title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The earliest known inhabitants of the Westport area as identified through archaeological finds date back 7,500 years. Records from the first white settlers report the Pequot Indians living in the area which they called "Machamux" translated by the colonialists as "beautiful land". Settlement by colonialists dates back to the five "Bankside Farmers"; whose families grew and prospered into a community that continued expanding. The settlers arrived in 1693, having followed cattle to the isolated area. The community had its own ecclesiastical society, supported by independent civil and religious elements, enabling it to be independent from the Town of Fairfield. As the settlement expanded its name changed: it was briefly known as "Bankside" in 1693, officially named Green's Farm in 1732 in honor of Bankside Farmer John Green and in 1835 incorporated as the Town of Westport.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: During the Revolutionary War, on April 25, 1777, a British force of 1,850 under the command of the Royal Governor of the Province of New York, Major General William Tryon, landed on Compo Beach to destroy the Continental Army's military supplies in Danbury. Minutemen from Westport and the surrounding areas crouched hiding while Tryon's troops passed and then launched an offensive from their rear. A statue on Compo Beach commemorates this plan of attack with a crouching Minuteman facing away from the beach, looking onto what would have been the rear of the troops. A sign on Post Road East also commemorates this event.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The Town of Westport was officially incorporated on May 28, 1835, with lands from Fairfield, Weston and Norwalk. Daniel Nash led 130 people of Westport in the petitioning of the Town of Fairfield for Westport's incorporation. The driving force behind the petition was to assist their seaport's economic viability that was being undermined by neighboring towns' seaports. For several decades after that, Westport was a prosperous agricultural community, distinguishing itself as the leading onion-growing center in the U.S. Blight caused the collapse of Westport's onion industry, leading to mills and factories replacing agriculture as the town's economic engine.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Agriculture was Westport's first major industry. By the 19th century, Westport had become a shipping center in part to transport onions to market.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Starting around 1910 the town experienced a cultural expansion. During this period artists, musicians, and authors such as F. Scott Fitzgerald moved to Westport to be free from the commuting demands experienced by business people. The roots of Westport's reputation as an arts center can be traced back to this period during which it was known as a "creative heaven."


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: In the 20th century, a combination of industrialization and popularity among New Yorkers attracted to fashionable Westport—which had attracted many artists and writers—resulted in farmers selling off their land. Westport changed from a community of farmers to a suburban development.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: In the 1950s through to the 1970s, New Yorkers relocating from the city to the suburbs discovered Westport's culture of artists, musicians and authors. The population grew rapidly, assisted by the ease of commuting to New York City and back again to rolling hills and the "natural beauty of the town." By this time Westport had "chic New York-type fashion shopping" and a school system with a good reputation, both factors contributing to the growth.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: By the 21st century, Westport had developed into a center for finance and insurance, as well as professional, scientific and technical services.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: According to a publication by the 2010 Census, Westport has a total area of of which (59.67%) is land with the remaining area of (40.20%) water.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport is bordered by Norwalk on the west, Weston to the north, Wilton to the northwest, Fairfield to the east and Long Island Sound to the south.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Both the train station and a total of 26 percent of town residents live within the 100-year floodplain. The floodplain was breached in 1992 and 1996 resulting in damage to private property, the 1992 flooding of the train station parking lot and the implementation of flood mitigation measures that include town regulations that affect renovations and additions to building within the floodplain zone.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The 2019 US Census reported a population estimate of 28,491 with the median household income at $206,466.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The 2010 US Census counted the total number of households in Westport being 9,573 of which 7,233 (75.6%) were family households. The population density was . There were 10,065 housing units at an average density of 503.0 per square mile (194.2/km).


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: According to the 2010 Census, the population of Westport was 92.6% White, 4.0% Asian, 1.2% Black or African American, and 0.1% American Indian. Individuals from other races made up 0.6% of Westport's population while individuals from two or more races made up 1.6%. In addition, Latinos of any race made up 3.5% of Westport's population. About 29.8% of Westport residents were younger than age 18 as of 2010; higher than the U.S. average of 24%.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: According to the 2000 Census, there were 9,586 households, of which 38.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.1% were married couples living together, 6.8% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 25.2% were non-families. 20.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.10.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 27.9% under the age of 18, 2.7% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 28.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $147,391, and the median income for a family was $176,740. As of the 2000 Census, males had a median income of $100,000 versus $53,269 for females. The per capita income for the town was $73,664. 2.6% of the population and 1.5% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 2.7% are under the age of 18 and 2.1% are 65 or older.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: In July 2008, Westport was named the fifth top-earning city in the US, with a median family income of $193,540 and median home price of $1,200,000. In 2018, data from the American Community Survey revealed that Westport was the 9th wealthiest city in the United States.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport, like Connecticut as a whole, is heavily Democratic. Hillary Rodham Clinton outscored Donald J. Trump by 42 points in 2016. Joe Biden outscored Donald J. Trump by more than 50 points in 2020, marking the best performance for a Democratic presidential nominee in the town in over 60 years.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport was one of five towns in Connecticut that backed former Governor John Kasich over Donald J. Trump in the 2016 Republican presidential primary. Kasich received 1,098 votes (46.19 percent) ahead of Trump who garnered 1,053 votes (44.30 percent). U.S. Senator Ted Cruz of Texas finished third with 165 votes (6.94 percent).


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The town switched to a Representative Town Meeting style governance in 1949. The government consists of a three-member Board of Selectmen, a Representative Town Meeting (RTM), a Board of Finance, a Board of Education, a Planning and Zoning Commission, and various other commissions, boards, and committees.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: As of 2020, the Westport Police Department has a full-time complement of 64 sworn police officers that serve the Town of Westport. This department is one of few Police Departments in the country to invest in electric and hybrid fleets.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The town of Westport is protected by the paid, full-time firefighters of the Westport Fire Department (WFD). Established in 1929, the Westport Fire Department currently operates out of 4 fire stations, located throughout the town, and maintains a fire apparatus fleet of 6 Engines, (4 first line and 2 reserve) 1 truck, 1 rescue, 1 fireboat, 1 High Water Unit, 1 utility unit and 1 Shift Commander's unit. The fire department also holds the Fairfield County Hazardous Materials Truck, housed at Westport Fire Headquarters. The Westport Fire Department responds to, on average, approximately 4,000 emergency calls annually.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Staples High School is Westport's only public high school. Staples High School was ranked No. 1 for best high schools in Connecticut and 279th best nationwide." The short film "The Hallway" was famously filmed inside the school. The school is in the Staples neighborhood.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The district has two middle schools, Bedford Middle School and Coleytown Middle School. In September 2009, Bedford Middle School was awarded the government-honored Blue Ribbon Award. In 2020, Bedford Middle and Coleytown Middle schools were ranked No. 3 and No. 7 in the state, respectively.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: There are numerous preschools in Westport, including Stepping Stones Pre-school, Greens Farms Nursery School, Saugatuck Nursery School, Earthplace Nursery School and the YMCA Childcare.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: For the 2020–2021 fiscal year, the school district's adopted budget is $121.9 million. The school district had an estimated $109.1 million budget for the 2009–2010 fiscal year, giving it an average per pupil expenditure of $16,266. The average 2010 class size for kindergarten through first grade was 22 students and 25 students for second through fifth grade.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Greens Farms Academy, located in the 1920s Vanderbilt estate overlooking Long Island Sound, is a K–12 private preparatory school located in the Greens Farms section of town. Pierrepont School, opened in 2002 on Sylvan Road, is a private K–12 school for gifted students.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The Rolnick Observatory, operated by the Westport Astronomical Society, is open to the public for free on clear Wednesday and Thursday evenings. The observatory is located at 182 Bayberry Lane, on a former Nike missile site.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Earthplace, The Nature Discovery Center, is a natural history museum, nature center and wildlife sanctuary located at 10 Woodside Lane. The organization is dedicated to the promotion of public environmental education, preservation and conservation. Activities include maintaining a open space wildlife sanctuary with trails, presenting public nature education programs, a water quality monitoring program, an interactive nature discovery area, a nursery school and summer camp.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport's first newspaper dates back to the printing and publication of the first issue of "The Saugatuck Journal" on December 26, 1828.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport is served by both English-language newspapers and news websites including "Westport News" and "WestportNow". The town is also home to a monthly magazine "Westport".


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The financial services sector employs 7,171 in Westport; half of whom commute daily to Westport. The financial services industry is a major segment of the local economy. The major financial services companies in Westport now are Bridgewater Associates, a global investment manager and Westport's largest employer, Canaan Partners, an early stage venture capital firm focusing on IT and life sciences, and BNY Mellon. Professional, scientific, and technical services companies include Terex, a Fortune 500 company manufacturing industrial equipment and offering professional and technical services around those products, and dLife, a multimedia diabetes education (and marketing) company.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Comprising , Sherwood Island State Park is located on Long Island Sound and includes beach access. Compo Beach and Burying Hill Beach are municipal beaches that are open to out-of-town visitors in the summer for a fee. The state's 9/11 memorial was put in Sherwood Island State Park in Westport; on a clear day the New York City skyline can be seen.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: In 2010, the historic Wakeman Farm was reopened to the public as the Wakeman Town Farm and Sustainability Center. The town's website describes as an "organic demonstration homestead open to the public. The Farm is a model facility created to educate the community with local healthy food production, responsible land stewardship, sustainable practices and community service orientation."


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Interstate 95, the Merritt Parkway, and U.S. 1, as well as the Saugatuck River, run through Westport.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Westport has two train stations, Green's Farms and Westport on the Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, which serves Stamford and Grand Central Terminal in New York City or New Haven-Union Station. This line is shared with Amtrak trains as it is part of the Northeast Corridor, but no Amtrak services stop at Green's Farms or Westport. The nearest Amtrak stations are at Bridgeport (10 miles) and Stamford (12 miles).


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: As of 2019, Westport has the highest per capita electric vehicle ownership among municipalities in Connecticut, and #3 overall.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: A recent initiative by residents of the Town of Westport, Connecticut, culminating in a 2019 report. It is part of a greater interest to improve pedestrian and cyclist options from the major places of interest in town: downtown Westport to the Westport Train Station. This approximate two-mile stretch of road is most directly accessible via Post Road East (U.S. Route 1) to Riverside Avenue. The third iteration of the study will more specifically address ways in which this path can be improved for people not traveling by car; the first report considered the conditional state of the path and the second analyzed traffic conditions.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The Westport Planning and Zoning Commission is interested in offering more sustainable and accessible transit options: in 2017 the Commission released a report on alternate transit options, complete with surveys of town residents and maps of current sidewalks and bike paths. The lack of sidewalks on some two-way arterial and many collector streets may increase the potential for accidents. This is occurring in tandem with the Connecticut Department of Transportation’s notable laws which support users of all transit forms: the Complete Streets Law of 2009, the 2014 Vulnerable User Law, and the 2015 Bike Bill. A true application of change in the post-Complete Streets law is the restriping of road shoulders by the DOT across the state, including the many, already narrow, two-way streets. The narrowing of roads is known to encourage slower, safer driving, which protects pedestrians and cyclists, as well as auto users. This form of traffic calming is thus in line with Vision Zero, an interest by New Urbanists and city planners focused on reducing traffic-caused injuries and fatalities.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: The Norwalk Transit District, with several routes available for Westporters due to support by the Town of Westport, offers another form of transit for mainly commuting use.


title: Westport, Connecticut

text: Among the many actors, singers and other entertainers who have lived in town is Paul Newman who resided in Westport from 1960 until his death in 2008. His wife, Joanne Woodward, still resides in town. Fala (1940–1952), President Franklin D. Roosevelt's dog, was an early Christmas gift from Mrs. Augustus G. Kellogg, a town resident. Actress Grace Carney moved to Westport in 1979, when she became president of United Tool and Die, a company started by her father. She died in the city in 2009. Actress Gene Tierney grew up in Greens Farms. Adult film star Marilyn Chambers grew up in Westport under her given name Marilyn Briggs. Martha Stewart also lived in Westport at her historic estate of Turkey Hill. Jean Donovan, a lay Roman Catholic missioner martyred in El Salvador in 1980 grew up in Westport and graduated from Staples High School. She is honored on the litany of saints by the Lutheran World Federation and by The Anglican Communion. Academy Award winner Sandy Dennis lived in Westport until her death in 1992. Former FDA chief Dr. Scott Gottlieb is a resident of Westport. Former FBI director, James Comey, was a long-time resident of the town.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Cassius Marcellus Clay (October 19, 1810 – July 22, 1903), nicknamed the "Lion of White Hall", was a Kentucky planter, politician and emancipationist who worked for the abolition of slavery. A founding member of the Republican Party in Kentucky, he was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln as the U.S. minister to Russia. Clay is credited with gaining Russian support for the Union during the American Civil War.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Cassius Marcellus Clay was born to Sally Lewis and Green Clay, one of the wealthiest planters and slave owners in Kentucky, who became a prominent politician. He was one of six children who survived to adulthood, of seven born.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Clay was a member of a large and influential Clay political family. His older brother Brutus J. Clay became a politician at the state and federal levels. They were cousins of both Kentucky politician Henry Clay and Alabama governor Clement Comer Clay. Cassius' sister Elizabeth Lewis Clay (1798–1887) married John Speed Smith, who also became a state and US politician. Their son, Green Clay Smith, became a state politician and was elected to Congress.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: The younger Clay attended Transylvania University and then graduated from Yale College in 1832. While at Yale, he heard abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison speak, and his lecture inspired Clay to join the anti-slavery movement. Garrison's arguments were to him "as water is to a thirsty wayfarer." Clay was politically incrementalist, supporting gradual legal change rather than calling for immediate abolition the way Garrison and his supporters did. He thought this more likely to bring success.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In 1833, Clay married Mary Jane Warfield, daughter of Mary Barr and Dr. Elisha Warfield of Lexington, Kentucky. They had ten children, six of whom lived to adulthood:


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Later, he adopted Henry Launey Clay, believed to be his son by an extra-marital relationship while in Russia.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In 1878 after 45 years of marriage, Clay divorced his wife, Mary Jane (Warfield) Clay, claiming abandonment after she no longer would tolerate his marital infidelities. In 1894, the 84-year-old Clay married Dora Richardson, the orphaned sister of one of his sharecropping tenants. According to newspaper reports at the time, Dora was 15 to 16 years old. Her age varies in the few extant records; the 1900 US Census indicates that she was born in May 1882, suggesting that she may have been as young as 12 when she married Cassius M. Clay. Her age was a contentious issue, leading the minister who was initially to marry them to bow out. Clay's children also objected, and Clay reportedly mounted a cannon in his doorway to detour anyone who intended to interfere with the wedding.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Cassius Clay was an early Southern planter who became a prominent anti-slavery crusader. Clay worked toward emancipation, both as a Kentucky state representative and as an early member of the Republican Party.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Clay was elected to three terms in the Kentucky House of Representatives, but he lost support among Kentuckian voters as he promoted abolition. His anti-slavery activism earned him violent enemies. During a political debate in 1843, he survived an assassination attempt by Sam Brown, a hired gun. The scabbard of Clay's Bowie knife was tipped with silver and, in jerking the Bowie knife out in retaliation pulled this scabbard up so that it was just over his heart. Brown's bullet struck the scabbard and embedded itself in the silver. Despite having been shot in the chest, Clay tackled Brown, and with his Bowie knife removed Brown's nose and one eye and possibly an ear before he threw Brown over an embankment.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In 1845, Clay began publishing an anti-slavery newspaper, "True American", in Lexington, Kentucky. Within a month, he received death threats, had to arm himself, and regularly barricaded the armored doors of his newspaper office for protection, besides setting up two four-pounder cannons inside. Shortly afterward, a mob of about 60 men broke into his office and seized his printing equipment. To protect his venture, Clay set up a publication center in Cincinnati, Ohio, a center of abolitionists in the free state but continued to reside in Kentucky.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Clay served in the Mexican–American War as a captain with the 1st Kentucky Cavalry from 1846 to 1847. He had opposed the annexation of Texas and the expansion of slavery into the Southwest, but had volunteered because of Mexico’s attempt to seize the state, which it still claimed. While making a speech for abolition in 1849, Clay was attacked by the six Turner brothers, who beat, stabbed, and tried to shoot him. In the ensuing fight, Clay fought off all six and, using his Bowie knife, killed Cyrus Turner.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In 1853, Clay granted 10 acres of his expansive lands to John G. Fee, an abolitionist who founded the town of Berea. In 1855 Fee founded Berea College, open to all races. Clay's connections to the northern antislavery movement remained strong. He was a founder of the Republican Party in Kentucky and became a friend of Abraham Lincoln, whom he supported for the presidency in 1860. Clay was briefly a candidate for the vice presidency at the 1860 Republican National Convention, but lost the nomination to Hannibal Hamlin.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: President Lincoln appointed Clay to the post of Minister to the Russian court at St. Petersburg on March 28, 1861. The Civil War started before he departed and, as there were no Federal troops in Washington at the time, Clay organized a group of 300 volunteers to protect the White House and US Naval Yard from a possible Confederate attack. These men became known as Cassius M. Clay's Washington Guards. President Lincoln gave Clay a presentation Colt revolver in recognition. When Federal troops arrived, Clay and his family embarked for Russia. As Minister to Russia, Clay witnessed the Tsar's emancipation edict.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: During the Civil War, Russia came to the aid of the Union, threatening war against Britain and France if they officially recognized the Confederacy. Cassius Clay, as minister to Russia during that time, was instrumental in securing Russia's aid. Emperor Alexander II of Russia gave sealed orders to the commanders of both his Atlantic and Pacific fleets, and sent them to the East and West coasts of the United States. They were instructed that the sealed orders were to be opened only if Britain and France entered the war on the side of the Confederacy. When the Russian Atlantic fleet entered New York harbor, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles wrote in his diary:


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In sending these ships to this country, there is something significant. What will be its effect on France, and French policy, we shall learn in due time. It may be moderate, it may exacerbate. God bless the Russians.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: The action of Alexander II was confirmed in 1904 by Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania, who in 1878 was the financial agent in the United States of the Russian government.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Recalled to the United States in 1862 to accept a commission from Lincoln as a major general with the Union Army, Clay publicly refused to accept it unless Lincoln would agree to emancipate slaves under Confederate control. Lincoln sent Clay to Kentucky to assess the mood for emancipation there and in the other border states. Following Clay's return to Washington, DC, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in late 1862, to take effect in January 1863.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Clay resigned his commission in March 1863 and returned to Russia, where he served until 1869. He was influential in the negotiations for the purchase of Alaska.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Later, Clay founded the Cuban Charitable Aid Society to help the Cuban independence movement of José Martí. He also spoke in favor of nationalizing the railroads and later against the power being accrued by industrialists. Clay left the Republican Party in 1869. He also disapproved of the Republican Radicals' reconstruction policy after Lincoln's assassination.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: In 1872, Clay was one of the organizers of the Liberal Republican revolt. He was instrumental in securing the nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the political campaigns of 1876 and 1880, Clay supported the Democratic Party candidates. He rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Clay had a reputation as a rebel and a fighter. Due to threats on his life, he had become accustomed to carrying two pistols and a knife for protection. He installed a cannon to protect his home and office. At the 1890 Kentucky Constitutional Convention, Clay was elected by the members as the Convention's President. Cassius Clay died at his home on July 22, 1903 of "general exhaustion." He was 92 years old. Survivors included his daughters, Laura Clay and Mary Barr Clay, who were both women's rights activists.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: His family home, White Hall, is maintained by the Commonwealth of Kentucky as White Hall State Historic Shrine.


title: Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician)

text: Herman Heaton Clay, a descendant of African-American slaves, named his son Cassius Marcellus Clay, who was born nine years after the death of the emancipationist, in tribute to him. This Cassius Clay gave his own son the same name, Cassius M. Clay, Jr., a world heavyweight champion boxer who gained international renown and changed his name to Muhammad Ali after his conversion to Islam. After Ali converted to Islam he claimed that his earlier name was a "slave name" and added that "I didn't choose it and I don't want it." He further asserted in his autobiography that while Clay may have gotten rid of his slaves, he "held on to white supremacy." This led Ali to conclude: "Why should I keep my white slavemaster's name visible and my black ancestors invisible, unknown, unhonored?"


title: Whip It (film)

text: Whip It is a 2009 American sports comedy-drama film directed by Drew Barrymore in her directorial debut and written by Shauna Cross, based on her 2007 novel "Derby Girl". The film is co-produced by Barrymore and Barry Mendel. It stars Elliot Page as a teenager from the fictional town of Bodeen, Texas, who joins a roller derby team. The film also stars Barrymore, Alia Shawkat, Marcia Gay Harden, Daniel Stern, Carlo Alban, Landon Pigg, Jimmy Fallon, Kristen Wiig, Zoë Bell, Eve, Andrew Wilson, Juliette Lewis, and Ari Graynor.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 13, 2009 and was theatrically released on October 2, 2009 in the United States by Fox Searchlight Pictures. It received positive reviews from critics but was a box office disappointment, grossing $16.6 million worldwide against its $15 million budget. It received two WIN Award nominations for Outstanding Actress, as well as Feature Film for Page and Barrymore, respectively. "Whip It" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on January 26, 2010 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.


title: Whip It (film)

text: Bliss Cavendar is a teenager in the small town of Bodeen, Texas. She has lost interest in the beauty pageants her mother, former beauty queen Brooke, pressures her to win.


title: Whip It (film)

text: While shopping in Austin with her mother, Bliss is intrigued by three roller derby team members she encounters. She and her friend Pash attend a roller derby bout where they see the "Holy Rollers" defeat the "Hurl Scouts". Bliss lies about her age and tries out for the Hurl Scouts, who give her the derby name "Babe Ruthless," and she becomes friendly with teammates "Maggie Mayhem", "Bloody Holly" and Smashley Simpson. The Hurl Scouts, while enthusiastic and close knit, rarely win, but chant, "We're number two!" after losing a match, to the frustration of their coach, Razor.


title: Whip It (film)

text: "Iron Maven" of the Holy Rollers resents Bliss's talent and youth. Bliss soon realizes she needs to be merciless in roller derby, which also changes other aspects of her life. She stands up to a bully at school and starts dating a lanky musician named Oliver, to whom she loses her virginity before he leaves on a tour, taking a T-shirt Bliss gave him to remember her by, in exchange for his jacket.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The Hurl Scouts continue to lose. Razor convinces them to change their ways after paying their rivals to use one of his plays against them, showing them how much better they could be. The team begins rising in the ranks, soon heading for a championship match against the Holy Rollers.


title: Whip It (film)

text: Bliss's parents discover her involvement in roller derby when Pash is arrested at the arena for underage drinking. Pash is furious with Bliss for leaving her alone, which led to her arrest. When Bliss's parents demand she give up roller derby, she runs away from home and stays with Maggie, discovering she has a young son. Maggie gives Bliss perspective on the difficulties of being a parent.


title: Whip It (film)

text: Bliss sees a picture of Oliver on social media with another girl, who is wearing her t-shirt. Heartbroken, she goes home to her mother, who comforts her. Bliss gives up roller derby and resumes her pageant career so as not to hurt her family or friends any further, and reconciles with Pash.


title: Whip It (film)

text: On the day of the pageant, which is the same day as the roller derby championship, Bliss's father convinces his wife to let Bliss abandon the pageant and go join the Hurl Scouts in their championship game.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The Hurl Scouts narrowly lose the championship match to the Holy Rollers, but they still happily come together and chant, "We're number two!" Afterward, she is approached by Oliver, who denies cheating on Bliss, but she dumps him anyway for never calling her while he was away. She and Iron Maven come to a mutual respect. Bliss's mother is still not entirely supportive of roller derby, but accepts that Bliss now knows what makes her happy and is charting her own course in life.


title: Whip It (film)

text: Screenwriter Shauna Cross adapted her 2007 young adult novel "Derby Girl" for the screen and pitched the script to different production companies while simultaneously pitching its source material to various publishers. Once Barrymore got involved, she and Cross worked for months on script revisions, with Barrymore pushing her to "avoid her story's tidier prospects, to make things 'more raw and open-ended.'" The film project was initially to be handled by Warner Independent Pictures, but Mandate Pictures took over after it was put into a turnaround. Production began summer 2008 in Michigan; principal photography began on July 26, taking place in and around Detroit, Saline, Ypsilanti, Michigan and Birch Run. Real roller derby players were selected from local Michigan teams such as the Detroit Derby Girls, and the Grand Raggidy Roller Girls. Several scenes were also shot in Austin, Texas. Some scenes were also shot in Hamtramck, Michigan at Hamtramck High School as well as Ferndale, Michigan at Ferndale High School. "Whip It" was produced by Barry Mendel and Drew Barrymore; a co-production between Mandate Pictures and Barrymore's Flower Films. The film was distributed by Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Whip It (film)

text: On August 12, 2007, it was announced that Elliot Page would play the lead role in the film, while Alia Shawkat, Marcia Gay Harden, Daniel Stern and Carlo Alban were in early talks to join the cast. On August 14, 2007, Landon Pigg, Jimmy Fallon, Kristen Wiig, Zoë Bell, Eve, Drew Barrymore and Andrew Wilson were also in final talks to join the film, Juliette Lewis was added to the cast, playing Iron Maven (a play on Iron Maiden) and on August 18, 2007, Ari Graynor and Har Mar Superstar joined the cast of the film, playing Eva Destruction (a play on Eve of Destruction) and the Fight Attendants Coach. "Whip it" is the feature-film debut of Pigg.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The Section Quartet scored the music for the film and on its soundtrack. The soundtrack also contains "Knocked Up" performed by Kings Of Leon, "Pot Kettle Black" performed by Tilly and the Wall, "Sheena Is a Punk Rocker" performed by Ramones, "What's the Altitude" performed by Cut Chemist and Hymnal, "Bang On" performed by The Breeders, "Dead Sound" performed by The Raveonettes, "Blue Turning Grey" performed by Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, "Your Arms Around Me" performed by Jens Lekman, "Learnalilgivinanlovin" performed by Gotye, "Boys Wanna Be Her" performed by Peaches, "Jolene" performed by Dolly Parton, "Caught Up in You" performed by 38 Special, "Never My Love" performed by Har Mar Superstar and Adam Green, "Black Gloves" performed by Goose, "Crown of Age" performed by The Ettes, "High Times" performed by Landon Pigg and Turbo Fruits, "Unattainable" performed by Little Joy, "Doing it Right" performed by The Go! Team, "Breeze" performed by Apollo Sunshine, "Kids" performed by MGMT, "Fun Dream Love Dream" performed by Turbo Fruits, "Know How" performed by Young MC, "The Road to Austin" performed by The Section Quartet, "No Surprises" performed by Radiohead, "Domingo no Parque" performed by Gilberto Gil, "Lollipop" performed by Squeak E. Clean and Desert Eagles and other songs performed by other song performers.


title: Whip It (film)

text: "Whip It" was theatrically released on October 2, 2009 in the United States. Fox Searchlight Pictures distributed the film to 1,721 screens in the United States.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The world premiere of the film was held at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The majority of the film's main cast attended the premiere. As part of the festivities, members of local league Toronto Roller Derby held an exhibition bout at Yonge Dundas Square in downtown Toronto. Toronto Roller Derby skaters, like those in other cities with major roller derby leagues, also helped promote the film in advance of the screening by wearing costumes from the film and skating around town and performing stunts while handing out flyers and giveaway items. Toronto Roller Derby credits their luck in being able to skate at the festival for helping expand their fanbase as well as their skater rosters.


title: Whip It (film)

text: "Whip It" was released on DVD and Blu-ray on January 26, 2010 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.


title: Whip It (film)

text: Critical reception for "Whip It" was generally positive. , the film holds an 85% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 193 reviews with an average score of 7/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "While made from overly familiar ingredients, Drew Barrymore's directorial debut has enough charm, energy, and good-natured humor to transcend its many clichés". Metacritic calculated an average score of 68, based on 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Whip It (film)

text: A. O. Scott called the film "predictable", but said "You might, nonetheless, want to see this movie, even—or maybe especially—if you have seen "Billy Elliot" or "Bend It Like Beckham". Familiarity is not always a bad thing, and if the script, by Shauna Cross, piles sports movie and coming-of-age touchstones into a veritable cairn of clichés, the cast shows enough agility and conviction to make them seem almost fresh." Roger Ebert said it's a "coming-together of two free spirits, Drew Barrymore and [Elliot] Page, and while it may not reflect the kind of female empowerment Gloria Steinem had in mind, it has guts, charm, and a black-and-blue sweetness." According to the "Miami Herald", ""Whip It" is completely predictable from the first frame. It also is ridiculously, utterly entertaining. Drew Barrymore's smashing directorial debut harkens back to an era in which Hollywood studio pictures could still move and enthrall the audience while plying in hoary cliches."


title: Whip It (film)

text: "Whip It" was financially unsuccessful. Initial studio estimates showed "Whip It" in a tie for #6 in its opening weekend, tying with the widely released "", and it wound up taking sixth place with $4,650,812. The film grossed $13,043,363 in North America. It grossed $3,589,672 in foreign movie sales, for a grand total of $16,633,035 worldwide. Production cost of the film was $15 million.


title: Whip It (film)

text: The film has a 58-song playlist, with a wide range of styles and genres. Nineteen tracks appear on the CD of the soundtrack, with additional tracks at various MP3 stores. According to Allmusic, "The disc is a blend of familiar old standbys (including a glittering remix of the Chordettes' "Lollipop") and indie acts (among them Barrymore's ex-boyfriend Fabrizio Moretti's band Little Joy), achieving the kind of safely edgy balance that embodies the Fox Searchlight aesthetic (that is, it's quirky enough to appeal to the cool kids, but never strays too far from the mainstream)."


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup was the 21st edition of the FIFA U-20 World Cup, the biennial international men's youth football championship contested by the under-20 national teams of the member associations of FIFA, since its inception in 1977 as the FIFA World Youth Championship. The tournament was hosted by South Korea from 20 May to 11 June 2017.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Along with Canada, Chile, Japan, and Mexico, South Korea became the fifth nation to have hosted all of FIFA men's international competitions, namely the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, and the 2007 FIFA U-17 World Cup.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The South Korean FA originally made a request to host the tournament outside the traditional June/July period, as it would clash with South Korea's rainy season, as well as any possible national team selection should they have qualified for the Confederations Cup.<ref name="When/Where in Korea 2017"></ref>


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Serbia, the 2015 champions, were not able to defend their title as they failed to reach the final round of the UEFA qualifying tournament. In doing so, they became the fifth consecutive incumbent title holder to fail to qualify for the subsequent tournament.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: England won their first FIFA U-20 World Cup title after beating Venezuela 1–0 in the final via a goal from Dominic Calvert-Lewin.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Along with asking member associations whether it wished to host the Under 20, Under 17 or the Beach Soccer World Cup in 2017 (along with Women's Tournaments a year previous), a declaration of interest would need to have been sent by 15 May 2013. A total of 12 countries submitted a bid to host the tournament by the May 2013 deadline:


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The final decision on who would be hosts were made as part of FIFA's Executive Committee meetings in Brazil on 5 December 2013 with Korea Republic being awarded the hosting rights.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: A total of 24 teams qualified for the final tournament. In addition to South Korea who qualified automatically as hosts, the other 23 teams qualified from six separate continental competitions. Starting from 2017, the Oceania Football Confederation received an additional slot (in total two), while UEFA will have five instead of six slots.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Cheonan, Daejeon, Incheon, Seogwipo, Jeonju and Suwon were the six cities chosen to host the competition from a shortlist of nine, with Seoul, Pohang, and Ulsan not chosen.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: As part of preparations for the U-20 World Cup, the 2016 Suwon JS Cup, an international football friendly tournament, was held to prepare the host organisers.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The draw was held on 15 March 2017, 15:00 KST (), at the Suwon Artrium in Suwon, South Korea. Two Argentine players who have won the FIFA U-20 World Cup, Diego Maradona and Pablo Aimar, participated in the draw. Minho Choi from the South Korean idol group SHINee also participated in the draw.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The 24 teams were drawn into six groups of four teams, with hosts South Korea being allocated to position A1. The teams were seeded into their respective pots based on their results in the last five FIFA U-20 World Cups (more recent tournaments weighted more heavily), with bonus points awarded to confederation champions. Teams from the same confederation could not be drawn against each other for the group stage.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: A total of 22 refereeing trios (a referee and two assistant referees), 5 support referees and 21 video assistant referees were appointed for the tournament. This was the first FIFA underage tournament which uses the video assistant referee.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: Each team had to name a preliminary squad of 35 players. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 21 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by the FIFA deadline. Players in the final squad could be replaced due to serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team's first match. The squads were announced by FIFA on 11 May 2017.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: If two or more teams were equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings were determined by:


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: In the knockout stage, if a match was level at the end of normal playing time, extra time was played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot-out to determine the winner. However, for the third place match, no extra time was played and the winner was determined by kicks from the penalty mark.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: In the round of 16, the four third-placed teams were matched with the winners of groups A, B, C, and D. The specific match-ups involving the third-placed teams depend on which four third-placed teams qualified for the round of 16:


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: This was the first ever final for both England and Venezuela in the history of the tournament, in their 11th and 2nd appearances respectively. England's previous best result was in 1993 when they finished third, while Venezuela were eliminated in the round of 16 in 2009. This was England's first appearance and victory in the final of a global football tournament since their senior side's 1966 FIFA World Cup victory, ending 51 years of waiting for a global tournament trophy.


title: 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup

text: The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. They were all sponsored by Adidas, except for the FIFA Fair Play Award and Goal of the Tournament.


title: Neha Mehta

text: Neha Mehta is an Indian television actress. She is best known for her role of Anjali Taarak Mehta in India's longest-running sitcom TV serial "Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah".


title: Neha Mehta

text: She ancestrally belongs to Patan, Gujarat, India but was brought up in Vadodara and Ahmedabad. She comes from a family that has deep roots in Gujarati literature and she herself is a Gujarati speaker. Her father is a popular writer who inspired her to become an actress. She holds a Master's degree in Performing arts (MPA), in Indian Classical Dance, and a Diploma in Vocal and drama.


title: Neha Mehta

text: Mehta did Gujarati theatre for many years, Sahebji being one of the known ones. She started her Indian television career in 2001 Zee TV channel serial called "Dollar Bahu". From 2002 to 2003 she played title role in STAR Plus TV serial "Bhabhi'


title: Neha Mehta

text: In 2008 she played the role of Anjali Mehta in SAB TV's television series "Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah" which was currently her longest comedy television run. Anjali Mehta is the wife of the narrator and main character in the show, Taarak Mehta. Her character is a young, sophisticated, and modern woman. Anjali is a dietician and controls her husband Taarak Mehta's diet as well. She left the show in 2020.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Saul Zaentz (; February 28, 1921January 3, 2014) was an American film producer and record company executive. He won the Academy Award for Best Picture three times and, in 1996, was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz's film production career, primarily financed by the profits from Creedence Clearwater Revival, was marked by a dedication to the adaptation of novels. A prolific reader, Zaentz typically did not produce original screenplays. His final production, "Goya's Ghosts", was an exception, being an original story by Jean-Claude Carrière and Miloš Forman.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz was born on February 28, 1921, in Passaic, New Jersey, the youngest of five. His parents were Polish Jewish immigrants.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: As a child, Zaentz attended William B. Cruz Memorial school number 11 in Passaic. After serving in the United States Army during World War II, Zaentz began realizing his passion for music by working for Jazz at the Philharmonic and record company head Norman Granz, a job that included managing concert tours for musicians such as Duke Ellington and Stan Getz. He studied at Rutgers after the war on the GI Bill.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 1955 he joined Fantasy Records, for many years the largest independent jazz record label in the world. In 1967 Zaentz and other partners purchased the label from founders Max and Sol Weiss. The partners signed roots-rock group Creedence Clearwater Revival (CCR), fronted by former Fantasy warehouseman John Fogerty.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Fantasy Records owns the distribution and publishing rights to the music of CCR; to extricate himself from his original contract with Fantasy, John Fogerty signed away even more than the original contract had stipulated. Additionally, bad investments by Zaentz and Fantasy, seemingly on the group's behalf, cost CCR millions of dollars, some of which the group recouped through legal proceedings. In the 1980s, Zaentz sued Fogerty claiming plagiarism from Fogerty's own music asking for $140 million in damages but lost ("Fantasy, Inc. v. Fogerty");


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Fogerty counter-sued for reimbursement of attorneys' fees and in a decision by the U.S. Supreme Court, "Fogerty v. Fantasy", 510 U.S. 517 (1994), he won. Fogerty composed songs about the experience on his 1985 album "Centerfield"


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Defamation of character lawsuits followed for the lyric, "Zanz can't dance but he'll steal your money", and also claiming that the melodic line in "The Old Man Down the Road" was a lift from the Fantasy-copyrighted-but-Fogerty-written song "Run Through the Jungle" from CCR's successful album "Cosmo's Factory" (1970). The defamation issue was settled, with Warner Bros. and Fogerty changing the title and lyric to "Vanz Kant Danz". Zaentz lost on the copyright issue when a jury found Fogerty not liable.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Fogerty in turn claimed the label misled him about investing and managing his earnings from royalties, resulting in a devastating financial loss. Years later, when Zaentz sold his interest in Fantasy, Fogerty almost immediately re-signed with the label.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz received the Best Picture Oscar for three films, two of them directed by Miloš Forman —"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" (1975) and "Amadeus" (1984)— as well as for "The English Patient" (1996), directed by Anthony Minghella.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In the early 1970s he saw the stage adaptation of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" at a theatre in the Jackson Square area of San Francisco. Zaentz co-produced the film adaptation with actor Michael Douglas. The film won five Academy Awards including Best Picture, which Zaentz and Douglas shared. This award sweep had not been experienced in 41 years. In 1980, Zaentz created The Saul Zaentz Film Center in Berkeley, California, an editing and sound-mixing studio for his own films, independent filmmakers, and Hollywood productions.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 1984 Zaentz and Forman collaborated again, on the adaptation of the Peter Shaffer's stage play "Amadeus" about composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It won eight Academy Awards, including Zaentz's second Best Picture, and spun off a best-selling soundtrack album (distributed by Fantasy Records).


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz next produced "The Mosquito Coast", directed by Peter Weir on location in Belize and starring Harrison Ford, adapted from the book by Paul Theroux. In 1988, Zaentz produced "The Unbearable Lightness of Being", based on the Milan Kundera novel. The adaptation was directed by Philip Kaufman from a screenplay by Jean-Claude Carrière.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz's following film, "At Play in the Fields of the Lord", adapted by Jean-Claude Carrière from the book by Peter Matthiessen, shot by Hector Babenco on location in the Amazon Rainforest, continued "Mosquito Coast"s theme of the clash of Western values with the primitive.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 1992, Zaentz purchased the rights to the unpublished novel "The English Patient" and worked up a scenario with author Michael Ondaatje. In developing the project Zaentz resisted attempts by his backers to make the story more acceptable to a mainstream audience whereby they wanted him to cast Demi Moore a leading role. Zaentz instead chose Kristin Scott Thomas for the role. The book was adapted for the screen and directed by Anthony Minghella. "English Patient" swept the 69th Academy Awards, winning Best Director for Minghella and Best Picture for Zaentz. At the same ceremony, Zaentz also accepted The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 2003, Zaentz was made a Fellow of BAFTA, in recognition of his film career. In 2004–05. Zaentz and partners sold Fantasy Records to independent jazz label Concord Records, and closed the Saul Zaentz Film Center. In 2005–06 Zaentz embarked on a new film project, "Goya's Ghosts", centered on events in the life of Spanish painter Francisco Goya, starring Natalie Portman, Javier Bardem, Stellan Skarsgård as Goya, and featuring Randy Quaid as the king of Spain. The film was made with long-time collaborators Miloš Forman (director) and Jean-Claude Carrière (screenplay). Shot on location in Spain and edited in New York, the film was released in late 2006.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Through Tolkien Enterprises, now named Middle-earth Enterprises, Saul Zaentz owned the worldwide film, stage, and merchandise rights to J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". It also includes "matching rights" should Tolkien's estate film "The Silmarillion" or "The Unfinished Tales of Numenor and Middle-Earth." What it did not include was the rights for televisions shows (for any show longer than eight episodes).


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 1976, Zaentz acquired certain rights as regards "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" from United Artists, who had in turn purchased them directly from Tolkien eight years prior. In 1978, Zaentz produced an animated version of "The Lord of the Rings", written chiefly by Peter S. Beagle and directed by animator Ralph Bakshi.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Tolkien Enterprises granted an exclusive tabletop game license to company Iron Crown Enterprises in 1982, which was the largest such license in the industry up to that time.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Eight years after his death, Zaentz Co. decided to sell "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings" rights.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: On August 18, 2022, Embracer Group announced that it had entered into an agreement to purchase Middle-earth Enterprises from The Saul Zaentz Company.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz was peripherally involved in the controversy about who would make a live-action film version of "The Hobbit", because of his ownership of the film rights to the novel.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Peter Jackson, who directed the successful "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, was the first person scheduled to direct "The Hobbit". However, Jackson's production company Wingnut Films questioned New Line Cinema's accounting methods, bringing in an outside auditor as allowed by the contract, and eventually sued New Line. New Line executive Robert Shaye took great offense, declared that they would never work with Jackson again, and began looking for another director. Jackson said that he could not work on the film until the lawsuit was settled, and that he was apparently off the project indefinitely. MGM, which owned the distribution rights, was more hopeful that a deal could be worked out.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Shaye explained his company's position, saying that New Line's contract with Zaentz was going to expire soon, which forced them to find a new director. If the litigation were resolved by a court or by a settlement the original plan could proceed, but then New Line might need to reorganize to allow someone other than Shaye to deal with Jackson. The situation was made more complex by Zaentz's ongoing dispute with New Line over profits from the "Lord of the Rings" films. The dispute began shortly after the release of the films. In December 2007 "Variety" reported that Zaentz was also suing New Line, alleging that the studio has refused to make records available so that he can confirm his profit-participation statements are accurate.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: In 2011, Zaentz's company began several legal actions against small businesses in the UK to enforce their "Hobbit" trademark, including the Hungry Hobbit cafe in Sarehole, Birmingham and a pub in Southampton, England, which had traded as The Hobbit for twenty years. This raised the ire of many British correspondents such as Stephen Fry, who described it as "pointless, self-defeating bullying."


title: Saul Zaentz

text: The Saul Zaentz Film Center (becoming the Zaentz Media Center after renovations) was a facility in Berkeley, California, which for many years provided production and post-production services for Bay Area filmmakers. Along with American Zoetrope and Lucasfilm, it was one of only three major film production facilities in Northern California. By 2005, it has largely shut down its post-production facilities, except for the foley recording studio, which is part of Fantasy Studios, which closed in 2018.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: The film center was sold in 2007. It housed Concord Music Group and Fantasy Studios as well the Berkeley Digital Film Institute and other media production companies.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: Zaentz died on January 3, 2014, in San Francisco, California at the age of 92 due to Alzheimer's disease complications.


title: Saul Zaentz

text: John Fogerty noted his death on his Facebook page by posting the music video for his song "Vanz Kant Danz". Michael Douglas paid tribute to Zaentz in an article in "The Hollywood Reporter", saying:


title: Saul Zaentz

text: The Saul Zaentz Charitable Foundation launched in 1997. On May 17, 2016, the Harvard Graduate School of Education (HGSE) announced a US35.5 million gift from the Saul Zaentz Charitable Foundation, describing it as "the largest gift ever given to a university to focus on advancing early childhood education, and the largest gift in HGSE's history".


title: Saul Zaentz

text: He was married twice, first to Lynda Redfield, who was the widow of actor William Redfield. His second wife, Celia Mingus, was the ex-wife of Charles Mingus.


title: Jamón

text: Jamón (, pl. "jamones") is a kind of dry-cured ham produced in Spain. It is one of the most globally recognized food items of Spanish cuisine. It is also regularly a component of tapas.


title: Jamón

text: "Jamón" is the Spanish word for ham. As such, other ham products produced or consumed in Spanish-speaking countries may also be called by this name.


title: Jamón

text: "Jamón" is typically consumed in slices, either manually carved from a pig's hind leg held on a "jamonero" stand using a sharp thin slicing knife, or cut from the deboned meat with a rotatory cold-cut slicer. It's also regularly consumed in any shape in small portions.


title: Jamón

text: As a product, "Jamón" is similar to Portuguese "presunto" and to Italian "prosciutto", but the production differs by a longer curing phase (up to 18 months), giving it a dryer texture, deeper color and stronger flavour than the former.


title: Jamón

text: A whole "Jamón" leg is considerably cheaper by weight than its sliced counterpart because it includes the bone and non-edible fat. Once the external fat layers are removed and the meat is exposed, though, the product must be consumed as soon as possible since a progressive drying and deteriorating process starts. This is not an issue for restaurateurs and retailers, since they go through product much faster than an individual. Home users will typically choose sliced product, be it freshly cut from a deli stand, commercially pre-packaged or vacuum preserved. "Jamón" is safe to consume for as long as the leg is kept in a dry and cool environment and out of direct sunlight, but it must be kept refrigerated once cut away from the leg.


title: Jamón

text: "Jamón" may also be smoked in some regions, where it is used mostly for personal consumption. This form of ham is common in the southern areas of Castile and León as well as in parts of Extremadura. Such a "jamón" has a harder texture and a smoky-salty flavour.


title: Jamón

text: Though widely available in Spain (even if on the expensive side) and accessible in some countries of the European Union, import duties and trade or food safety restrictions applied to foreign meat products in international markets may raise prices substantially while creating scarcity, often making "jamón" a prohibitively expensive product for other countries to import.


title: Jamón

text: The term jamón serrano ("serrano ham", ham from the sierra, or mountain range) is regularly applied as an umbrella culinary term for all dry-cured "jamón" produced in Spain, as opposed to "jamón de York", which is cooked whole on the bone.


title: Jamón

text: It is most precisely applied, though, to "jamón" produced from white and/or non-"Ibérico" breeds of pig. This is the most commonly produced and consumed range of "jamón" in Spain. The majority of "jamones serranos" are produced from a landrace breed of white pigs or from commercial breeds such as Duroc. "Jamón serrano", described variously as jamón reserva, jamón curado, and jamón extra or any generic "jamón" nomenclature, is produced from compound-fed white pigs.


title: Jamón

text: "Jamón serrano" has TSG (Traditional Speciality Guaranteed) status in the EU and the UK. The TSG certification attests that a particular food product objectively possesses specific characteristics that differentiate it from all others in its category and that its raw materials, composition, or method of production have been consistent for a minimum of 30 years.


title: Jamón

text: Fresh hams are trimmed and cleaned, then stacked and covered with salt for about two weeks to draw off excess moisture and preserve the meat from spoiling. The salt is then washed off, and the hams are hung to dry for about six months. Finally, the hams are hung in a cool, dry place for six to 18 months, depending on the climate, as well as the size and type of ham being cured. The drying sheds ("secaderos") are usually built at higher elevations, which is why the ham is called “mountain ham”.


title: Jamón

text: Pork products made from Iberian-breed pigs receive the "ibérico/a" denomination. As such, jamón ibérico is the dry-cured "jamón" produced from livestock of these breeds. "Ibérico" encompasses some of the most expensive ham produced in the world, and its fatty marbled texture has made it very popular as a delicacy, with a hard to fulfill global demand comparable to that of kobe beef.


title: Jamón

text: Since "jamón ibérico" production and export is limited, buyer should beware and not fall victim of bait-and-switch or quality fraud similar to that of olive oil, since it has been estimated that a sizable portion of both local market and exports are not actually "ibérico". Spain regulation defines trade labeling for all "ibérico" products.


title: Jamón

text: Under the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union (EU), certain well-established meat products, including some local "jamón" and "jamón" producers, are covered by a protected designation of origin (PDO) or protected geographical indication (PGI):


title: Jamón

text: The "paleta de cerdo" or "paletilla" is a product similar to "jamón"; it is made from the front leg of a pig, instead of the hind leg used for "jamón", cured using the same process and consumed in the same way. Since whole legs are sold by weight and "paletillas" are lighter, they are often marketed towards home consumption.


title: Jamón

text: A "paletilla" may be described or marketed as "Ibérica" when produced from the same livestock as "Jamón Ibérico".


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The Pink Line (Line 7) is a metro rail line of the Delhi Metro, a rapid transit system in Delhi, India. It consists of 38 metro stations from Majlis Park to Shiv Vihar, both in North Delhi.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The Pink Line, with a length of , is the longest individual line in Delhi Metro, breaking the record set by the operational Blue Line (excluding branch line). It is mostly elevated and covers Delhi in an almost 'U' shaped pattern. The Pink Line is also known as the Ring Road Line, as the entire line passes alongside the busy Ring Road in Delhi, that witnesses massive traffic jams every day.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The Pink Line has interchanges with most of the operational lines of the network such as the Red Line at Netaji Subhash Place & Welcome, Yellow Line at Azadpur & Dilli Haat - INA, Green Line at Punjabi Bagh West, Blue Line at Rajouri Garden, Mayur Vihar Phase-I, Anand Vihar & Karkarduma, Dhaula Kuan of Airport Express (Orange Line) at Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus, Violet Line at Lajpat Nagar, as well as with Hazrat Nizamuddin and Anand Vihar Terminal (Indian Railways) and the ISBTs at Anand Vihar and Sarai Kale Khan.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The Pink Line has the highest point of Delhi Metro at Dhaula Kuan with a height of 23.6 metres, passing over the Dhaula Kuan grade separator flyovers and the Airport Express Line. It also possesses the country's smallest metro station, Ashram, with a size of just 151.6 metres against the usual 265 metres. Also, the platform for a six-coach train is 140 metres but has been reduced to 135 metres in the Ashram station.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The line will be extended to Maujpur - Babarpur, creating one of the world's longest ring lines in the city. The Maujpur - Babarpur to Shiv Vihar section will then act as a branch line. The extension is expected to be completed by November 2024.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The total length of the line is . There are 38 stations in the Pink Line, out of which 26 are elevated and 12 are underground.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The line was opened in five stages from March 2018 to August 2021. The first section on the Pink Line become operational from 14 March 2018 between Majlis Park to Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus, thereafter the section between Durgabai Deshmukh South Campus and Lajpat Nagar was opened on 6 August 2018, Shiv Vihar to Trilokpuri was opened on 31 October 2018. The section between Lajpat Nagar to Mayur Vihar Pocket I was opened on 31 December 2018.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The section between Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake and Mayur Vihar Pocket I was not completed as construction of a 1.5 km viaduct began late due to land acquisition issues at Trilokpuri. This had rendered the Pink Line into two independent lines. Trains from Majlis Park would terminate at Mayur Vihar Pocket 1, while trains coming from Shiv Vihar would terminate at either IP Extension or Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake.


title: Pink Line (Delhi Metro)

text: The final section between Trilokpuri Sanjay Lake and Mayur Vihar Pocket I was opened on 6 August 2021.


title: Orbital speed

text: In gravitationally bound systems, the orbital speed of an astronomical body or object (e.g. planet, moon, artificial satellite, spacecraft, or star) is the speed at which it orbits around either the barycenter or, if one body is much more massive than the other bodies of the system combined, its speed relative to the center of mass of the most massive body.


title: Orbital speed

text: The term can be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed (i.e. the average speed over an entire orbit) or its instantaneous speed at a particular point in its orbit. The maximum (instantaneous) orbital speed occurs at periapsis (perigee, perihelion, etc.), while the minimum speed for objects in closed orbits occurs at apoapsis (apogee, aphelion, etc.). In ideal two-body systems, objects in open orbits continue to slow down forever as their distance to the barycenter increases.


title: Orbital speed

text: When a system approximates a two-body system, instantaneous orbital speed at a given point of the orbit can be computed from its distance to the central body and the object's specific orbital energy, sometimes called "total energy". Specific orbital energy is constant and independent of position.


title: Orbital speed

text: In the following, it is thought that the system is a two-body system and the orbiting object has a negligible mass compared to the larger (central) object. In real-world orbital mechanics, it is the system's barycenter, not the larger object, which is at the focus.


title: Orbital speed

text: Specific orbital energy, or total energy, is equal to "E" − "E". (kinetic energy − potential energy). The sign of the result may be positive, zero, or negative and the sign tells us something about the type of orbit:


title: Orbital speed

text: The transverse orbital speed is inversely proportional to the distance to the central body because of the law of conservation of angular momentum, or equivalently, Kepler's second law. This states that as a body moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from the barycenter to the body sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the body traces during that period of time.


title: Orbital speed

text: This law implies that the body moves slower near its apoapsis than near its periapsis, because at the smaller distance along the arc it needs to move faster to cover the same area.


title: Orbital speed

text: is close to that of a circular one, and the mean orbital speed can be approximated either from observations of the orbital period and the semimajor axis of its orbit, or from knowledge of the masses of the two bodies and the semimajor axis.


title: Orbital speed

text: where is the orbital velocity, is the length of the semimajor axis, is the orbital period, and is the standard gravitational parameter. This is an approximation that only holds true when the orbiting body is of considerably lesser mass than the central one, and eccentricity is close to zero.


title: Orbital speed

text: So, when one of the masses is almost negligible compared to the other mass, as the case for Earth and Sun, one can approximate the orbit velocity formula_2 as:


title: Orbital speed

text: Where is the (greater) mass around which this negligible mass or body is orbiting, and is the escape velocity.


title: Orbital speed

text: For an object in an eccentric orbit orbiting a much larger body, the length of the orbit decreases with orbital eccentricity , and is an ellipse. This can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate of the average orbital speed:


title: Orbital speed

text: For the instantaneous orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory, both the mean distance and the instantaneous distance are taken into account:


title: Orbital speed

text: where is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited body, is the distance at which the speed is to be calculated, and is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. This expression is called the vis-viva equation.


title: Orbital speed

text: The closer an object is to the Sun the faster it needs to move to maintain the orbit. Objects move fastest at perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) and slowest at aphelion (furthest distance from the Sun). Since planets in the Solar System are in nearly circular orbits their individual orbital velocities do not vary much. Being closest to the Sun and having the most eccentric orbit, Mercury's orbital speed varies from about 59 km/s at perihelion to 39 km/s at aphelion.


title: Orbital speed

text: Halley's Comet on an eccentric orbit that reaches beyond Neptune will be moving 54.6 km/s when from the Sun, 41.5 km/s when 1 AU from the Sun (passing Earth's orbit), and roughly 1 km/s at aphelion from the Sun. Objects passing Earth's orbit going faster than 42.1 km/s have achieved escape velocity and will be ejected from the Solar System if not slowed down by a gravitational interaction with a planet.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Thomas Prichard (born August 18, 1959) is a retired American professional wrestler and author. He is the older brother of Bruce Prichard.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Tom Prichard began his career in Los Angeles, around 1979, working for Gene and Mike LeBell's Los Angeles Olympic Auditorium wrestling promotion, where he held several championships in that organization, including the Americas tag team title with Chris Adams. After LeBell closed the L.A. promotion down in 1982, Prichard competed in various NWA territories for the next four years (including a stint as color commentator in Georgia Championship Wrestling (replacing the departed Roddy Piper) in 1982-83) before settling in the southeast, where he had the greatest success of his career.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Prichard joined Continental Championship Wrestling in 1986, and by 1988, he feuded with "The Dirty White Boy" Tony Anthony. Their feud included a very controversial angle, which aired on April 23, 1988, where Anthony's valet came out with a black eye and begged Prichard to help her, only for Anthony to attack him from behind, cuff his hands behind his back and hang him. On October 3, 1988, in Birmingham, Alabama, he defeated Anthony in the finals of a tournament to win the vacant CWF Heavyweight Championship. Prichard lost the title to Wendell Cooley on April 7, 1989, in Knoxville, Tennessee, but regained the belt on June 23 of that year. He lost the title to Dennis Condrey a month later on July 22 in Dothan, Alabama, before once again regaining it after defeating Condrey on December 6 of that same year. Prichard held the title until the CWF closed later that month.


title: Tom Prichard

text: In 1990, Prichard then moved on to the United States Wrestling Association, first working out of the Texas branch, where he formed a heel stable that included Eric Embry and Steve Austin, managed by Tojo Yamamoto. They feuded with the other top babyfaces, including Jeff Jarrett, Bill Dundee, Robert Fuller, and others. While based out of Texas, Prichard won both the USWA Southern Heavyweight championship and the USWA Texas Heavyweight championship before the USWA closed the Texas end of their territory in November 1990. Afterwards, Prichard competed in the Memphis end of the USWA before the opening of Smoky Mountain Wrestling in 1992.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Stan Lane and Prichard formed a team as "The Heavenly Bodies" and joined Smoky Mountain Wrestling upon its formation in 1992, and on April 23, 1992, in Harrogate, Tennessee, they defeated The Fantastics to become the first SMW Tag Team Champions. They continued to feud with The Fantastics throughout mid-1992, and were finally defeated for the titles on August 8, 1992, in a barbed wire cage match in Johnson City, Tennessee. The Heavenly Bodies regained the titles two days later, holding them for three months before losing to the Rock 'N Roll Express on November 13, 1992, in a hospital elimination match in Harlan, Kentucky. They traded the titles with the Rock 'N Roll Express three times in a variety of hardcore matches over the following year before Lane left the promotion and retired from the ring.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Prichard reformed the Heavenly Bodies with Jimmy Del Ray, and the two competed in both SMW and the World Wrestling Federation, wrestling the WWF World tag team champions the Steiner Brothers at SummerSlam 1993. On November 24, 1993, in Boston on the World Wrestling Federation's pay-per-view Survivor Series 1993, Prichard and Del Ray defeated the Rock 'N Roll Express. The Rock 'N Roll Express regained the titles on February 18, 1994, in Port Huron, Michigan, but lost the titles to the Heavenly Bodies on the following day in Taylor, Michigan. At WrestleMania X the Heavenly Bodies defeated the Bushwhackers in a dark match.


title: Tom Prichard

text: The Rock 'N Roll Express defeated the Heavenly Bodies on April 1, 1994, in Pikeville, Kentucky in a "Loser Leaves SMW match", where they then competed in the World Wrestling Federation for about a year, before being released in the summer of 1995. Prichard fought in a couple of single matches against Bret Hart and Shawn Michaels. They returned to SMW and regained the SMW Tag Team Championship, marking Prichard's eighth title reign, on August 4, 1995, in Knoxville, Tennessee, defeating Tracy Smothers and Dirty White Boy at the Super Bowl of Wrestling. During the feud, The Thugs injured Prichard's leg, and he began wearing a loaded boot, which he used as a weapon to gain victories for him and Del Ray. They held the titles until the promotion folded on November 26, 1995. Also that summer they worked for United States Wrestling Association. They won the USWA TAg Team titles from PG-13 on August 7, 1995. After SMW folded, the Heavenly Bodies briefly wrestled for Extreme Championship Wrestling, until Prichard returned to the WWF.


title: Tom Prichard

text: Prichard competed under his own name with his Heavenly Bodies attire at the Survivor Series 1995, wrestling on future tag team partner Skip's team "The Bodydonnas." Prichard was the first man eliminated as the Bodydonnas defeated Barry Horowitz's "Underdogs" team. A month later, Prichard was officially introduced as Zip, Skip's on-screen cousin and tag team partner, interfering in a match allowing Skip to defeat Rad Radford, who had been trying to become a Bodydonna himself. Before this appearance he had changed his long curly brown hair into a dyed blond crew cut, to more resemble his storyline cousin.


title: Tom Prichard

text: On the "WrestleMania XII" pre-show, on March 31, 1996, the team defeated The Godwinns in the finals of an eight team tournament to win the vacant WWF Tag Team Championship. They held the titles until May 19, 1996, when they were defeated by the Godwinns in Madison Square Garden in New York City. After Skip left the WWF in fall of 1996, Prichard became a masked jobber named Dr.X. Dr. X fought mainly on house shows but made a few TV appearances on Superstars. Dr. X lost to Brakkus at . By 1997, he became a trainer for the company, responsible for training such future stars as The Rock, Kurt Angle, and Mark Henry, among others. On November 16, 1998, Prichard became the masked Blue Blazer teaming with Jeff Jarrett losing to Steve Blackman and Goldust on Raw Is War. The next week he lost to Blackman and December 21 both on Raw Is War. The Blue Blazer gimmick was related to Owen Hart storylines and Hart's feud with Blackman. On September 27, 1999, Prichard teamed up with Jeff Jarrett to face against Chyna and Debra on Raw Is War. Prichard hit Chyna with a guitar and Jarrett was knocked out cold as Chyna went for the victory. He also occasionally commentated for shows such as WWF Metal. In addition, Prichard made a few appearances as a singles wrestler for ECW, and also co-hosted "Byte This!", the WWF's internet talk show. Prichard was released from WWE in 2004.


title: Tom Prichard

text: He went on to wrestle in the United Wrestling Association and in various other independent promotions in the Southeastern United States. He also holds training seminars in conjunction with certain promotions. During this time Prichard also befriended online professional wrestling journalist James Guttman of World Wrestling Insanity and provided a weekly commentary on the world of pro wrestling entitled Tuesdays with Tom. On August 10, 2006, eight days prior to his 47th birthday, he became the oldest man to win the United Wrestling Association Heavyweight Championship, defeating Dillinger for the title.


title: Tom Prichard

text: In January 2007, he was rehired by WWE and replaced Bill DeMott as the head trainer for Deep South Wrestling (DSW).


title: Tom Prichard

text: When DSW closed, he was moved to WWE's new developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling. On May 30, 2012, Prichard was released from the WWE, being replaced by Bill DeMott as the head trainer.


title: Tom Prichard

text: In 2017, Prichard had a match in Runcorn Wrestling Academy (RWA) in which he teamed in an 8-man tag team match with the owner of the RWA and his former OVW trainee, Andreas Rossi (Andy Baker), Chris Von Sharpe and Connor “The Bullet” Stafford to take on the team of “Fantastic” Matt Fox, Demoni, Johnathan Alexander and Mr. Williams. At the end of this match both Prichard and Rossi announced that this was their last match.


title: Christine Fox

text: Christine Fox is an American military civilian official and politician, who served as the Acting Deputy Secretary of Defense from December 3, 2013 until Robert Work's confirmation on May 1, 2014. With her appointment, Fox became the highest-ranking woman to serve in the United States Department of Defense.


title: Christine Fox

text: Fox graduated from George Mason University. She was a civilian employee at Naval Air Station Miramar and worked for CNA for nearly three decades as a research analyst, manager, and president of the Center for Naval Analyses.


title: Christine Fox

text: From 2009 until 2013, she was the director of cost assessment and program evaluation in the Office of the Secretary of Defense—one of the most senior civilian positions in the Department of Defense. In her role as acting deputy secretary, she became the highest-ranking woman ever to work in the Pentagon. She officially retired from the Pentagon in May 2014.


title: Christine Fox

text: From 2014 through 2022, Fox worked as the assistant director for policy and analysis at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.


title: Christine Fox

text: She served on the boards of the United States Naval Academy, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and the Council on Foreign Relations.


title: Christine Fox

text: Fox is a three-time recipient of the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award and received the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service.


title: Christine Fox

text: Fox gained notability during her work at Naval Air Station Miramar, and became the inspiration for the "Top Gun" character Charlotte "Charlie" Blackwood, played by Kelly McGillis in the film.


title: History of Alaska

text: The history of Alaska dates back to the Upper Paleolithic period (around 14,000 BC), when foraging groups crossed the Bering land bridge into what is now western Alaska. At the time of European contact by the Russian explorers, the area was populated by Alaska Native groups. The name "Alaska" derives from the Aleut word "Alaxsxaq" (also spelled "Alyeska"), meaning "mainland" (literally, "the object toward which the action of the sea is directed").


title: History of Alaska

text: The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. In the 1890s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was granted territorial status in 1912 by the United States of America.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1942, two of the outer Aleutian Islands—Attu and Kiska—were occupied by the Japanese during World War II and their recovery for the U.S. became a matter of national pride. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.


title: History of Alaska

text: The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline led to an oil boom. In 1989, the "Exxon Valdez" hit a reef in Prince William Sound, spilling between of crude oil over of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.


title: History of Alaska

text: Paleolithic families moved into northwestern North America before 10,000 BC across the Bering land bridge in Alaska (see Settlement of the Americas). Alaska became populated by the Inuit and a variety of Native American groups. Today, early Alaskans are divided into several main groups: the Southeastern Coastal Indians (the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian), the Athabascans, the Aleut, and the two groups of Eskimos, the Inupiat and the Yup'ik.


title: History of Alaska

text: The coastal migrants from Asia were probably the first wave of humans to cross the Bering land bridge in western Alaska, and many of them initially settled in the interior of what is now Canada. The Tlingit were the most numerous of this group, claiming most of the coastal Panhandle by the time of European contact and are the northernmost of the group of advanced cultures of the Pacific Northwest Coast renowned for its complex art and political systems and the ceremonial and legal system known as the potlatch. The southern portion of Prince of Wales Island was settled by the Haidas fleeing persecution by other Haidas from the Queen Charlotte Islands (which are now named Haida Gwaii and part of British Columbia). The Aleuts settled the islands of the Aleutian chain approximately 10,000 years ago.


title: History of Alaska

text: Cultural and subsistence practices varied widely among native groups, who were spread across vast geographical distances.


title: History of Alaska

text: Russian expeditions of exploration reached Alaska by the early 18th century, and colonial traders (especially fur-traders) followed. On some islands and parts of the Alaskan peninsula, groups of Russian traders proved capable of relatively peaceful coexistence with the local inhabitants. Other groups could not manage the tensions and perpetrated exactions. Hostages were taken, individuals were enslaved, families were split up, and other individuals were forced to leave their villages and settle elsewhere. In addition, during the first two generations of Russian contact, eighty percent of the Aleut population died of Old World diseases, against which they had no immunity.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1784 Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island, operating the fur-trading Shelikhov-Golikov Company. Shelikhov and his men killed hundreds of indigenous Koniag, then founded the first permanent Russian settlement in Alaska – on the island's Three Saints Bay. By 1788 Shelikhov and others had established a number of Russian settlements over a large region, including the mainland areas around Cook Inlet.


title: History of Alaska

text: The Russians had gained control of the habitats of the most valuable sea-otters, the Kurilian-Kamchatkan and Aleutian sea-otters. Their fur was thicker, glossier, and blacker than that of sea-otters on the Pacific Northwest coast and in California. The Russians, therefore, advanced southwards along the Pacific coast only after the superior varieties of sea-otters had become depleted, around 1788. The Russian entry to the Northwest Coast was slow, however, due to a shortage of ships and sailors. Russians reached Yakutat Bay in 1794 and built the settlement of Slavorossiya there in 1795. James Shields, a British employee of the Golikov-Shelikhov Company, reconnoitred the coast as far as the Queen Charlotte Islands. In 1795 Alexander Baranov, hired in 1790 to manage Shelikhov's fur enterprise, sailed into Sitka Sound and claimed it for Russia. Hunting-parties arrived in the following years, and by 1800 three-quarters of Russian America's sea-otter skins were coming from the Sitka Sound area. In July 1799 Baranov returned on the brig "Oryol" and established the settlement of "Arkhangelsk". Destroyed by Tlingits in 1802 but rebuilt nearby in 1804, it became "Novo-Arkhangelsk" (). It soon become the primary settlement and colonial capital of Russian America. (After the United States purchased Alaska in 1867, Novoarkhangelsk was renamed Sitka and became the first capital of Alaska Territory.)


title: History of Alaska

text: Russian fur-traders informally introduced the Russian Orthodox church (with its rituals and sacred texts translated into Aleut at a very early stage) in the 1740s–1780s. During his settlement of Three Saints Bay in 1784, Shelikov introduced the first resident missionaries and clergymen. This missionary activity would continue into the 19th century, ultimately becoming the most visible trace of the Russian colonial period in present-day Alaska.


title: History of Alaska

text: Spanish claims to the Alaska region dated to the papal bull of 1493, but never involved colonization, forts, or settlements. Instead, Madrid sent out various naval expeditions to explore the area and to claim it for Spain. In 1775 Bruno de Hezeta led an expedition; the "Sonora", under Bodega y Quadra, ultimately reached latitude 58° north, entered Sitka Sound and formally claimed the region for Spain. The 1779 expedition of Ignacio de Arteaga and Bodega y Quadra reached Port Etches on Hinchinbrook Island, and entered Prince William Sound. They reached a latitude of 61° north, the most northern point attained by Spain.


title: History of Alaska

text: The Nootka Crisis of 1789 almost led to a war between Britain and Spain: Britain rejected Spanish claims to lands in British Columbia and Spain seized some British ships. The crisis was resolved in Madrid by the Nootka Conventions of 1790–1794, which provided that traders of both Britain and Spain could operate on the northwest coast, that the captured British ships would be returned and an indemnity paid. This marked a victory for Britain, and Spain effectively withdrew from the North Pacific. It transferred its claims in the region to the United States in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. Today, Spain's Alaskan legacy endures as little more than a few place names, among these the Malaspina Glacier and the towns of Valdez and Cordova.


title: History of Alaska

text: British settlements at the time in Alaska consisted of a few scattered trading outposts, with most settlers arriving by sea. Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard HMS "Resolution", from then-Spanish California all the way to the Bering Strait. During the trip he discovered what became known as Cook Inlet (named in honor of Cook in 1794 by George Vancouver, who had served under his command) in Alaskan waters. The Bering Strait proved to be impassable, although the "Resolution" and its companion ship HMS "Discovery" made several attempts to sail through it. The British ships left the straits to return to Hawaii in 1779.


title: History of Alaska

text: Cook's expedition spurred the British to increase their sailings along the northwest coast (the north-eastern coast of the Pacific), following in the wake of the Spanish. Alaska-based posts owned by the Hudson's Bay Company operated at Fort Yukon, on the Yukon River, Fort Durham (a.k.a. Fort Taku) at the mouth of the Taku River, and Fort Stikine, near the mouth of the Stikine River (associated with Wrangell throughout the early-19th century).


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1799, Shelikhov's son-in-law, Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, acquired a monopoly on the American fur trade from emperor Paul I and formed the Russian-American Company. As part of the deal, the emperor expected the company to establish new settlements in Alaska and carry out an expanded colonization program.


title: History of Alaska

text: By 1804, Alexander Baranov, now manager of the Russian–American Company, had consolidated the company's hold on the American fur trade following his victory over the local Tlingit clan at the Battle of Sitka. Despite these efforts the Russians never fully colonized Alaska. The Russian monopoly on trade was also being weakened by the Hudson's Bay Company, which set up a post on the southern edge of Russian America in 1833.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1818 management of the Russian-American Company was turned over to the Imperial Russian Navy and the Ukase of 1821 banned foreigners from participating in the Alaskan economy. It soon entered into the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825 which allowed British merchants to trade in Alaska. The Convention also settled most of the border between Alaska and British North America.


title: History of Alaska

text: The Russo-American Treaty of 1824, which banned American merchants above 54° 40' north latitude, was widely ignored and the Russians' hold on Alaska weakened further.


title: History of Alaska

text: Although the mid–19th century was not a good time for Russians in Alaska, conditions improved for the coastal Alaska Natives who had survived contact. The Tlingits were never conquered and continued to wage war on the Russians into the 1850s. The Aleuts, though faced with a decreasing population in the 1840s, ultimately rebounded.


title: History of Alaska

text: Financial difficulties in Russia, the low profits of trade with Alaskan settlement, and the important desire to keep Alaska out of British hands all contributed to Russia's willingness to sell its possessions in North America. At the instigation of U.S. Secretary of State William Seward, the United States Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for on August 1, 1867 (equivalent to approximately $M in ). This purchase was popularly known in the U.S. as "Seward's Folly", "Seward's Icebox," or "Andrew Johnson's Polar Bear Garden", and was unpopular among some people at the time. Later discovery of gold and oil would show it to be a worthwhile one. Scholars debate whether the purchase of Alaska was a financially profitable for the federal Treasury itself, apart from its benefits to Alaskans and to businesses, and to national defense.


title: History of Alaska

text: The United States flag was raised on October 18, 1867, now called Alaska Day, and the region changed from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, for residents, Friday, October 6, 1867 was followed by Friday, October 18, 1867—two Fridays in a row because of the 12 day shift in the calendar minus one day for the date-line shift.


title: History of Alaska

text: During the Department era, from 1867 to 1884, Alaska was variously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army (until 1877), the United States Department of the Treasury from 1877 to 1879, and the U.S. Navy from 1879 to 1884. Civil administration of Alaska began in 1877 under the United States Treasury Department. A Collector of Customs was appointed by the President of the United States. The Collector was the highest-ranking official of the United States government in Alaska and de facto Governor. Henry C. DeAhna, a former Union Army Officer and Mottrom D. Ball, a former Confederate Army officer, were the first individuals to serve as Collector of Customs.


title: History of Alaska

text: When Alaska was first purchased, most of its land remained unexplored. In 1865, Western Union laid a telegraph line across Alaska to the Bering Strait where it would connect, under water, with an Asian line. It also conducted the first scientific studies of the region and produced the first map of the entire Yukon River. The Alaska Commercial Company and the military also contributed to the growing exploration of Alaska in the last decades of the 19th century, building trading posts along the Interior's many rivers.


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1884, the region was organized and the name was changed from the Department of Alaska to the District of Alaska. At the time, legislators in Washington, D.C., were occupied with post-Civil War reconstruction issues, and had little time to devote to Alaska. In 1896, the discovery of gold in Yukon Territory in neighboring Canada, brought many thousands of miners and new settlers to Alaska, and very quickly ended the nation's four year economic depression. Although it was uncertain whether gold would also be found in Alaska, Alaska greatly profited because it was along the easiest transportation route to the Yukon goldfields. Numerous new cities, such as Skagway, Alaska, owe their existence to a gold rush in Canada. Soapy Smith, a crime boss confidence man who operated the largest criminal empire in gold rush era Alaska, was shot down by vigilantes in the famed Shootout on Juneau Wharf. He is known as "Alaska's Outlaw."


title: History of Alaska

text: In 1899, gold was found in Alaska itself in Nome, and several towns subsequently began to be built, such as Fairbanks and Ruby. In 1902, the Alaska Railroad began to be built, which would connect from Seward to Fairbanks by 1914, though Alaska still does not have a railroad connecting it to the lower 48 states today. Still, an overland route was built, cutting transportation times to the contiguous states by days. The industries of copper mining, fishing, and canning began to become popular in the early 20th century, with 10 canneries in some major towns.


title: History of Alaska

text: By the turn of the 20th century, commercial fishing was gaining a foothold in the Aleutian Islands. Packing houses salted cod and herring, and salmon canneries were opened. Another commercial occupation, whaling, continued with no regard for over-hunting. They pushed the bowhead whales to the edge of extinction for the oil in their tissue. The Aleuts soon suffered severe problems due to the depletion of fur seals and sea otters which they needed for survival. As well as requiring the flesh for food, they also used the skins to cover their boats, without which they could not hunt. The Americans also expanded into the Interior and Arctic Alaska, exploiting the furbearers, fish, and other game on which Natives depended.


title: History of Alaska

text: When Congress passed the "Second Organic Act" in 1912, Alaska was reorganized, and renamed the Territory of Alaska. By 1916, its population was about 58,000. James Wickersham, a Delegate to Congress, introduced Alaska's first statehood bill, but it failed due to the small population and lack of interest from Alaskans. Even President Warren G. Harding's visit in 1923 could not create widespread interest in statehood. Under the conditions of the Second Organic Act, Alaska had been split into four divisions. The most populous of the divisions, whose capital was Juneau, wondered if it could become a separate state from the other three. Government control was a primary concern, with the territory having 52 federal agencies governing it.


title: History of Alaska

text: Then, in 1920, the "Jones Act" required U.S.-flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and documented under the laws of the United States. All goods entering or leaving Alaska had to be transported by American carriers and shipped to Seattle prior to further shipment, making Alaska dependent on Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the provision of the Constitution saying one state should not hold sway over another's commerce did not apply because Alaska was only a territory. The prices Seattle shipping businesses charged began to rise to take advantage of the situation. This situation created an atmosphere of enmity among Alaskans who watched the wealth being generated by their labors flowing into the hands of Seattle business holdings.


title: History of Alaska

text: In July 1923 Warren Harding became the first sitting President to visit Alaska as part of his Pacific Northwest Voyage of Understanding. Harding arrived by boat from Seattle and made nine stops in the Territory via train which went from Seward to Fairbanks. On July 15 Harding drove in a golden railroad spike at Nenana. The train car in which he rode now sits in Fairbanks' Pioneer Park.