "Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech" (1993), "Legal Reasoning and Political Conflict" (1996), "Free Markets and Social Justice" (1997), "One Case at a Time" (1999), "Risk and Reason" (2002), "Why Societies Need Dissent" (2003), "Laws of Fear: Beyond the Precautionary Principle" (2005), "Radicals in Robes: Why Extreme Right-Wing Courts Are Wrong for America" (2005), "Are Judges Political? An Empirical Analysis of the Federal Judiciary" (2005), "Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce Knowledge" (2006), and, co-authored with Richard Thaler, "Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness" (2008).


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein's 2006 book, "Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce Knowledge", explores methods for aggregating information; it contains discussions of prediction markets, open-source software, and wikis. Sunstein's 2004 book, "The Second Bill of Rights: FDR's Unfinished Revolution and Why We Need It More than Ever", advocates the Second Bill of Rights proposed by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Among these rights are a right to an education, a right to a home, a right to health care, and a right to protection against monopolies; Sunstein argues that the Second Bill of Rights has had a large international impact and should be revived in the United States. His 2001 book, "Republic.com", argued that the Internet may weaken democracy because it allows citizens to isolate themselves within groups that share their own views and experiences, and thus cut themselves off from any information that might challenge their beliefs, a phenomenon known as cyberbalkanization.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein co-authored "Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness" (Yale University Press, 2008) with economist Richard Thaler of the University of Chicago. "Nudge" discusses how public and private organizations can help people make better choices in their daily lives. Thaler and Sunstein argue that:


title: Cass Sunstein

text: People often make poor choices – and look back at them with bafflement! We do this because as human beings, we all are susceptible to a wide array of routine biases that can lead to an equally wide array of embarrassing blunders in education, personal finance, health care, mortgages and credit cards, happiness, and even the planet itself.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: The ideas in the book proved popular with politicians such as U.S. President Barack Obama, British Prime Minister David Cameron, and the British Conservative Party in general. The "Nudge" idea has also been criticised. Dr Tammy Boyce, from public health foundation The King's Fund, has said:


title: Cass Sunstein

text: We need to move away from short-term, politically motivated initiatives such as the 'nudging people' idea, which are not based on any good evidence and don't help people make long-term behavior changes.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Contributing to the anthology "Our American Story" (2019), Sunstein addressed the possibility of a shared American narrative. He cited the concepts of self-government and equal dignity of human beings, but focused in particular on stories: "an emphasis on what happened before and after the firing shots in Concord and the courageous response of the embattled farmers maintains continuity with the historical facts and offers us something on which we can build."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein is a contributing editor to "The New Republic" and "The American Prospect" and is a frequent witness before congressional committees. He played an active role in opposing the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In recent years, Sunstein has been a guest writer on "The Volokh Conspiracy" blog as well as the blogs of law professors Lawrence Lessig (Harvard) and Jack Balkin (Yale). He is considered so prolific a writer that in 2007, an article in the legal publication "The Green Bag" coined the concept of a "Sunstein number" reflecting degrees of separation between various legal authors and Sunstein, paralleling the Erdős numbers sometimes assigned to mathematician authors.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1992), the American Law Institute (since 1990), and the American Philosophical Society (elected 2010). He received an Honorary Doctorate from Copenhagen Business School.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In February 2020, he wrote an article for Bloomberg titled "The Cognitive Bias That Makes Us Panic About Coronavirus". In it he claimed that "A lot more people are more scared than they have any reason to be" and that "Most people in North America and Europe do not need to worry much about the risk of contracting the disease. That's true even for people who are traveling to nations such as Italy that have seen outbreaks of the disease." He attributed the excessive perceived risk to probability neglect. At time of publication, there have been 68 confirmed COVID-19 cases in the U.S., including one death, and approximately 1000 new daily cases worldwide, over 300 of which in Europe.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Together with Daniel Kahneman and Olivier Sibony, Sunstein co-authored "", which was published in May 2021. Drawing not least upon legal examples, it treats of unwanted variability in human judgments of the same problem, for instance when court judges recommend vastly different sentences for the same crimes. The book looks both at what 'noise in human judgment' is, how it can be detected and how it can be reduced.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein is a proponent of judicial minimalism, arguing that judges should focus primarily on deciding the case at hand, and avoid making sweeping changes to the law or decisions that have broad-reaching effects. Some view him as liberal, despite Sunstein's public support for George W. Bush's judicial nominees Michael W. McConnell and John G. Roberts, as well as providing strongly maintained theoretical support for the death penalty. Conservative libertarian legal scholar Richard A. Epstein described Sunstein as "one of the more conservative players in the Obama administration."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Much of his work also brings behavioral economics to bear on law, suggesting that the "rational actor" model will sometimes produce an inadequate understanding of how people will respond to legal intervention.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein has collaborated with academics who have training in behavioral economics, most notably Daniel Kahneman, Richard Thaler, and Christine M. Jolls, to show how the theoretical assumptions of law and economics should be modified by new empirical findings about how people actually behave.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: According to Sunstein, the interpretation of federal law should be made not by judges but by the beliefs and commitments of the U.S. president and those around him.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: "There is no reason to believe that in the face of statutory ambiguity, the meaning of federal law should be settled by the inclinations and predispositions of federal judges. The outcome should instead depend on the commitments and beliefs of the President and those who operate under him," argued Sunstein.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein (along with his coauthor Richard Thaler) has elaborated the theory of libertarian paternalism. In arguing for this theory, he counsels thinkers/academics/politicians to embrace the findings of behavioral economics as applied to law, maintaining freedom of choice while also steering peoples' decisions in directions that will make their lives go better. With Thaler, he coined the term "choice architect".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In 2002, at the height of controversy over Bush's creation of military commissions without Congressional approval, Sunstein stepped forward to insist, "Under existing law, President George W. Bush has the legal authority to use military commissions" and that "President Bush's choice stands on firm legal ground." Sunstein scorned as "ludicrous" an argument from law professor George P. Fletcher, who believed that the Supreme Court would find Bush's military commissions without any legal basis. In 2006, the Supreme Court found the tribunals illegal in "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld" in a 5–3 vote.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In his book "Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech" Sunstein says there is a need to reformulate First Amendment law. He thinks that the current formulation, based on Justice Holmes' conception of free speech as a marketplace, "disserves the aspirations of those who wrote America's founding document." The purpose of this reformulation would be to "reinvigorate processes of democratic deliberation, by ensuring greater attention to public issues and greater diversity of views." He is concerned by the present "situation in which like-minded people speak or listen mostly to one another," and thinks that in "light of astonishing economic and technological changes, we must doubt whether, as interpreted, the constitutional guarantee of free speech is adequately serving democratic goals." He proposes a "New Deal for speech [that] would draw on Justice Brandeis' insistence on the role of free speech in promoting political deliberation and citizenship."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Some of Sunstein's work has addressed the question of animal rights, as he co-authored a book dealing with the subject, has written papers on it, and was an invited speaker at "Facing Animals", an event at Harvard University described as "a groundbreaking panel on animals in ethics and the law." "Every reasonable person believes in animal rights," he says, continuing that "we might conclude that certain practices cannot be defended and should not be allowed to continue, if, in practice, mere regulation will inevitably be insufficient – and if, in practice, mere regulation will ensure that the level of animal suffering will remain very high."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein's views on animal rights generated controversy when Sen. Saxby Chambliss (R-Ga.) blocked his appointment to the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs by Obama. Chambliss objected to the introduction of "Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions", a volume edited by Sunstein and his then-companion Martha Nussbaum. On page 11 of the introduction, during a philosophical discussion about whether animals should be thought of as owned by humans, Sunstein notes that personhood need not be conferred upon an animal in order to grant it various legal protections against abuse or cruelty, even including legal standing for suit. For example, under current law, if someone saw their neighbor beating a dog, they cannot sue for animal cruelty because they do not have legal standing to do so. Sunstein suggests that granting standing to animals, actionable by other parties, could decrease animal cruelty by increasing the likelihood that animal abuse will be punished.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein has argued, "We should celebrate tax day." Sunstein argues that since government (in the form of police, fire departments, insured banks, and courts) protects and preserves property and liberty, individuals should happily finance it with their tax dollars:


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In what sense is the money in our pockets and bank accounts fully 'ours'? Did we earn it by our own autonomous efforts? Could we have inherited it without the assistance of probate courts? Do we save it without the support of bank regulators? Could we spend it if there were no public officials to coordinate the efforts and pool the resources of the community in which we live? Without taxes, there would be no liberty. Without taxes there would be no property. Without taxes, few of us would have any assets worth defending. [It is] a dim fiction that some people enjoy and exercise their rights without placing any burden whatsoever on the public... There is no liberty without dependency.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: If government could not intervene effectively, none of the individual rights to which Americans have become accustomed could be reliably protected... This is why the overused distinction between "negative" and "positive" rights makes little sense. Rights to private property, freedom of speech, immunity from police abuse, contractual liberty, free exercise of religion – just as much as rights to Social Security, Medicare and food stamps – are taxpayer-funded and government-managed social services designed to improve collective and individual well-being.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In "Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness", Sunstein proposes that government recognition of marriage be discontinued. "Under our proposal, the word marriage would no longer appear in any laws, and marriage licenses would no longer be offered or recognized by any level of government," argues Sunstein. He continues, "the only legal status states would confer on couples would be a civil union, which would be a domestic partnership agreement between any two people." He goes on further, "Governments would not be asked to endorse any particular relationships by conferring on them the term marriage," and refers to state-recognized marriage as an "official license scheme".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein co-authored a 2008 paper with Adrian Vermeule, titled "Conspiracy Theories", dealing with the risks and possible government responses to conspiracy theories resulting from "cascades" of faulty information within groups that may ultimately lead to violence. In this article they wrote, "The existence of both domestic and foreign conspiracy theories, we suggest, is no trivial matter, posing real risks to the government's antiterrorism policies, whatever the latter may be." They go on to propose that, "the best response consists in cognitive infiltration of extremist groups", where they suggest, among other tactics, "Government agents (and their allies) might enter chat rooms, online social networks, or even real-space groups and attempt to undermine percolating conspiracy theories by raising doubts about their factual premises, causal logic or implications for political action." They refer, several times, to groups that promote the view that the US Government was responsible or complicit in the September 11 attacks as "extremist groups".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: The authors declare that there are five hypothetical responses a government can take toward conspiracy theories: "We can readily imagine a series of possible responses. (1) Government might ban conspiracy theorizing. (2) Government might impose some kind of tax, financial or otherwise, on those who disseminate such theories. (3) Government might itself engage in counterspeech, marshaling arguments to discredit conspiracy theories. (4) Government might formally hire credible private parties to engage in counterspeech. (5) Government might engage in informal communication with such parties, encouraging them to help." However, the authors advocate that each "instrument has a distinctive set of potential effects, or costs and benefits, and each will have a place under imaginable conditions. However, our main policy idea is that government should engage in cognitive infiltration of the groups that produce conspiracy theories, which involves a mix of (3), (4) and (5)."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein and Vermeule also analyze the practice of recruiting "nongovernmental officials"; they suggest that "government can supply these independent experts with information and perhaps prod them into action from behind the scenes," further warning that "too close a connection will be self-defeating if it is exposed." Sunstein and Vermeule argue that the practice of enlisting non-government officials, "might ensure that credible independent experts offer the rebuttal, rather than government officials themselves. There is a tradeoff between credibility and control, however. The price of credibility is that government cannot be seen to control the independent experts." This position has been criticized by some commentators who argue that it would violate prohibitions on government propaganda aimed at domestic citizens. Sunstein and Vermeule's proposed infiltrations have also been met by sharply critical scholarly responses.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In 2016, Sunstein wrote of the Disney film franchise "Star Wars" that ""Star Wars" is about freedom of choice and our never-ending ability to make the right decision when the chips are down," comparing the importance of the films to the Bible, Santa Claus, and Mickey Mouse. The publication was reviewed in "Time" magazine, where it was described as "the ultimate primer for guiding a "Star Wars" padawan to the level of Jedi Knight."


title: Cass Sunstein

text: ""Star Wars"", he writes, "is a grain of sand; it contains a whole world." This, he argues, is evident even if one "can't tell an Ackbar from [...] a Snoke." As he develops his thesis, he takes this argument further, arguing that the "hidden message and the real magic of "Star Wars"" is "its rousing tribute to human freedom". In an interview with "The A.V. Club", Sunstein stated that he felt "over the moon about "Star Wars"". The film franchise, in his view, "casts light not just on the saga of our time, but also on everything about our culture," and includes many "puzzles" for the curious. Despite his overall positive view of George Lucas' oeuvre and the impact of the franchise on society, Sunstein had some criticism for the prequel films, and likened that to society at large:


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein compared "Star Wars" to his work for the Obama administration, saying that his approach to regulatory reform was very similar to Lucas' constrained approach to the movies as "episodes".


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In the 1980s and early 1990s, Sunstein was married to Lisa Ruddick, whom he met when both were undergraduates at Harvard. She is Associate Professor Emerita of English at the University of Chicago, specializing in British modernism. Their marriage ended in divorce. Their daughter Ellyn is a journalist and photographer. Thereafter, Sunstein dated Martha Nussbaum for almost a decade. Nussbaum is a philosopher, classicist, and professor of law at the University of Chicago.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: On July 4, 2008, Sunstein married Samantha Power, a diplomat and government official who would serve as United States Ambassador to the United Nations, whom he met when they both worked as campaign advisors to Barack Obama. The wedding took place in the Church of Mary Immaculate, in Lohar, Waterville, Ireland. They have two children: a son, Declan Power Sunstein (April 24, 2009). and a daughter, Rían Power Sunstein (June 1, 2012).


title: Cass Sunstein

text: Sunstein is an avid amateur squash player who has played against professionals in PSA tournaments and in 2017 was ranked 449th in the world by the Professional Squash Association.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In July 2017, Sunstein was elected a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), the United Kingdom's national academy for the humanities and social sciences.


title: Cass Sunstein

text: In 2018 he was awarded the Holberg Prize for having "reshaped our understanding of the relationship between the modern regulatory state and constitutional law. He is widely regarded as the leading scholar of administrative law in the U.S., and he is by far the most cited legal scholar in the United States and probably the world."


title: 15 (number)

text: The Hanbali Sunni madhab states that the age of fifteen of a solar or lunar calendar is when one's taklif (obligation or responsibility) begins and is the stage whereby one has his deeds recorded.


title: 15 (number)

text: 15 is designated as an emergency number in Pakistan, for mobile phones, similar to the international GSM emergency number 112; if 112 is used in Pakistan, then the call is routed to 15. 112 can be used in an emergency even if the phone is locked and does not have a SIM card in it.


title: Nico Marley

text: Nicolas Rohan Marley (born January 5, 1995) is a former American football linebacker. He played college football at Tulane and was signed by the Washington Redskins as an undrafted free agent in 2017. He is the son of former college football player Rohan Marley, grandson of the reggae musician Bob Marley, and half-brother of model Selah Marley.


title: Nico Marley

text: Marley was born in Haiti and lived in Jamaica for two years before moving to Miami at the age of four. He then later attended Cypress Bay High School, where he was named first-team all-state as a senior with 67 tackles. In 2012 he was MVP of the Al Golden Summer Camp. He was rated a three-star college recruit by 247Sports.com and two-star by ESPN, Rivals.com, and Scout.com.


title: Nico Marley

text: Marley joined the Tulane Green Wave football team in 2013. It was the only NCAA D-I Football Bowl Subdivision institution to offer him a scholarship, and only two NCAA D-I Football Championship Subdivision institutions did. As a freshman, he was named Conference USA Co-Freshman of the Year and a member of the C-USA All-Freshman Team, with 67 tackles in 13 games. In 2014 he got an All-American Athletic Conference Honorable Mention with 82 tackles in 12 games. In 2015, he was named a member of the All-American Athletic Conference First-team, with 82 tackles in 12 games. In 2016, he was named again a member of the All-American Athletic Conference First-team, with 88 tackles in 12 games. He graduated in business management and marketing.


title: Nico Marley

text: On May 16, 2017, Marley signed with the Washington Redskins as an undrafted free agent. He was waived on September 2, 2017.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Among the several native ethnic groups of Japan, the predominant group are the Yamato Japanese, who trace their origins back to the Yayoi period and have held political dominance since the Asuka period. Other historical ethnic groups have included the Ainu, the Ryukyuan people, the Emishi, and the Hayato; some of whom were dispersed or absorbed by other groups. Ethnic groups that inhabited the Japanese islands during prehistory include the Jomon people and lesser-known Paleolithic groups. In more recent history, a number of immigrants from other countries have made their home in Japan. According to census statistics in 2018, 97.8% of the population of Japan are Japanese, with the remainder being foreign nationals residing in Japan. The number of foreign workers has been increased dramatically in recent years, due to the aging population and the lack of labor force. A news article in 2018 states that approximately 1 out of 10 young people residing in Tokyo are foreign nationals.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: About 2.3% of Japan's total legal resident population are foreign citizens. Of these, according to 2020 data from the Japanese government, the principal groups are as follows.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: The above statistics do not include the approximately 30,000 U.S. military stationed in Japan, nor do they account for illegal immigrants. The statistics also do not take into account minority groups who are Japanese citizens such as the Ainu (an aboriginal people primarily living in Hokkaido), the Ryukyuans (from the Ryukyu Islands south of mainland Japan), naturalized citizens from backgrounds including but not limited to Korean and Chinese, and citizen descendants of immigrants. The total legal resident population of 2012 is estimated at 127.6 million.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: After the demise of the multi-ethnic Empire of Japan in 1945, successive governments had forged a single Japanese identity by advocating monoculturalism and denying the existence of more than one ethnic group in Japan. It was not until 2019 when the Japanese parliament passed an act to recognize the Ainu people to be indigenous. However, the notion of ethnic homogeneity was so ingrained in Japan, to which the former Prime Minister Taro Aso (1940-), in 2020, notably claimed in an election campaign speech that “No other country but this one has lasted for as long as 2,000 years with one language, one ethnic group and one dynasty”.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Pioneering remarks about ethnic rights was first made by Prime Minister Fukuda Yasuo on 20 May 2008, who stated at the parliament, "We acknowledge the Ainu to be an ethnic minority as it has maintained a unique cultural identity and having a unique language and religion."


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: The Ainu people (also Aynu) are an indigenous people native to Hokkaido and northeastern Honshu, as well as the nearby Russian Sakhalin and Kuril Islands (both formerly part of the Japanese Empire), and Kamchatka Peninsula. They possess a language distinct from modern Japanese. They traditionally practiced tattooing and followed religious beliefs that are considered animism.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: The Ōbeikei Islanders are an ethnic group native to the Bonin Islands (also called the Ogasawara Islands), part of Tokyo Prefecture. They are descendants of Westerners, Polynesians, and Kanaks who settled Hahajima and Chichijima in the 18th century. They speak a dialect of English, called Bonin English, and have traditionally practiced Christianity. Legal status of Bonin Islanders passed back and forth between the United States and Japan over the years and, during and after World War II, many Bonin Islanders were forced to leave their homes. Some emigrated to the United States, finding it easier to assimilate into an English-speaking Western culture than a Japanese-speaking Asian one. Today, roughly 200 Bonin Islanders remain in Japan, some still bearing the surnames of the original 18th-century settlers.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: The Yamato people are the dominant native ethnic group of Japan and because of their numbers, the term Yamato is often used interchangeably with the term Japanese.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: The Ryukyuan people (also "Lewchewan") are an indigenous people native to the Ryukyu Islands. There are different subgroups of the Ryukyuan ethnic group, the Okinawan, Amami, Miyako, Yaeyama and Yonaguni peoples. Their languages comprise the Ryukyuan languages, one of the two branches of the Japonic language family (the other being Japanese and its dialects). The Ryukyuans have a distinct culture with some matriarchal elements, native religion, and cuisine which had fairly late (12th century) introduction of rice.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Chinese people in Japan are the largest foreign minorities in Japan. They comprise 0.64% of Japan's population. Chinese people are mostly concentrated in the Osaka, Tokyo and Yokohama areas.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Koreans in Japan are the fifth largest ethnic minorities in the country. Most of them arrived in the early 20th century.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: A small number of Nivkh people resettled in Hokkaido when Japan evacuated southern Sakhalin at the end of World War II.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Filipinos in Japan formed a population of 202,592 individuals at year-end 2007, making them Japan's third-largest foreign community along with Brazilians, according to the statistics of the Ministry of Justice. In 2006, Japanese/Filipino marriages were the most frequent of all international marriages in Japan. As of March 12, 2011, the Filipino population of Japan was 305,972. As of April 1, 2020, the number of Filipinos in Japan is estimated at 325,000.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: There is a significant community of Brazilians in Japan, which is home to the second largest Brazilian community outside of Brazil. They also constitute the largest number of Portuguese speakers in Asia, even greater than those of formerly Portuguese East Timor, Macao and Goa combined. Likewise, Brazil maintains its status as home to the largest Japanese community outside of Japan.


title: Ethnic groups of Japan

text: Like Brazilians in Japan, there are Peruvians in Japan, some of them lived in Peru when the country opened their doors for foreign workers. Alberto Fujimori is one example of Peruvian Japanese.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: "When the Levee Breaks" is a country blues song written and first recorded by Memphis Minnie and Kansas Joe McCoy in 1929. The lyrics reflect experiences during the upheaval caused by the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: "When the Levee Breaks" was re-worked by English rock group Led Zeppelin as the last song on their untitled fourth album. Singer Robert Plant used many of the original lyrics and the songwriting is credited to Memphis Minnie and the individual members of Led Zeppelin. Many other artists have performed and recorded versions of the song.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: When blues musical duo Kansas Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie wrote "When the Levee Breaks," the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 was still fresh in people's memories. The flooding affected 26,000 square miles of the Mississippi Deltahundreds were killed and hundreds of thousands of residents were forced to evacuate. The event is the subject of several blues songs, the most popular being "Backwater Blues" by Bessie Smith (1927) and "Mississippi Heavy Water Blues" by Barbecue Bob (1928).


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Ethel Douglas, Minnie's sister-in-law, recalled that Minnie was living with her family near Walls, Mississippi, when the levee broke in 1927. The song's lyrics recount the personal toll on a man who lost his home and family. Despite the tragedy, biographers also see in it a statement of rebirth.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: McCoy and Minnie recorded "When the Levee Breaks" during their first session for Columbia Records in New York City on June 18, 1929. The song features McCoy on vocals and rhythm guitar. Minnie, the more accomplished guitarist of the two, provided the embellishments using a finger picked-style in a Spanish or open G tuning. Music journalist Charles Shaar Murray identifies Joe McCoy as the actual songwriter. However, as with all their Columbia releases, regardless of who sang the song, the record labels list the artist as "Kansas Joe and Memphis Minnie".


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Columbia issued the song on the then-standard 78 rpm phonograph record, with "That Will Be Alright", another vocal performance by McCoy, on the flip-side in August or June 1929. The record was released before record industry publications, such as "Billboard" began tracking so-called race records, but it has been called a moderate hit. "When the Levee Breaks" is included on several Memphis Minnie compilation albums and blues roots albums featuring various artists.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Led Zeppelin recorded "When the Levee Breaks" for their untitled fourth album. When considering material for the group to record, singer Robert Plant suggested the Kansas Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie song. Jimmy Page commented that while Plant's lyrics identified with the original, he developed a new guitar riff that set it apart. However, it is John Bonham's drumming that is usually noted as the defining characteristic of the song.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Before the released version, Led Zeppelin attempted the song twice. They recorded an early version of the song in December 1970 at Headley Grange, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio. It was later released as "If It Keeps On Raining" on the 2015 reissue of "Coda". Prior to relocating to Headley Grange, they tried unsuccessfully to record it at Island Studios at the beginning of the recording sessions for their fourth album.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Page and John Paul Jones based their guitar and bass lines on the original song. However, they did not follow its twelve-bar blues I–IV–V–I structure, but instead used a one-chord or modal approach to give it a droning sound. Plant used many of the lyrics, but took a different melodic approach. He also added a harmonica part; during mixing, a reverse echo effect was created, whereby the echo is heard ahead of the source.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: John Bonham's drumming, played on a Ludwig kit, was recorded in the lobby of Headley Grange using two Beyerdynamic M 160 microphones which were hung up a flight of stairs; output from these were passed to a pair of Helios F760 compressor/limiters set aggressively to obtain a breathing effect. A Binson Echorec, a delay effects unit, was also used.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Portions of the song were recorded at a different tempo, then slowed down, explaining the "sludgy" sound, particularly on the harmonica and guitar solos. It was the only song on the album that was mixed at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, California (the rest being remixed in London). Page identifies the panning on the song's ending as one of his favourite mixes "when everything starts moving around except for the voice, which remains stationary". The song was difficult to recreate live and the band played it only a few times, in the early stages of their 1975 U.S. Tour.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Music critic Robert Christgau cited Led Zeppelin's version of "When the Levee Breaks" as their fourth album's greatest achievement. He argued that, because it plays like an authentic blues song and "has the grandeur of a symphonic crescendo", their version both transcends and dignifies "the quasi-parodic overstatement and oddly cerebral mood of" their past blues songs. Mick Wall called it a "hypnotic, blues rock mantra". AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine, in a retrospective review, commented that the song was the only piece on their fourth album on par with "Stairway to Heaven" and called it "an apocalyptic slice of urban blues ... as forceful and frightening as Zeppelin ever got, and its seismic rhythms and layered dynamics illustrate why none of their imitators could ever equal them." In "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), Greg Kot wrote that the song showed the band's "hard-rock blues" at their most "momentous". However, group biographer Keith Shadwick notes the song "suffers from too few ideas added to the ingredients as the minutes tick by, compared with 'Black Dog'" and other songs on the first side of the album.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: A second version of the song was released in 2014 on the second disc of the remastered two-disc deluxe edition of "Led Zeppelin IV". This version, known as "When The Levee Breaks (Alternate UK Mix in Progress)", was recorded on May 19, 1971, at the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio at Headley Grange. This mix runs 7:09, while the original runs 7:08.


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Robert Plant performed the song with Alison Krauss on their 2022 tour. One concert reviewer described Plant's vocal as "astonishing, channeling every flood he had seen in his 74 years into the emotional resonance of his voice".


title: When the Levee Breaks

text: Bonham's drum beat is one of the most widely sampled in popular music. According to "Esquire" magazine's Miles Raymer:


title: Mohamed Diab

text: Mohamed Diab ("", , born 1978) is an Egyptian screenwriter and director whose work often centers on pressing issues concerning Egyptian society. He is known for his directorial debut film "Cairo 678" "(Les Femmes du bus 678)", which was released a month before the Egyptian revolution, and for directing Disney's Marvel series "Moon Knight".


title: Mohamed Diab

text: "El Gezeira", released in 2007, is inspired by the true story of the rise of a ruthless drug lord who lived on an island in Upper Egypt. The film set box office records and is often referenced in Egyptian pop culture. The sequel "El Gezeira 2," released in 2014, begins with the escape of the drug lord from prison during the Egyptian revolution and his rebound to power back home on the island. The film set new Egyptian box office records becoming the highest grossing Egyptian and Arabic film of all time. Diab was only the writer of the film, while Sherif Arafa directed it.


title: Mohamed Diab

text: "Cairo 678" is Diab's directorial debut. The film follows the intertwining stories of a vigilante trio of women who take on the sexual harassment epidemic in Cairo. The film was released in December 2010 and is considered the most award-winning contemporary Egyptian film. The film was distributed internationally and fared well notably in France, where it sold 265,000 tickets and received ÉcranTotal's "coup de foudre du public" audience recognition award.


title: Mohamed Diab

text: "Eshtebak (Clash)" was supposed to be a film about the rise of the Egyptian revolution but eventually became a film that captures the fall of the revolution. The entire film is shot from within the confines of a police riot truck.


title: Mohamed Diab

text: The film is a recipient of grants and funding from the San Francisco Film Society, CNC l'aide au Cinémas du Monde and ARTE France.


title: Mohamed Diab

text: In October 2020 Diab was hired to direct episodes of Disney+ streaming series "Moon Knight", set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Diab insisted on bringing Egyptian authenticity to the film's settings even though he was unable to film there. Attention to the smallest details was important to him, such as adding purple hues and the vibrant atmosphere of the Nile River at night. Together with his wife, Sarah Goher, they selected Egyptian music genre songs such as Bahlam Maak, El Melouk, and Batwanes Beek, which are all composed by Egyptian songwriters to convey the true vibe of the country.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: Merlí is a Spanish television series produced by the Catalan channel TV3 about a philosophy teacher of the same name who encourages students to think freely using philosophy.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: The series, created and written by Hector Lozano and directed by Eduard Cortés, premiered on 14 September 2015 in prime time and reached a share of 17.7% with 566,000 viewers. The second season of the series premiered on TV3 on 19 September 2016 and ended on 12 December 2016, and the series' third and final season began airing on 18 September 2017 and ended on 15 January 2018.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: Each episode is named after a different philosopher or school of thought. Influenced by films like "Dead Poets Society", "Merlí" attempts to bring philosophy to the public. Each episode includes the approaches of a great thinker or school, such as the Peripatetics, Nietzsche or Schopenhauer, linking their teachings with fictional events and characters. The theme song is a version of "Flight of the Bumblebee".


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: The first season was dubbed into Castilian Spanish by the company Atresmedia and broadcast on the television channel La Sexta from April to June 2016. In November 2016, the American company Netflix bought the rights for the distribution of the series. The three seasons of the series are available on Netflix in Spain, the United States, and Latin America (although Netflix lost the license in December 2020).


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: The main character of the series is Merlí Bergeron, an unemployed Philosophy teacher who after being evicted from his apartment is forced to live with his mother. He also will have to take care of his son Bruno, who until then was living with his mother, Merlí's ex-wife. After Bruno arrives, Merlí is hired in Àngel Guimerà High School. There, with his unpredictable and unorthodox methods, Merlí will make the students think and express their opinions, and also will help them with their problems, even in a censurable way. He will not only explain about Socrates, Schopenhauer, Hume or Nietzsche, but also will apply their ideas and teachings to solve the problems he finds.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: His students, whom he dubs "peripatetics", are a very diverse group that must face all kinds of situations: Pol, a repeater that soon gets along with Merlí; Berta, a student who does not like Merlí at first; Marc, a friendly, nice guy; Ivan, a boy who suffers from agoraphobia and does not dare to leave home; Tània, an extroverted girl and Bruno's best friend; Gerard, a boy who is prone to fall in love and will ask Merlí for advice; Joan, a studious, shy boy with a very strict family; Monica, a new, very mature student; Oliver, another new boy; and finally, Bruno, Merlí's son and his most difficult student.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: The second year of Batxillerat begins at Àngel Guimerà High School. The students happily welcome Merlí as he enters the school full of energy. The "peripatetics" have matured a bit, but in essence they are still the same happy, insecure teenagers we met in the first season. There is also a new student, Oksana, who will create new relationships inside the group.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: In the teachers' room, however, Merlí is not so warmly welcomed. Although Eugeni is waiting for him and wishing to quarrel, both find a common adversary, Coralina, the new History teacher and Head of Studies. This strict, disciplinarian, 60-year-old professor is determined to impose her standards and will clash with the entire staff. Meanwhile, Merlí teaches in ways even more unorthodox than during the first season. He even takes the class outside of school. Any setting, even the mall, can help him explain the Cynic philosophers, the Stoics, Descartes, Hobbes or the Presocratics. New philosophers are featured this season, such as Hipparchia of Maroneia.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: After the Christmas holidays, the students return to class. The second year of Batxillerat (last year of high school before University) continues for Merlí and the "peripatetics". Everyone is aware high school is ending and the Selectivitat exam (necessary to enter university) and university are approaching.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: In the classroom, some of the plots from the previous season continue: Pol and Tània will have to define their relationship, Joan and Gerard have become close friends, Marc must decide whether his father can return home, and Óscar, Pol's elder brother, will become involved in Oksana's motherhood.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: In the teacher's room, there will be changes. Eugeni is the new director, and new teachers arrive. Gabi is the new Spanish literature teacher, but Merlí is more interested in Silvana, the new history teacher, who is very well received by the staff. Merlí is thrilled by the arrival of the new teacher, who is as creative as he is, but after he sees that his students think highly of her, he becomes jealous. Nevertheless, Merlí will continue to teach philosophy with his peculiar style, gaining the esteem of the "peripatetics". The philosophers featured in this season include Hannah Arendt, Kierkegaard, Albert Camus, Karl Marx and Augustine of Hippo.


title: Merlí (TV series)

text: A spin-off series titled "", centering on Carlos Cuevas' character Pol Rubio attending university, premiered on Movistar+ on 5 December 2019.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: Midway, released in the United Kingdom as Battle of Midway, is a 1976 American war film that chronicles the June 1942 Battle of Midway, a turning point in World War II in the Pacific. Directed by Jack Smight and produced by Walter Mirisch from a screenplay by Donald S. Sanford, the film starred Charlton Heston and Henry Fonda, supported by a large international cast of guest stars including James Coburn, Glenn Ford, Ed Nelson, Hal Holbrook, Toshiro Mifune, Robert Mitchum, Cliff Robertson, Robert Wagner, Pat Morita, Dabney Coleman, Erik Estrada, and Tom Selleck.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: The music score by John Williams and the cinematography by Harry Stradling Jr. were both highly regarded. The film was made using Technicolor, and its soundtrack used Sensurround to augment the physical sensation of engine noise, explosions, crashes and gunfire. Despite mixed reviews, particularly revolving around an unnecessary romance between an American and Japanese couple, "Midway" became the tenth most popular movie at the box office in 1976.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: On April 18, 1942 during World War II, a squadron of B-25 bombers from the launches a lightning raid on Tokyo. The strike stuns the Imperial Japanese Navy and its commander Admiral Yamamoto. With hard evidence of the threat posed by the carriers of the American Pacific Fleet to the Japanese home islands, Yamamoto devises a plan to lure out the American fleet and destroy it once and for all by forcing it to sortie against the invasion of Midway Island.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: At Pearl Harbor, Captain Matt Garth is tasked with gauging the progress of decryption efforts at Station HYPO, headed by Commander Joseph Rochefort, which has partially cracked the Japanese Navy's JN-25 code, revealing that a major operation will soon take place at a location the Japanese refer to as "AF". Garth is also asked by his son, naval aviator Ensign Tom Garth, to help free his girlfriend Haruko Sakura, an American-born daughter of Japanese immigrants, who has been interned with her parents, by calling in favors to have the charges against the family dropped. Yamamoto and his staff present their plans for Midway to the commanders who have been chosen to lead the attack, Admirals Nagumo and Yamaguchi of the Japanese carrier force and Admiral Kondo of the invasion force.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: After the inconclusive Battle of the Coral Sea, Rochefort uses a simple ruse to confirm that "AF" is Midway. Now knowing the location and the approximate date of the attack, Admiral Nimitz and his staff send the carriers and , augmented by , hastily-repaired after being damaged at Coral Sea, to a point north of Midway and lie in wait for the Japanese fleet. Meanwhile, Matt has been unsuccessful in freeing the Sakuras, infuriating Tom.


title: Midway (1976 film)

text: The battle begins on June 4 as Nagumo's carrier force launches its air attack on Midway Island. The American base is damaged, but the airstrip remains usable, meaning Midway can still launch aircraft. The Japanese fleet is then spotted by scouts; the American carriers launch their planes in response. Meanwhile, Nagumo is shocked to learn of a sighting by a scout plane of the "Yorktown", disrupting his plans for a second strike on Midway; he orders that his planes be rapidly re-armed with torpedoes for an attack on the American carrier.