title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: Concerned by the American carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands, Lae-Salamaua, and the Doolittle raids, Yamamoto was determined to force the U.S. Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat. He decided to invade and occupy Midway Atoll, which he was sure would draw out the American carriers to defend it. The Japanese code-named the Midway invasion Operation "MI". Unknown to the Japanese, the U.S. Navy had divined the Japanese plan by breaking its JN-25 code and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers, positioned northeast of Midway.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: On 25 May 1942, "Hiryū" set out with the Combined Fleet's carrier striking force in the company of "Kaga", "Akagi", and "Sōryū", which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions, for the attack on Midway. Her aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zeros, 18 D3As, and 18 B5Ns. Also aboard were three A6Ms of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as the aerial garrison for Midway. With the fleet positioned northwest of Midway at dawn (04:45 local time) on 4 June 1942, "Hiryū"s portion of the 108-plane airstrike was an attack on the facilities on Sand Island with 18 torpedo bombers, one of which aborted with mechanical problems, escorted by nine Zeros. The air group suffered heavily during the attack: Two B5Ns were shot down by fighters, with a third falling victim to antiaircraft fire. Heavy damage forced a fourth, flown by squadron leader Rokuro Kikuchi, to crash-land on Kure Atoll, where he and his crew were later discovered and killed by U.S. forces. A fifth B5N was forced to ditch on its return, and five more were damaged beyond repair. In addition, two Zeros were also deemed unserviceable, although none were lost.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: The carrier also contributed three Zeros to the total of 11 assigned to the initial CAP over the four carriers. By 07:05, the carrier had six fighters with the CAP, which helped to defend the "Kido Butai" from the first U.S. attackers from Midway Island at 07:10. At this time, Nagumo's carriers were attacked by six U.S. Navy Grumman TBF Avengers and four USAAC Martin B-26 Marauders, all carrying torpedoes. The Avengers went after "Hiryū" while the Marauders attacked "Akagi". The 30 CAP Zeros in the air at this time, including the six from "Hiryū", immediately attacked the American airplanes, shooting down five of the Avengers and two of the B-26s. The Avengers shot down one of "Hiryū"s Zeros. The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes, but all missed.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: At 07:15, Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on "Kaga" and "Akagi" rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway Island. This process was slowed by the number of ordnance carts used to handle the bombs and torpedoes and the limited number of ordnance elevators. This meant that the torpedoes could not be struck below until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine, assembled and mounted on the aircraft. This process normally took about an hour and a half; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck, and to warm up and launch the strike group. Around 07:40, he reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted. Depleted of ammunition, two of "Hiryū"s CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07:40.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: At 07:55, the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of 16 Marine Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron 241 (VMSB-241) under Major Lofton R. Henderson. "Hiryū"s three CAP fighters were among the nine still aloft that attacked Henderson's planes, shooting down six of them as they executed a fruitless glide bombing attack on "Hiryū". In return, the gunner of one of the Dauntlesses shot down one of "Hiryū"s Zeros. At roughly the same time, the Japanese carriers were attacked by 12 USAAC B-17s, bombing from . The high altitude of the B-17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land, and they successfully maneuvered out of the impact area. Four B-17s attacked "Hiryū", but missed with all their bombs.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: "Hiryū" reinforced the CAP with launches of three more Zeros at 08:25. These fresh Zeros helped defeat the next American air strike from Midway, 11 Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB-241, which attacked the battleship "Haruna" starting around 08:30. "Haruna" escaped damage and three of the Vindicators were shot down. Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage, they kept the Japanese carrier forces off-balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news, received at 08:20, of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: "Hiryū" began recovering her Midway strike force at around 09:00 and finished shortly by 09:10. The landed aircraft were quickly struck below, while the carriers' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces. The preparations were interrupted at 09:18, when the first attacking American carrier aircraft were sighted. These consisted of 15 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT-8, led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from the "Hornet". They attempted a torpedo attack on "Soryū", but all of the American planes were shot down by the 18 CAP fighters, leaving one surviving aviator treading water.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: Shortly afterwards, 14 Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) from "Enterprise", led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey, attacked. Lindsey's aircraft tried to sandwich "Kaga", but the CAP, reinforced by four additional Zeros launched by "Hiryū" at 09:37, shot down all but four of the Devastators, and "Kaga" dodged the torpedoes. "Hiryū" launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10:13 after Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3) from "Yorktown" was spotted. Two of her Zeros were shot down by Wildcats escorting VT-3 and another was forced to ditch.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: While VT-3 was still attacking "Hiryū", American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives. It was at this time, around 10:20, that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully, the "Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail." Three American dive bomber squadrons now attacked the three other carriers and set each of them on fire. "Hiryū" was untouched and proceeded to launch 18 D3As, escorted by six Zeros, at 10:54. "En route", the Zeros engaged a group of "Enterprise" SBDs that they had spotted. They failed to shoot down any of the dive bombers, but two of the Zeros were shot up by the bombers' rear gunners, with one Zero forced to ditch near a destroyer on its return. American radar detected the incoming Japanese dive bombers at 11:52 and vectored "Yorktown"s CAP of 20 Wildcats against them. The Wildcats shot down three of the remaining Zeros for the loss of one of their own and engaged the D3As. Only seven of the dive bombers survived long enough to make their attack on "Yorktown" and two of those were shot down by flak during their dive, but they made three direct hits and two near misses that badly damaged the carrier and set her on fire.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: Confident that his men had sunk "Yorktown", Yamaguchi launched a second wave of ten B5Ns (including one from "Akagi"), escorted by six Zeros (two from "Kaga"), at 13:30, with the instruction that they attack a separate carrier than that hit by the first wave. However, the Americans had managed to extinguish the fires on "Yorktown" by 14:00, and the carrier was making by 14:30 when the second strike group approached. As a result, the strike pilots mistook her for one of her undamaged sisters, and launched the attack. At that moment, six Wildcats were on CAP duty, and four of these were vectored toward the attacking aircraft while the other two were retained to cover the takeoff of ten Wildcats fueling on deck. The Japanese were jumped at 14:38 by two Wildcats, which shot down one torpedo bomber before they were both shot down by the escorting Zeros (two Zeros were shot down later for the loss of one Wildcat). Four more B5Ns fell during the attack, but two of the survivors managed to score hits on "Yorktown" that damaged three boilers and knocked out all electrical power so that she could not pump fuel oil to starboard to counteract her six-degree list to port. Seventeen minutes later, after the list increased to 23 degrees, the crew was ordered to abandon ship. Of the four Zeros and five B5Ns that returned to "Hiryū", only two Zeros and three bombers were still airworthy.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: Yamaguchi radioed his intention to Nagumo at 16:30 to launch a third strike against the American carriers at dusk (approximately 18:00), but Nagumo ordered the fleet to withdraw to the west. Unbeknownst to the Japanese, "Enterprise" and "Hornet" had already launched airstrikes well before then. "Enterprise" launched a total of 26 Dauntlesses at 15:25 using her own aircraft plus those from "Yorktown" that had been forced to recover aboard her after "Yorktown" was damaged, and "Hornet" launched 16 more of her own Dauntlesses at 16:00. At this point in the battle, "Hiryū" had only four airworthy dive-bombers and five torpedo-planes left. She also retained 19 of her own fighters on board, as well as a further 13 Zeros on CAP (a composite force of survivors from the other carriers). At 16:45, "Enterprise"s dive bombers spotted the Japanese carrier and began to maneuver for good attacking position while reducing altitude. At 16:56, just as the first Dauntlesses were beginning their dives, Nagumo ordered a change in course to 120 degrees, possibly to prepare to recover his reconnaissance floatplanes, that threw off the aim of the leading SBDs. The Japanese did not even spot the Americans until 17:01. The CAP shot down two of the American aircraft in their dives and another after it was forced to abort its dive when some of "Yorktown"s SBDs passed in front of it, starting their own dives. "Hiryū" was struck by four bombs, three on the forward flight deck and one on the forward elevator. The explosions started fires among the aircraft on the hangar deck. The forward half of the flight deck collapsed into the hangar while part of the elevator was hurled against the ship's bridge. The fires were severe enough that the remaining American aircraft attacked the other ships escorting "Hiryū", albeit without effect, deeming further attacks on the carrier as a waste of time, because she was aflame from stem to stern. Beginning at 17:42, two groups of B-17s attempted to attack the Japanese ships without success, although one bomber strafed "Hiryū"s flight deck, killing several anti-aircraft gunners.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: Although "Hiryū"s propulsion was not affected, the fires could not be brought under control. At 21:23, her engines stopped, and at 23:58 a major explosion rocked the ship. The order to abandon ship was given at 03:15, and the survivors were taken off by the destroyers and . Yamaguchi and Kaku decided to remain on board as "Hiryū" was torpedoed at 05:10 by "Makigumo" as the ship could not be salvaged. One torpedo missed and the other struck near the bow without the typical plume of water, although the detonation was quite visible. Around 07:00, one of 's Yokosuka B4Y aircraft discovered "Hiryū" still afloat and not in any visible danger of sinking. The aviators could also see crewmen aboard the carrier, men who had not received word to abandon ship. They finally launched some of the carrier's boats and abandoned ship around 09:00. Thirty-nine men made it into the ship's cutter only moments before "Hiryū" sank around 09:12, taking the bodies of 389 men with her. The cutter drifted for 14 days before being discovered by a PBY Catalina and rescued by the seaplane tender . Four men died of their wounds or exposure before being picked up and a fifth died that night.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: The loss of "Hiryū" and the three other IJN carriers at Midway, comprising two thirds of Japan's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet, was a strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan's ultimate defeat in the war. In an effort to conceal the defeat, the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy's registry of ships, instead being listed as "unmanned" before finally being struck from the registry on 25 September 1942.


title: Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū

text: The IJN selected a modified version of the "Hiryū" design for mass production to replace the carriers lost at Midway. Of a planned program of 16 ships of the "Unryū" class, only six were laid down and three were commissioned before the end of the war.


title: The Son (TV series)

text: The Son is an American western drama television series based on the 2013 novel of the same name by Philipp Meyer. The show was created and developed by Meyer, Brian McGreevy, and Lee Shipman. Twenty episodes over two seasons aired from April 8, 2017, through June 29, 2019.


title: The Son (TV series)

text: In 1849, Eli McCullough is kidnapped at the age of 13 by Comanches and raised as an adopted son. In 'present-day' 1915, he is a powerful, ruthless cattle baron turned oilman, and struggles to maintain his business empire as he looks to pass it on to his sons and grandchildren.


title: The Son (TV series)

text: Originally, Sam Neill was set to play the main character of the series, but left due to personal reasons. Pierce Brosnan was cast to replace him. The production of the series started in June 2016. The series was filmed in and around Austin, TX.


title: The Son (TV series)

text: A 10-episode season premiered on AMC on April 8, 2017. On May 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a second season. The second and final season premiered on April 27, 2019.


title: The Son (TV series)

text: The first season received mixed reviews among critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 52% based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""The Son" epic narrative and strong central performance are crippled by sluggish pacing, hasty direction, and superficial execution." On Metacritic, the series has a score of 57 out of 100, based 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: A man called Jin Momoi finds a baby inside a peach-shaped capsule whom he names Taro and raises. 21 years later, mysterious monsters called the Hitotsuki begin appearing when humans overcome with their inner desires are taken over by spirits infused with powers related to the Super Sentai of the past. Taro, and four other individuals selected by Jin; Shinichi Saruhara, a smart but eccentric young man, Haruka Kito, a high schooler manga artist, Tsubasa Inuzuka, a wanted fugitive, and Tsuyoshi Kijino, an ordinary salaryman; begin fighting the Hitotsuki and saving their hosts as the Donbrothers. They are later joined by Jiro Momotani, who was also found in a capsule as a baby and raised in a rural area, whose dream is to become a hero.


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: Also standing in their way are the Noto, elusive and ruthless individuals from a higher plane of existence who stop the Hitotsuki by sealing their hosts in another dimension, unlike the Donbrothers who use their powers to rescue them, Don Murasame, a mysterious warrior sent to fight them, and the Juto, strange and powerful creatures who are a threat to both humans and the Noto. The Donbrothers also count on the help of Kaito Goshikida, the owner of the coffee shop Donbura who transforms into Zenkaizer Black, and Jin, who is trapped in a virtual prison and occasionally offers them advice.


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: The trademark for the series was filed by Toei Company on October 18, 2021, while the cast and staff was officially announced on February 9, 2022, with Toshiki Inoue as main writer.


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: Don Momotaro, one of the main protagonists, first appeared in episode 42 of "Zenkaiger" as a mean of connecting both series. Two members of the team have inhuman proportions while transformed and are animated with computer graphics.


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: Haruka Kito's actress, Kohaku Shida, tested positive for COVID-19 on July 27, 2022, and recovered on August 9, 2022.


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: is a film released in Japanese theaters on July 22, 2022, double-billed with the film for "Kamen Rider Revice". Actors Wakako Shimazaki, Nobuo Kyo, and Rika Kishida guest-starred as Reiko Saegusa, Director Kuroiwa, and an unnamed recipient respectively. The events of the film take place between episodes 20 and 21. This film is a tribute to "Ninpuu Sentai Hurricaneger".


title: Avataro Sentai Donbrothers

text: In an interview with series producer Shinichiro Shirakura, anime mecha designer Masami Ōbari praises the "Donbrothers"s mecha Don Onitaijin for its detailed proportions and its design, which he considered as an improvement over the past Sentai mechas. Shirakura added that the design of Don Onitaijin was decided as a sort of "revenge" when "Zenkaiger"'s failed attempt to keep up with Bandai's toy release schedule. Ōbari had also hoped to participate in the production of "Donbrothers" in the future as a storyboard artist.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Belgium controlled several territories and concessions during the colonial era, principally the Belgian Congo (modern DRC) from 1908 to 1960 and Ruanda-Urundi (modern Rwanda and Burundi) from 1922 to 1962. It also had small concessions in Guatemala (1843–1854) and in China (1902–1931) and was a co-administrator of the Tangier International Zone in Morocco.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Roughly 98% of Belgium's overseas territory was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium itself) – known as the Belgian Congo. The colony was founded in 1908 following the transfer of sovereignty from the Congo Free State, which was the personal property of Belgium's king, Leopold II. The violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country. Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" ("trinité coloniale") of state, missionary and private company interests. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced extensive urbanization and the administration aimed to make it into a "model colony." As the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, as the Republic of Congo-Léopoldville in 1960.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Of Belgium's other colonies, the most significant was Ruanda-Urundi, a portion of German East Africa, which was given to Belgium as a League of Nations Mandate, when Germany lost all of its colonies at the end of World War I. Following the Rwandan Revolution, the mandate became the independent states of Burundi and Rwanda in 1962.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Belgium, a constitutional monarchy, gained its independence in 1830 from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. By the time this was universally recognized in 1839, most European powers already had colonies and protectorates outside Europe and had begun to form spheres of influence.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: During the 1840s and 50s, King Leopold I tentatively supported several proposals to acquire territories overseas. In 1843, he signed a contract with Ladd & Co. to colonize the Kingdom of Hawaii, but the deal fell apart when Ladd & Co. ran into financial difficulties. Belgian traders also extended their influence in West Africa but this too fell apart following the Rio Nuñez Incident of 1849 and growing Anglo-French rivalry in the region.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: By the time Belgium's second king, Leopold II, was crowned, Belgian enthusiasm for colonialism had abated. Successive governments viewed colonial expansion as economically and politically risky and fundamentally unrewarding, and believed that informal empire, continuing Belgium's booming industrial trade in South America and Russia, was much more promising. As a result, Leopold pursued his colonial ambitions without the support of the Belgian government. The archives of the Belgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade show that Leopold investigated possible colonies in dozens of territories.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Colonization of the Congo began in the late 19th century. King Leopold II of Belgium, frustrated by his nation's lack of international power and prestige, tried to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored Congo Basin. Their refusal led Leopold to create a state under his own personal rule. With support from a number of Western countries who saw Leopold as a useful buffer between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition for the Congo Free State in 1885.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: The Free State government exploited the Congo for its natural resources, first ivory and later rubber which was becoming a valuable commodity. With the support of the Free State's military, the "Force Publique", the territory was divided into private concessions. The Anglo-Belgian India Rubber Company (ABIR), among others, used force and brutality to extract profit from the territory. Their regime in the Congo used forced labour, and murder and mutilation on indigenous Congolese who did not fulfill quotas for rubber collections. Millions of Congolese died during this time. Many deaths can be attributed to new diseases introduced by contact with European colonists, including smallpox which killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: A sharp reduction of the population of the Congo through excess deaths occurred in the Free State period but estimates of the deaths toll vary considerably. Although the figures are estimates, it is believed that as many as ten million Congolese died during the period, roughly a fifth of the population. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period and these figures have been disputed by some who, like William Rubinstein, claim that the figures cited by Adam Hochschild are speculative estimates based on little evidence.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Leopold achieved international recognition for the Congo Free State in 1885. By the turn of the century, however, the violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, creating the Belgian Congo.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Belgian rule in the Congo was based on the "colonial trinity" ("trinité coloniale") of state, missionary and private company interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialised. On many occasions, the interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied, and the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers raised by the indigenous population. The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" ("politique indigène"). This was in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favoured the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. During World War I, Congolese troops participated in offensives against German forces in the area of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi which were placed under Belgian occupation. The Congo had a high degree of racial segregation. The large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were always treated as superior to blacks.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Congolese troops participated in World War II and were instrumental in forcing the Italians out of their East African colonies during the East African Campaign. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo had extensive urbanization, and the colonial administration began various development programmes aimed at making the territory into a "model colony". One of the results was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African ""évolués"" in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labour force twice as large as that in any other African colony.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: In 1960, as the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Congo achieved independence, becoming the Republic of Congo-Léopoldville under Patrice Lumumba and Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Poor relations between factions within the Congo, the continued involvement of Belgium in Congolese affairs, and intervention by major parties of the Cold War led to a five-year-long period of war and political instability, known as the Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. This ended with the seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: Ruanda-Urundi was a part of German East Africa under Belgian military occupation from 1916 to 1924 in the aftermath of World War I, when a military expedition had removed the Germans from the colony. It became a League of Nations Class B mandate allotted to Belgium, from 1924 to 1945. It was designated as a United Nations trust territory, still under Belgian administration, until 1962, when it developed into the independent states of Rwanda and Burundi. After Belgium began administering the colony, it generally maintained the policies established by the Germans, including indirect rule via local Tutsi rulers, and a policy of ethnic identity cards (later retained in the Republic of Rwanda). Revolts and violence against Tutsi, known as the Rwandan Revolution, occurred in the events leading to independence.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: In 1842, a ship sent by King Leopold I of Belgium arrived in Guatemala; the Belgians observed the natural riches of the department of Izabal and decided to settle in Santo Tomas de Castilla and build infrastructure in the region. Rafael Carrera gave them the region in exchange for sixteen thousand pesos every year from the government of Guatemala. On 4 May 1843, the Guatemalan parliament issued a decree giving the district of Santo Tomás "in perpetuity" to the , a private Belgian company under the protection of King Leopold I of Belgium. It replaced the failed British Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company. Belgian colonizing efforts in Guatemala ceased in 1854, due to lack of financing and high mortality due to yellow fever and malaria, endemic diseases of the tropical climate.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: While the "Compagnie belge de colonisation" was granted the land in perpetuity, the concession did not become a colony in the political sense. Article 4 of the May 1842 "Acte de concession" clearly stated that the cession of the territory to the Belgian company did not involve, implicitly or explicitly, a cession of sovereignty over the territory, which would forever remain under the sovereignty and jurisdiction of Guatemala. Article 5 stated that upon their arrival on the territory, the settlers would become Guatemalan natives ("indigènes de Guatemala") fully subject to the existing constitution and laws of the country, relinquishing their former Belgian or other national birthright, as well as any claim to any privileges or immunity as foreigners. Justice was to be administered by judges named by the government (art. 40). No foreign troops were to be allowed on the concession and Guatemalan troops were to garrison two forts that were to be built near the projected new town. (art. 18–22)


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: The city of Tianjin (Tientsin), a treaty port in China (1860–1945) included nine foreign-controlled concessions (). In the years following the Boxer Rebellion, the diplomat Maurice Joostens negotiated a concession for Belgium. The Belgian concession was proclaimed on 7 November 1900 and spanned some . Although Belgian companies invested in Tianjin, especially in the city's tram system, the Belgian concession remained inactive. An agreement was reached between the Belgian and Chinese governments in August 1929 to return the concession to China. The agreement was approved by the Belgian parliament on 13 July 1931.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: In the late 19th century, Belgian engineers were employed on construction of the Beijing–Hankou Railway, leading the Belgian government to unsuccessfully claim a concession in Hankou (Hankow). The Belgian claim was never formally recognised and the proposal was dropped in 1908.


title: Belgian colonial empire

text: In 1919, the island of Comacina was bequeathed to King Albert I of Belgium for a year, and became an enclave under the sovereignty of Belgium. After a year, it was returned to the Italian State in 1920. The Consul of Belgium and the president of the Brera Academy established a charitable foundation with the goal of building a village for artists and a hotel.


title: Daisy Bell

text: "Daisy Bell (Bicycle Built for Two)" is a song written in 1892 by British songwriter Harry Dacre with the well-known chorus "Daisy, Daisy / Give me your answer, do. / I'm half crazy / all for the love of you", ending with the words "a bicycle built for two". The song is said to have been inspired by Daisy Greville, Countess of Warwick, one of the many mistresses of King Edward VII. It is the earliest song sung using computer speech synthesis by the IBM 704 in 1961, a feat that was referenced in the film "" (1968). Also referenced in the movie "Robots" (2005) by Blue Sky Studios.


title: Daisy Bell

text: American Horror Story . Season 8, Episode 10. (2018). Ms Mead (recreated as an android by tech wizards Mutt and Jeff) explodes during the final confrontation between the Witches and Michael Langdon. Ms Mead’s severed head, sings “Daisy Bell” in a slurred and distorted voice.


title: MIMO

text: In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (), is a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmission and receiving antennas to exploit multipath propagation. MIMO has become an essential element of wireless communication standards including IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4), IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5), HSPA+ (3G), WiMAX, and Long Term Evolution (LTE). More recently, MIMO has been applied to power-line communication for three-wire installations as part of the ITU G.hn standard and of the HomePlug AV2 specification.


title: MIMO

text: At one time, in wireless the term "MIMO" referred to the use of multiple antennas at the transmitter and the receiver. In modern usage, "MIMO" specifically refers to a class of techniques for sending and receiving more than one data signal simultaneously over the same radio channel by exploiting multipath propagation. Additionally, modern MIMO usage often refers to multiple data signals sent to different receivers (with one or more receive antennas) though this is more accurately termed multi-user multiple-input single-output (MU-MISO).


title: MIMO

text: MIMO is often traced back to 1970s research papers concerning multi-channel digital transmission systems and interference (crosstalk) between wire pairs in a cable bundle: AR Kaye and DA George (1970), Branderburg and Wyner (1974), and W. van Etten (1975, 1976). Although these are not examples of exploiting multipath propagation to send multiple information streams, some of the mathematical techniques for dealing with mutual interference proved useful to MIMO development. In the mid-1980s Jack Salz at Bell Laboratories took this research a step further, investigating multi-user systems operating over "mutually cross-coupled linear networks with additive noise sources" such as time-division multiplexing and dually-polarized radio systems.


title: MIMO

text: Methods were developed to improve the performance of cellular radio networks and enable more aggressive frequency reuse in the early 1990s. Space-division multiple access (SDMA) uses directional or smart antennas to communicate on the same frequency with users in different locations within range of the same base station. An SDMA system was proposed by Richard Roy and Björn Ottersten, researchers at ArrayComm, in 1991. Their US patent (No. 5515378 issued in 1996) describes a method for increasing capacity using "an array of receiving antennas at the base station" with a "plurality of remote users."


title: MIMO

text: Arogyaswami Paulraj and Thomas Kailath proposed an SDMA-based inverse multiplexing technique in 1993. Their US patent (No. 5,345,599 issued in 1994) described a method of broadcasting at high data rates by splitting a high-rate signal "into several low-rate signals" to be transmitted from "spatially separated transmitters" and recovered by the receive antenna array based on differences in "directions-of-arrival." Paulraj was awarded the prestigious Marconi Prize in 2014 for "his pioneering contributions to developing the theory and applications of MIMO antennas. ... His idea for using multiple antennas at both the transmitting and receiving stations – which is at the heart of the current high speed WiFi and 4G mobile systems – has revolutionized high speed wireless."


title: MIMO

text: In an April 1996 paper and subsequent patent, Greg Raleigh proposed that natural multipath propagation can be exploited to transmit multiple, independent information streams using co-located antennas and multi-dimensional signal processing. The paper also identified practical solutions for modulation (MIMO-OFDM), coding, synchronization, and channel estimation. Later that year (September 1996) Gerard J. Foschini submitted a paper that also suggested it is possible to multiply the capacity of a wireless link using what the author described as "layered space-time architecture."


title: MIMO

text: Greg Raleigh, V. K. Jones, and Michael Pollack founded Clarity Wireless in 1996, and built and field-tested a prototype MIMO system. Cisco Systems acquired Clarity Wireless in 1998. Bell Labs built a laboratory prototype demonstrating its V-BLAST (Vertical-Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time) technology in 1998. Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Iospan Wireless in late 1998 to develop MIMO-OFDM products. Iospan was acquired by Intel in 2003. V-BLAST was never commercialized, and neither Clarity Wireless nor Iospan Wireless shipped MIMO-OFDM products before being acquired.


title: MIMO

text: MIMO technology has been standardized for wireless LANs, 3G mobile phone networks, and 4G mobile phone networks and is now in widespread commercial use. Greg Raleigh and V. K. Jones founded Airgo Networks in 2001 to develop MIMO-OFDM chipsets for wireless LANs. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created a task group in late 2003 to develop a wireless LAN standard delivering at least 100 Mbit/s of user data throughput. There were two major competing proposals: TGn Sync was backed by companies including Intel and Philips, and WWiSE was supported by companies including Airgo Networks, Broadcom, and Texas Instruments. Both groups agreed that the 802.11n standard would be based on MIMO-OFDM with 20 MHz and 40 MHz channel options. TGn Sync, WWiSE, and a third proposal (MITMOT, backed by Motorola and Mitsubishi) were merged to create what was called the Joint Proposal. In 2004, Airgo became the first company to ship MIMO-OFDM products. Qualcomm acquired Airgo Networks in late 2006. The final 802.11n standard supported speeds up to 600 Mbit/s (using four simultaneous data streams) and was published in late 2009.


title: MIMO

text: Surendra Babu Mandava and Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Beceem Communications in 2004 to produce MIMO-OFDM chipsets for WiMAX. The company was acquired by Broadcom in 2010. WiMAX was developed as an alternative to cellular standards, is based on the 802.16e standard, and uses MIMO-OFDM to deliver speeds up to 138 Mbit/s. The more advanced 802.16m standard enables download speeds up to 1 Gbit/s. A nationwide WiMAX network was built in the United States by Clearwire, a subsidiary of Sprint-Nextel, covering 130 million points of presence (PoP) by mid-2012. Sprint subsequently announced plans to deploy LTE (the cellular 4G standard) covering 31 cities by mid-2013 and to shut down its WiMAX network by the end of 2015.


title: MIMO

text: The first 4G cellular standard was proposed by NTT DoCoMo in 2004. Long term evolution (LTE) is based on MIMO-OFDM and continues to be developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). LTE specifies downlink rates up to 300 Mbit/s, uplink rates up to 75 Mbit/s, and quality of service parameters such as low latency. LTE Advanced adds support for picocells, femtocells, and multi-carrier channels up to 100 MHz wide. LTE has been embraced by both GSM/UMTS and CDMA operators.


title: MIMO

text: The first LTE services were launched in Oslo and Stockholm by TeliaSonera in 2009. As of 2015, there were more than 360 LTE networks in 123 countries operational with approximately 373 million connections (devices).


title: MIMO

text: MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories: precoding, spatial multiplexing (SM), and diversity coding.


title: MIMO

text: Precoding is multi-stream beamforming, in the narrowest definition. In more general terms, it is considered to be all spatial processing that occurs at the transmitter. In (single-stream) beamforming, the same signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate phase and gain weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the receiver input. The benefits of beamforming are to increase the received signal gain – by making signals emitted from different antennas add up constructively – and to reduce the multipath fading effect. In line-of-sight propagation, beamforming results in a well-defined directional pattern. However, conventional beams are not a good analogy in cellular networks, which are mainly characterized by multipath propagation. When the receiver has multiple antennas, the transmit beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the signal level at all of the receive antennas, and precoding with multiple streams is often beneficial. Note that precoding requires knowledge of channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter and the receiver.


title: MIMO

text: Spatial multiplexing requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial multiplexing, a high-rate signal is split into multiple lower-rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with sufficiently different spatial signatures and the receiver has accurate CSI, it can separate these streams into (almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The maximum number of spatial streams is limited by the lesser of the number of antennas at the transmitter or receiver. Spatial multiplexing can be used without CSI at the transmitter, but can be combined with precoding if CSI is available. Spatial multiplexing can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple receivers, known as space-division multiple access or multi-user MIMO, in which case CSI is required at the transmitter. The scheduling of receivers with different spatial signatures allows good separability.


title: MIMO

text: Diversity coding techniques are used when there is no channel knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity methods, a single stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial multiplexing) is transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called space-time coding. The signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding. Diversity coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna links to enhance signal diversity. Because there is no channel knowledge, there is no beamforming or array gain from diversity coding.


title: MIMO

text: Diversity coding can be combined with spatial multiplexing when some channel knowledge is available at the receiver.


title: MIMO

text: Multi-antenna MIMO (or single-user MIMO) technology has been developed and implemented in some standards, e.g., 802.11n products.


title: MIMO

text: Recently, results of research on multi-user MIMO technology have been emerging. While full multi-user MIMO (or network MIMO) can have a higher potential, practically, the research on (partial) multi-user MIMO (or multi-user and multi-antenna MIMO) technology is more active.


title: MIMO

text: Third Generation (3G) (CDMA and UMTS) allows for implementing space-time transmit diversity schemes, in combination with transmit beamforming at base stations. Fourth Generation (4G) LTE And LTE Advanced define very advanced air interfaces extensively relying on MIMO techniques. LTE primarily focuses on single-link MIMO relying on SpatialMultiplexing and space-time coding while LTE-Advanced further extends the design to multi-user MIMO. In wireless local area networks (WLAN), the IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), MIMO technology is implemented in the standard using three different techniques: antenna selection, space-time coding and possibly beamforming.


title: MIMO

text: Spatial multiplexing techniques make the receivers very complex, and therefore they are typically combined with orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) or with orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) modulation, where the problems created by a multi-path channel are handled efficiently. The IEEE 802.16e standard incorporates MIMO-OFDMA. The IEEE 802.11n standard, released in October 2009, recommends MIMO-OFDM.


title: MIMO

text: MIMO is also planned to be used in mobile radio telephone standards such as recent 3GPP and 3GPP2. In 3GPP, High-Speed Packet Access plus (HSPA+) and Long Term Evolution (LTE) standards take MIMO into account. Moreover, to fully support cellular environments, MIMO research consortia including IST-MASCOT propose to develop advanced MIMO techniques, e.g., multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO).


title: MIMO

text: MIMO wireless communications architectures and processing techniques can be applied to sensing problems. This is studied in a sub-discipline called MIMO radar.


title: MIMO

text: MIMO technology can be used in non-wireless communications systems. One example is the home networking standard ITU-T G.9963, which defines a powerline communications system that uses MIMO techniques to transmit multiple signals over multiple AC wires (phase, neutral and ground).


title: MIMO

text: In MIMO systems, a transmitter sends multiple streams by multiple transmit antennas. The transmit streams go through a matrix channel which consists of all formula_1 paths between the formula_2 transmit antennas at the transmitter and formula_3 receive antennas at the receiver. Then, the receiver gets the received signal vectors by the multiple receive antennas and decodes the received signal vectors into the original information. A narrowband flat fading MIMO system is modelled as:


title: MIMO

text: where formula_5 and formula_6 are the receive and transmit vectors, respectively, and formula_7 and formula_8 are the channel matrix and the noise vector, respectively.


title: MIMO

text: Referring to information theory, the ergodic channel capacity of MIMO systems where both the transmitter and the receiver have perfect instantaneous channel state information is


title: MIMO

text: where formula_10 denotes Hermitian transpose and formula_11 is the ratio between transmit power and noise power (i.e., transmit SNR). The optimal signal covariance formula_12 is achieved through singular value decomposition of the channel matrix formula_13 and an optimal diagonal power allocation matrix formula_14. The optimal power allocation is achieved through waterfilling, that is


title: MIMO

text: where formula_16 are the diagonal elements of formula_17, formula_18 is zero if its argument is negative, and formula_19 is selected such that formula_20.


title: MIMO

text: If the transmitter has only statistical channel state information, then the ergodic channel capacity will decrease as the signal covariance formula_21 can only be optimized in terms of the average mutual information as


title: MIMO

text: The spatial correlation of the channel has a strong impact on the ergodic channel capacity with statistical information.


title: MIMO

text: If the transmitter has no channel state information it can select the signal covariance formula_21 to maximize channel capacity under worst-case statistics, which means formula_24 and accordingly


title: MIMO

text: Depending on the statistical properties of the channel, the ergodic capacity is no greater than formula_26 times larger than that of a SISO system.


title: MIMO

text: One of the main problems in MIMO is knowing the channel matrix formula_7 at the receiver. In practice, in communication systems, the transmitter sends a Pilot signal and the receiver learns the state of the channel (i.e., formula_7) from the received signal formula_29 and the Pilot signal formula_30. There are several algorithms for estimating formula_7 from multiple received signals formula_29 and the Pilot signal formula_30, such as zero-forcing, successive interference cancellation a.k.a. V-blast, Maximum likelihood estimation (assuming the noise is Gaussian) and recently, Neural network MIMO Detection. As the number of antennas at the transmitter and receiver grows, the MIMO detection problem becomes more difficult and the Neural network approach becomes superior, especially in the presence of impairments.


title: MIMO

text: MIMO signal testing focuses first on the transmitter/receiver system. The random phases of the sub-carrier signals can produce instantaneous power levels that cause the amplifier to compress, momentarily causing distortion and ultimately symbol errors. Signals with a high PAR (peak-to-average ratio) can cause amplifiers to compress unpredictably during transmission. OFDM signals are very dynamic and compression problems can be hard to detect because of their noise-like nature.


title: MIMO

text: Knowing the quality of the signal channel is also critical. A channel emulator can simulate how a device performs at the cell edge, can add noise or can simulate what the channel looks like at speed. To fully qualify the performance of a receiver, a calibrated transmitter, such as a vector signal generator (VSG), and channel emulator can be used to test the receiver under a variety of different conditions. Conversely, the transmitter's performance under a number of different conditions can be verified using a channel emulator and a calibrated receiver, such as a vector signal analyzer (VSA).


title: MIMO

text: Understanding the channel allows for manipulation of the phase and amplitude of each transmitter in order to form a beam. To correctly form a beam, the transmitter needs to understand the characteristics of the channel. This process is called "channel sounding" or channel estimation. A known signal is sent to the mobile device that enables it to build a picture of the channel environment. The mobile device sends back the channel characteristics to the transmitter. The transmitter can then apply the correct phase and amplitude adjustments to form a beam directed at the mobile device. This is called a closed-loop MIMO system. For beamforming, it is required to adjust the phases and amplitude of each transmitter. In a beamformer optimized for spatial diversity or spatial multiplexing, each antenna element simultaneously transmits a weighted combination of two data symbols.


title: MIMO

text: Papers by Gerard J. Foschini and Michael J. Gans, Foschini and Emre Telatar have shown that the channel capacity (a theoretical upper bound on system throughput) for a MIMO system is increased as the number of antennas is increased, proportional to the smaller of the number of transmit antennas and the number of receive antennas. This is known as the multiplexing gain and this basic finding in information theory is what led to a spurt of research in this area. Despite the simple propagation models used in the aforementioned seminal works, the multiplexing gain is a fundamental property that can be proved under almost any physical channel propagation model and with practical hardware that is prone to transceiver impairments.


title: MIMO

text: Papers by Dr. Fernando Rosas and Dr. Christian Oberli have shown that the entire MIMO SVD link can be approximated by the average of the SER of Nakagami-m channels. This leads to characterising the eigenchannels of N × N MIMO channels with N larger than 14, showing that the smallest eigenchannel distributes as a Rayleigh channel, the next four eigenchannels closely distributes as Nakagami-m channels with m = 4, 9, 25 and 36, and the N – 5 remaining eigenchannels have statistics similar to an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel within 1 dB signal-to-noise ratio. It is also shown that 75% of the total mean power gain of the MIMO SVD channel goes to the top third of all the eigenchannels.


title: MIMO

text: A textbook by A. Paulraj, R. Nabar and D. Gore has published an introduction to this area. There are many other principal textbooks available as well.


title: MIMO

text: There exists a fundamental tradeoff between transmit diversity and spatial multiplexing gains in a MIMO system (Zheng and Tse, 2003). In particular, achieving high spatial multiplexing gains is of profound importance in modern wireless systems.


title: MIMO

text: Given the nature of MIMO, it is not limited to wireless communication. It can be used for wire line communication as well. For example, a new type of DSL technology (gigabit DSL) has been proposed based on binder MIMO channels.


title: MIMO

text: An important question which attracts the attention of engineers and mathematicians is how to use the multi-output signals at the receiver to recover the multi-input signals at the transmitter. In Shang, Sun and Zhou (2007), sufficient and necessary conditions are established to guarantee the complete recovery of the multi-input signals.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Mahmoud Ahmed Ibrahim Hassan ('; born 1 October 1994), commonly known as Trézéguet, is an Egyptian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Süper Lig club Trabzonspor and the Egypt national team. His nickname is taken from the French former footballer David Trezeguet, after his former youth coach noticed similarities between the pair in playing style and appearance.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: He began his career with Al Ahly, breaking into the first team at the age of 18 and helping them win the 2012 CAF Champions League and 2013 CAF Champions League. In 2015, he joined Belgian team Anderlecht and the move was later made permanent. However, he struggled to establish himself in the first team and spent the following two seasons on loan, first with fellow Belgian side Mouscron and later Turkish side Kasımpaşa. With Kasımpaşa, he became the highest scoring Egyptian player in the Turkish top flight in a single season which prompted the club to make the transfer permanent in 2018.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Having represented Egypt at under-20 and under-23 level, Trézéguet made his full debut for the Egyptian senior side in 2014 at the age of 19 in a friendly against Kenya. He was named in Egypt's squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, playing in all three group matches. To date, he has made over 50 appearances for his country's national team, scoring 8 goals.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Born in Kafr El Sheikh governorate, he was given the nickname "Trézéguet" at age nine by Badr Ragab, a youth coach at his school team, due to his goalscoring record for the team and his shaven head appearance resembling the French international footballer David Trezeguet. Playing as a striker, he joined the youth academy at Al Ahly after turning down an offer to move to Qatar. He soon converted to playing as a midfielder in the youth academy following the advice of coach Ali Maher. After being promoted to the senior squad by manager Manuel José de Jesus, on the advice of Maher, he made his professional debut in the 2012 CAF Champions League as a substitute in place of Mohamed Aboutrika in a match against local rivals Zamalek. Jesus later described him as "one of the best youngsters he's ever came across." He made his first start for Al Ahly later in the competition against Ghanaian side Berekum Chelsea. Al Ahly went on to win the Champions League although Trézéguet did not feature in the final.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: In April 2013, he was offered a trial for French side Nice after establishing himself in the first team at eighteen and playing in the U20 African Youth Cup, postponing the trial for a later date to help Al Ahly during an injury crisis that left them short of first team players.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: He was later offered a trial with English side Nottingham Forest but the club pulled out of a potential loan transfer with an option to buy after being unable to meet Al Ahly's valuation, stated at £1 million by Al Ahly's director of football Sayed Abdel-Hafiz. In December 2013, he was linked with Scottish club Celtic, who saw a bid of £420,000 rejected. However, he later ended speculation over his future by stating his intention to remain with Al Ahly until at least the end of the 2013–14 season. In January 2015, he won the Best Egypt-based Player Award at the annual Youth and Sports Broadcasting annual gala.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: After helping Al Ahly win the Egyptian Premier League title in the 2014–15 season, speculation over his future arose again after it was confirmed that they would "listen to offers" as the club began to experience financial difficulties The end of his season was disrupted after being ruled out for six weeks with a dislocated shoulder suffered during a 2–1 defeat to Tunisian side Club Africain.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Despite Al Ahly director of football Wael Gomaa stating his desire for Trézéguet to remain with the club, describing him as "one of the main elements of the team", on 6 August 2015, Trézéguet joined Belgian side Anderlecht on loan for a fee of €1 million, with Anderlecht gaining an option to sign him on a permanent basis after the season-long loan for a further €2.5 million. His arrival at the club was disrupted by a broken shoulder sustained while training with his national team in the United Arab Emirates, ruling him out for several months after being forced to undergo surgery. Anderlecht manager Besnik Hasi stated his disappointment in the disruption of the loan spell and admitted that it had been difficult for the club to analyse Trézéguet's ability.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Trézéguet returned to training in early December 2015, before making his competitive debut for Anderlecht on 27 December 2015 in a 2–1 victory over Westerlo when he replaced Dodi Lukebakio in the 82nd minute. Following his debut, Hasi described him as having "great ability and the speed, and I can see a bright future for him." He made his first start for the club a month later in a 2–0 defeat to Gent. However, he was dropped from the side soon after with Hasi claiming that the language barrier was making it difficult for Trézéguet to understand the team's tactics, commenting "He is a diligent player and trains well with us so [...] but he rarely understands what we say," and that he was no longer considered the star player of the team as he had been with Al Ahly.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: In March 2016, Anderlecht announced they were considering exercising their option to sign Trézéguet permanently from Al Ahly for a reported transfer fee of €2.2 million, despite only making seven league appearances in his first season. In May the move was completed, with Trézéguet becoming the second most expensive sale in Al Ahly's history after Flávio Amado.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: He enjoyed a prolific pre-season prior to the 2016–17 season, scoring four times, earning praise from new manager René Weiler. However, the signing of Nicolae Stanciu prompted the club to offer Trézéguet out on loan to gain playing time, eventually joining fellow Belgian side Royal Excel Mouscron on a season-long loan deal. In his first seven appearances for the club, he was directly involved in five goals, scoring two and assisting three including a solo effort against Gent after starting a run from inside his own half, leading manager Glen De Boeck to label him the "most talented player in our team."


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Mouscron became embroiled in a relegation battle but Trézéguet gained praise for his performances from Anderlecht coach Jean-Francois Lenvain, who continued working with him during his loan spell, and led former Anderlecht player Wim De Coninck to call for Trézéguet to be recalled by Anderlecht to replace Stanciu, remarking "If he (Trézéguet) had the amount of chances Stanciu has now he'd be in a different place." In the final match of the season, Trézéguet scored the opening goal of a 2–0 victory over KV Kortrijk that saw Mouscron overtake Westerlo to avoid relegation from the Belgian First Division A. After featuring in the Europa League playoffs, he returned to Anderlecht at the end of his loan spell having scored seven goals during 28 appearances in all competitions. Prior to his return, it was reported that Anderlecht intended to sell Trézéguet due to manager Wilder deeming him "not tactically disciplined", an opinion supported by Mouscron manager Mircea Rednic who commented "he runs in every part of the pitch except the part we need him to go to."


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: After returning to Anderlecht, Trézéguet was linked with transfers to Turkish side Galatasaray and his former club Al Ahly and even considered terminating his contract with the club. He eventually joined Turkish side Kasımpaşa on a season-long loan deal with the club having the option to make the move permanent for €2 million. He made his debut for the club on the opening day of the 2017–18 season, scoring the opening goal of a 3–1 victory over Alanyaspor. He scored five goals in his first twelve appearances for Kasımpaşa, including a brace against Akhisar Belediyespor in the Turkish Cup, before his run in the first team was interrupted following a three match ban he received after being sent off in a match against Bursaspor.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On his return, Trézéguet surpassed his previous career high goalscoring record for a single season after scoring his ninth goal on 4 February 2018. His tenth goal of the season, scored in the club's following match against Yeni Malatyaspor, saw him become only the seventh Egyptian player to reach double figures in a European league and also saw him surpass Ahmed Hassan's record for the most goals scored by an Egyptian player in the Turkish top flight. His performances saw the club activate their clause to make his transfer permanent.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Despite signing permanently with the club in April, Trézéguet was subject to several transfer offers during the 2018 summer transfer window. He held talks with representatives of fellow Turkish side Galatasaray while attending a national team training camp in Italy, later describing the club as his preferred destination. A move to Italian side Inter Milan collapsed after the club stalled on completing the deal. The deal was to include spending the first year on loan with fellow Serie A side Parma due to Milan already reaching their foreign player quota for the upcoming season. A deal was later agreed with Czech side Slavia Prague, after the side met his €5 million release clause, but was placed on hold by Trézéguet despite personal terms being agreed and the player passing a medical. The transfer was eventually cancelled with Trézéguet declaring his desire to remain with Kasımpaşa. His performances during the 2017–18 season saw him nominated for the Süper Lig Player of the Year award, losing out to Bafétimbi Gomis.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On 24 July 2019, Trézéguet joined Premier League club Aston Villa for a fee of £8.75 million, subject to work visa and international clearance. He made his debut on 10 August in a 3–1 loss away to Tottenham Hotspur, playing the first 59 minutes before being substituted for fellow new signing Jota. Three weeks later, he was sent off in the 54th minute as Villa lost 1–0 at Crystal Palace.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Trézéguet scored his first goal for Aston Villa on 2 November 2019, in a 2–1 defeat to Liverpool. His performance in that game earned plaudits from national football pundits, such as Ian Wright. On 28 January 2020, he scored an injury time winner in an EFL Cup semi-final against Leicester City, to send Villa to their first final in the tournament since 2010.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Trezeguet played a key role in Aston Villa's strong run of form in their final 4 games of the season, scoring 3 crucial goals against Crystal Palace and Arsenal to help them achieve Premier League survival.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On 30 November 2020, Trézéguet suffered a severe facial injury during a Premier League defeat to West Ham United. Shortly after recovering from that injury, but before featuring in another Villa game, Trézéguet suffered a hamstring injury which was expected to keep him sidelined for a month. On 13 January 2021, Trézéguet revealed on his Twitter account that he had recovered from the hamstring injury, but had now tested positive for COVID-19 and was forced to isolate at home. He was finally able to make his return to the first team as a late substitute in a 2–0 win over Newcastle United on 23 January 2021.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On 10 April 2021, Trézéguet suffered another injury setback, suffering a torn ACL after a challenge from Trent Alexander-Arnold in a 2–1 away defeat to Liverpool. The injury was expected to end the 2020–21 season for Trézéguet at a minimum. He returned to the first team on 2 January 2022, in a 2–1 away defeat to Brentford, in which he received criticism for appearing to simulate contact with Saman Ghoddos in order to try and win a penalty.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On 8 February 2022, Trézéguet joined İstanbul Başakşehir on loan until the end of the season, in a bid to get more game time and improve his fitness. He made his debut for Başakşehir on 12 February 2022, in a 2–0 victory over Gaziantep, in which he provided an assist for Pizzi's opening goal.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: On 4 July 2022, Trézéguet returned to the Süper Lig once again, joining reigning champions Trabzonspor on a permanent deal, for a transfer fee rumoured to be around £4.25M.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Trézéguet represented Egypt at U20 level, being named in the squad for the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. In his side's final group game, he scored the opening goal during a 2–0 victory over England on 20 June 2013, dribbling past two players before scoring. However, despite their victory, Egypt were eliminated in the group stage after finishing third. Trézéguet made his debut with the senior national team on 30 August 2014 when he was 19 years and 10 months old in a 1–0 victory over Kenya, before scoring his first senior goal in his third appearance during a 2–0 victory over Equatorial Guinea.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: He was chosen by Héctor Cúper for the squad to play the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations, where he was a regular in the team's starting line-up; he helped his nation to reach the final of the tournament, losing 2–1 against Cameroon. He later credited Cúper for his improved form in the Cup of Nations and qualifying matches for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where he came on as a substitute during his country's decisive qualifying victory over DR Congo, stating "He is a coach who respects those who exert efforts in training and matches." In May 2018, he was named in Egypt's preliminary squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia. After being included in the final 23-man squad, he started all three of Egypt's group matches, defeats to Uruguay, Russia and Saudi Arabia, as they were eliminated in the group stage.


title: Trézéguet (Egyptian footballer)

text: Trézéguet returned from injury in time to be selected by Carlos Queiroz for the squad to play in the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations - which was taking place in January 2022, due to COVID-19. On 30 January 2022, he scored an extra-time winner in a 2–1 quarter-final victory over Morocco. Trézéguet featured in all of Egypt's matches in the tournament as they were defeated by Senegal on penalties in the final.


title: Pastoral

text: A pastoral lifestyle is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to a genre of literature, art, and music (pastorale) that depicts such life in an idealized manner, typically for urban audiences. A "pastoral" is a work of this genre, also known as bucolic, from the Greek , from , meaning a cowherd.


title: Pastoral

text: Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various techniques to place the complex life into a simple one. Paul Alpers distinguishes pastoral as a mode rather than a genre, and he bases this distinction on the recurring attitude of power; that is to say that pastoral literature holds a humble perspective toward nature. Thus, pastoral as a mode occurs in many types of literature (poetry, drama, etc.) as well as genres (most notably the pastoral elegy).


title: Pastoral

text: Terry Gifford, a prominent literary theorist, defines pastoral in three ways in his critical book "Pastoral". The first way emphasizes the historical literary perspective of the pastoral in which authors recognize and discuss life in the country and in particular the life of a shepherd. This is summed up by Leo Marx with the phrase "No shepherd, no pastoral." The second type of the pastoral is literature that "describes the country with an implicit or explicit contrast to the urban". The third type of pastoral depicts the country life with derogative classifications.


title: Pastoral

text: Hesiod's "Works and Days" presents a 'golden age' when people lived together in harmony with nature. This Golden Age shows that even before the Alexandrian age, ancient Greeks had sentiments of an ideal pastoral life that they had already lost. This is the first example of literature that has pastoral sentiments and may have begun the pastoral tradition. Ovid's "Metamorphoses" is much like the "Works and Days" with the description of ages (golden, silver, bronze, iron, and human) but with more ages to discuss and less emphasis on the gods and their punishments. In this artificially constructed world, nature acts as the main punisher. Another example of this perfect relationship between man and nature is evident in the encounter of a shepherd and a goatherd who meet in the pastures in Theocritus' poem "Idylls 1".


title: Pastoral

text: Traditionally, pastoral refers to the lives of herdsmen in a romanticized, exaggerated, but representative way. In literature, the adjective 'pastoral' refers to rural subjects and aspects of life in the countryside among shepherds, cowherds and other farm workers that are often romanticized and depicted in a highly unrealistic manner. The pastoral life is usually characterized as being closer to the golden age than the rest of human life. The setting is a "locus amoenus", or a beautiful place in nature, sometimes connected with images of the Garden of Eden. An example of the use of the genre is the short poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson "Robene and Makyne" which also contains the conflicted emotions often present in the genre. A more tranquil mood is set by Christopher Marlowe's well known lines from his 1599 "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love":


title: Pastoral

text: "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" exhibits the concept of Gifford's second definition of 'pastoral'. The speaker of the poem, who is the titled shepherd, draws on the idealization of urban material pleasures to win over his love rather than resorting to the simplified pleasures of pastoral ideology. This can be seen in the listed items: "lined slippers", "purest gold", "silver dishes", and "ivory table" (lines 13, 15, 16, 21, 23). The speaker takes on a voyeuristic point of view with his love, and they are not directly interacting with the other true shepherds and nature.


title: Pastoral

text: Pastoral shepherds and maidens usually have Greek names like Corydon or Philomela, reflecting the origin of the pastoral genre. Pastoral poems are set in beautiful rural landscapes, the literary term for which is "locus amoenus" (Latin for "beautiful place"), such as Arcadia, a rural region of Greece, mythological home of the god Pan, which was portrayed as a sort of Eden by the poets. The tasks of their employment with sheep and other rustic chores is held in the fantasy to be almost wholly undemanding and is left in the background, leaving the shepherdesses and their swains in a state of almost perfect leisure. This makes them available for embodying perpetual erotic fantasies. The shepherds spend their time chasing pretty girls – or, at least in the Greek and Roman versions, pretty boys as well. The eroticism of Virgil's second eclogue, "Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin" ("The shepherd Corydon burned with passion for pretty Alexis"), is entirely homosexual.


title: Pastoral

text: Pastoral literature continued after Hesiod with the poetry of the Hellenistic Greek Theocritus, several of whose "Idylls" are set in the countryside (probably reflecting the landscape of the island of Cos where the poet lived) and involve dialogues between herdsmen. Theocritus may have drawn on authentic folk traditions of Sicilian shepherds. He wrote in the Doric dialect but the metre he chose was the dactylic hexameter associated with the most prestigious form of Greek poetry, epic. This blend of simplicity and sophistication would play a major part in later pastoral verse. Theocritus was imitated by the Greek poets Bion and Moschus.


title: Pastoral

text: The Roman poet Virgil adapted pastoral into Latin with his highly influential "Eclogues". Virgil introduces two very important uses of pastoral, the contrast between urban and rural lifestyles and political allegory most notably in Eclogues 1 and 4 respectively. In doing so, Virgil presents a more idealized portrayal of the lives of shepherds while still employing the traditional pastoral conventions of Theocritus. He was the first to set his poems in Arcadia, an idealized location to which much later pastoral literature will refer.


title: Pastoral

text: Horace's "Epodes", ii Country Joys has "the dreaming man" Alfius, who dreams of escaping his busy urban life for the peaceful country. But as "the dreaming man" indicates, this is just a dream for Alfius. He is too consumed in his career as a usurer to leave it behind for the country.


title: Pastoral

text: Later Silver Latin poets who wrote pastoral poetry, modeled principally upon Virgil's Eclogues, include Calpurnius Siculus and Nemesianus and the author(s) of the Einsiedeln Eclogues.


title: Pastoral

text: Italian poets revived the pastoral from the 14th century onwards, first in Latin (examples include works by Petrarch, Pontano and Mantuan) then in the Italian vernacular (Sannazaro, Boiardo). The fashion for pastoral spread throughout Renaissance Europe.


title: Pastoral

text: Leading French pastoral poets include Marot, a poet of the French court, and Pierre de Ronsard, once called the "prince of poets" in his day.


title: Pastoral

text: The first pastorals in English were the "Eclogues" (c. 1515) of Alexander Barclay, which were heavily influenced by Mantuan. A landmark in English pastoral poetry was Spenser’s "The Shepheardes Calender", first published in 1579. Spenser's work consists of twelve eclogues, one for each month of the year, and is written in dialect. It contains elegies, fables and a discussion of the role of poetry in contemporary England. Spenser and his friends appear under various pseudonyms (Spenser himself is "Colin Clout"). Spenser's example was imitated by such poets as Michael Drayton ("Idea, The Shepherd's Garland") and William Browne ("Britannia's Pastorals"). During this period of England's history, many authors explored "anti-pastoral" themes. Two examples of this, Sir Philip Sidney's “The Twenty-Third Psalm” and “The Nightingale”, focus on the world in a very anti-pastoral view. In “The Twenty-Third Psalm,” Nature is portrayed as something we need to be protected from, and in “The Nightingale,” the woe of Philomela is compared to the speaker's own pain. Sidney also wrote "Arcadia", which is filled with pastoral descriptions of the landscape. "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd" (1600) by Sir Walter Raleigh also comments on the anti-pastoral as the nymph responds realistically to the idealizing shepherd of "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" by embracing and explaining the true course of nature and its incompatibility with the love that the Shepherd yearns for with the nymph. Terry Gifford defined the anti-pastoral in his 2012 essay "Pastoral, Anti-Pastoral and Post-Pastoral as Reading Strategies" as an often explicit correction of pastoral, emphasizing "realism" over romance, highlighting problematic elements (showing tensions, disorder and inequalities), challenging literary constructs as false distortions and demythologizing mythical locations such as Arcadia and Shangri-La.


title: Pastoral

text: In the 17th century came the Country house poem. Included in this genre is Emilia Lanier's "The Description of Cooke-ham" in 1611, in which a woman is described in terms of her relationship to her estate and how it mourns for her when she leaves it. In 1616, Ben Jonson wrote "To Penshurst," a poem in which he addresses the estate owned by the Sidney family and tells of its beauty. The basis of the poem is a harmonious and joyous elation of the memories that Jonson had at the manor. It is beautifully written with iambic pentameter, a style that Jonson eloquently uses to describe the culture of Penshurst. It includes Pan and Bacchus as notable company of the manor. Pan, Greek god of the Pastoral world, half man and half goat, was connected with both hunting and shepherds; Bacchus was the god of wine, intoxication and ritual madness. This reference to Pan and Bacchus in a pastoral view demonstrates how prestigious Penshurst was, to be worthy in the company with gods.


title: Pastoral

text: "A Country Life", another 17th-century work by Katherine Philips, was also a country house poem. Philips focuses on the joys of the countryside and looks upon the lifestyle that accompanies it as being "the first and happiest life, when man enjoyed himself." She writes about maintaining this lifestyle by living detached from material things, and by not over-concerning herself with the world around her. Andrew Marvell's "Upon Appleton House" was written when Marvell was working as a tutor for Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, in 1651. The poem is very rich with metaphors that relate to religion, politics and history. Similar to Jonson's "To Penshurst", Marvell's poem is describing a pastoral estate. It moves through the house itself, its history, the gardens, the meadows and other grounds, the woods, the river, his Pupil Mary, and the future. Marvell used nature as a thread to weave together a poem centered around man. We once again see nature fully providing for man. Marvell also continuously compares nature to art and seems to point out that art can never accomplish on purpose what nature can achieve accidentally or spontaneously.


title: Pastoral

text: Robert Herrick's "The Hock-cart, or Harvest Home" was also written in the 17th century. In this pastoral work, he paints the reader a colorful picture of the benefits reaped from hard work. This is an atypical interpretation of the pastoral, given that there is a celebration of labor involved as opposed to central figures living in leisure and nature just taking its course independently. This poem was mentioned in Raymond Williams', "The Country and the City". This acknowledgment of Herrick's work is appropriate, as both Williams and Herrick accentuate the importance of labor in the pastoral lifestyle.


title: Pastoral

text: The pastoral elegy is a subgenre that uses pastoral elements to lament a death or loss. The most famous pastoral elegy in English is John Milton's "Lycidas" (1637), written on the death of Edward King, a fellow student at Cambridge University. Milton used the form both to explore his vocation as a writer and to attack what he saw as the abuses of the Church. Also included is Thomas Gray's, "Elegy In a Country Churchyard" (1750).


title: Pastoral

text: The formal English pastoral continued to flourish during the 18th century, eventually dying out at the end. One notable example of an 18th-century work is Alexander Pope's "Pastorals" (1709). In this work Pope imitates Edmund Spenser's "Shepheardes Calendar", while utilizing classical names and allusions aligning him with Virgil. In 1717, Pope's "Discourse on Pastoral Poetry" was published as a preface to "Pastorals." In this work Pope sets standards for pastoral literature and critiques many popular poets, one of whom is Spenser, along with his contemporary opponent Ambrose Philips. During this time period Ambrose Philips, who is often overlooked because of Pope, modeled his poetry after the native English form of Pastoral, employing it as a medium to express the true nature and longing of Man. He strove to write in this fashion to conform to what he thought was the original intent of Pastoral literature. As such, he centered his themes around the simplistic life of the Shepherd, and, personified the relationship that humans once had with nature. John Gay, who came a little later was criticized for his poem's artificiality by Doctor Johnson and attacked for their lack of realism by George Crabbe, who attempted to give a true picture of rural life in his poem "The Village."


title: Pastoral

text: In 1590, Edmund Spenser also composed the famous pastoral epic "The Faerie Queene", in which he employs the pastoral mode to accentuate the charm, lushness, and splendor of the poem's (super)natural world. Spenser alludes to the pastoral continuously throughout the work and also uses it to create allegory in his poem, with the characters as well as with the environment, both of which are meant to have symbolic meaning in the real world. It is of six 'books' only, though Spenser intended to write twelve. He wrote the poem primarily to honor Queen Elizabeth. William Cowper addressed the artificiality of the fast-paced city life in his poems "Retirement" (1782) and "The Winter Nosegay" (1782). Pastoral nevertheless survived as a mood rather than a genre, as can be seen from such works as Matthew Arnold's "Thyrsis" (1867), a lament on the death of his fellow poet Arthur Hugh Clough. Robert Burns can be read as a Pastoral poet for his nostalgic portrayals of rural Scotland and simple farm life in "To A Mouse" and "The Cotter's Saturday Night". Burns explicitly addresses the Pastoral form in his "Poem on Pastoral Poetry". In this he champions his fellow Scot Allan Ramsey as the best Pastoral poet since Theocritus.


title: Pastoral

text: Another subgenre is the Edenic Pastoral, which alludes to the perfect relationship between God, man, and nature in the Garden of Eden. It typically includes biblical symbols and imagery. In 1645 John Milton wrote "L'Allegro", which translates as the happy person. It is a celebration of Mirth personified, who is the child of love and revelry. It was originally composed to be a companion poem to, "Il Penseroso", which celebrates a life of melancholy and solitude. Milton's, "On the Morning of Christ's Nativity" (1629) blends Christian and pastoral imagery.


title: Pastoral

text: Milton is perhaps best known for his epic "Paradise Lost", one of the few Pastoral epics ever written. A notable part of Paradise Lost is book IV where he chronicles Satan's trespass into paradise. Milton's iconic descriptions of the garden are shadowed by the fact that we see it from Satan's perspective and are thus led to commiserate with him. Milton elegantly works through a presentation of Adam and Eve’s pastorally idyllic, eternally fertile living conditions and focuses upon their stewardship of the garden. He gives much focus to the fruit bearing trees and Adam and Eve's care of them, sculpting an image of pastoral harmony. However, Milton in turn continually comes back to Satan, constructing him as a character the audience can easily identify with and perhaps even like. Milton creates Satan as character meant to destabilize the audience’s understanding of themselves and the world around them. Through this mode, Milton is able to create a working dialogue between the text and his audience about the ‘truths’ they hold for themselves.


title: Pastoral

text: Italian writers invented a new genre, the pastoral romance, which mixed pastoral poems with a fictional narrative in prose. Although there was no classical precedent for the form, it drew some inspiration from ancient Greek novels set in the countryside, such as "Daphnis and Chloe". The most influential Italian example of the form was Sannazzaro's "Arcadia" (1504). The vogue for the pastoral romance spread throughout Europe producing such notable works as Bernardim Ribeiro "Menina e Moça" (1554) in Portuguese, Montemayor's "Diana" (1559) in Spain, Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" (1590) in England, and Honoré d'Urfé's "Astrée" (1607–27) in France.


title: Pastoral

text: Pastoral drama also emerged in Renaissance Italy. Again, there was little Classical precedent, with the possible exception of Greek satyr plays. Poliziano's "Orfeo" (1480) shows the beginnings of the new form, but it reached its zenith in the late 16th century with Tasso's "Aminta" (1573), Isabella Andreini's "Mirtilla" (1588), and Guarini's "Il pastor fido" (1590). John Lyly's "Endimion" (1579) brought the Italian-style pastoral play to England. John Fletcher's "The Faithful Shepherdess", Ben Jonson's "The Sad Shepherd" and Sidney's "The Lady of May" are later examples. Some of Shakespeare's plays contain pastoral elements, most notably "As You Like It" (whose plot was derived from Thomas Lodge's pastoral romance "Rosalynde") and "The Winter's Tale", of which Act 4 Scene 4 is a lengthy pastoral digression.


title: Pastoral

text: The forest in "As You Like It" can be seen as a place of pastoral idealization, where life is simpler and purer, and its inhabitants live more closely to each other, nature and God than their urban counterparts. However, Shakespeare plays with the bounds of pastoral idealization. Throughout the play, Shakespeare employs various characters to illustrate pastoralism. His protagonists Rosalind and Orlando metaphorically depict the importance of the coexistence of realism and idealism, or urban and rural life. While Orlando is absorbed in the ideal, Rosalind serves as a mediator, bringing Orlando back down to reality and embracing the simplicity of pastoral love. She is the only character throughout the play who embraces and appreciates both the real and idealized life and manages to make the two ideas coexist. Therefore, Shakespeare explores city and country life as being appreciated through the coexistence of the two.


title: Pastoral

text: Theocritus's "Idylls" include strophic songs and musical laments, and, as in Homer, his shepherds often play the syrinx, or Pan flute, considered a quintessentially pastoral instrument. Virgil's "Eclogues" were performed as sung mime in the 1st century, and there is evidence of the pastoral song as a legitimate genre of classical times.


title: Pastoral

text: The pastoral genre was a significant influence in the development of opera. After settings of pastoral poetry in the pastourelle genre by the troubadours, Italian poets and composers became increasingly drawn to the pastoral. Musical settings of pastoral poetry became increasingly common in first polyphonic and then monodic madrigals: these later led to the cantata and the serenata, in which pastoral themes remained on a consistent basis. Partial musical settings of Giovanni Battista Guarini's "Il pastor fido" were highly popular: the texts of over 500 madrigals were taken from this one play alone. Tasso's "Aminta" was also a favourite. As opera developed, the dramatic pastoral came to the fore with such works as Jacopo Peri's "Dafne" and, most notably, Monteverdi's "L'Orfeo". Pastoral opera remained popular throughout the 17th-century, and not just in Italy, as is shown by the French genre of "pastorale héroïque", Englishman Henry Lawes's music for Milton's "Comus" (not to mention John Blow's "Venus and Adonis"), and Spanish zarzuela. At the same time, Italian and German composers developed a genre of vocal and instrumental pastorals, distinguished by certain stylistic features, associated with Christmas Eve.


title: Pastoral

text: The pastoral, and parodies of the pastoral, continued to play an important role in musical history throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. John Gay may have satirized the pastoral in "The Beggar's Opera", but also wrote an entirely sincere libretto for Handel's "Acis and Galatea". Rousseau's "Le Devin du village" draws on pastoral roots, and Metastasio's libretto "Il re pastore" was set over 30 times, most famously by Mozart. Rameau was an outstanding exponent of French pastoral opera. Beethoven also wrote his famous Pastoral Symphony, avoiding his usual musical dynamism in favour of relatively slow rhythms. More concerned with psychology than description, he labelled the work "more the expression of feeling than [realistic] painting". The pastoral also appeared as a feature of grand opera, most particularly in Meyerbeer's operas: often composers would develop a pastoral-themed "oasis", usually in the centre of their work. Notable examples include the shepherd's "alte Weise" from Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde", or the pastoral ballet occupying the middle of Tchaikovsky's "The Queen of Spades". The 20th-century continued to bring new pastoral interpretations, particularly in ballet, such as Ravel's "Daphis and Chloe", Nijinsky's use of Debussy's "Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune", and Stravinsky's "Le sacre du printemps" and "Les Noces".


title: Pastoral

text: The Pastorale is a form of Italian folk song still played in the regions of Southern Italy where the zampogna continues to thrive. They generally sound like a slowed down version of a tarantella, as they encompass many of the same melodic phrases. The pastorale on the zampogna can be played by a solo zampogna player, or in some regions can be accompanied by the piffero (also commonly called a ciaramella, 'pipita', or bifora), which is a primitive key-less double reed oboe type instrument.


title: Pastoral

text: Idealised pastoral landscapes appear in Hellenistic and Roman wall paintings. Interest in the pastoral as a subject for art revived in Renaissance Italy, partly inspired by the descriptions of pictures Jacopo Sannazaro included in his "Arcadia". The "Pastoral Concert" in the Louvre attributed to Giorgione or Titian is perhaps the most famous painting in this style. Later, French artists were also attracted to the pastoral, notably Claude, Poussin (e.g. Et in Arcadia ego) and Watteau (in his "Fêtes galantes"). The Fête champêtre, with scenes of country people dancing was a popular subject in Flemish painting. Thomas Cole has a series of paintings titled "The Course of Empire", and the second of these paintings (shown on the right) depicts the perfect pastoral setting.


title: Pastoral

text: Pastoral imagery and symbolism feature heavily in Christianity and the Bible. Jesus calls himself the "Good Shepherd" in , contrasting his role as the Lamb of God.


title: Pastoral

text: Many Christian denominations use the title "Pastor", a word rooted in the Biblical metaphor of shepherding. ("Pastor" in Latin means "shepherd"). The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) uses the Hebrew word ("roʿeh"), which is used as a noun as in "shepherd", and as a verb as in "to tend a flock." It occurs 173 times in 144 Old Testament verses and relates to the literal feeding of sheep, as in Genesis 29:7. In Jeremiah 23:4, both meanings are used ("ro'im" is used for "shepherds" and "yir'um" for "shall feed them"), "And I will set up shepherds over them which shall feed them: and they shall fear no more, nor be dismayed, neither shall they be lacking, saith the LORD." (KJV).


title: Pastoral

text: A pastoral economic system had great cultural significance for the Jewish people from earliest recorded times: Abraham herded flocks. Throughout the biblical accounts of the Children of Israel, a pastoral lifestyle in the harsh hinterland of the Levant related to the ideal of a society obedient to Yahweh, in contrast to the corruption and idolatry encountered in the "fleshpots of Egypt" (Exodus 16:3), in the lush Canaanite lowlands "flowing with milk and honey" (Exodus 3:8), or in Babylon, the "great city" of Israelite exile. David, a righteous shepherd-boy associated with the arid hill-country, contrasts with Goliath and Saul, representatives of luxurious urban élites. Thus New Testament imagery of shepherds and their sheep builds on established cultural and economic distinctions familiar, directly or indirectly, to the Jewish world at the time of the origins of Christianity in the first century CE.


title: Pastoral

text: A pastoral letter, often called simply a pastoral, is an open letter addressed by a bishop to the clergy or laity of a diocese or to both, containing general admonition, instruction or consolation, or directions for behavior in particular circumstances. In most episcopal church bodies, clerics are often required to read out pastoral letters of superior bishops to their congregations.


title: Pastoral

text: The pastoral epistles are a group of three books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy (1 Timothy) the Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Timothy), and the Epistle to Titus. They are presented as letters from Paul the Apostle to Timothy and to Titus. They are generally discussed as a group (sometimes with the addition of the Epistle to Philemon) and are given the title "pastoral" because they are addressed to individuals with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership.


title: Pastoral

text: In the past four hundred years, a range of writers have worked on theorizing the nature of pastoral. These include Friedrich Schiller, George Puttenham, William Empson, Frank Kermode, Raymond Williams, Renato Poggioli, Annabel Patterson, Paul Alpers, and Ken Hiltner.


title: Pastoral

text: George Puttenham was one of the first Pastoral theorists. He did not see the form as merely a recording of a prior rustic way of life but a guise for political discourse, which other forms had previously neglected. The Pastoral, he writes, has a didactic duty to “contain and enforme morall discipline for the amendment of mans behaviour”.


title: Pastoral

text: Friedrich Schiller linked the Pastoral to childhood and a childlike simplicity. For Schiller, we perceive in nature an “image of our infancy irrevocably past”.


title: Pastoral

text: Sir William Empson spoke of the ideal of Pastoral as being embedded in varying degrees of ambivalence, and yet, for all the apparent dichotomies, and contradicting elements found within it, he felt there was a unified harmony within it. He refers to the pastoral process as 'putting the complex into the simple.' Empson argues that "... good proletarian art is usually Covert Pastoral", and uses Soviet Russia's propaganda about the working class as evidence. Empson also emphasizes the importance of the double plot as a tool for writers to discuss a controversial topic without repercussions.


title: Pastoral

text: Raymond Williams argues that the foundation of the pastoral lies in the idea that the city is a highly urban, industrialized center that has removed us from the peaceful life we once had in the countryside. However, he states that this is really a "myth functioning as a memory" that literature has created in its representations of the past. As a result, when society evolves and looks back to these representations, it considers its own present as the decline of the simple life of the past. He then discusses how the city's relationship with the country affected the economic and social aspects of the countryside. As the economy became a bigger part of society, many country newcomers quickly realized the potential and monetary value that lay in the untouched land. Furthermore, this new system encouraged a social stratification in the countryside. With the implementation of paper money came a hierarchy in the working system, as well as the "inheritance of titles and making of family names".


title: Pastoral

text: Poggioli was concerned with how death reconciled itself with the pastoral, and thus came up with a loose categorization of death in the pastoral as 'funeral elegy', the most important tropes of which he cites as religion (embodied by Pan); friendship; allegory;and poetic and musical calling. He concedes though that such a categorization is open to much misinterpretation. As well, Poggioli focused on the idea that Pastoral was a nostalgic and childish way of seeing the world. In "The Oaten Flue", he claims that the shepherd was looked up to was because they were “an ideal kind of leisure class."


title: Pastoral

text: Frank Kermode discusses the pastoral within the historical context of the English Renaissance. His first condition of pastoral poetry is that it is an urban product. Kermode establishes that the pastoral is derived as an opposition between two modes of living, in the country and in the city. London was becoming a modern metropolis before the eyes of its citizens. The result of this large-scale urban sprawl left the people with a sense of nostalgia for their country way of living. His next argument focuses on the artificiality of poetry, drawing upon fellow theorist, Puttenham. Kermode elaborates on this and says, "the cultivated, in their artificial way, reflect upon and describe, for their own ends, the natural life". Kermode wants us to understand that the recreation or reproduction of the natural is in itself artificial. Kermode elaborates on this in terms of imitation, describing it as "one of the fundamental laws of literary history" because it "gives literary history a meaning in terms of itself, and provides the channels of literary tradition". Kermode goes on to explain about the works of Virgil and Theocritus as progenitors of the pastoral. Later poets would draw on these earlier forms of pastoral, elaborating on them to fit their own social context. As the pastoral was becoming more modern, it shifted into the form of Pastourelle. This is the first time that the pastoral really deals with the subject of love.


title: Pastoral

text: Annabel Patterson emphasizes many important ideas in her work, Pastoral and Ideology. One of these is that the pastoral mode, especially in the later 18th century, was interpreted in vastly different ways by different groups of people. As a result, distinctive illustrations emerged from these groups which were all variations of the understanding of Virgil's Eclogues. Patterson explains that Servius' Commentary is essential to understanding the reception of Virgil's Eclogues. The commentary discusses how poets used analogy in their writings to indirectly express the corruption within the church and government to the public. When speaking of post-Romanticism, it is imperative to take into consideration the influence and effect of Robert Frost on pastoral ideology. His poem, "Build Soil" is a critique of war and also a suggestion that pastoral, as a literary mode, should not place emphasis on social and political issues, but should rather, as Patterson says, "turn in upon itself, and replace reformist instincts with personal growth and regeneration". William Wordsworth was a highly respected poet in the 1800s and his poem, "Prelude," published in 1805, was an excellent example of what a dream of a new golden age might materialize as or look like.