title: Japanese architecture

text: Heavy materials like stone, mortar and clay were abandoned as building elements, with simple wooden walls, floors and partitions becoming prevalent. Native species like cedar ("sugi") were popular as an interior finish because of its prominent grain, while pine ("matsu") and larch ("aka matsu") were common for structural uses. Brick roofing tiles and a type of cypress called "hinoki" were used for roofs. It was sometime during this period that the hidden roof, a uniquely Japanese solution to roof drainage problems, was adopted.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The increasing size of buildings in the capital led to an architecture reliant on columns regularly spaced in accordance with the "ken", a traditional measure of both size and proportion. The imperial palace "Shishinden" demonstrated a style that was a precursor to the later aristocratic-style of building known as "shinden-zukuri". The style was characterised by symmetrical buildings placed as arms that defined an inner garden. This garden then used borrowed scenery to seemingly blend with the wider landscape. A gradual increase in the size of buildings led to standard units of measurement as well as refinements in layout and garden design.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In 894, Japan abolished "kentōshi" (Japanese missions to Tang China) and began to distance itself from Chinese culture, and a culture called "Kokufu bunka" (lit., Japanese culture) which was suited to the Japanese climate and aesthetic sense flourished. The "shinden-zukuri" style, which was the architectural style of the residences of nobles in this period, showed the distinct uniqueness of Japanese architecture and permanently determined the characteristics of later Japanese architecture. Its features are an open structure with few walls that can be opened and closed with doors and "shitomi" and "sudare", a structure in which shoes are taken off to enter the house on stilts, sitting or sleeping directly on "tatami" mats without using chairs and beds, a roof made of laminated "hinoki" (Japanese cypress) bark instead of ceramic tiles, and a natural texture that is not painted on pillars. A Buddhist architectural style called "Wayō", which developed in accordance with the Japanese climate and aesthetic sense, was established.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The priest Kūkai (best known by the posthumous title Kōbō Daishi, 774–835) journeyed to China to study Shingon, a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which he introduced into Japan in 806. At the core of Shingon worship are the various mandalas, diagrams of the spiritual universe that influenced temple design. The temples erected for this new sect were built in the mountains, far away from the court and the laity in the capital. The irregular topography of these sites forced their designers to rethink the problems of temple construction, and in so doing to choose more indigenous elements of design.


title: Japanese architecture

text: At this time the architectural style of Buddhist temples began to influence that of the Shintō shrines. For example, like their Buddhist counterparts the Shintō shrines began to paint the normally unfinished timbers with the characteristic red cinnabar colour.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the later part of the Heian Period there were the first documented appearances of vernacular houses in the "minka" style/form. These were characterized by the use local materials and labor, being primarily constructed of wood, having packed earth floors and thatched roofs.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and the following Muromachi period (1336–1573), Japanese Buddhist architecture made technological advances that made it diverge from its Chinese counterpart. In response to native requirements such as earthquake resistance and shelter against heavy rainfall and the summer heat and sun, the master carpenters of this time responded with a unique type of architecture, creating the "Daibutsuyō" and "Zenshūyō" styles. The "Wayō" style was combined with "Daibutsuyō" and the "Zenshūyō" to create the "Shin-Ｗayō" and the "Setchūyō" styles, and the number of temples in the pure "Wayō" style decreased after the 14th century.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The Kamakura period began with the transfer of power in Japan from the imperial court to the Kamakura shogunate. During the Genpei War (1180–1185), many traditional buildings in Nara and Kyoto were damaged. For example, Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji were burned down by Taira no Shigehira of the Taira clan in 1180. Many of these temples and shrines were later rebuilt by the Kamakura shogunate to consolidate the "shōgun"s authority.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Although less elaborate than during the Heian period, architecture in the Kamakura period was informed by a simplicity due to its association with the military order. New residences used a "buke-zukuri" style that was associated with buildings surrounded by narrow moats or stockades. Defense became a priority, with buildings grouped under a single roof rather than around a garden. The gardens of the Heian period houses often became training grounds.


title: Japanese architecture

text: After the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, the Ashikaga shogunate was formed, having later its seat in the Kyoto district of Muromachi. The proximity of the shogunate to the imperial court led to a rivalry in the upper levels of society which caused tendencies toward luxurious goods and lifestyles. Aristocratic houses were adapted from the simple "buke-zukuri" style to resemble the earlier "shinden-zukuri" style. A good example of this ostentatious architecture is the Kinkaku-ji in Kyōto, which is decorated with lacquer and gold leaf, in contrast to its otherwise simple structure and plain bark roofs.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the Muromachi period, "shinden-zukuri" style, which was the mainstream of the residences of Japanese nobles, declined, and "shoin-zukuri", which developed from "buke-zukuri" of samurai class residences, became the mainstream. "Shoin-zukuri" had a lasting impact on later Japanese housing and is the basis of modern Japanese housing. In the old architectural style, "tatami" mats were laid only in a part of the room, but in the "shoin-zukuri" style, "tatami" mats were laid all over the room. In this style, sliding doors called "fusuma" were used to separate rooms, and an inner window called "shoji", which was made by pasting paper permeable to sunlight on a wooden frame, was installed inside the wooden shutters. In the room, "tokonoma" (alcove for the display of art objects) and "chigaidana" (shelves built into the wall) were set up to decorate various things.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In an attempt to rein in the excess of the upper classes, the Zen masters introduced the tea ceremony. In architecture this promoted the design of "chashitsu" (tea houses) to a modest size with simple detailing and materials. A typically sized "Chashitsu" is 4 1/2 "tatami" mats in size.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In the garden, Zen principles replaced water with sand or gravel to produce the dry garden ("karesansui") like the one at Ryōan-ji.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) Japan underwent a process of unification after a long period of civil war. It was marked by the rule of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, men who built castles as symbols of their power; Nobunaga in Azuchi, the seat of his government, and Hideyoshi in Momoyama. The Ōnin War during the Muromachi period had led to rise of castle architecture in Japan. By the time of the Azuchi-Momoyama period each domain was allowed to have one castle of its own. Typically it consisted of a central tower or surrounded by gardens and fortified buildings. All of this was set within massive stone walls and surrounded by deep moats. The dark interiors of castles were often decorated by artists, the spaces were separated up using sliding "fusuma" panels and "byōbu" folding screens.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The "Shoin-zukuri" style in the Muromachi period continued to be refined. Verandas linked the interiors of residential buildings with highly cultivated exterior gardens. "Fusuma" and "byōbu" became highly decorated with paintings and often an interior room with shelving and alcove ("tokonoma") were used to display art work (typically a hanging scroll).


title: Japanese architecture

text: During this period, sukiya-zukuri style villas appeared under the influence of a tea house called "chashitsu" (tea house).


title: Japanese architecture

text: Matsumoto, Kumamoto and Himeji (popularly known as the White Heron castle) are excellent examples of the castles of the period, while Nijō Castle in Kyōto is an example of castle architecture blended with that of an imperial palace, to produce a style that is more in keeping with the Chinese influence of previous centuries.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The Tokugawa shogunate took the city of Edo (later to become part of modern-day Tōkyō) as their capital. They built an imposing fortress around which buildings of the state administration and residences for the provincial "daimyōs" were constructed. The city grew around these buildings connected by a network of roads and canals. By 1700 the population had swollen to one million inhabitants. The scarcity of space for residential architecture resulted in houses being built over two stories, often constructed on raised stone plinths.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Although "machiya" (townhouses) had been around since the Heian period they began to be refined during the Edo period. "Machiya" typically occupied deep, narrow plots abutting the street (the width of the plot was usually indicative of the wealth of the owner), often with a workshop or shop on the ground floor. Tiles rather than thatch were used on the roof and exposed timbers were often plastered in an effort to protect the building against fire. Ostentatious buildings that demonstrated the wealth and power of the feudal lords were constructed, such as the Kamiyashiki of Matsudaira Tadamasa or the Ōzone Shimoyashiki.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Edo suffered badly from devastating fires and the 1657 Great Fire of Meireki was a turning point in urban design. Initially, as a method of reducing fire spread, the government built stone embankments in at least two locations along rivers in the city. Over time these were torn down and replaced with "dōzō" storehouses that were used both as fire breaks and to store goods unloaded from the canals. The "dōzō" were built with a structural frame made of timber coated with a number of layers of earthen plaster on the walls, door and roof. Above the earthen roofs was a timber framework supporting a tiled roof. Although Japanese who had studied with the Dutch at their settlement in Dejima advocated building with stone and brick this was not undertaken because of their vulnerability to earthquakes. "Machiya" and storehouses from the later part of the period are characterised by having a black coloration to the external plaster walls. This colour was made by adding India ink to burnt lime and crushed oyster shell.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The clean lines of the civil architecture in Edo influenced the "sukiya" style of residential architecture. Katsura Detached Palace and Shugaku-in Imperial Villa on the outskirts of Kyōto are good examples of this style. Their architecture has simple lines and decor and uses wood in its natural state. The "sukiya" style was applied not only to villas but also to "ryōtei" (Japanese-style restaurants) and "chashitsu", and later it was also applied to residences.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In the very late part of the period "sankin-kōtai", the law requiring the "daimyōs" to maintain dwellings in the capital was repealed which resulted in a decrease in population in Edo and a commensurate reduction in income for the shogunate.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Towards the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, Western influence in architecture began to show in buildings associated with the military and trade, especially naval and industrial facilities. After the Emperor Meiji was restored to power (known as the Meiji Restoration) Japan began a rapid process of Westernization which led to the need for new building types such as schools, banks and hotels.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Early Meiji Architecture was initially influenced by colonial architecture in Chinese treaty ports such as Hong Kong. In Nagasaki, the British trader Thomas Glover built his own house in just such a style using the skill of local carpenters. His influence helped the career of architect who designed the Osaka Mint in 1868, a long, low building in brick and stone with a central pedimented portico. In Tōkyō, Waters designed the Commercial Museum, thought to have been the city's first brick building.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In Tokyo, after the Tsukiji area burnt to the ground in 1872, the government designated the Ginza area as model of modernization. The government planned the construction of fireproof brick buildings, and larger, better streets connecting the Shimbashi Station and the foreign concession in Tsukiji, as well as to important government buildings. Designs for the area were provided by the British architect Thomas James Waters; the Bureau of Construction of the Ministry of Finance was in charge of construction. In the following year, a Western-style Ginza was completed. "Bricktown" buildings were initially offered for sale, later they were leased, but the high rent meant that many remained unoccupied. Nevertheless, the area flourished as a symbol of "civilization and enlightenment", thanks to the presence of newspapers and magazine companies, who led the trends of the day. The area was also known for its window displays, an example of modern marketing techniques. The "Bricktown" of Ginza served as a model for many other modernization schemes in Japanese cities.


title: Japanese architecture

text: One of the prime examples of early western architecture was the "Rokumeikan", a large two-story building in Tokyo, completed in 1883, which was to become a controversial symbol of Westernisation in the Meiji period. Commissioned for the housing of foreign guests by the Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru, it was designed by , a prominent foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan ("o-yatoi gaikokujin"). The "Ryōunkaku" was Japan's first western-style skyscraper, constructed in 1890 in Asakusa. However traditional architecture was still employed for new buildings, such as the "Kyūden" of Tokyo Imperial Palace, albeit with token western elements such as a spouting water fountain in the gardens.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In contrast to Waters's neoclassical style building, Japanese carpenters developed a pseudo-Japanese style known as "giyōfū" chiefly using wood. A good example of which is Kaichi Primary School in Nagano Prefecture built in 1876. The master carpenter Tateishi Kiyoshige travelled to Tōkyō to see which Western building styles were popular and incorporated these in the school with traditional building methods. Constructed with a similar method to traditional () storehouses, the wooden building plastered inside and out incorporates an octagonal Chinese tower and has stone-like quoins to the corners. Traditional namako plasterwork was used at the base of the walls to give the impression that the building sits on a stone base. Another example was the First National Bank building in Tokyo, built in 1872.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The Japanese government also invited foreign architects to both work in Japan and teach new Japanese architects. One of these, the British architect went on to train many of the most prominent of the Japanese Meiji era architects, including Kingo Tatsuno, Tatsuzō Sone and Tokuma Katayama. Tatsuno's early works had a Venetian style influenced by John Ruskin, but his later works such as the Bank of Japan (1896) and Tōkyō Station (1914) have a more Beaux-Arts feel. On the other hand, Katayama was more influenced by the French Second Empire style which can be seen in the Nara National Museum (1894) and the Kyōto National Museum (1895).


title: Japanese architecture

text: In 1920, a group of young architects formed the first organization of modernist architects. They were known as the "Bunriha", literally "Secessionist group", inspired in part by the Vienna Secessionists. These architects were worried about the reliance on historical styles and decoration and instead encouraged artistic expression. They drew their influence from European movements like Expressionism and the Bauhaus and helped pave the way towards the introduction of the International Style of Modernism.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In the Taishō and early Shōwa periods two influential American architects worked in Japan. The first was Frank Lloyd Wright who designed the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1913–1923) and the Yodokō Guest House (1924), both of which used locally quarried Ōya stone. Wright had a number of Japanese apprentices under his tutelage, such as Arata Endo, who constructed the Kōshien Hotel in 1930.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The second was Antonin Raymond who worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel before leaving to set up his own practice in Tōkyō. Although his early works like Tōkyō Women's Christian College show Wright's influence, he soon began to experiment with the use of in-situ reinforced concrete, detailing it in way that recalled traditional Japanese construction methods. Between 1933 and 1937 Bruno Taut stayed in Japan. His writings, especially those on Katsura Imperial Villa reevaluated traditional Japanese architecture whilst bringing it to a wider audience.


title: Japanese architecture

text: As in the Meiji era experience from abroad was gained by Japanese architects working in Europe. Among these were Kunio Maekawa and Junzo Sakakura who worked at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris and Bunzō Yamaguchi and Chikatada Kurata who worked with Walter Gropius.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Some architects built their reputation upon works of public architecture. Togo Murano, a contemporary of Raymond, was influenced by Rationalism and designed the Morigo Shoten office building, Tōkyō (1931) and Ube Public Hall, Yamaguchi Prefecture (1937). Similarly, Tetsuro Yoshida's rationalist modern architecture included the Tōkyō Central Post Office (1931) and Ōsaka Central Post Office (1939).


title: Japanese architecture

text: Running contrary to modernism in Japan was the so-called Imperial Crown style ("teikan yōshiki"). Buildings in this style were characterised by having a Japanese-style roof such as the Tōkyō Imperial Museum (1937) by Hitoshi Watanabe and Nagoya City Hall and the Aichi Prefectural Government Office. The increasingly militaristic government insisted that major buildings be designed in a "Japanese Style" limiting opportunities for modernist design to works of infrastructure such as Bunzō Yamaguchi's Number 2 Power Plant for the Kurobe Dam, (1938).


title: Japanese architecture

text: A large number of buildings from the Meiji, Taishō and Shōwa eras were lost during and after World War II, such as the Rokumeikan. Taniguchi Yoshirō (谷口 吉郎, 1904–79), an architect, and Moto Tsuchikawa established Meiji Mura in 1965, close to Nagoya, where a large number of rescued buildings are re-assembled. A similar museum is the Edo-Tokyo Open Air Architectural Museum.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The colonial authorities constructed a large number of public buildings, many of which have survived. Examples include the large-scale concept of what is today Ketagalan Boulevard in central Zhongzheng District of Taipei that showcases the Office of the Governor-General, Taiwan Governor Museum, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei Guest House, Judicial Yuan, the Kangyo Bank and Mitsui Bussan Company buildings, as well as many examples of smaller houses found on Qidong Street.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In Korea under Japanese administration, public buildings such as train stations and city halls were also constructed in various styles. Although the largest Japanese colonial building, the immense Government-General Building, was demolished in 1995, many colonial buildings have been preserved. These include the former Keijo City Hall, today Seoul Metropolitan Library; the former Keijo station, today Old Seoul Station; the former Bank of Chosen, designed by Tatsuno Kingo, today the headquarters of the Bank of Korea; and the former branch of Mitsukoshi department store, today the flagship of Shinsegae department store.


title: Japanese architecture

text: After winning Dalian as the result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, Japan continued to build the Russian-built city with the modern buildings on "Large Square". With the conquest and establishment of the puppet state Manchukuo, massive funds and efforts were invested into the master plan for the construction of the capital city of Shinkyō (Hsinking). Many official buildings erected during the colonial period still stand today, including those of the Eight Grand Ministries of Manchukuo, the Imperial Palace, the headquarters of the Kwantung Army and Datong Avenue.


title: Japanese architecture

text: After the war and under the influence of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur, Japanese political and religious life was reformed to produce a demilitarised and democratic country. Although a new constitution was established in 1947, it was not until the beginning of the Korean War that Japan (as an ally of the United States) saw a growth in its economy brought about by the manufacture of industrial goods. In 1946 the Prefabricated Housing Association was formed to try and address the chronic shortage of housing, and architects like Kunio Maekawa submitted designs. However, it was not until the passing of the Public Housing Act in 1951 that housing built by the private sector was supported in law by the government. Also in 1946, the War Damage Rehabilitation Board put forward ideas for the reconstruction of thirteen Japanese cities. Architect Kenzō Tange submitted proposals for Hiroshima and Maebashi.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In 1949, Tange's winning competition entry to design the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum gave him international acclaim. The project (completed in 1955) led to a series of commissions including the Kagawa Prefectural Office Building in Takamatsu (1958) and Old Kurashiki City Hall (1960). At this time both Tange and Maekawa were interested in the tradition of Japanese architecture and the influence of local character. This was illustrated at Kagawa with elements of Heian period design fused with the International Style.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In 1955, Le Corbusier was asked by the Japanese government to design the National Museum of Western Art in Tōkyō. He was assisted by his three former students: Maekawa, Sakakura and Takamasa Yoshizaka. The design was based upon Le Corbusier's museum in Ahmedabad, and both of the museums are square and raised on piloti.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Due largely to the influence of Tange, the 1960 World Design Conference was held in Tōkyō. A small group of Japanese designers who came to represent the Metabolist Movement presented their manifesto and a series of projects. The group included the architects Kiyonori Kikutake, Masato Ōtaka, Kisho Kurokawa and Fumihiko Maki. Originally known as the Burnt Ash School, the Metabolists associated themselves with idea of renewal and regeneration, rejecting visual representations of the past and promoting the idea that the individual, the house and the city were all parts of a single organism. Although the individual members of the group went in their own directions after a few years the enduring nature of their publications meant that they had a longer presence overseas. The international symbol of the Metabolists, the capsule, emerged as an idea in the late 1960s and was demonstrated in Kurokawa's Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tōkyō in 1972.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In the 1960s Japan saw both the rise and the expansion of large construction firms, including the Shimizu Corporation and Kajima. Nikken Sekkei emerged as a comprehensive company that often included elements of Metabolist design in its buildings.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo saw a large boost to new design. Venues were constructed and the Yoyogi National Gymnasium, built between 1961 and 1964 by Kenzo Tange, became a landmark structure famous for its suspension roof design, recalling traditional elements of Shinto shrines. Other structures include the Nippon Budokan, the Komazawa Gymnasium and many others. The Olympic Games symbolised the re-emergence of Japan after the destruction of World War II, reflecting the new confidence in its architecture.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the 1960s there were also architects who did not see the world of architecture in terms of Metabolism. For example, Kazuo Shinohara specialised in small residential projects in which he explored traditional architecture with simple elements in terms of space, abstraction and symbolism. In the Umbrella House (1961) he explored the spatial relationship between the "doma" (earth-paved internal floor) and the raised tatami floor in the living room and sleeping room. This relationship was explored further with the House with an Earthen floor (1963) where a tamped-down earthen floor was included in the kitchen area. His use of a roof to anchor his design for the House in White (1966) has been compared with Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie Houses. Shinohara explored these abstractions as "Three Styles", which were periods of design that stretched from the early sixties to the mid seventies.


title: Japanese architecture

text: A former employee of Kenzo Tange was Arata Isozaki who was initially interested in the Metabolist Movement and produced innovative theoretical projects for the City in the Air (1961) and Future City (1962). However he soon moved away from this towards a more Mannerist approach similar to the work of James Stirling. This was particularly striking at the Oita Branch for Fukuoka Mutual (1967) with its mathematical grids, concrete construction and exposed services. In the Gunma Prefectural Museum (1971–74) he experimented with cubic elements (some of them twelve metres to a side) overlaid by a secondary grid expressed by the external wall panels and fenestration. This rhythm of panelling may have been influenced by Corbusier's detailing on the Museum of Western Art in Tōkyō.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Japanese cities where they lack European-like piazzas and squares often emphasise the relationship of people with the everyday workings of the street. Fumihiko Maki was one of a number of architects who were interested in the relationship of architecture and the city and this can be seen in works like Ōsaka Prefectural Sports Centre (1972) and Spiral in Tōkyō (1985). Likewise, Takefumi Aida (member of the group known as ArchiteXt) rejected the ideas of the Metabolist Movement and explored urban semiology.


title: Japanese architecture

text: In the late seventies and early eighties Tadao Ando's architecture and theoretical writings explored the idea of Critical regionalism – the idea of promoting local or national culture within architecture. Ando's interpretation of this was demonstrated by his idea of reacquainting the Japanese house with nature, a relationship he thought had been lost with Modernist architecture. His first projects were for small urban houses with enclosed courtyards (such as the Azuma House in Ōsaka in 1976). His architecture is characterised by the use of concrete, but it has been important for him to use the interplay of light, through time, with this and other materials in his work. His ideas about the integration of nature converted well into larger projects such as the Rokkō Housing 1 (1983) (on a steep site on Mount Rokkō) and the Church on the Water (1988) in Tomamu, Hokkaidō.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The late eighties saw the first work by architects of the so-called "Shinohara" school. This included Toyō Itō and Itsuko Hasegawa who were both interested in urban life and the contemporary city. Itō concentrated on the dynamism and mobility of the city's "urban nomads" with projects like the Tower of Winds (1986) which integrated natural elements like light and wind with those of technology. Hasegawa concentrated on what she termed "architecture as another nature". Her Shōnandai Cultural Centre in Fujisawa (1991) combined the natural environment with new high-tech materials.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Highly individualist architects of the late eighties included the monumental buildings of Shin Takamatsu and the "cosmic" work of Masaharu Takasaki. Takasaki, who worked with the Austrian architect Günther Domenig in the 1970s shares Domenig's organic architecture. His Zero Cosmology House of 1991 in Kagoshima Prefecture constructed from concrete has a contemplative egg-shaped "zero space" at its centre.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The Heisei period began with the collapse of the so-called "bubble economy" that had previously boosted Japan's economy. Commissions for commercial works of architecture virtually dried up and architects relied upon government and prefectural organisations to provide projects.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Building on elements from the Shōnandai Culture Centre, Itsuko Hasegawa undertook a number cultural and community centres throughout Japan. These included the Sumida Cultural Centre (1995) and the Fukuroi Community Centre (2001) where she involved the public in the process of design whilst exploring her own ideas about the filtration of light through the external walls into the interior. In his 1995 competition win for Sendai Mediatheque, Toyō Itō continued his earlier thoughts about fluid dynamics within the modern city with "seaweed-like" columns supporting a seven-story building wrapped in glass. His work later in the period, for example, the library to Tama Art University in Tōkyō in 2007 demonstrates more expressive forms, rather than the engineered aesthetic of his earlier works.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Although Tadao Ando became well known for his use of concrete, he began the decade designing the Japanese pavilion at the Seville Exposition 1992, with a building that was hailed as "the largest wooden structure in the world". He continued with this medium in projects for the Museum of Wood Culture, Kami, Hyōgo Prefecture (1994) and the Komyo-ji Shrine in Saijo (2001).


title: Japanese architecture

text: The UK practice, Foreign Office Architects won an international competition in 1994 to design the Yokohama International Port Terminal. It is an undulating structure that emerges from the surrounding city and forms a building to walk over as well as into. Klein Dytham Architecture are one of a handful of foreign architects who managed to gain a strong foothold in Japan. Their design for Moku Moku Yu (literally "wood wood steam"), a communal bathhouse in Kobuchizawa, Yamanashi Prefecture in 2004 is a series of interconnected circular pools and changing rooms, flat-roofed and clad in coloured vertical timbers.


title: Japanese architecture

text: After the 1995 Kōbe earthquake, Shigeru Ban developed cardboard tubes that could be used to quickly construct refugee shelters that were dubbed "Paper Houses". Also as part of that relief effort he designed a church using 58 cardboard tubes that were 5m high and had a tensile roof that opened up like an umbrella. The church was erected by Roman Catholic volunteers in five weeks. For the Nomadic Museum, Ban used walls made of shipping containers, stacked four high and joined at the corners with twist connectors that produced a checkerboard effect of solid and void. The ancillary spaces were made with paper tubes and honeycomb panels. The museum was designed to be disassembled and it subsequently moved from New York, to Santa Monica, Tōkyō and Mexico.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Historian and architect Terunobu Fujimori's studies in the 1980s into so-called architectural curios found in the city inspired the work of a younger generation of architects such as the founders of Atelier Bow-Wow. Yoshiharu Tsukamoto and Momoyo Kajima surveyed the city for "no-good" architecture for their book "Made in Tokyo" in 2001. Their work in turn seeks to embrace its context rather than block it out. Although their office in Tōkyō is on a tight site they have welcomed the city in with huge windows and spacious porches.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Sou Fujimoto's architecture relies upon a manipulation of basic building blocks to produce a geometric primitivism. His buildings are very sensitive to the topographical form of their context and include a series of houses as well as a children's home in Hokkaidō.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Two former employees of Toyō Itō, Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa formed a collaborative partnership in 1995 called SANAA. They are known for creating lightweight, transparent spaces that expose the fluidity and movement of their occupants. Their Dior store in Shibuya, Tōkyō, in 2001 was reminiscent of Itō's Mediatheque, with cool white acrylic sheets on the external facade that filter the light and partially reveal the store's contents. Their dynamic of fluidity is demonstrated by the Rolex Learning Centre at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, completed in 2010. This building has an undulating floor plane set under a continuous concrete shell roof that was poured in one go over two days. The plan is like a biological cell punctuated with tables and courtyards alike. In 2009 they designed the Serpentine Gallery Pavilion in London that comprised a reflective, floating aluminium roof supported by slender columns.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Japanese interior design has a unique aesthetic derived from Shinto, Taoism, Zen Buddhism, world view of "wabi-sabi", specific religious figures and the West. This aesthetic has in turn influenced Western style, particularly Modernism.


title: Japanese architecture

text: What is generally identified as the Japanese aesthetic stems from ideals of Japanese Shinto and Chinese Taoism. Japanese culture is extremely diverse; despite this, in terms of the interior, the aesthetic is one of simplicity and minimalism.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The specific idea that a room's true beauty is in the empty space within the roof and walls came from Laozi, a philosopher and the founder of Taoism, who held to the "aesthetic ideal of emptiness", believing that the mood should be captured in the imagination, and not so heavily dictated by what is physically present. Japanese design is based strongly on craftsmanship, beauty, elaboration, and delicacy. The design of interiors is very simple but made with attention to detail and intricacy. This sense of intricacy and simplicity in Japanese designs is still valued in modern Japan as it was in traditional Japan.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Interiors are very simple, highlighting minimal and natural decoration. Traditional Japanese interiors, as well as modern, incorporate mainly natural materials including fine woods, bamboo, silk, rice straw mats, and paper "shōji" screens. Natural materials are used to keep simplicity in the space that connects to nature. Natural color schemes are used and neutral palettes including black, white, off-white, gray, and brown.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Impermanence is a strong theme in traditional Japanese dwellings. The size of rooms can be altered by interior sliding walls or screens, the already mentioned "shōji". Cupboards built smoothly into the wall hide futon, mattresses pulled out before going to bed, allowing more space to be available during the day. The versatility of these dwellings becomes more apparent with changes of seasons. In summer, for example, exterior walls can be opened to bring the garden and cooling breezes in. The minimal decoration also alters seasonally, with a different scroll hanging or new flower arrangement.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The Japanese aesthetic developed further with the celebration of imperfection and insufficiency, characteristics resulting from the natural ageing process or darkening effect. Shinto, the indigenous religious tradition of Japan, provides a basis for the appreciation of these qualities, holding to a philosophy of appreciation of life and the world. Sei Shōnagon was a trend-setting court lady of the tenth century who wrote in ‘The Pillow Book’ of her dislike for "a new cloth screen with a colourful and cluttered painting of many cherry blossoms", preferring instead to notice "that one's elegant Chinese mirror has become a little cloudy". Her taste was not out of place in the ancient Japanese court. In the twelfth century a Buddhist monk, Yoshida Kenkō, exerted his influence on Japanese aesthetic sensibility resulting from his philosophy of life. He asked, "Are we to look at cherry blossoms only in full bloom, the moon only when it is cloudless? ...Branches about to blossom or garden strewn with faded flowers are worthier of our admiration." The incomplete is also praised by Kenkō, "uniformity and completeness are undesirable". Underpinning or complementing these aesthetic ideals, is the valuing of contrast; when imperfection or the impoverished is contrasted with perfection or opulence, each is emphasised and thus better appreciated.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Japanese interior design is very efficient in the use of resources. Traditional and modern Japanese interiors have been flexible in use and designed mostly with natural materials. The spaces are used as multifunctional rooms. The rooms can be opened to create more space for a particular occasion or for more privacy, or vice versa closed-off by pulling closed paper screens called "shōji".


title: Japanese architecture

text: Japanese Zen interior designs draw inspiration from elements of nature as they have immense respect for nature. Their designs have a strong connection with natural elements such as wood, plants, natural lighting and more.


title: Japanese architecture

text: A large portion of Japanese interior walls are often made of "shōji" screens that can be pushed open to join two rooms together, and then close them allowing more privacy. The "shōji" screens are made of paper attached to thin wooden frames that roll away on a track when they are pushed. Another important feature of the "shōji" screen, besides privacy and seclusion, is that they allow light through. This is an important aspect to Japanese design. Paper translucent walls allow light to be diffused through the space and create light shadows and patterns.


title: Japanese architecture

text: "Tatami" mats are rice straw floor mats often used to cover the floor in Japan's interiors; in modern Japanese houses there are usually only one or two "tatami" rooms. Another way to connect rooms in Japan's interiors is through sliding panels made of wood and paper, like the "shōji" screens, or cloth. These panels are called "fusuma" and are used as an entire wall. They are traditionally hand painted.


title: Japanese architecture

text: "Tatami" are the basis of traditional Japanese architecture, regulating a building's size and dimensions. They originated in ancient Japan when straw was laid on bare earth as a softener and warmer. In the Heian Period (794–1185), this idea developed into moveable mats that could be laid anywhere in the house to sit or sleep on before becoming a permanent floor covering in the fifteenth century. "Tatami" are suitable for the Japanese climate because they let air circulate around the floor.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Bamboo is prominently used and even expected in the Japanese house, used both for decorative and functional purposes. Bamboo blinds, "sudare", replace "shoji" in summer to prevent excess heat inside and also offer greater ventilation. Country dwellings and farmhouses often use it for ceilings and rafters. The natural properties of bamboo, its raw beauty with the knots and smooth surface, correspond to Japanese aesthetic ideals of imperfection, contrast and the natural.


title: Japanese architecture

text: The use of paper, or "washi", in Japanese buildings is a main component in the beauty and atmosphere of the Japanese interior, the way variation of shadow combines to create a "mystery of shadows". A range of papers are used for various purposes in the home.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Wood is generally used for the framework of the home, but its properties are valuable in the Japanese aesthetic, namely its warmth and irregularity.


title: Japanese architecture

text: A recessed space called "tokonoma" is often present in traditional as well as modern Japanese living rooms. This is the focus of the room and displays Japanese art, usually a painting or calligraphy.


title: Japanese architecture

text: After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan's relations to Euro-American powers became more prominent and involved. This spilled into a broader interacting with the modern world, which in terms of interior design, resulted in the introduction of western style interiors, while the vernacular style came to be more associated with tradition and the past. The typical interiors found in Japanese homes and western homes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were vastly different with almost opposing attitudes to furniture, versatility of space and materials.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Many public spaces had begun to incorporate chairs and desks by the late nineteenth century, department stores adopted western-style displays; a new "urban visual and consumer culture" was emerging. In the domestic sphere, the manner and dress of inhabitants were determined by the interior style, Japanese or Western. One of the examples is the "Hōmei-Den" of the Meiji era Tokyo Imperial Palace, which fused Japanese styles such as the coffered ceiling with western parquet floor and chandeliers.


title: Japanese architecture

text: There was a push by bureaucrats for Japan to develop into a more "modern" (Western) culture. The modernising of the home was considered the best way to change the daily life of the people. Much of the reason for modernisation was a desire to "present a ‘civilised’ face to the world, thus helping to secure Japan's position as a modern nation in the world order". Even with governmental encouragement to transform the home, the majority of Japanese people still lived in fairly traditional style dwellings well into the 1920s, partly due to economic situation in the early 1910s that meant western style was out of reach for the majority of people. It was also difficult to incorporate furniture into traditional dwellings due to their small size and intended flexible use of space, a flexibility made difficult to maintain when bulky furniture was involved; it was impractical, but aesthetically incongruent too.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Some of the earliest influence on the West came in the form of Japanese art, which gained popularity in Europe in particular, in the latter part of the nineteenth century. In terms of architecture and interior design though, the influence on the West is much more centered on the United States of America.


title: Japanese architecture

text: Before the twentieth century, very little of the West's knowledge of the Japanese building was gained in Japan. Instead it was gained through exhibitions the Japanese partook in such as the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia. The early influence of such exhibitions was more in the creation of an enthusiasm for things Japanese instead of something more authentic. The result was exuberant Japanese decoration, the simplicity of Japanese design lost in the clutter of Victorian ostentation.


title: Japanese architecture

text: During the twentieth century though, a number of now renowned architects visited Japan including Frank Lloyd Wright, Ralph Adams Cram, Richard Neutra and Antonin Raymond. These architects, among others, played significant roles in bringing the Japanese influence to Western modernism. Influence from the Far East was not new in America at this time. During the eighteenth and a large part of the nineteenth centuries, a taste for Chinese art and architecture existed and often resulted in a "superficial copying". The Japanese influence was different however. The modernist context, and the time leading up to it, meant that architects were more concerned with "the problem of building, rather than in the art of ornamenting". The simplicity of Japanese dwellings contrasted the oft-esteemed excessive decoration of the West. The influence of Japanese design was thus not so much that it was directly copied but rather, "the west discovered the quality of space in traditional Japanese architecture through a filter of western architectural values".


title: Japanese architecture

text: The culture that created traditional Japanese architecture is so far removed from Western values philosophies of life that it could not be directly applied in a design context.


title: Brandon Cruz

text: Brandon Edwin Cruz (born May 28, 1962) is an American actor and singer best known for his role as Eddie Corbett, son of widower Tom Corbett (played by Bill Bixby) on the television series "The Courtship of Eddie's Father". Cruz is also a punk rock musician, having sung for bands such as Dr. Know, Dead Kennedys, and Flipper.


title: Brandon Cruz

text: Cruz was born in Bakersfield, California and moved to Silver Strand Beach in Ventura County, California with his family at the age of two months. At age five, he auditioned for and won his breakthrough role as Eddie Corbett in the television series "The Courtship of Eddie's Father", which aired from 1969 to 1972. Bixby and Cruz spent considerable time together, especially when the show was on hiatus, prompting Cruz to tell "American Profile" magazine "Bill Bixby was like my second father."


title: Brandon Cruz

text: Cruz continued as a child actor for several years following the cancellation of "The Courtship of Eddie's Father" with a number of guest appearances in television shows like "Kung Fu", "Gunsmoke", and "The Incredible Hulk"—which reunited him on-screen with Bixby. Cruz also played the role of Joey Turner in the 1976 movie "The Bad News Bears".


title: Brandon Cruz

text: Cruz turned his attention to punk rock in the late 1970s, and in 1981, was performing with the Hardcore punk band Dr. Know. The group released several records, and after a name change to KNOW, toured Europe in 2017. Cruz also was the lead vocalist with Dead Kennedys from 2001 until 2003. Cruz was interviewed in the documentary "American Hardcore: The History of American Punk Rock, 1980–1986". Reflecting on life after being a child star, which has brought tragedy to so many others, Cruz told "American Profile" "Surfing and punk rock probably saved my life."


title: Brandon Cruz

text: In 1991, Cruz was honored by the Young Artist Foundation with its Former Child Star "Lifetime Achievement" Award for his role as Eddie on "The Courtship of Eddie's Father". He has also worked behind-the-scenes in television as an assistant editor on the animated series "South Park".


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Martha Sharp "Sunny" von Bülow (; September 1, 1932 − December 6, 2008) was an American heiress and socialite. Her second husband, Claus von Bülow (1926−2019), was convicted in 1982 of attempting to murder her by insulin overdose, but the conviction was overturned on appeal. A second trial found him not guilty, after experts opined that there was no insulin injection and that her symptoms were attributable to overuse of prescription drugs. The story was dramatized in the book and film "Reversal of Fortune". Sunny von Bülow lived almost 28 years in a persistent vegetative state, from December 1980 until her death in a New York City nursing home on December 6, 2008.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: She was the only child of utilities magnate George Crawford (a former chairman of Columbia Gas & Electric Company) and his wife, Annie-Laurie Warmack. She was born on her father's personal railway carriage in Manassas, Virginia, en route from Hot Springs, Virginia, to New York, for which she was known as "Choo-Choo" as a child before being nicknamed "Sunny" because of her nature.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Upon her father's death, when she was three years old, she inherited a reported US$100 million. Her mother, the daughter of the founder of the International Shoe Company, later married Russell Aitken, a sculptor and writer.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: On July 20, 1957, Sunny married Prince Alfred Eduard Friedrich Vincenz Martin Maria von Auersperg (1936−1992), the son of Prince Alois von Auersperg and Countess Henriette . He came from a very distinguished Austrian princely family that once ruled over the Principality of Auersperg, but due to the collapse of the Austrian Empire, his family became relatively impoverished. He was her tennis instructor in a Swiss resort.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: The Auerspergs were divorced in 1965. At that time, Sunny's net worth was over $75 million. Prince Alfred died in 1992 after lingering in an irreversible coma for nine years following a 1983 car accident in Austria.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: On June 6, 1966, Sunny married Claus von Bülow, a former aide to oilman J. P. Getty, at the Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City. He was grandson of Frits Toxwerdt von Bülow, Justice Minister of Denmark in the government of Klaus Berntsen (1910–1913) and also came from a noble background.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: By 1979, significant stresses and tensions had developed in their marriage, and both Sunny and Claus spoke openly about the possibility of a divorce.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: On December 26, 1979, after the family had come together for Christmas at their Newport, Rhode Island mansion, she was found unresponsive and was rushed to the hospital where she slipped into coma but was revived. After days of testing, doctors determined the coma was the result of low blood sugar and diagnosed her as hypoglycemic, warning her against overindulging on sweets or going too long without eating. While no foul play was suspected at the time, Claus von Bülow was later accused of causing this incident by injecting her with insulin. In April 1980, she was again hospitalized after appearing incoherent and disoriented; their doctors reconfirmed she suffered from "reactive hypoglycemia". She was advised to maintain control of the hypoglycemia by following a strict diet, limiting her sugar intake, and avoiding alcohol.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: On the evening of December 21, 1980, while celebrating Christmas with her family at their mansion, Clarendon Court, in Newport, Rhode Island, she again displayed confusion and uncoordination. She was put to bed by her family, but in the morning she was discovered unconscious on the bathroom floor. She was taken to the hospital where it became clear that this time she had suffered severe enough brain injury to produce a persistent vegetative state. Although clinical features resembled a drug overdose, some of the laboratory evidence suggested hypoglycemia. The Court of Appeal ordered disclosure of the notes taken by the Auersperg children's attorney. These showed that Claus von Bülow did not want to terminate life support, as had been alleged.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Because of the increased marital tensions between Claus and Sunny von Bülow in the fall of 1980, her children were suspicious that her brain injury was the result of foul play by him. Her two eldest children persuaded Richard H. Kuh, the former New York County District Attorney, to investigate the possibility Claus von Bülow had attempted the murder of their mother. After the gathering of evidence, Rhode Island prosecutors presented the case to a grand jury who returned an indictment, and in July 1981, he was charged with two counts of attempted murder.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: The case attracted nationwide publicity in the United States. The trial began in February 1982. Evidence presented by the prosecution consisted of circumstantial evidence, imputation of financial motive, extensive testimony by various maids, including Maria Schrallhammer who was a prominent witness at both trials, chauffeurs, doctors, and personal exercise trainers, a black bag with drugs, and a used syringe, reported to contain traces of insulin, found in Claus von Bülow's mansion. There was much evidence of excessive use of sedatives, vitamins, and other drugs by her, including testimony of alcohol and substance abuse problems. Harvard endocrinologist George Cahill testified that he was convinced that her brain damage was the result of injected insulin. Claus von Bülow was convicted.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Claus von Bülow hired Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz for his appeal. Dershowitz's campaign to acquit him was assisted by the then Harvard Law School student and later television personality Jim Cramer; Cramer felt then and later wrote publicly that von Bülow was "supremely guilty" of the crime. Dershowitz and his other attorneys produced evidence of Sunny von Bülow's excessive drug use, including testimony by both Truman Capote and Joanne Carson (second wife of Johnny Carson) and more than ten of Sunny's friends. Some of the expert witness testimony was excluded as hypothetical or hearsay. Additional expert witness testimony cast doubt on the validity of evidence that a syringe contained traces of insulin. The appeals court quashed the conviction on several grounds, including the appellate court's ruling that justice for the accused should override attorney–client privilege; and that therefore the notes taken by Kuh, the Auersperg children's attorney, should be disclosed. These notes called into question the credibility of her maid, Ms. Schrallhammer, who had been a key witness for the prosecution.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: At the second trial the defense called nine medical experts, all world-renowned university professors, who testified that the two comas were not caused by insulin, but by a combination of ingested (not injected) drugs, alcohol, and her chronic health conditions. The experts were John Caronna (vice chairman of neurology, Cornell); Leo Dal Cortivo (former president, U.S. Toxicology Association); Ralph DeFronzo (medicine, Yale); Kurt Dubowski (forensic pathology, University of Oklahoma); Daniel Foster (medicine, University of Texas); Daniel Furst, (medicine, University of Iowa); Harold Lebovitz (director of clinical research, State University of New York); Vincent Marks (clinical biochemistry, Surrey, vice-president Royal College of Pathologists and president, Association of Clinical Biochemistry); and Arthur Rubinstein (medicine, University of Chicago).


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Other experts testified that the hypodermic needle tainted with insulin on the outside (but not inside) would have been dipped in insulin but not injected (injecting it in flesh would have wiped it clean). Evidence also showed that her hospital admission three weeks before the final coma showed she had ingested at least 73 aspirin tablets, a quantity that could only have been self-administered, and which indicated her state of mind.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Cahill recanted his testimony from the first trial and opined that insulin was the most reasonable explanation for von Bülow's coma, but that "neither he nor anyone else could ever be 100 percent certain of the cause of the comas."


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Sunny's family remained convinced that her husband had tried to murder her and was upset that Cosima had chosen to take her father's side. As a result, in 1981, Sunny's mother, Annie Laurie Aitken, disinherited Cosima, denying her share of the estate upon Aitken's death on May 4, 1984. In July 1985, ten days after Claus von Bülow was acquitted at his second trial, Ala and Alexander filed a $56 million civil lawsuit against him, on their mother's behalf. On December 24, 1987, this case was settled out of court when Claus von Bülow agreed to divorce her, give up all claims to her fortune, then estimated between $25 million and $40 million, and leave the country. In exchange, Cosima was reinstated in Aitken's will and received $30 million as her one-third share of the estate.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: After the trials, Ala and Alexander founded the Sunny von Bülow National Victim Advocacy Center in Fort Worth, Texas, now the National Center for Victims of Crime in Washington, DC, and the Sunny von Bülow Coma and Head Trauma Research Foundation in New York.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Sunny remained in a persistent vegetative state until her death from cardiopulmonary arrest on December 6, 2008, at Mary Manning Walsh Nursing Home in New York City. Her memorial service, given by her three children, was held on January 14, 2009, at the Brick Presbyterian Church in New York which was the same church where the von Bülows married.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Alan Dershowitz, Claus's attorney, wrote a book about the case, "Reversal of Fortune: Inside the von Bülow Case" (New York, Random House 1986 and London, Penguin Books 1991).


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Professor Vincent Marks, an insulin expert of the University of Surrey, England, and Caroline Richmond have a chapter on the science underpinning Sunny von Bülow's medical condition in their book, "Insulin Murders" (London, Royal Society of Medicine Press 2007).


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Sunny von Bülow's coma is referenced in "Seinfeld", (Season 3 Episode 15 "The Suicide"), "Will and Grace" (Season 3 Episode 21 "The Young and the Tactless"), and "Gilmore Girls" (Season 3 Episode 1 "Those Lazy-Hazy-Crazy Days").


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: The 1990 film "Reversal of Fortune" was based on Dershowitz's books about the case, with Glenn Close playing Sunny and Jeremy Irons playing Claus von Bülow, a performance for which he was awarded an Academy Award for Best Actor.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: Bill Kurtis narrated an episode of the series "American Justice" titled "Von Bulow: A Wealth of Evidence".


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: The American television series "Biography" produced and aired a documentary episode titled "Claus von Bülow: A Reasonable Doubt", with interviews of Claus Von Bülow and Alan Dershowitz.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: In 2015, "Mansions and Murders" produced and aired an episode detailing the major events surrounding the alleged attempted murder.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: This story was also featured on "Dominick Dunne's Power, Privilege, and Justice" in the episode titled "The Von Bülow Affair" on truTV.


title: Sunny von Bülow

text: The case and its successful appeal were also cited by the judge in the 1993 "Law & Order" episode "Extended Family".


title: The Batman (soundtrack)

text: The Batman (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the film score to the film of the same name composed by Michael Giacchino. The soundtrack was released by WaterTower Music on February 25, 2022, a week ahead of the release of the film.


title: The Batman (soundtrack)

text: Director Matt Reeves announced that Michael Giacchino would be composing the score for "The Batman" in October 2019. Giacchino has frequently collaborated with Reeves; he previously scored for "Cloverfield" (2008), "Let Me In" (2010), "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes" (2014), and "War for the Planet of the Apes" (2017). Later that month, Giacchino said he had already finished writing the main theme for the film because he was so excited to do so; because this music was written much earlier in the production than is usual for a film, Giacchino and Reeves were able to use it in promotional materials. Giacchino said he felt total freedom to write the music that he wanted for the film, agreeing with Reeves that this was their vision of Batman similar to how different comic book and graphic novel authors and artists over the years had been able to create different takes on the character.


title: The Batman (soundtrack)

text: Giacchino completed the score in October 2021, and his main theme was released as a single on January 21, 2022. Giacchino's theme for the Riddler was released as a single on February 4, and his Catwoman theme was released as the third and final single on February 17. The full soundtrack album was released on February 25.


title: The Batman (soundtrack)

text: "Something in the Way" by Nirvana, which was used in the promotional material, is featured twice toward the beginning and ending of the film. "Ave Maria" by Franz Schubert, "Piano Concerto No. 5" by Ludwig van Beethoven, "Frisk" by Patrick Topping and Kevin Saunderson, "Tesla" by Corvad, "Hot 44" by Baauer, "Troop" and "Darkroom" by Peggy Gou, "Dido's Lament" by Henry Purcell, "Requiem" by Gabriel Fauré, "I Have But One Heart" by Al Martino, and "Volare" by Dean Martin are also featured in the film. "Ave Maria" is featured four times in the film, and was performed by the Tiffin Boys' Choir, who also performed "Dido's Lament". Paul Dano, who portrays the Riddler in the film, also later performs the song during Batman's interrogation with the Riddler. Swedish DJ and producer Alesso also produced a track for the film titled "Dark".


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: Critical response to Griffith has been highly positive. He has been praised for how he serves as a foil to Guts, and his development into a villain.


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: In an interview, author Kentaro Miura revealed that his friendship with later fellow manga artist Kōji Mori partially inspired the relationship between Guts and Griffith. Miura stated that he did not plan Griffith's antagonism from the start and began to do so during the third volume. Miura said: "First of all, if Guts is angry, there is going to have to be an object of that anger. So I asked myself what people get angry at, and, well, something you see a lot of is the murderer of one's parents, but as I already said, I was someone who friendship mattered a lot to, so the idea of making the target of Guts's anger a friend, or at least a man of the same general age, naturally came to mind."


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: Miura stated that he had originally intended to make Femto, Griffith's God Hand incarnation, Gut's enemy. But after finishing the Golden Age arc, Griffith's character stood out too much and Miura wanted him to fight Guts in that form, as "him being in the same form as before but powered up would make the course of their confrontation easier to convey." When told that Griffith began to look like a protagonist during the story's shift to Griffith's struggle against Ganishka, Miura stated that he intended to "depict Griffith as a character who hardly ever talks about his own mental state, but gathering characters around him who express their feelings has the converse effect of elevating Griffith himself."


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: A street urchin as a child, Griffith dreamed of acquiring his own kingdom since childhood. Griffith is introduced as the founding leader of the mercenary unit the Band of the Hawk, forcibly recruiting Guts after defeating him in a duel. Three years later, with Griffith leading the Band of the Hawk, they end the Hundred-Year War and bring peace to Midland. But Guts leaves the Band of the Hawk after defeating Griffith in a duel, having overheard Griffith’s ideal of friendship and seeking to follow his own dream. This causes a distraught Griffith to sleep with Princess Charlotte in a moment of weakness, leading to his imprisonment and crippling torture for one year before being rescued by the reunited Band of the Hawk. Realizing his current invalid state and despairing over his inability to achieve his dream, Griffith triggers the Crimson Behelit he received as a child during a solar eclipse. At the Eclipse, Griffith is reminded of who he has always been while choosing to sacrifice the Band of the Hawk to be reborn as the final member of the God Hand, meeting the power behind the Godhand while learning that everything was arranged for him to become a messiah to judge humanity’s final fate. After using the souls of the sacrificed to ascend into the form of Femto, he proceeds to rape Casca in front of Guts with her unborn child corrupted as a result.


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: Two years later, Griffith incarnates into the Physical World through the body of Guts and Casca's tainted child during the millennial Incarnation Ceremony at Albion orchestrated by the Egg of the Perfect World. Following an encounter with Guts, Griffith creates a new Band of the Hawk made up of humans and Apostles to oppose the invading Kushan army as leader of Midland's armies with backing from the Holy See Chruch. Upon inflicting a fatal injury on Ganishika to create a global interstice, a mixing of the physical and supernatural worlds, Griffith establishes the kingdom of Falconia as the last bastion of humanity under a dictatorship.


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: Griffith's characterization has been the subject of studies, with it discussed whether his betrayal at the end of the Golden Age Arc was an autonomous decision or caused by external factors transcending his control. In her analysis of transhumanism and its connected ethical issues in "Berserk", Natalia Kućma discusses Griffith, mentioning the modification of his "subjectivity and physicality in exchange for the realization of his dream of his own kingdom."


title: Griffith (Berserk)

text: Anne Lauenroth of Anime News Network called Griffith the "perfect villain", praising the human aspect of his character and his hamartia that leads to his choice in the Eclipse. Griffith placed second in Paste's list of the "20 of the Greatest Villains in Anime", with Toussaint Egan calling him the "perfect foil to "Berserk"'s Guts—two men whose battle against one another epitomizes the thematic struggle between fate and self-determination. Make no mistake, Griffith is a villain of Luciferian proportions." Daniel Briscoe of "The Fandom Post" noted Griffith to be an enigmatic character for being incredibly skillful yet compassionate, stating that "someone so skilled at leading and fighting to have these characteristics makes it all the more intriguing." LaNeysha Campbell praised Griffith's development in Volume 4, saying that Griffith's devious side in previous chapters and its lead up to his heinous betrayal of his loyal followers "solidifies him as villain who will be a formidable antagonist going forward." Skyler Allen praised Miura's execution of the Eclipse, stating that "Griffith betraying everyone who ever cared for him serves as a final statement on ambition. Berserk always framed ambition as something crucial to being human, but the Eclipse reminds us that it can just as easily lead to abandoning our humanity. Griffith’s ambition took him to great heights, but also turned him into a literal and metaphorical monster."


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Hyundai Smartstream is a gasoline and diesel automobile engine branding used by Hyundai since 2018. An all-aluminum engine of Hyundai Motor Company debuted in the third-generation Hyundai i30 hatchback (codenamed PD), which was unveiled in 2018 in Paris Motor Show.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.0 MPI is a naturally aspirated inline 3-cylinder engine with multi-port injection (MPi); the engine makes at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 3,750 rpm. Its developed from the Kappa family.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.0 T-GDI is a turbocharged inline 3-cylinder engine with gasoline direct injection (GDi); the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 4,000 rpm. A detuned version with between 4,500 and 6,000 rpm is also available for some applications.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.2 MPI is a naturally aspirated inline 4-cylinder engine with MPi; the engine makes at 6,300 rpm and of torque at 4,200 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.4 T-GDI is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi; the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 3,200 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.5 MPi (G4FL) is a naturally aspirated inline 4-cylinder engine that carries a bore and stroke of 75.6 mm and 83.4 mm respectively and a 10.5:1 compression ratio; it makes at 6,300 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm. Developed from the Gamma family, it is also marketed as the 1.5 Smartstream Gamma II engine.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.5 DPi (G4LG) is a naturally aspirated inline 4-cylinder engine with both GDi and MPi from the Kappa family; it makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 3,500 rpm. It is produced by Kia Slovakia in Žilina.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.5 T-GDI (G4LH) is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi from the Kappa family that carries a bore and stroke of 71.6 mm and 92 mm respectively and a 10.5:1 compression ratio; it makes at 5,500 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 3,000 rpm. It is produced by Kia Slovakia in Žilina.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.5 T-GDI (G4FS) is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi that carries a bore and stroke of 75.6 mm and 83.4 mm respectively and a 10.5:1 compression ratio; it makes at 5,500 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 4,000 rpm. A high output version that makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 2,200 and 4,000 rpm is also available for some applications. The engine is based on the Smartstream G1.5 MPi (G4FL) engine from the Gamma family, and mainly used in the Chinese market.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 MPi (G4FM) is a engine with 11.2:1 compression ratio, the engine makes at 6,300 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 T-GDI replaced the 1.6 Gamma T-GDI engine. It is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi that carries a bore and stroke of 75.6 mm and 89 mm respectively and a 10.5:1 compression ratio. This is the world's first production engine to use Continuously Variable Valve Duration (CVVD) technology, allowing it to adjust how long its intake valves remain open independently of timing and lift. Hyundai claims a 4% increase in performance, 5% increase in efficiency, and a 12% decrease in tailpipe emissions due to this technology.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The engine makes at 5,500 rpm with of torque between 1,500 and 4,500 rpm. Higher output versions that makes at 6,000 rpm with of torque between 1,600 and 4,500 rpm or at 6,000 rpm with of torque between 1,500 and 4,500 rpm are also available depending on application.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.0 MPi (G4NJ/G4NL) is an inline 4-cylinder engine with MPi and a 10.3:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.0 MPi CVVL (G4NM) adds CVVL to the G2.0 MPi engine; the engine makes at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 4,800 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.0 MPi Atkinson Cycle (G4NS) is an inline 4-cylinder engine with MPi and a 12.5:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.0 T-GDi is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi; the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 4,000 rpm. It is built by Hyundai Wia Shandong.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.5 MPi is an inline 4-cylinder engine with MPi and a 10.5:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.5 GDi is an inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi and a 13.0:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,100 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm in the Sonata, for the Azera and Cadenza the engine makes at 6,100 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.5 T-GDi is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine for FWD applications, the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,750 and 4,000 rpm for SUV applications with a 10.0:1 compression ratio while it makes at 5,800 rpm and of torque between 1,650 and 4,000 rpm for other applications with a 10.5:1 compression ratio.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.5 FR T-GDi. is a turbocharged inline 4-cylinder engine for RWD applications with both GDi and MPi and a 10.5:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,650 and 4,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G3.5 GDi (G6DT) compression ratio is 12.3:1 and makes at 6,400 rpm and of torque at 5,200 rpm, for the Kia K8 application it makes at 6,400 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G3.5 FR T-GDI is a twin turbocharged 6-cylinder engine for RWD applications with an 11.0:1 compression ratio; the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque between 1,300 and 4,500 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: Compared to the 3.3L Lambda II RS T-GDi predecessor, peak power is up by while the peak torque is up by , at the same time fuel economy is improved by 6.1%, this engine replaces the GDi only fuel injection to dual fuel injection technology that combines the advantages of the GDi system that directly injects fuel into the combustion chamber and the MPi system that injects the inlet port of the combustion chamber. The thermostat was upgraded to an ITM unit and the high pressure pump pressure was increased from 200 bar to 250 bar. The intercooler was upgraded to a water-cooled unit from an air cooler unit, which increases the unique responsiveness of the turbocharger. Finally the Smartstream FR G3.5T is rated ULEV50 for emissions versus the ULEV70 rating for the 3.3L Lambda II RS T-GDi.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: Similar to the Smartstream G3.5 FR T-GDI but with an additional 48V electric supercharger; the engine makes at 5,800 rpm and of torque between 1,300 and 4,500 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 GDI Hybrid (G4LE) combines a Smartstream G1.6 engine producing at 5,700 rpm and at 4,000 rpm, electric motor and a 1.32KWh battery for a total combined system power of @ 5,700 rpm with of torque.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 GDI Plug-in Hybrid (G4LE) combines a Smartstream G1.6 engine, electric motor and a 12.9KWh battery.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 GDI Hybrid (G4LL) combines a Smartstream G1.6 engine producing at 5,700 rpm and at 4,000 rpm, electric motor and a 1.32KWh battery for a total combined system power of @ 5,700 rpm with of torque @ 4,400 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 GDI Plug-in Hybrid (G4LL) combines a Smartstream G1.6 engine producing at 5,700 rpm and at 4,000 rpm, electric motor and a 11.1KWh battery for a total combined system power of @ 5,700 rpm with of torque @ 4,400 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 T-GDi Hybrid combines a Smartstream G1.6 T-GDi with an electric motor that makes between 1,600 rpm and 2,000 rpm with of torque between 0 and 1,600 rpm plus a 1.49KWh battery pack. Total combined system power is at 5,500 rpm with of torque between 1,500 and 4,400 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G1.6 T-GDI Plug-in Hybrid combines a Smartstream G1.6 T-GDI with an electric motor that makes between 2,100 and 3,300 rpm with of torque between 0 and 2,100 rpm plus a 13.8KWh battery pack. Total combined system power is with of torque.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream G2.0 GDi HEV is an inline 4-cylinder engine with GDi and 14.0:1 compression ratio; the gasoline engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The electric motor in the hybrid engine makes between 1,770 and 2,000 rpm and of torque between 0 and 1,770 rpm for a total system output of at 6,000 rpm, for the plug-in hybrid version the electric motor makes between 1,770 and 2,000 rpm and of torque between 0 and 1,770 rpm for a total system output of at 6,000 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream L2.0 is similar to the G2.0 MPi but comes with LPi injection instead, the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,200 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream L3.5 is the LPG variant of the G3.5 engine, the engine makes at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream D1.5 VGT version makes at 4,000 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 2,750 rpm, while the WGT version makes at 4,000 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 2,750 rpm. It belongs to the Hyundai U engine family.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream D1.6 features a new integrated thermal management system and is lighter than its predecessor thanks to an engine block constructed from aluminum. The engine uses a long life timing belt to drive the camshafts and makes at 4,000 rpm and of torque between 2,000 and 2,250 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream D2.2 features an aluminium block versus the older R II 2.2L engine and therefore it is 38 kg lighter, the engine compression ratio is 16.0:1 and the fuel pressure was increased to 2,200 bar. The engine switched back to a timing belt instead of a timing chain.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The D4HF is for RWD based applications and the engine produce at 3,800 rpm and of torque between 1,750 and 2,750 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: The Smartstream D3.0 is a turbocharged inline 6-cylinder diesel engine with a bore of and stroke respectively; the engine makes at 3,750 rpm and of torque between 1,500 and 3,250 rpm.


title: Hyundai Smartstream engine

text: This engine is 32 kg lighter than its predecessor and friction is reduced by water-cooled technology Intercooler. EGR and SCR system is applied to reduce the fuel consumption and fuel pressure was increased from 1,800 bar to 2,200 bar.


title: John Schlesinger

text: John Richard Schlesinger (; 16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was an English film and stage director. He won the Academy Award for Best Director for "Midnight Cowboy", and was nominated for the same award for two other films ("Darling" and "Sunday Bloody Sunday").


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger was born and raised in Hampstead, London, in a Jewish family, the eldest of five children of distinguished Emmanuel College, Cambridge-educated paediatrician and physician Bernard Edward Schlesinger (1896–1984), OBE, FRCP, who had also served in the Royal Army Medical Corps as a brigadier, and his wife Winifred Henrietta, daughter of Hermann Regensburg, a stockbroker from Frankfurt. She had left school at 14 to study at the Trinity College of Music, and later studied languages at the University of Oxford for three years. Bernard Schlesinger's father Richard, a stockbroker, had come to England in the 1880s from Frankfurt.


title: John Schlesinger

text: After St Edmund's School, Hindhead and Uppingham School (where his father had also been), Schlesinger enlisted in the British Army during World War II. While serving with the Royal Engineers, he made films on the war's front line. He also entertained his fellow troops by performing magic tricks. After his tour of duty, he continued making short films and acted in stage productions while studying at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was involved in the Oxford University Dramatic Society.


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s and consisted of supporting roles in British films such as "The Divided Heart" and "Oh... Rosalinda!!", and British television productions such as "BBC Sunday Night Theatre", "The Adventures of Robin Hood" and "The Vise". He began his directorial career in 1956 with the short documentary "Sunday in the Park" about London's Hyde Park. In 1958, Schlesinger created a documentary on Benjamin Britten and the Aldeburgh Festival for the BBC's "Monitor" TV programme, including rehearsals of the children's opera "Noye's Fludde" featuring a young Michael Crawford. In 1959, Schlesinger was credited as exterior or second unit director on 23 episodes of the TV series "The Four Just Men" and four 30-minute episodes of the series "Danger Man". He also appeared in "Col March of Scotland Yard" as "Dutch cook" in "Death and the Other Monkey" 1956.


title: John Schlesinger

text: By the 1960s, he had virtually given up acting to concentrate on a directing career, and another of his earlier directorial efforts, the British Transport Films' documentary "Terminus" (1961), gained a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award. His first two fiction films, "A Kind of Loving" (1962) and "Billy Liar" (1963) were set in the North of England. "A Kind of Loving" won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962. His third feature film, "Darling" (1965), tartly described the modern way of life in London and was one of the first films about 'swinging London'. Schlesinger's next film was the period drama "Far from the Madding Crowd" (1967), an adaptation of Thomas Hardy's popular novel accentuated by beautiful English country locations. Both films (and "Billy Liar") featured Julie Christie as the female lead.


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger's next film, "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), was internationally acclaimed. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first film shot in the US, and it won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. During the 1970s, he made an array of films that were mainly about loners, losers and people outside the mainstream world, such as "Sunday Bloody Sunday" (1971), "The Day of the Locust" (1975), "Marathon Man" (1976) and "Yanks" (1979). Later, came the major box office and critical failure of "Honky Tonk Freeway" (1981), followed by films that attracted mixed responses from the public, and low returns, although "The Falcon and the Snowman" (1985) made money and "Pacific Heights" (1990) was a box-office hit. In Britain, he did better with films like "Madame Sousatzka" (1988) and "Cold Comfort Farm" (1995). Other later works include "An Englishman Abroad" (1983), the TV play "A Question of Attribution" (1991), "The Innocent" (1993) and "The Next Best Thing" (2000).


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger also directed "Timon of Athens" (1965) for the Royal Shakespeare Company and the musical "I and Albert" (1972) at London's Piccadilly Theatre. From 1973, he was an associate director of the Royal National Theatre, where he produced George Bernard Shaw's "Heartbreak House" (1975). He also directed several operas, beginning with "Les contes d'Hoffmann" (1980) and "Der Rosenkavalier" (1984), both at Covent Garden. Schlesinger also directed a party political broadcast for the Conservative Party in the general election of 1992, which featured Prime Minister John Major returning to Brixton in south London, where he had spent his teenage years, which highlighted his humble background, atypical for a Conservative politician. Schlesinger admitted to having voted for all three main political parties in the UK at one time or another.


title: John Schlesinger

text: In 1991, Schlesinger made a brief return to acting, portraying the gay character 'Derek' in the TV adaptation of "The Lost Language of Cranes" for the BBC. Schlesinger had himself come out during the making of Midnight Cowboy.


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to film. A resident of Palm Springs, California Schlesinger had a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars dedicated to him in 2003.


title: John Schlesinger

text: Schlesinger underwent a quadruple heart bypass in 1998, before suffering a stroke on New Year's Day 2001. He was taken off life support at Desert Regional Medical Center in Palm Springs on 24 July 2003, and he died early the following day at the age of 77. He was survived by his partner of over 30 years, photographer Michael Childers. A memorial service was held on 30 September 2003.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Dragoljub "Draža" Mihailović (; 27 April 1893 – 17 July 1946) was a Yugoslav Serb general during World War II. He was the leader of the Chetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav Army (Chetniks), a royalist and nationalist movement and guerrilla force established following the German invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Born in Ivanjica and raised in Belgrade, Mihailović fought in the Balkan Wars and the First World War with distinction. After the fall of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Mihailović organized the Chetniks at Ravna Gora and engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside Josip Broz Tito's Partisans against occupying German forces. Opposing strategies, ideological differences and general distrust drove them apart, and by late 1941 the two groups were in open conflict. Many Chetnik groups collaborated or established "modus vivendi" with the Axis powers, which along with British frustration over Mihailović's inaction led to the Allies shifting their support to Tito in 1944. Mihailović himself collaborated with Milan Nedić and Dimitrije Ljotić at the end of the war.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Mihailović went into hiding after the war but was captured in March 1946. He was tried and convicted of high treason and war crimes by the communist authorities of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, and executed by firing squad in Belgrade in July. The nature and extent of his responsibility for collaboration and ethnic massacres remains controversial. In May 2015, Mihailović's verdict was overturned on appeal by the Supreme Court of Cassation of Serbia, citing his trial and conviction as politically and ideologically motivated.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Dragoljub "Draža" Mihailović was born on 27 April 1893 in Ivanjica, Kingdom of Serbia to Mihailo and Smiljana Mihailović ("née" Petrović). His father was a court clerk. Orphaned at seven years of age, Mihailović was raised by his paternal uncle in Belgrade. As both of his uncles were military officers, Mihailović himself joined the Serbian Military Academy in October 1910. He fought as a cadet in the Serbian Army during the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 and was awarded the Silver Medal of Valor at the end of the First Balkan War, in May 1913. At the end of the Second Balkan War, during which he mainly led operations along the Albanian border, he was given the rank of second lieutenant as the top soldier in his class, ranked sixth at the Serbian military academy. He served in World War I and was involved in the Serbian Army's retreat through Albania in 1915. He later received several decorations for his achievements on the Salonika front. Following the war, he became a member of the Royal Guard of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes but had to leave his position in 1920 after taking part in a public argument between communist and nationalist sympathizers. He was subsequently stationed in Skopje. In 1921, he was admitted to the Superior Military Academy of Belgrade. In 1923, having finished his studies, he was promoted as an assistant to the military staff, along with the fifteen other best alumni of his promotion. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1930. That same year, he spent three months in Paris, following classes at the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr. Some authors claim that he met and befriended Charles de Gaulle during his stay, although there is no known evidence of this. In 1935, he became a military attaché to the Kingdom of Bulgaria and was stationed to Sofia. On 6 September 1935, he was promoted to the rank of colonel. Mihailović then came in contact with members of Zveno and considered taking part in a plot which aimed to provoke Boris III's abdication and the creation of an alliance between Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, but, being untrained as a spy, he was soon identified by Bulgarian authorities and was asked to leave the country. He was then appointed as an attaché to Czechoslovakia in Prague.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: His military career almost came to an abrupt end in 1939, when he submitted a report strongly criticizing the organization of the Royal Yugoslav Army (, VKJ). Among his most important proposals were abandoning the defence of the northern frontier to concentrate forces in the mountainous interior; re-organizing the armed forces into Serb, Croat, and Slovene units in order to better counter subversive activities; and using mobile Chetnik units along the borders. Milan Nedić, the Minister of the Army, was incensed by Mihailović's report and ordered that he be confined to barracks for 30 days. Afterwards, Mihailović became a professor at Belgrade's staff college. In the summer of 1940, he attended a function put on by the British military attaché for the Association of Yugoslav Reserve NCOs. The meeting was seen as highly anti-Nazi in tone, and the German ambassador protested Mihailović's presence. Nedić once more ordered him confined to barracks for 30 days as well as demoted and placed on the retired list. These last punishments were avoided only by Nedić's retirement in November and his replacement by Petar Pešić.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: In the years preceding the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia, Mihailović was stationed in Celje, Drava Banovina (modern Slovenia). At the time of the invasion, Colonel Mihailović was an assistant to the chief-of-staff of the Yugoslav Second Army in northern Bosnia. He briefly served as the Second Army chief-of-staff prior to taking command of a "Rapid Unit" ("brzi odred") shortly before the Yugoslav High Command capitulated to the Germans on 17 April 1941.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Following the invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia by Germany, Italy, Hungary, a small group of officers and soldiers led by Mihailović escaped in the hope of finding VKJ units still fighting in the mountains. After skirmishing with several Ustaše and Muslim bands and attempting to sabotage several objects, Mihailović and about 80 of his men crossed the Drina River into German-occupied Serbia on 29 April. Mihailović planned to establish an underground intelligence movement and establish contact with the Allies, though it is unclear if he initially envisioned to start an actual armed resistance movement.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: For the time being, Mihailović established a small nucleus of officers with an armed guard, which he called the "Command of Chetnik Detachments of the Yugoslav Army". After arriving at Ravna Gora in early May 1941, he realized that his group of seven officers and twenty-four non-commissioned officers and soldiers was the only one. He began to draw up lists of conscripts and reservists for possible use. His men at Ravna Gora were joined by a group of civilians, mainly intellectuals from the Serbian Cultural Club, who took charge of the movement's propaganda sector.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: The Chetniks of Kosta Pećanac, which were already in existence before the invasion, did not share Mihailović's desire for resistance. In order to distinguish his Chetniks from other groups calling themselves Chetniks, Mihailović and his followers identified themselves as the "Ravna Gora movement". The stated goal of the Ravna Gora movement was the liberation of the country from the occupying armies of Germany, Italy and the Ustaše, and the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH).


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Mihailović spent most of 1941 consolidating scattered VKJ remnants and finding new recruits. In August, he set up a civilian advisory body, the Central National Committee, composed of Serb political leaders including some with strong nationalist views such as Dragiša Vasić and Stevan Moljević. On 19 June, a clandestine Chetnik courier reached Istanbul, whence royalist Yugoslavs reported that Mihailović appeared to be organizing a resistance movement against Axis forces. Mihailović first established radio contact with the British in September 1941, when his radio operator raised a ship in the Mediterranean. On 13 September, Mihailović's first radio message to King Peter's government-in-exile announced that he was organizing VKJ remnants to fight against the Axis powers.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Mihailović also received help from officers in other areas of Yugoslavia, such as Slovene officer Rudolf Perinhek, who brought reports on the situation in Montenegro. Mihailović sent him back to Montenegro with written authorization to organize units there, with the oral approval of officers such as Đorđije Lašić, Pavle Đurišić, Dimitrije Ljotić and Kosta Mušicki. Mihailović only gave vague and contradictory orders to Perinhek, mentioning the need to put off civil strife and to "remove enemies".


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Mihailović's strategy was to avoid direct conflict with the Axis forces, intending to rise up after Allied forces arrived in Yugoslavia. Mihailović's Chetniks had had defensive encounters with the Germans, but reprisals and the tales of the massacres in the NDH made them reluctant to engage directly in armed struggle, except against the Ustaše in Serbian border areas. In the meantime, following the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ), led by Josip Broz Tito, also went into action and called for a popular insurrection against the Axis powers in July 1941. Tito subsequently set up a communist resistance movement known as the Yugoslav Partisans. By the end of August, Mihailović's Chetniks and the Partisans began attacking Axis forces, sometimes jointly despite their differences, and captured numerous prisoners. On 28 October 1941 Mihailović received an order from the Prime Minister of the Yugoslav Government in exile Dušan Simović who urged Mihailović to avoid premature actions and avoid reprisals. Mihailović discouraged sabotage due to German reprisals (such as more than 3,000 killed in Kraljevo and Kragujevac) unless some great gain could be accomplished. Instead, he favoured sabotage that could not easily be traced back to the Chetniks. His reluctance to engage in more active resistance meant that most sabotage carried out in the early period of the war were due to efforts by the Partisans, and Mihailović lost several commanders and a number of followers who wished to fight the Germans to the Partisan movement.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Even though Mihailović initially asked for discreet support, propaganda from the British and from the Yugoslav government-in-exile quickly began to exalt his feats. The creation of a resistance movement in occupied Europe was received as a morale booster. On 15 November, the BBC announced that Mihailović was the commander of the "Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland", which became the official name of Mihailović's Chetniks.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: Mihailović soon realized that his men did not have the means to protect Serbian civilians against German reprisals. The prospect of reprisals also fed Chetnik concerns regarding a possible takeover of Yugoslavia by the Partisans after the war, and they did not wish to engage in actions that might ultimately result in a post-war Serb minority. Mihailović's strategy was to bring together the various Serb bands and build an organization capable of seizing power after the Axis withdrew or were defeated, rather than engaging in direct confrontation with them. In contrast to the reluctance of Chetnik leaders to directly engage the Axis forces, the Partisans advocated open resistance, which appealed to those Chetniks desiring to fight the occupation. By September 1941, Mihailović began losing men to the Partisans, such as Vlado Zečević (a priest), Lieutenant Ratko Martinović, and the Cer Chetniks led by Captain Dragoslav Račić


title: Draža Mihailović

text: On 19 September 1941, Tito met with Mihailović to negotiate an alliance between the Partisans and Chetniks, but they failed to reach an agreement as the disparity of the aims of their respective movements was great enough to preclude any real compromise. Tito was in favour of a joint full-scale offensive, while Mihailović considered a general uprising to be premature and dangerous, as he thought it would trigger reprisals. For his part, Tito's goal was to prevent an assault from the rear by the Chetniks, as he was convinced that Mihailović was playing a "double game", maintaining contacts with German forces via the Nedić government. Mihailović was in contact with Nedić's government, receiving monetary aid via Colonel Popović. On the other hand, Mihailović sought to prevent Tito from assuming the leadership role in the resistance, as Tito's goals were counter to his goals of the restoration of the Karađorđević dynasty and the establishment of Greater Serbia. Further talks were scheduled for 16 October.


title: Draža Mihailović

text: At the end of September, the Germans launched a massive offensive against both Partisans and Chetniks called Operation Užice. A joint British-Yugoslav intelligence mission, quickly assembled by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and led by Captain D. T. Hudson, arrived on the Montenegrin coast on 22 September, whence they had made their way with the help of Montenegrin Partisans to their headquarters, and then on to Tito's headquarters at Užice, arriving on or around 25 October. Hudson reported that earlier promises of supplies made by the British to Mihailović contributed to the poor relationship between Mihailović and Tito, as Mihailović correctly believed that no one outside of Yugoslavia knew about the Partisan movement, and felt that "the time was ripe for drastic action against the communists".