title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz turned professional later in 2004 while still only seventeen years of age. When he reached the age of eighteen in 2005 and became a legal adult, he gained custody of his younger brother, who is now a college student. Ortiz continues to reside in Ventura, California.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Victor Ortiz boxed at The Garden City Boxing club, where he was trained by five trainers who all worked together to get him ahead in his boxing career. His original trainers included Ignacio "Buck" Avilia, Manuel Rios, Antonio Orozco Sr., Juan M. Aldana Jr. and Alfred Ritz. He won the Ringside National Title in 2001 and 2002 and the National Jr. Olympics in 2002.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: After turning professional, Ortiz easily won his first seven fights against weak opposition. However, on June 3, 2005, Ortiz was controversially disqualified in the first round of a bout against unknown Corey Alarcon in Oxnard. After having already knocked Alarcon down once in the round, Ortiz knocked him down again shortly after referee David Denkin ordered the fighters to separate from a clinch. Alarcon stayed down for the count and was awarded the fight based on Denkin's judgment that Ortiz's knockout punch had been an illegal punch during a break.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Following the fight with Alarcon, Ortiz continued to win and had built a record of 18–1–1 as of August 30, 2007, when he fought his first well-known opponent, Emmanuel Clottey of Ghana, in only his second bout scheduled for ten rounds. Ortiz defeated Clottey by technical knockout in the tenth and final round. Three months later, Ortiz followed up on his victory with another knockout win, this time in the first round of a ten-round bout against former junior welterweight titlist Carlos Maussa of Colombia.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On September 13, 2008, Ortiz fought his first bout scheduled for twelve rounds, against Roberto David Arrieta of Argentina. Ortiz knocked Arrieta down in the second, fourth and fifth rounds and won by technical knockout in the fifth round. At the end of 2008, ESPN named Ortiz the boxing prospect of the year.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On March 7, 2009, Ortiz fought his first bout televised on "HBO Boxing After Dark" against Mike Arnaoutis of Greece, who had fought top-ten light welterweight contenders such as Juan Urango, Ricardo Torres and Kendall Holt without ever having been knocked out. However, Ortiz scored a technical knockout of Arnaoutis in the second round.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On June 27, 2009, Ortiz faced Marcos Rene Maidana (25–1–0) of Argentina in Los Angeles for the Interim WBA Light Welterweight title. Ortiz entered the fight with an eight-fight knockout streak. Maidana, a dangerous puncher, had won 24 of his 25 previous bouts by knockout. The only previous blemish on his record at that point was a close split decision loss to WBA Champion Andriy Kotelnik. Both Ortiz and Maidana were knocked down in the first round. Ortiz knocked Maidana to the canvas twice in the second round. Ortiz suffered a cut in the 5th round and was knocked down in the 6th round. The fight was stopped when the ringside physician would not let Ortiz continue to fight. Many in the boxing media, including HBO, chastised Ortiz for not wanting to continue in the fight, an issue which surfaced again later in his career after retiring in his fight against Josesito Lopez.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Before the Maidana fight, Ortiz fired Roberto Garcia and Garcia's father. Ortiz expressed how the Garcias constantly humiliated him through derogatory speech but would then hire Garcia's brother Danny. After recovering from a broken wrist and switching trainers, Ortiz announced his return fight would be on HBO Boxing After Dark. On December 12, 2009, Ortiz bounced back from the defeat he suffered vs Maidana to stop Antonio Díaz, who failed to answer the bell for the seventh round. Ortiz then fought Hector Alatorre on February 25, 2010, winning by TKO in the tenth and final round.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz was victorious in a unanimous decision victory over Nate Campbell on May 15 at Madison Square Garden on the Undercard of Amir Khan vs. Paulie Malignaggi. Ortiz, 23, was quicker, more active and landed heavier shots throughout the fight. Campbell, 38, did not seem to have much steam on his punches on the few occasions that he landed anything solid. He also appeared troubled all fight by Ortiz's southpaw style and straight left hand as he followed Ortiz around. Ortiz scored a knockdown on a short right hand, although it also looked like he shoved Campbell.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On September 18, 2010, Victor faced former WBA Light Welterweight Champion Vivian Harris on the Shane Mosley vs. Sergio Mora undercard at Staples Center. He was on ESPN's SportsNation to promote the fight with Harris. Victor landed 25-of-54 power punches. He dropped Harris with both hands and landed some nasty power punches. That short right really showed off the unique power possessed by Ortiz. Ortiz knocked Harris down three times in the second round en route to a knock out win with :45 seconds left in the third round.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On the undercard of Amir Khan vs. Marcos Maidana, Ortiz faced former title challenger Lamont Peterson on December 11 at the Mandalay Bay Resort & Casino in Las Vegas. Peterson went down for the first time from a right hand that finished a four-punch combination. Peterson got up quickly and did not appear hurt. But he was moments later from another punch and he grabbed on to Ortiz as they tumbled to the mat. But when the fight resumed, Ortiz was on Peterson again and knocked him hard into the ropes, which held him up and caused referee Vic Drakulich to call the second knockdown of the round with about 30 seconds to go. One judge scored the bout a win for Peterson and the other two remaining judges scoring the bout a draw; the fight will go down on record as a draw. This was despite those who were in attendance saying that Ortiz clearly won the fight.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz fought Andre Berto for the WBC Welterweight title on April 16, 2011, at the Foxwoods Resort Casino, Mashantucket. Hailed as the early pick for the fight of the year, Ortiz won the fight by unanimous decision over Berto. They both came out aggressively, then just over a minute into the round, Ortiz landed a shot behind Berto's head and Berto went down. Berto and Ortiz exchanged knockdowns in their fights with both of them going down twice. Both fighters were hurt in that fight. However, Berto took a lot of punishment while against the ropes and looked to be exhausted after the 6th. Ortiz had his way from the 7th on and only had to worry about an occasional big punch from Berto. The judges scored the match 115–110, 114–112, and 114–111 all for the new WBC Welterweight Champion. The bout was named "The Ring" magazine's "Fight of the Year" for 2011.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz would face Berto, whose first thrilling slugfest in April was one of the best fights of the year, once again. The fight, which had been in discussion for weeks, was originally supposed to take place at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas on February 11, 2012. The fight was postponed to June 30, 2012, due to Berto rupturing his biceps in training and being unable to meet the original date. On May 20, 2012, Berto failed an anti-doping test, testing positive for nandrolone. Although Berto denied having ever taken the substance intentionally, the rematch was cancelled and Light Welterweight Josesito Lopez was chosen to take his place. They did have a rematch eventually, in 2016.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On June 7, 2011, Floyd Mayweather Jr. announced via Twitter that he and Ortiz had an agreement to fight on September 17, 2011. The fight was for Ortiz's WBC Welterweight belt.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: The fight took place at MGM Grand Garden Arena. From round one, Mayweather tagged Ortiz repeatedly. Mayweather seemed in control through the first three rounds, judges' scores 30–27, 30–27, and 29–28 for Mayweather, in the fourth round, Ortiz found success, landing a few shots and stinging Mayweather before bulling him into the corner. Out of frustration, Ortiz rammed Mayweather in the face with an intentional headbutt. Referee, Joe Cortez, called timeout and docked Ortiz a point for the foul. As the fight resumed, Ortiz approached Mayweather in the center of the ring and tried to apologize and even hugged Mayweather. After apologizing, Ortiz had his hands down, and Mayweather unloaded a left hook and a flush right hand to Ortiz's chin. Ortiz dropped and was unable to beat Cortez's count as the crowd of 14,687 were furious at the ruined fight.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: "In the ring, you have to protect yourself at all times," Mayweather said. "After it happened, we touched gloves and we were back to fighting and then I threw the left hook and right hand after the break. You just gotta protect yourself at all times." Mayweather also said he would give Ortiz a rematch, which never came to fruition.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: After Ortiz's scheduled rematch against Andre Berto fell through when Berto tested positive for a banned substance, his promotional team quickly found a late replacement in Josesito López. However, just days before the fight was scheduled to take place, Ortiz was announced as the opponent for Saúl Álvarez in the main event of a Pay-Per-View show entitled "Knockout Kings" scheduled for September 15, 2012 if he were to defeat López. Ortiz fought Lopez at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on June 23. In an exciting fight, both fighters repeatedly engaged in competitive exchanges, as opposed to the one-sided bout predicted by many members of the press. At the beginning of the tenth round, Ortiz's team threw in the towel when the fighter complained of a broken jaw, subsequently cancelling his possible bout with Álvarez. After the fight, Ortiz stated, "Josesito broke my jaw, I had my mouth open and he broke my jaw. I couldn't close my mouth. It happened early in the (ninth) round. The corner wanted me to continue but I just couldn't."


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On January 30, 2014, Ortiz was defeated by Luis Collazo. Collazo landed a right hook to Ortiz in the last second of the second round which ended the match after the 10 count. Ortiz's promoter and president of Golden Boy Promotions, Oscar De La Hoya, encouraged Ortiz to retire by tweeting "I really feel @VICIOUSortiz should call it a day and enjoy his young life."


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Despite the encouragement to retire from his former promoter Oscar De La Hoya, Ortiz fought Manuel Pérez on the undercard of the December 13, 2014, Amir Khan vs. Devon Alexander fight. Ortiz defeated Perez by TKO in the 3rd round. In the fight, Victor suffered a hand injury that required surgery to repair the problem. He would not be able to use his hand until July, when it fully healed. He expected to be back in the ring towards the end of 2015. Ortiz returned on PBC's December 12 preliminary undercard, at the AT&T Center in San Antonio, Texas, winning via eighth-round TKO over Gilberto Sanchez Leon.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Five years after their first slugfest, Ortiz and Berto (30–4, 23 KOs) finally met in a rematch on April 30, 2016, at the StubHub Center in Carson, California. Berto was down once in round 2 but beat the count, and came on strong in the 4th round. Ortiz went down twice in the 4th round although he beat both counts, he didn't answer to referee Jack Reiss, who kept asking if he wants to continue. The referee stopped the bout after 1 minute and 44 seconds of the 4th round. Berto stated after the match that he would be willing to fight Ortiz a third time if he wanted to and then called out WBC Champion Danny Garcia.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On June 28, 2017, a deal was finalized for Ortiz's return bout against Mexican boxer Saul Corral (24-9, 15 KOs) in a scheduled 10 round fight to take place at the Rabobank Theater in Bakersfield, California on July 30 and would headline a Premier Boxing Champions card. Ortiz made a successful comeback with a fourth round stoppage win over Corral. Ortiz stalked Corral from the opening round landing straight lefts and hooks, although Corral fought back, Ortiz did enough to win the early rounds. In round 3, referee Jack Reiss docked a point of Corral after warning him for holding Ortiz's left arm. In round 4, Ortiz landed a left hand that sent Corral down. He beat the count, but Ortiz pounced, forcing the referee to stop the fight after 1 minute and 26 seconds. Ortiz kept his options open when speaking in the post fight, “There are a lot of names out there in the welterweight division. At this point I’m going to let my team guide me, because I’ll always be ready for anybody.” He also praised Corral, “Corral is a great fighter who hits hard and I definitely felt it. Top of the line boxers like myself, we hang in there and we perform to the best of our abilities. It was my first time back in a while and it’s just the beginning.”


title: Victor Ortiz

text: It was first reported on December 29, 2017, that a deal was being worked out for Ortiz to fight fellow former two-weight world champion Devon Alexander (27-4, 14 KOs). On January 7, 2018, it was confirmed that the bout would take place on February 17 at the Don Haskins Center in El Paso, Texas on free-to-air Fox. Ortiz and Alexander fought to a 12-round majority draw with one judge scoring it 115–113 for Ortiz and the remaining two scoring 114–114. The bout was closely contested in the first half of the fight, with Ortiz controlling more of the fight and landing the heavier shots. Many boxing outlets scored the fight in favor of Alexander. ESPN.co.uk had it 118-108 and Bad Left Hook scored the fight 117–111 for Alexander, as did CBS Sports. The broadcast team on fight night felt Alexander did enough to win. With the draw being the first on Alexander's record, he was open to a rematch, as was Ortiz, who had now had three draws. Ortiz said, "A rematch would be awesome. If both teams agree and the fans want it, let's make it happen." CompuBox Stats showed that Alexander landed 155 of 485 punches thrown (32%) and Ortiz landed 137 of his 550 (25%). The event averaged 1,136,000 viewers with the main event reaching 1.53 million viewers.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: On August 23, 2018, PBC announced a special Sunday card would take on September 30 at the Citizens Business Bank Arena in Ontario, California. Ortiz would headline the card against 35 year old, former world title challenger John Molina Jr. (30-7, 24 KOs). The card would be broadcast live on FS1 and FOX Deportes. Ortiz made his intentions clear that he was aiming for a future world title opportunity. On September 25, Ortiz was being charged with multiple counts of sexual assault. A day later he was dropped from the card. It was rumored that Molina may still fight, however was not confirmed. A new main event was set which would see unbeaten featherweight Brandon Figueroa take on veteran Óscar Escandón in a 10-round bout.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz participated on the sixteenth season of ABC's "Dancing with the Stars". His professional partner was former "So You Think You Can Dance" competitor Lindsay Arnold. They were the fourth couple to be eliminated on the sixth week of competition.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Days before his September 30, 2018 bout against Molina, Ortiz was charged with multiple counts of sexual assault.<ref name="VCS 2019/12/16"></ref> He turned himself in to local authorities on September 25, according to the Oxnard Police Department. According to Ventura County Superior Court, the assaults took place in March 2018. His bail was set at $100,000. Sexual assault charges against Victor Ortiz were dismissed by prosecutors in December 2020 because they could not prove the charges beyond a reasonable doubt.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Victor Ortiz first appeared on screen as an actor in the action film "The Expendables 3". He played the character of Mars, a young American soldier recruited onto the Expendables team.


title: Victor Ortiz

text: Ortiz appeared in the sports drama film "Southpaw", co-starring Jake Gyllenhaal, playing a young boxer named Ramone.


title: Lee Miglin

text: Lee Albert Miglin (July 12, 1924 – May 4, 1997) was an American business tycoon and philanthropist. After starting his career as a door-to-door salesman and then broker, Miglin became a successful real estate developer. He was murdered in his home in May 1997 by Andrew Cunanan, a spree


title: Lee Miglin

text: Miglin was one of seven children born to a Roman Catholic family of Lithuanian descent. His father was a Czech immigrant who worked as a Central Illinois coal miner, and also owned a tavern, ice cream parlor, and soda distributorship. Miglin was born in Westville, Illinois.


title: Lee Miglin

text: Miglin began his career selling silverware door-to-door and pancake batter out of the trunk of his car. After this, he sold frozen cheesecakes, and subsequent to that sold TV dinners. He quit his salesman job to spend a six month trip across Europe. After this, he decided to make an effort to go into real estate to make substantial money.


title: Lee Miglin

text: In 1956, at the age of 31, he began his real estate career. In the early 1960s, he took a job as a broker with Chicago real estate magnate Arthur Rubloff. At Arthur Rubloff & Co., Miglin would first get involved with warehouse construction, later moving into office development. One of the projects he was involved in was the development of the first two of the three towers at the President's Plaza office complex near Chicago's O'Hare International Airport (he would later develop the third tower in 1985 with his firm Miglin-Beitler). Miglin was regarded as an early developer of the business park developments. He worked at the firm for 25 years.


title: Lee Miglin

text: Miglin formed a successful real estate development partnership with J. Paul Beitler, who had also worked at Rubloff & Co, creating the firm Miglin-Beitler Developments in 1982. Among the projects developed by the firm were Madison Plaza, 181 West Madison Street, Oakbrook Terrace Tower (the tallest building in Illinois outside of Chicago) The firm also managed properties.


title: Lee Miglin

text: In 1988, Miglin-Beitler Developments unveiled plans to construct a 1,999 foot 125-floor skyscraper in Chicago to be called the Miglin-Beitler Skyneedle. However, the building was never built, with plans faltering during a 1990 downturn of Chicago's downtown office market. Miglin-Beitler had held hopes of resurrecting the project, but these hopes would be dashed by Miglin's murder.


title: Lee Miglin

text: After the firm began shifting its focus away from development and towards property management in the 1990s, Miglin gradually withdrew from the daily operations, but still remained involved in the company.


title: Lee Miglin

text: In 1959, Miglin married 20-year-old Marilyn Klecka, a Roman Catholic of Czech descent. Klecka, a successful entrepreneur known as the Queen of Makeovers, established a prominent perfume and cosmetics company and appeared on the Home Shopping Network. They had two children together, Marlena (born 1968) and Duke Miglin (born 1971), the latter of which became an actor.


title: Lee Miglin

text: Miglin was murdered on May 4, 1997, by the spree killer Andrew Cunanan. Miglin's body was found in the garage of his home in Chicago's Gold Coast Historic District. He had been bound at the wrists, and his head was bound with tape, with only a breathing space under his nostrils. He had been tortured with a saw and a screwdriver, his ribs had been broken, he had been beaten and stabbed, and his throat had been slashed with a gardener's bow saw.


title: Lee Miglin

text: Cunanan was already wanted in Minneapolis for murdering his friend Jeffrey Trail, 28, and ex-lover David Madson, 33, a few days earlier.


title: Lee Miglin

text: The second season of the anthology television series "American Crime Story": "", recounted the Cunanan spree. It included appearances by Miglin, portrayed by Mike Farrell. This portrayal was based on "Vulgar Favors: Andrew Cunanan, Gianni Versace, and the Largest Failed Manhunt in U.S. History" by Maureen Orth, who speculated that Miglin may have been a closeted bisexual man in a secret relationship with Cunanan.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: The is a small to medium breed of dog of the Spitz type. There are varying standards around the world as to the ideal size of the breed, but they are always larger than their smaller cousins, the Pomeranian. They were developed in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s by breeding a number of other Spitz type dog breeds together. They are recognized by the vast majority of the major kennel clubs, except the American Kennel Club due to it being of similar appearance to the white Pomeranian, American Eskimo Dog and Samoyed. While they are a relatively new breed, they are becoming widely popular due to their favorable temperament and other features.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: The major health concern is patellar luxation, and a minor recurring concern is that the breed can be prone to runny eyes. They can act as reliable watchdogs, but are a type of companion dog and prefer to be an active part of the family. Although they might appear fluffy, they are a low maintenance breed as dirt does not stick to the coat.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: The Japanese Spitz is a small dog, around 33 cm (13 ins) at the withers, with a somewhat square body, deep chest, and a very thick, pure white double coat. The coat consists of an outer coat that stands off from the soft inner coat, with fur shorter on the muzzle and ears as well as the fronts of the forelegs and the hindlegs. A ruff of longer fur is around the dog's neck. It has a pointed muzzle and small, triangular shape prick ears (ears that stand up.) The tail is long, heavily covered with long fur, and is carried curled over and lying on the dog's back. The white coat contrasts with the black pads and nails of the feet, the black nose, and the dark eyes.<ref name="Clark/Brace"></ref> The large oval (akin to a ginkgo seed) eyes are dark and slightly slanted with white eyelashes, and the nose and lips and eye rims are black. The face of the Japanese Spitz is wedge-shaped.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: Description of the ideal size of the breed varies. In Japan, the ideal size for males are described as 30–38 cm at the withers, with females somewhat smaller; (the Japanese standard is the one published by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale for international dog competitions.) In the UK, the Kennel Club describes the size as 34–37 cm (13.5–14.5 in) at the withers with females 30–34 cm (12–13.5 in), which is the same for the Australian National Kennel Council. In New Zealand (New Zealand Kennel Club), the ideal size is 30–40 cm (12–16 in) for males, 25–35 cm (10–14 in) for females. The Canadian Kennel Club states that the size for dogs is 12 inches (30 cm) with females slightly smaller, and the United Kennel Club in the U.S. describes the ideal size as 12 to 15 ins (30.5–38.1 cm) for males and 12 to 14 ins (30.5–35.6 cm) for females. Minor kennel clubs and other organizations may use any of these ideal sizes or create their own. Japanese Spitzes are generally considered larger than their cousin, the Pomeranian.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: Dog breeders in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s created the Japanese Spitz by crossbreeding a number of other Spitz breeds to develop the Japanese Spitz. Breeders began with white German Spitz dogs, originally brought over from northeastern China to Japan; they were first exhibited at a dog show in Tokyo in 1921. Between 1925 and 1936 various small white Spitz breeds were imported from around the world and crossed into the developing breed, with the goal of producing an improved breed. The final Standard for the breed was written after World War II, and accepted by the Japan Kennel Club. The breed gained popularity in Japan in the 1950s, and was exported to Sweden in the early 1950s. From there the breed went to England, and the Kennel Club recognized the Japanese Spitz in 1977 in the Utility Group. The Japanese Spitz has spread around the world including to India, Australia, and the United States and is recognized by most of the major kennel clubs in the English speaking world; by the Canadian Kennel Club in Group 6, Non-Sporting, by the New Zealand Kennel Club (Non-Sporting Group), by the Australian National Kennel Council in Group 7 (Non Sporting), and by the United Kennel Club (U.S.) in the Northern Breeds Group. The American Kennel Club does not recognize the Japanese Spitz due to its being close in appearance to a U.S. developed Spitz breed, the American Eskimo Dog. The breed is also recognized by minor registries and clubs.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: They are a healthy breed with very few genetic problems. The main health concern for Japanese Spitz is the development of Patellar luxation, a condition in which the kneecap dislocates out of its normal position. They can also be prone to runny eyes, which is most commonly due to having tear ducts that are too small, or an allergy to long grass or stress. It is rarely caused by any serious eye defect.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: Active, loyal, and bright, the Japanese Spitz are known for their great courage, affection, devotion and amiability making them great watchdogs and ideal companions for older people and small children. Most Japanese Spitz are good watch dogs, despite their relatively small size, and they have a tendency to bark to warn of arriving strangers. The Japanese Spitz is first and foremost a companion dog and thrives on human contact and attention, preferring to be a member of the family. They are known as very loyal dogs. They enjoy being active and love to be in the outdoors. They are intelligent, playful, alert, and obedient, and particularly excellent and loving toward children.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: Japanese Spitz can tolerate cold weather but, as it was bred as a companion dog, prefers to live in the house with the warmth of its human family. Though they can live in apartments, they need some time running around outside off-leash in a safe environment.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: Due to the texture of their coat, mud and dirt falls off or can be brushed out very easily. However, due to the breed's thick coat, regular brushing is essential.


title: Japanese Spitz

text: The Japanese Spitz's coat is relatively dry as compared to other breeds. Their coat should be groomed twice a week using a pin brush that reaches to the undercoat, preventing formation of knots. Grooming this breed is relatively easy in contrast to other dog breeds. Their white fur coat has a non-stick texture often described as being similar to Teflon.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is a synthetic element with the symbol Es and atomic number 99. Einsteinium is a member of the actinide series and it is the seventh transuranium element. It was named in honor of Albert Einstein.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952. Its most common isotope, einsteinium-253 (half-life 20.47 days), is produced artificially from decay of californium-253 in a few dedicated high-power nuclear reactors with a total yield on the order of one milligram per year. The reactor synthesis is followed by a complex process of separating einsteinium-253 from other actinides and products of their decay. Other isotopes are synthesized in various laboratories, but in much smaller amounts, by bombarding heavy actinide elements with light ions. Owing to the small amounts of produced einsteinium and the short half-life of its most easily produced isotope, there are currently almost no practical applications for it outside basic scientific research. In particular, einsteinium was used to synthesize, for the first time, 17 atoms of the new element mendelevium in 1955.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is a soft, silvery, paramagnetic metal. Its chemistry is typical of the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state; the +2 oxidation state is also accessible, especially in solids. The high radioactivity of einsteinium-253 produces a visible glow and rapidly damages its crystalline metal lattice, with released heat of about 1000 watts per gram. Difficulty in studying its properties is due to einsteinium-253's decay to berkelium-249 and then californium-249 at a rate of about 3% per day. The isotope of einsteinium with the longest half-life, einsteinium-252 (half-life 471.7 days) would be more suitable for investigation of physical properties, but it has proven far more difficult to produce and is available only in minute quantities, and not in bulk. Einsteinium is the element with the highest atomic number which has been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form and this was the common short-lived isotope einsteinium-253.


title: Einsteinium

text: Like all synthetic transuranium elements, isotopes of einsteinium are very radioactive and are considered highly dangerous to health on ingestion.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers at the University of California, Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories, in the fallout from the "Ivy Mike" nuclear test. The test was carried out on November 1, 1952, at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific Ocean and was the first successful test of a thermonuclear weapon. Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium, , which could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium-238 nucleus followed by two beta decays.


title: Einsteinium

text: At the time, the multiple neutron absorption was thought to be an extremely rare process, but the identification of indicated that still more neutrons could have been captured by the uranium nuclei, thereby producing new elements heavier than californium.


title: Einsteinium

text: Ghiorso and co-workers analyzed filter papers which had been flown through the explosion cloud on airplanes (the same sampling technique that had been used to discover ). Larger amounts of radioactive material were later isolated from coral debris of the atoll, which were delivered to the U.S. The separation of suspected new elements was carried out in the presence of a citric acid/ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium (pH ≈ 3.5), using ion exchange at elevated temperatures; fewer than 200 atoms of einsteinium were recovered in the end. Nevertheless, element 99 (einsteinium), namely its Es isotope, could be detected via its characteristic high-energy alpha decay at 6.6 MeV. It was produced by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium-238 nuclei followed by seven beta-decays, and had a half-life of 20.5 days. Such multiple neutron absorption was made possible by the high neutron flux density during the detonation, so that newly generated heavy isotopes had plenty of available neutrons to absorb before they could disintegrate into lighter elements. Neutron capture initially raised the mass number without changing the atomic number of the nuclide, and the concomitant beta-decays resulted in a gradual increase in the atomic number:


title: Einsteinium

text: Some U atoms, however, could absorb two additional neutrons (for a total of 17), resulting in Es, as well as in the Fm isotope of another new element, fermium. The discovery of the new elements and the associated new data on multiple neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions and competition with Soviet Union in nuclear technologies. However, the rapid capture of so many neutrons would provide needed direct experimental confirmation of the so-called r-process multiple neutron absorption needed to explain the cosmic nucleosynthesis (production) of certain heavy chemical elements (heavier than nickel) in supernova explosions, before beta decay. Such a process is needed to explain the existence of many stable elements in the universe.


title: Einsteinium

text: Meanwhile, isotopes of element 99 (as well as of new element 100, fermium) were produced in the Berkeley and Argonee laboratories, in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen-14 and uranium-238, and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium or californium:


title: Einsteinium

text: These results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements. The Berkeley team also reported some results on the chemical properties of einsteinium and fermium. The "Ivy Mike" results were declassified and published in 1955.


title: Einsteinium

text: In their discovery of the elements 99 and 100, the American teams had competed with a group at the Nobel Institute for Physics, Stockholm, Sweden. In late 1953 – early 1954, the Swedish group succeeded in the synthesis of light isotopes of element 100, in particular Fm, by bombarding uranium with oxygen nuclei. These results were also published in 1954. Nevertheless, the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized, as its publications preceded the Swedish article, and they were based on the previously undisclosed results of the 1952 thermonuclear explosion; thus the Berkeley team was given the privilege to name the new elements. As the effort which had led to the design of "Ivy Mike" was codenamed Project PANDA, element 99 had been jokingly nicknamed "Pandemonium" but the official names suggested by the Berkeley group derived from two prominent scientists, Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi: "We suggest for the name for the element with the atomic number 99, einsteinium (symbol E) after Albert Einstein and for the name for the element with atomic number 100, fermium (symbol Fm), after Enrico Fermi." Both Einstein and Fermi died between the time the names were originally proposed and when they were announced. The discovery of these new elements was announced by Albert Ghiorso at the first Geneva Atomic Conference held on 8–20 August 1955. The symbol for einsteinium was first given as "E" and later changed to "Es" by IUPAC.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is a synthetic, silver, radioactive metal. In the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide californium, to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lanthanide holmium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Its density of 8.84 g/cm is lower than that of californium (15.1 g/cm) and is nearly the same as that of holmium (8.79 g/cm), despite atomic einsteinium being much heavier than holmium. The melting point of einsteinium (860 °C) is also relatively low – below californium (900 °C), fermium (1527 °C) and holmium (1461 °C). Einsteinium is a soft metal, with the bulk modulus of only 15 GPa, which value is one of the lowest among non-alkali metals.


title: Einsteinium

text: Contrary to the lighter actinides californium, berkelium, curium and americium, which crystallize in a double hexagonal structure at ambient conditions, einsteinium is believed to have a face-centered cubic ("fcc") symmetry with the space group "Fm""m" and the lattice constant "a" = 575 pm. However, there is a report of room-temperature hexagonal einsteinium metal with "a" = 398 pm and "c" = 650 pm, which converted to the "fcc" phase upon heating to 300 °C.


title: Einsteinium

text: The self-damage induced by the radioactivity of einsteinium is so strong that it rapidly destroys the crystal lattice, and the energy release during this process, 1000 watts per gram of Es, induces a visible glow. These processes may contribute to the relatively low density and melting point of einsteinium. Further, owing to the small size of the available samples, the melting point of einsteinium was often deduced by observing the sample being heated inside an electron microscope. Thus, the surface effects in small samples could reduce the melting point value.


title: Einsteinium

text: The metal is trivalent and has a noticeably high volatility. In order to reduce the self-radiation damage, most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing. Also, some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas, for example HO+HCl for EsOCl so that the sample is partly regrown during its decomposition.


title: Einsteinium

text: Apart from the self-destruction of solid einsteinium and its compounds, other intrinsic difficulties in studying this element include scarcity – the most common Es isotope is available only once or twice a year in sub-milligram amounts – and self-contamination due to rapid conversion of einsteinium to berkelium and then to californium at a rate of about 3.3% per day:


title: Einsteinium

text: Thus, most einsteinium samples are contaminated, and their intrinsic properties are often deduced by extrapolating back experimental data accumulated over time. Other experimental techniques to circumvent the contamination problem include selective optical excitation of einsteinium ions by a tunable laser, such as in studying its luminescence properties.


title: Einsteinium

text: Magnetic properties have been studied for einsteinium metal, its oxide and fluoride. All three materials showed Curie–Weiss paramagnetic behavior from liquid helium to room temperature. The effective magnetic moments were deduced as for EsO and for the EsF, which are the highest values among actinides, and the corresponding Curie temperatures are 53 and 37 K.


title: Einsteinium

text: Like all actinides, einsteinium is rather reactive. Its trivalent oxidation state is most stable in solids and aqueous solution where it induces a pale pink color. The existence of divalent einsteinium is firmly established, especially in the solid phase; such +2 state is not observed in many other actinides, including protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, curium and berkelium. Einsteinium(II) compounds can be obtained, for example, by reducing einsteinium(III) with samarium(II) chloride. The oxidation state +4 was postulated from vapor studies and is as yet uncertain.


title: Einsteinium

text: Nineteen isotopes and three nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium, with mass numbers ranging from 240 to 257. All are radioactive and the most stable nuclide, Es, has a half-life of 471.7 days. The next most stable isotopes are Es (half-life 275.7 days), Es (39.8 days), and Es (20.47 days). All of the remaining isotopes have half-lives shorter than 40 hours, most shorter than 30 minutes. Of the three nuclear isomers, the most stable is Es with a half-life of 39.3 hours.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium has a high rate of nuclear fission that results in a low critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This mass is 9.89 kilograms for a bare sphere of Es isotope, and can be lowered to 2.9 kilograms by adding a 30-centimeter-thick steel neutron reflector, or even to 2.26 kilograms with a 20-cm-thick reflector made of water. However, even this small critical mass greatly exceeds the total amount of einsteinium isolated thus far, especially of the rare Es isotope.


title: Einsteinium

text: Because of the short half-life of all isotopes of einsteinium, any primordial einsteinium—that is, einsteinium that could possibly have been present on the Earth during its formation—has long since decayed. Synthesis of einsteinium from naturally-occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth's crust requires multiple neutron capture, which is an extremely unlikely event. Therefore, all terrestrial einsteinium is produced in scientific laboratories, high-power nuclear reactors, or in nuclear weapons tests, and is present only within a few years from the time of the synthesis.


title: Einsteinium

text: The transuranic elements from americium to fermium, including einsteinium, occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium was theoretically observed in the spectrum of Przybylski's Star. However, the lead author of the studies finding einsteinium and other short-lived actinides in Przybylski's Star, Vera F. Gopka, directly admits that "the position of lines of the radioactive elements under search were simply visualized in synthetic spectrum as vertical markers because there are no any atomic data for these lines except for their wavelengths (Sansonetti et al. 2004), enabling one to calculate their profiles with more or less real intensities." The signature spectra of einsteinium's isotopes have since been comprehensively analyzed experimentally (in 2021), though there is currently no published research confirming whether the theorized einsteinium signatures proposed to be found in the star's spectrum match the lab-determined results.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is produced in minute quantities by bombarding lighter actinides with neutrons in dedicated high-flux nuclear reactors. The world's major irradiation sources are the 85-megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, U.S., and the SM-2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (NIIAR) in Dimitrovgrad, Russia, which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium ("Z" > 96) elements. These facilities have similar power and flux levels, and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements, although the quantities produced at NIIAR are not widely reported. In a "typical processing campaign" at Oak Ridge, tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium, milligram quantities of berkelium (Bk) and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium.


title: Einsteinium

text: The first microscopic sample of Es sample weighing about 10 nanograms was prepared in 1961 at HFIR. A special magnetic balance was designed to estimate its weight. Larger batches were produced later starting from several kilograms of plutonium with the einsteinium yields (mostly Es) of 0.48 milligrams in 1967–1970, 3.2 milligrams in 1971–1973, followed by steady production of about 3 milligrams per year between 1974 and 1978. These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation. Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold.


title: Einsteinium

text: Heavy neutron irradiation of plutonium results in four major isotopes of einsteinium: Es (α-emitter with half-life of 20.47 days and with a spontaneous fission half-life of 7×10 years); Es (β-emitter with half-life of 39.3 hours), Es (α-emitter with half-life of about 276 days) and Es (β-emitter with half-life of 39.8 days). An alternative route involves bombardment of uranium-238 with high-intensity nitrogen or oxygen ion beams.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium-247 (half-life 4.55 minutes) was produced by irradiating americium-241 with carbon or uranium-238 with nitrogen ions. The latter reaction was first realized in 1967 in Dubna, Russia, and the involved scientists were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize.


title: Einsteinium

text: The isotope Es was produced by irradiating Cf with deuterium ions. It mainly decays by emission of electrons to Cf with a half-life of minutes, but also releases α-particles of 6.87 MeV energy, with the ratio of electrons to α-particles of about 400.


title: Einsteinium

text: The heavier isotopes Es, Es, Es and Es were obtained by bombarding Bk with α-particles. One to four neutrons are liberated in this process making possible the formation of four different isotopes in one reaction.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium-253 was produced by irradiating a 0.1–0.2 milligram Cf target with a thermal neutron flux of (2–5)×10 neutrons·cm·s for 500–900 hours:


title: Einsteinium

text: In 2020, scientists at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory were able to create 233 nanograms of Es, a new world record. This allowed some chemical properties of the element to be studied for the first time.


title: Einsteinium

text: The analysis of the debris at the 10-megaton "Ivy Mike" nuclear test was a part of long-term project. One of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high-power nuclear explosions. The motivation for these experiments was that synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture. The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux, and nuclear explosions are the most powerful man-made neutron sources, providing densities of the order 10 neutrons/cm within a microsecond, or about 10 neutrons/(cm·s). In comparison, the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 neutrons/(cm·s). A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris, as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the mainland U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis as soon as possible, from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests. Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium, none of these were found even after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll.


title: Einsteinium

text: The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site, as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes. Apart from traditional uranium charges, combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried, as well as a mixed plutonium-neptunium charge, but they were less successful in terms of yield and was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy-element charges. Product isolation was problematic as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing the surrounding rocks at depths of 300–600 meters. Drilling to such depths to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes.


title: Einsteinium

text: Among the nine underground tests that were carried between 1962 and 1969, the last one was the most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements. Milligrams of einsteinium that would normally take a year of irradiation in a high-power reactor, were produced within a microsecond. However, the major practical problem of the entire proposal was collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast. Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 of the total amount, and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude. Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 1 of the total charge. The amount of transuranium elements in this 500-kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0.4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test which demonstrated the highly non-linear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock. Shafts were drilled at the site before the test in order to accelerate sample collection after explosion, so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter through the shafts and to collecting volumes near the surface. This method was tried in two tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material, but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling. Whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short-lived isotopes, it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides.


title: Einsteinium

text: Although no new elements (apart from einsteinium and fermium) could be detected in the nuclear test debris, and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low, these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories.


title: Einsteinium

text: Separation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method. In the case of light-ion bombardment inside a cyclotron, the heavy ion target is attached to a thin foil, and the generated einsteinium is simply washed off the foil after the irradiation. However, the produced amounts in such experiments are relatively low. The yields are much higher for reactor irradiation, but there, the product is a mixture of various actinide isotopes, as well as lanthanides produced in the nuclear fission decays. In this case, isolation of einsteinium is a tedious procedure which involves several repeating steps of cation exchange, at elevated temperature and pressure, and chromatography. Separation from berkelium is important, because the most common einsteinium isotope produced in nuclear reactors, Es, decays with a half-life of only 20 days to Bk, which is fast on the timescale of most experiments. Such separation relies on the fact that berkelium easily oxidizes to the solid +4 state and precipitates, whereas other actinides, including einsteinium, remain in their +3 state in solutions.


title: Einsteinium

text: Separation of trivalent actinides from lanthanide fission products can be done by a cation-exchange resin column using a 90% water/10% ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) as eluant. It is usually followed by anion-exchange chromatography using 6 molar HCl as eluant. A cation-exchange resin column (Dowex-50 exchange column) treated with ammonium salts is then used to separate fractions containing elements 99, 100 and 101. These elements can be then identified simply based on their elution position/time, using α-hydroxyisobutyrate solution (α-HIB), for example, as eluant.


title: Einsteinium

text: Separation of the 3+ actinides can also be achieved by solvent extraction chromatography, using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase, and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase. The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column. The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent, as compared to the separation using a resin column.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is highly reactive and therefore strong reducing agents are required to obtain the pure metal from its compounds. This can be achieved by reduction of einsteinium(III) fluoride with metallic lithium:


title: Einsteinium

text: However, owing to its low melting point and high rate of self-radiation damage, einsteinium has high vapor pressure, which is higher than that of lithium fluoride. This makes this reduction reaction rather inefficient. It was tried in the early preparation attempts and quickly abandoned in favor of reduction of einsteinium(III) oxide with lanthanum metal:


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium(III) oxide (EsO) was obtained by burning einsteinium(III) nitrate. It forms colorless cubic crystals, which were first characterized from microgram samples sized about 30 nanometers. Two other phases, monoclinic and hexagonal, are known for this oxide. The formation of a certain EsO phase depends on the preparation technique and sample history, and there is no clear phase diagram. Interconversions between the three phases can occur spontaneously, as a result of self-irradiation or self-heating. The hexagonal phase is isotypic with lanthanum oxide where the Es ion is surrounded by a 6-coordinated group of O ions.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium halides are known for the oxidation states +2 and +3. The most stable state is +3 for all halides from fluoride to iodide.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium(III) fluoride (EsF) can be precipitated from einsteinium(III) chloride solutions upon reaction with fluoride ions. An alternative preparation procedure is to exposure einsteinium(III) oxide to chlorine trifluoride (ClF) or F gas at a pressure of 1–2 atmospheres and a temperature between 300 and 400 °C. The EsF crystal structure is hexagonal, as in californium(III) fluoride (CfF) where the Es ions are 8-fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium(III) chloride (EsCl) can be prepared by annealing einsteinium(III) oxide in the atmosphere of dry hydrogen chloride vapors at about 500 °C for some 20 minutes. It crystallizes upon cooling at about 425 °C into an orange solid with a hexagonal structure of UCl type, where einsteinium atoms are 9-fold coordinated by chlorine atoms in a tricapped trigonal prism geometry. Einsteinium(III) bromide (EsBr) is a pale-yellow solid with a monoclinic structure of AlCl type, where the einsteinium atoms are octahedrally coordinated by bromine (coordination number 6).


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium(II) chloride (EsCl), einsteinium(II) bromide (EsBr), and einsteinium(II) iodide (EsI) have been produced and characterized by optical absorption, with no structural information available yet.


title: Einsteinium

text: Known oxyhalides of einsteinium include EsOCl, EsOBr and EsOI. These salts are synthesized by treating a trihalide with a vapor mixture of water and the corresponding hydrogen halide: for example, EsCl + HO/HCl to obtain EsOCl.


title: Einsteinium

text: The high radioactivity of einsteinium has a potential use in radiation therapy, and organometallic complexes have been synthesized in order to deliver einsteinium atoms to an appropriate organ in the body. Experiments have been performed on injecting einsteinium citrate (as well as fermium compounds) to dogs. Einsteinium(III) was also incorporated into beta-diketone chelate complexes, since analogous complexes with lanthanides previously showed strongest UV-excited luminescence among metallorganic compounds. When preparing einsteinium complexes, the Es ions were 1000 times diluted with Gd ions. This allowed reducing the radiation damage so that the compounds did not disintegrate during the period of 20 minutes required for the measurements. The resulting luminescence from Es was much too weak to be detected. This was explained by the unfavorable relative energies of the individual constituents of the compound that hindered efficient energy transfer from the chelate matrix to Es ions. Similar conclusion was drawn for other actinides americium, berkelium and fermium.


title: Einsteinium

text: Luminescence of Es ions was however observed in inorganic hydrochloric acid solutions as well as in organic solution with di(2-ethylhexyl)orthophosphoric acid. It shows a broad peak at about 1064 nanometers (half-width about 100 nm) which can be resonantly excited by green light (ca. 495 nm wavelength). The luminescence has a lifetime of several microseconds and the quantum yield below 0.1%. The relatively high, compared to lanthanides, non-radiative decay rates in Es were associated with the stronger interaction of f-electrons with the inner Es electrons.


title: Einsteinium

text: There is almost no use for any isotope of einsteinium outside basic scientific research aiming at production of higher transuranium elements and superheavy elements.


title: Einsteinium

text: In 1955, mendelevium was synthesized by irradiating a target consisting of about 10 atoms of Es in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley Laboratory. The resulting Es(α,n)Md reaction yielded 17 atoms of the new element with the atomic number of 101.


title: Einsteinium

text: The rare isotope Es is favored for production of superheavy elements because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms. Hence Es was used as a target in the attempted synthesis of ununennium (element 119) in 1985 by bombarding it with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC linear particle accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, setting an upper limit for the cross section of this reaction at 300 nanobarns.


title: Einsteinium

text: Es was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ("alpha-scattering surface analyzer") of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe. The large mass of this isotope reduced the spectral overlap between signals from the marker and the studied lighter elements of the lunar surface.


title: Einsteinium

text: Most of the available einsteinium toxicity data, is from research on animals. Upon ingestion by rats, only ~0.01% of it ends in the bloodstream. From there, about 65% goes to the bones, where it would remain for ~50 years if not for its radioactive decay, not to speak of the 3-year maximum lifespan of rats, 25% to the lungs (biological half-life ~20 years, though this is again rendered irrelevant by the short half-life of einsteinium), 0.035% to the testicles or 0.01% to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely. About 10% of the ingested amount is excreted. The distribution of einsteinium over bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium.


title: Lynx Air

text: Lynx Air, legally incorporated as 1263343 Alberta Inc., is a Canadian ultra-low-cost carrier based in Calgary, Alberta. It previously operated as Enerjet and was rebranded as Lynx Air on November 16, 2021. The first flight under the Lynx Air name took place on April 7, 2022, operating from Calgary International Airport to Vancouver International Airport.


title: Lynx Air

text: Enerjet was originally formed in 2006 by a small group of entrepreneurs addressing what they perceived to be a gap in the service provided by Canada's major airlines, WestJet and Air Canada in "middle Canada". It was initially known as New Air & Tours until October 20, 2008, when New Air & Tours revealed its name and corporate logo to be styled as Enerjet. Enerjet was founded by nine individuals, including Tim Morgan, the former senior vice president of WestJet. On November 28, 2008, Enerjet received an Air Operator's Certificate (AOC) and Air Operators License issued by the Canadian Transportation Agency. While the airline initially planned to launch as a scheduled low-cost carrier (LCC), the airline focused instead on charter operations involving the transport of employees of oil companies, such as for Suncor Energy, as well as ad-hoc charter services for Air Transat, deeming the leisure travel market to be competitive following the collapse of Zoom Airlines, as well as the presence of leisure carriers such as WestJet.


title: Lynx Air

text: By 2012, the airline was still seeking investment to expand into scheduled LCC operations, and had operated some flights between Calgary and Vancouver during peak holiday travel periods, with plans to expand the services to Kelowna and Edmonton. By 2016, the airline had gone through two tentative names for its LCC project, consisting of "Jet Naked" and "FlyToo". In late 2018, the airline announced it had attracted investors in order to transition from chartered flights to scheduled operations, one of which included Indigo Partners, which had notably invested in other LCCs including Frontier Airlines, JetSmart, Volaris, and Wizz Air, and Enerjet subsequently planned to relaunch as an LCC during 2019.


title: Lynx Air

text: On November 16, 2021, the company revealed its new name as Lynx Air, with plans to begin flying in the first quarter of 2022. During the announcement, the airline made commitments for up to 46 Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft over the next seven years to meet the anticipated demand, with deliveries starting in early 2022, and that it would follow the low-cost carrier model for its operations. The airline additionally announced it would initially operate domestic routes with plans to later add international destinations. On April 7, 2022, Lynx Air's first flights launched.


title: Lynx Air

text: Merren McArthur is the airline's President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO). She previously served as CEO for both Tigerair Australia and Virgin Australia Regional Airlines, and founding CEO of Virgin Australia Cargo.


title: Lynx Air

text: Vijay Bathija is the airline's Chief Commercial Officer (CCO), with prior experience at Etihad Airways and Air Canada Rouge.


title: Lynx Air

text: Tim Morgan is the airline's Chief Operations Officer (COO) and Founder. He previously served as Senior Vice President of WestJet, with additional prior experience at Morgan Air LLP/Air Partners/Aircraft Works, and Lynx's predecessor Enerjet.


title: Lynx Air

text: Michael Holditch is the airline's Chief Financial Officer (CFO), having previously been the CFO of Enerjet.


title: Lynx Air

text: Prior to rebranding as Lynx Air and operating scheduled services, the airline operated charter flights on demand to various destinations as Enerjet.


title: Lynx Air

text: As Enerjet, the airline operated a fleet of Boeing 737-700 aircraft for its charter operations, with a single 737-800 leased from Transavia on occasion, before the 737-700s were retired by 2017. After retiring its 737-700s, Enerjet subsequently retained an inactive DHC-6 Twin Otter fleet in order to keep its AOC, while the airline underwent its subsequent transformation from chartered to scheduled operations in the coming years. When the airline eventually announced its rebranding as Lynx Air in November 2021, the airline announced that it had ordered 46 Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft for delivery through 2028. In March 2022, the airline announced it had ordered an additional 11 737 MAX 8s.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Chandler David Moore (born March 21, 1995) is an American singer, songwriter, and worship leader. Moore currently partners Maverick City Music, a collective of worshippers working in the contemporary Christian music and Gospel world.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Maverick City Music released two projects in 2019 followed by an additional 11 projects. Moore's collaborations include "Man of Your Word" with KJ Scriven and "Voice of God" with Dante Bowe and Steffany Gretzinger. On the collaborative album "Old Church Basement" with Elevation Worship, Moore sang "Jireh" alongside Naomi Raine and "Wait on You" with Bowe. Each song debuted as a chart topper. Moore continues to collaborate with mega and pop artists, including Justin Bieber and Tori Kelly.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Natively from Charleston, South Carolina, Moore grew up going to church where his father was a pastor. Later in life, when Moore was a music director at a small church in his hometown, he says he experienced a personal encounter with God, which inspired a passion for studying Scripture. Moore then became a background vocalist for Travis Greene and Tye Tribbett and penned songs for Bri Babineaux and Tribbett. Additionally, Moore has begun actively pursuing a solo career, and released several singles leading up to his first solo album, "Feelings", which released in 2020.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Chandler David Moore was born on March 21, 1995, to Bishop Brian David Moore and Elder Jametta Chandler Moore in Charleston, South Carolina.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Chandler Moore released his debut single, "Never Runs Out", on June 20, 2014, independently. On December 26, 2014, Moore released his second single, "Our Hope". On June 23, 2017, Moore featured alongside Bri Babineaux on her single "What You Don't Realize". On March 23, 2018, Moore released the single "What a Friend".


title: Chandler Moore

text: On July 3, 2020, Moore featured All Nations Music's "Bless Your Name", which was released to Gospel radio as the lead single to their debut album "Come Alive" (2020). "Bless Your Name" peaked at No. 25 on the Hot Gospel Songs chart. Maverick City Music released "Man of Your Word" which featured Moore alongside KJ Scriven, to Christian radio as the lead single from their debut album, on August 21, 2020. "Man of Your Word" peaked at No. 18 on the Hot Christian Songs chart. On September 30, 2020, Moore featured on Dante Bowe's single, "Voice of God", alongside Steffany Gretzinger. "Voice of God" peaked at No. 36 on the Hot Christian Songs chart. On October 30, 2020, Moore was featured on Nathaniel Bassey's single, "Olorun Agbaye - You Are Mighty", alongside Oba. On November 13, 2020, Moore released his debut visual album, "Feelings". "Feelings" debuted at number four on "Billboard"'s Top Gospel Albums chart.


title: Chandler Moore

text: On February 5, 2021, Moore and Essential Worship released their version of Hillsong Worship's hit song "King of Kings" as a single. On March 26, 2021, Elevation Worship and Maverick City Music released "Jireh", which Moore featured on with Naomi Raine, as the first promotional single from their collaborative live album, "Old Church Basement". "Jireh" concurrently debuted at No. 10 on the US Hot Christian Songs chart and at No. 1 on the Hot Gospel Songs chart, thus becoming Moore's first appearance in the top ten for both charts, and his first Hot Gospel Songs chart-topper. Moore alongside Dante Bowe featured on "Wait on You" by Elevation Worship and Maverick City Music, which was released as the third promotional single from "Old Church Basement" (2021), on April 23, 2021. "Wait on You" debuted at No. 9 on the US Hot Christian Songs chart and at No. 1 on the Hot Gospel Songs chart.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Chandler Moore was nominated for two GMA Dove Awards at the 2021 GMA Dove Awards, being nominated for Gospel Worship Recorded Song of the Year for "Voice of God" by Dante Bowe alongside Steffany Gretzinger, and Worship Recorded Song of the Year for "Jireh" by Elevation Worship and Maverick City Music alongside Naomi Raine. Moore also received four Grammy Award nominations in the lead-up to the 2022 Grammy Awards: two nominations in the Best Gospel Performance/Song category for featuring on "Voice of God" and a songwriting nomination for "Wait on You" by Elevation Worship and Maverick City Music; two Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song for "Man of Your Word" alongside KJ Scriven and for featuring on "Jireh".


title: Chandler Moore

text: On June 19, 2017, Moore's son, named Chandler D. Moore II (affectionately called Deuce), was born. Moore posts photos with his son on his social media platforms. According to "People" magazine, Moore also has a son named River.


title: Chandler Moore

text: On January 17, 2021, Moore's apartment was badly damaged in a fire while he was attending a church service.


title: Chandler Moore

text: Moore became engaged to Hannah Poole in March 2021. Moore and Poole got married on June 8, 2021, during a wedding ceremony held at The 4 Eleven in Fort Worth, Texas.


title: Edward Holcroft

text: Edward Patrick Holcroft (born 23 June 1987) is an English film, television and stage actor. He is best known for his roles in the "Kingsman" film franchise and in the television series "Wolf Hall" (2015), "London Spy" (2015), and "Alias Grace" (2017).


title: Edward Holcroft

text: Holcroft is the second of three sons born to Lt. Col. Patrick Holcroft, a soldier and Kathleen "Annie" Holcroft ("née" Roberts), a former publisher at Condé Nast. His elder brother, Oliver Holcroft, is a former soldier who served with the Grenadier Guards in Afghanistan. Edward was sent to boarding school at age 8, first attending prep school at Summer Fields School in Oxford and then to a Roman Catholic school, Ampleforth College, in North Yorkshire. He initially wanted to become a professional drummer having attended music school, but switched to acting after appearing in a play at Oxford Brookes University. He then undertook post-graduate studies in acting at the Drama Centre London of Central Saint Martins, University of the Arts London, graduating in 2012.


title: Edward Holcroft

text: Holcroft is best known for his roles as Charlie Hesketh in the film "" and its sequel "", as George Boleyn in the British drama series "Wolf Hall" and as Alex Turner in the BBC drama series "London Spy". In 2017, he appeared in the historical miniseries "Gunpowder" on the BBC and "Alias Grace" on Netflix and the CBC.


title: Edward Holcroft

text: Holcroft acted with Dominic West and Janet McTeer in "Les Liaisons Dangereuses" at the Donmar Warehouse.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: Kirstie Mary Allsopp (born 31 August 1971) is a British television presenter, best known as co-presenter of Channel 4 property shows including "Location, Location, Location", "Love It or List It UK", "Relocation, Relocation" and "Location Revisited".


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: Allsopp is the daughter of Charles Allsopp, 6th Baron Hindlip, a former chairman of Christie's, by his marriage to Fiona Victoria Jean Atherley McGowan (1947–2014). She has a younger brother, Henry, and two younger sisters, Sofie and Natasha. Owing to her father's peerage, she is entitled to use the courtesy style The Honourable Kirstie Allsopp. The designer and businesswoman Cath Kidston is her cousin.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: She attended ten schools as a child, including St Clotilde's in Lechlade, Gloucestershire, and Bedales near Petersfield, Hampshire. After spending time in India teaching English, Allsopp returned to the UK and began a series of positions, working for "Country Living" and "Food & Homes Magazine" and her mother's business, Hindlip & Prentice Interiors, and studying at Christie's. Allsopp set up her own home search company, Kirmir, in 1996, focusing on top end purchases in Central and West London.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: In August 2014, Allsopp was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to "The Guardian" opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: Her partner is property developer Ben Andersen, and they have two sons, born in 2006 and 2008. She is also stepmother to her partner's two children from a previous relationship. They live in London.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: In 2009 they and family bought and restored a house called Meadowgate, in rural Devon. It had been empty for 39 years. The restoration and interior decorating were the subject of the TV series "Kirstie's Homemade Home". It was again the setting for her "Kirstie's Homemade Christmas" programme, showing people how to have an individual Christmas using secondhand and homemade products such as wreaths from material found from nearby wood.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: In 2014, Allsopp revealed to "The Times" that her mother, who died on 6 January aged 66 from breast cancer, had been buried, at her own request, in a wicker coffin, in the garden of her Dorset home.


title: Kirstie Allsopp

text: In June 2022 Allsopp claimed to have accidentally swallowed an Apple AirPod while taking vitamins, she was able to regurgitate the AirPod without medical assistance.


title: First Red Scare

text: The First Red Scare was a period during the early 20th-century history of the United States marked by a widespread fear of far-left movements, including Bolshevism and anarchism, due to real and imagined events; real events included the Russian 1917 October Revolution and anarchist bombings. At its height in 1919–1920, concerns over the effects of radical political agitation in American society and the alleged spread of socialism, communism and anarchism in the American labor movement fueled a general sense of concern.


title: First Red Scare

text: The Scare had its origins in the hyper-nationalism of World War I as well as the Russian Revolution. At the war's end, following the October Revolution, American authorities saw the threat of communist revolution in the actions of organized labor, including such disparate cases as the Seattle General Strike and the Boston Police Strike and then in the bombing campaign directed by anarchist groups at political and business leaders. Fueled by labor unrest and the anarchist bombings, and then spurred on by the Palmer Raids and attempts by United States Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to suppress radical organizations, it was characterized by exaggerated rhetoric, illegal search and seizures, unwarranted arrests and detentions, and the deportation of several hundred suspected radicals and anarchists. In addition, the growing anti-immigration nativist movement among Americans viewed increasing immigration from Southern Europe and Eastern Europe as a threat to American political and social stability.


title: First Red Scare

text: Bolshevism and the threat of a communist-inspired revolution in the U.S. became the overriding explanation for challenges to the social order, even for such largely unrelated events as incidents of interracial violence during the Red Summer of 1919. Fear of radicalism was used to explain the suppression of freedom of expression in the form of display of certain flags and banners. In April 1920, concerns peaked with J. Edgar Hoover telling the nation to prepare for a bloody uprising on May Day. Police and militias prepared for the worst, but May Day passed without incident. Soon, public opinion and the courts turned against Palmer, putting an end to his raids and the First Red Scare.


title: First Red Scare

text: The First Red Scare's immediate cause was the increase in subversive actions of foreign and leftist elements in the United States, especially militant followers of Luigi Galleani, and in the attempts of the U.S. government to quell protest and gain favorable public views of America's entering World War I. At the end of the 19th century and prior to the rise of the Galleanist anarchist movement, the Haymarket affair of 1886 had already heightened the American public's fear of foreign anarchist and radical socialist elements within the budding American workers' movement. In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public Information to circulate and distribute anti-German and pro-Allied propaganda and other news. To add to the effectiveness of the Committee, the Bureau of Investigation (the name for the Federal Bureau of Investigation until 1935) disrupted the work of German-American, union, and leftist organizations through the use of raids, arrests, agents provocateurs, and legal prosecution. Revolutionary and pacifist groups, such as the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW; its members are known as "Wobblies"), strongly opposed the war. Many leaders of these groups, most notably Eugene V. Debs, were prosecuted for giving speeches urging resistance to the draft. Members of the Ghadar Party were also put on trial in the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial.


title: First Red Scare

text: The effort was also helped by the United States Congress, with the passing of the Espionage Act in 1917, the Sedition Act of 1918, and the Immigration Act of 1918. The Espionage Act made it a crime to interfere with the operation or success of the military, and the Sedition Act forbade Americans to use "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States government, flag, or armed forces of the United States during war. The Immigration Act of 1918 targeted anarchists by name and was used to deport Emma Goldman and Luigi Galleani, among others.


title: First Red Scare

text: After the war officially ended, the government investigations abated for a few months but did not cease. They soon resumed in the context of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, and the Red Terror. To some Americans, this was a time of uncertainty and fear over the prospects of an anarchist, socialist or communist revolution in the United States.


title: First Red Scare

text: On January 21, 1919, 35,000 shipyard workers in Seattle went on strike seeking wage increases. They appealed to the Seattle Central Labor Council for support from other unions and found widespread enthusiasm. Within two weeks, more than 100 local unions joined in a call on February 3 for general strike to begin on the morning of February 6. The 60,000 total strikers paralyzed the city's normal activities, like streetcar service, schools, and ordinary commerce, while their General Strike Committee maintained order and provided essential services, like trash collection and milk deliveries.


title: First Red Scare

text: Even before the strike began, the press begged the unions to reconsider. In part they were frightened by some of labor's rhetoric, like the labor newspaper editorial that proclaimed: "We are undertaking the most tremendous move ever made by labor in this country  ... We are starting on a road that leads – NO ONE KNOWS WHERE!" Daily newspapers saw the general strike as a foreign import: "This is America – not Russia," one said when denouncing the general strike. The non-striking part of Seattle's population imagined the worst and stocked up on food. Hardware stores sold their stock of guns.


title: First Red Scare

text: Seattle Mayor Ole Hanson announced that he had 1500 police and 1500 federal troops on hand to put down any disturbances. He personally oversaw their deployment throughout the city. "The time has come," he said, "for the people in Seattle to show their Americanism  ... The anarchists in this community shall not rule its affairs." He promised to use them to replace striking workers, but never carried out that threat.


title: First Red Scare

text: Meanwhile, the national leadership of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and international leaders of some of the Seattle locals recognized how inflammatory the general strike was proving in the eyes of the American public and Seattle's middle class. Press and political reaction made the general strike untenable, and they feared Seattle labor would lose gains made during the war if it continued. The national press called the general strike "Marxian" and "a revolutionary movement aimed at existing government." "It is only a middling step," said the "Chicago Tribune", "from Petrograd to Seattle."


title: First Red Scare

text: As early as February 8 some unions began to return to work at the urging of their leaders. Some workers went back to work as individuals, perhaps fearful of losing their jobs if the Mayor acted on his threats or in reaction to the pressure of life under the general strike. The executive committee of the General Strike Committee first recommended ending the general strike on February 8 but lost that vote. Finally on February 10, the General Strike Committee voted to end the strike the next day. The original strike in the shipyards continued.


title: First Red Scare

text: Though the general strike collapsed because labor leadership viewed it as a misguided tactic from the start, Mayor Hanson took credit for ending the five-day strike and was hailed by the press. He resigned a few months later and toured the country giving lectures on the dangers of "domestic bolshevism." He earned $38,000 in seven months, five times his annual salary as mayor. He published a pamphlet called "Americanism versus Bolshevism".


title: First Red Scare

text: The Overman Committee was a special five-man subcommittee of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary chaired by North Carolina Democrat Lee Slater Overman. First charged with investigating German subversion during World War I, its mandate was extended on February 4, 1919, just a day after the announcement of the Seattle General Strike, to study "any efforts being made to propagate in this country the principles of any party exercising or claiming to exercise any authority in Russia" and "any effort to incite the overthrow of the Government of this country." The Committee's hearings into Bolshevik propaganda, conducted from February 11 to March 10, 1919, developed an alarming image of Bolshevism as an imminent threat to the U.S. government and American values. The Committee's final report appeared in June 1919.


title: First Red Scare

text: Archibald E. Stevenson, a New York attorney with ties to the Justice Department, probably as a "volunteer spy", testified on January 22, 1919, during the German phase of the subcommittee's work. He established that anti-war and anti-draft activism during World War I, which he described as pro-German activity, had now transformed itself into propaganda "developing sympathy for the Bolshevik movement". America's wartime enemy, though defeated, had exported an ideology that now ruled Russia and threatened America anew. "The Bolshevik movement is a branch of the revolutionary socialism of Germany. It had its origin in the philosophy of Marx and its leaders were Germans." He cited the propaganda efforts of John Reed and gave many examples from the foreign press. He told the Senators that "We have found money coming into this country from Russia."


title: First Red Scare

text: The Senators were particularly interested in how Bolshevism had united many disparate elements on the left, including anarchists and socialists of many types, "providing a common platform for all these radical groups to stand on." Senator Knute Nelson, Republican of Minnesota, responded by enlarging Bolshevism's embrace to include an even larger segment of political opinion: "Then they have really rendered a service to the various classes of progressives and reformers that we have here in this country." Other witnesses described the horrors of the revolution in Russia and the consequences of a comparable revolution in the United States: the imposition of atheism, the seizure of newspapers, assaults on banks, and the abolition of the insurance industry. The Senators heard various views of women in Russia, including claims that women were made the property of the state.


title: First Red Scare

text: The press reveled in the investigation and the final report, referring to the Russians as "assassins and madmen," "human scum," "crime mad," and "beasts." The occasional testimony by some who viewed the Bolshevik Revolution favorably lacked the punch of its critics. One extended headline in February read:


title: First Red Scare

text: On the release of the final report, newspapers printed sensational articles with headlines in capital letters: "Red Peril Here", "Plan Bloody Revolution", and "Want Washington Government Overturned."


title: First Red Scare

text: In late April 1919, approximately 36 booby trap bombs were mailed to prominent politicians, including the Attorney General of the United States, judges, businessmen (including John D. Rockefeller), and a Bureau of Investigation field agent, R.W. Finch, who happened to be investigating the "Galleanist" organization.


title: First Red Scare

text: The bombs were mailed in identical packages and were timed to arrive on May Day, the day of celebration of organized labor and the working class. A few of the packages went undelivered because they lacked sufficient postage. One bomb intended for Seattle Mayor Ole Hanson, who had opposed the Seattle General Strike, arrived early and failed to explode as intended. Seattle police in turn notified the Post Office and other police agencies. On April 29, a package sent to U.S. Senator Thomas W. Hardwick of Georgia, a sponsor of the Anarchist Exclusion Act, exploded injuring his wife and housekeeper. On April 30, a post office employee in New York City recognized 16 packages by their wrapping and interrupted their delivery. Another twelve bombs were recovered before reaching their targets.


title: First Red Scare

text: In June 1919, eight bombs, far larger than those mailed in April, exploded almost simultaneously in several U.S. cities. These new bombs were believed to contain up to twenty-five pounds of dynamite, and all were wrapped or packaged with heavy metal slugs designed to act as shrapnel. All of the intended targets had participated in some way with the investigation of or the opposition to anarchist radicals. Along with Attorney General Palmer, who was targeted a second time, the intended victims included a Massachusetts state representative and a New Jersey silk manufacturer. Fatalities included a New York City night watchman, William Boehner, and one of the bombers, Carlo Valdinoci, a "Galleanist" radical who died in spectacular fashion when the bomb he placed at the home of Attorney General Palmer exploded in his face. Though not seriously injured, Attorney General Palmer and his family were thoroughly shaken by the blast, and their home was largely demolished.


title: First Red Scare

text: All of the bombs were delivered with pink flyers bearing the title "Plain Words" that accused the intended victims of waging class war and promised: "We will destroy to rid the world of your tyrannical institutions." Police and the Bureau of Investigation tracked the flyer to a print shop owned by an anarchist, Andrea Salcedo, but never obtained sufficient evidence for a prosecution. Evidence from Valdonoci's death, bomb components, and accounts from participants later tied both bomb attacks to the "Galleanists". Though some of the "Galleanists" were deported or left the country voluntarily, attacks by remaining members continued until 1932.


title: First Red Scare

text: The American labor movement had been celebrating its May Day holiday since the 1890s and had seen none of the violence associated with the day's events in Europe. On May 1, 1919, the left mounted especially large demonstrations, and violence greeted the normally peaceful parades in Boston, New York, and Cleveland. In Boston, police tried to stop a march that lacked a permit. In the ensuing melee both sides fought for possession of the Socialists' red flags. One policeman was shot and died of wounds; a second officer died of a heart attack. William Sidis was arrested. Later a mob attacked the Socialist headquarters. Police arrested 114, all from the Socialist side. Each side's newspapers provided uncritical support to their own the next day. In New York, soldiers in uniform burned printed materials at the Russian People's House and forced immigrants to sing the "Star-Spangled Banner".


title: First Red Scare

text: Cleveland, Ohio saw the worst violence. Leftists protesting the imprisonment of Eugene V. Debs and promoting the campaign of Charles Ruthenberg, the Socialist candidate for mayor, planned to march through the center of the city. A group of Victory Loan workers, a nationalist organization whose members sold war bonds and thought themselves still at war against all forms of anti-Americanism, tried to block some of the marchers and a melee ensued. A mob ransacked Ruthenberg's headquarters. Mounted police, army trucks, and tanks restored order. Two people died, forty were injured, and 116 arrested. Local newspapers noted that only 8 of those arrested were born in the United States. The city government immediately passed laws to restrict parades and the display of red flags.


title: First Red Scare

text: With few dissents, newspapers blamed the May Day marchers for provoking the nationalists' response. The Salt Lake City "Tribune" did not think anyone had a right to march. It said: "Free speech has been carried to the point where it is an unrestrained menace." A few, however, thought the marches were harmless and that the marchers' enthusiasm would die down on its own if they were left unmolested.


title: First Red Scare

text: More than two dozen American communities, mostly urban areas or industrial centers, saw racial violence in the summer and early fall of 1919. Unlike earlier race riots in U.S. history, the 1919 riots were among the first in which blacks responded with resistance to the white attacks. Martial law was imposed in Charleston, South Carolina, where men of the U.S. Navy led a race riot on May 10. Five white men and eighteen black men were injured in the riot. A Naval investigation found that four U.S. sailors and one civilian—all white men—were responsible for the outbreak of violence. On July 3, the 10th U.S. Cavalry, a segregated African-American unit founded in 1866, was attacked by local police in Bisbee, Arizona.


title: First Red Scare

text: Two of the most violent episodes occurred in Washington, D.C. and Chicago. In Washington, D.C., white men, many in military uniforms, responded to the rumored arrest of a black man for rape with four days of mob violence, rioting and beatings of random black people on the street. When police refused to intervene, the black population fought back. When the violence ended, ten whites were dead, including two police officers, and 5 blacks. Some 150 people had been the victims of attacks. The rioting in Chicago started on July 27. Chicago's beaches along Lake Michigan were segregated in practice, if not by law. A black youth who drifted into the area customarily reserved for whites was stoned and drowned. Blacks responded violently when the police refused to take action. Violence between mobs and gangs lasted 13 days. The resulting 38 fatalities included 23 blacks and 15 whites. Injuries numbered 537 injured, and 1,000 black families were left homeless. Some 50 people were reported dead. Unofficial numbers were much higher. Hundreds of mostly black homes and businesses on the South Side were destroyed by mobs, and a militia force of several thousand was called in to restore order.


title: First Red Scare

text: In mid-summer, in the middle of the Chicago riots, a "federal official" told the "New York Times" that the violence resulted from "an agitation, which involves the I.W.W., Bolshevism and the worst features of other extreme radical movements." He supported that claim with copies of negro publications that called for alliances with leftist groups, praised the Soviet regime, and contrasted the courage of jailed Socialist Eugene V. Debs with the "school boy rhetoric" of traditional black leaders. The "Times" characterized the publications as "vicious and apparently well financed," mentioned "certain factions of the radical Socialist elements," and reported it all under the headline: "Reds Try to Stir Negroes to Revolt."


title: First Red Scare

text: In mid-October, government sources again provided the "Times" with evidence of Bolshevist propaganda targeting America's black communities that was "paralleling the agitation that is being carried on in industrial centres of the North and West, where there are many alien laborers." Vehicles for this propaganda about the "doctrines of Lenin and Trotzky" included newspapers, magazines, and "so-called 'negro betterment' organizations." Quotations from such publications contrasted the recent violence in Chicago and Washington, D.C. with "Soviet Russia, a country in which dozens of racial and lingual types have settled their many differences and found a common meeting ground, a country which no longer oppresses colonies, a country from which the lynch rope is banished and in which racial tolerance and peace now exist." The "Times" cited one publication's call for unionization: "Negroes must form cotton workers' unions. Southern white capitalists know that the negroes can bring the white bourbon South to its knees. So go to it."


title: First Red Scare

text: The American Federation of Labor (AFL) began granting charters to police unions in June 1919 when pressed to do so by local groups, and in just 5 months had recognized affiliate police unions in 37 cities. The Boston police rank and file went out on strike on September 9, 1919 in order to achieve recognition for their union and improvements in wages and working conditions. Police Commissioner Edwin Upton Curtis denied that police officers had any right to form a union, much less one affiliated with a larger organization like the AFL. During the strike, Boston experienced two nights of lawlessness until several thousand members of the State Guard supported by volunteers restored order, though not without causing several deaths. The public, fed by lurid press accounts and hyperbolic political observers, viewed the strike with a degree of alarm out of proportion to the events, which ultimately produced only about $35,000 of property damage.


title: First Red Scare

text: The strikers were called "deserters" and "agents of Lenin." The Philadelphia "Public Ledger" viewed the Boston violence in the same light as many other of 1919's events: "Bolshevism in the United States is no longer a specter. Boston in chaos reveals its sinister substance." President Woodrow Wilson, speaking from Montana, branded the walkout "a crime against civilization" that left the city "at the mercy of an army of thugs." The timing of the strike also happened to present the police union in the worst light. September 10, the first full day of the strike, was also the day a huge New York City parade celebrated the return of Gen. John J. Pershing, the hero of the American Expeditionary Force.


title: First Red Scare

text: A report from Washington, D.C. included this headline: "Senators Think Effort to Sovietize the Government Is Started." Senator Henry Cabot Lodge saw in the strike the dangers of the national labor movement: "If the American Federation of Labor succeeds in getting hold of the police in Boston it will go all over the country, and we shall be in measurable distance of Soviet government by labor unions." The "Ohio State Journal" opposed any sympathetic treatment of the strikers: "When a policeman strikes, he should be debarred not only from resuming his office, but from citizenship as well. He has committed the unpardonable sin; he has forfeited all his rights."


title: First Red Scare

text: Samuel Gompers of the AFL recognized that the strike was damaging labor in the public mind and advised the strikers to return to work. The Police Commissioner, however, remained adamant and refused to re-hire the striking policemen. He was supported by Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge, whose rebuke of Gompers earned him a national reputation. Famous as a man of few words, he put the anti-union position simply: "There is no right to strike against the public safety, anywhere, anytime."


title: First Red Scare

text: The strike proved another setback for labor and the AFL immediately withdrew its recognition of police unions. Coolidge won the Republican nomination for Vice-President in the 1920 presidential election in part due to his actions during the Boston Police Strike.


title: First Red Scare

text: Though the leadership of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) opposed a strike in the steel industry, 98% of their union members voted to strike beginning on September 22, 1919. It shut down half the steel industry, including almost all mills in Pueblo, Colorado; Chicago, Illinois; Wheeling, West Virginia; Johnstown, Pennsylvania; Cleveland, Ohio; Lackawanna, New York; and Youngstown, Ohio.


title: First Red Scare

text: The owners quickly turned public opinion against the AFL. As the strike began, they published information exposing AFL National Committee co-chairman William Z. Foster's radical past as a Wobbly and syndicalist, and claimed this was evidence that the steelworker strike was being masterminded by radicals and revolutionaries. The steel companies played on nativist fears by noting that a large number of steelworkers were immigrants. Public opinion quickly turned against the striking workers. State and local authorities backed the steel companies. They prohibited mass meetings, had their police attack pickets and jailed thousands. After strikebreakers and police clashed with unionists in Gary, Indiana, the U.S. Army took over the city on October 6, 1919, and martial law was declared. National Guardsmen, leaving Gary after federal troops had taken over, turned their anger on strikers in nearby Indiana Harbor, Indiana.


title: First Red Scare

text: Steel companies also turned toward strikebreaking and rumor-mongering to demoralize the picketers. They brought in between 30,000 and 40,000 African-American and Mexican-American workers to work in the mills. Company spies also spread rumors that the strike had collapsed elsewhere, and they pointed to the operating steel mills as proof that the strike had been defeated.


title: First Red Scare

text: Congress conducted its own investigation, focused on radical influence upon union activity. In that context, U.S. Senator Kenneth McKellar, a member of the Senate committee investigating the strike, proposed making one of the Philippine Islands a penal colony to which those convicted of an attempt to overthrow the government could be deported.


title: First Red Scare

text: The Chicago mills gave in at the end of October. By the end of November, workers were back at their jobs in Gary, Johnstown, Youngstown, and Wheeling. The strike collapsed on January 8, 1920, though it dragged on in isolated areas like Pueblo and Lackawanna.


title: First Red Scare

text: The United Mine Workers under John L. Lewis announced a strike for November 1, 1919. They had agreed to a wage agreement to run until the end of World War I and now sought to capture some of their industry's wartime gains. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer invoked the Lever Act, a wartime measure that made it a crime to interfere with the production or transportation of necessities. The law, meant to punish hoarding and profiteering, had never been used against a union. Certain of united political backing and almost universal public support, Palmer obtained an injunction on October 31 and 400,000 coal workers struck the next day. He claimed the President authorized the action, following a meeting with the severely ill President in the presence of his doctor. Palmer also asserted that the entire Cabinet had backed his request for an injunction. That infuriated Secretary of Labor Wilson who had opposed Palmer's plan and supported Gompers' view of the President's promises when the Act was under consideration. The rift between the Attorney General and the Secretary of Labor was never healed, which had consequences the next year when Palmer's attempts to deport radicals were frustrated by the Department of Labor.